Heliyon 7 (2021) e07647

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Heliyon
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Research article

Evaluation of the sustainability of existing rainwater harvesting ponds: A

case study of Lay Gayint District, South Gondar zone, Ethiopia
Girum Getachew Demeke a, *, Tesfa Gebrie Andualem b, Mulatu Kassa a
a
Department of Natural Resources Management, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia
b
Department of Hydraulic and Water Resources Engineering, Debre Tabor University, Debre Tabor, Ethiopia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: In most of the water-scarce areas, rainwater harvesting (RWH) ponds are essential for meeting the stress of water
RWH ponds for various purposes. Besides the performance and sustainability of those rainwater harvesting ponds were not
Lay Gayint district evaluated. This study aimed to evaluate the sustainability of existing rainwater harvesting ponds in Lay Gayint
Sustainability of ponds
District, Ethiopia. The specific objectives of this study were; (1) to assess the perception of farmers on the po-
tential of RWH ponds, and (2) to identify factors influencing the sustainability of RWH ponds. The demographic
characteristics of farm households; farmers' perception about RWH ponds; and the socio-economic conditions of
households were collected using household surveys and focused group discussions. The collected data was
analyzed through quantitative and qualitative data analysis methods. The results of this study revealed that
almost all farmers did not have good perceptions of ponds and had not gained enough awareness of the ad-
vantages of ponds. The utilization of the ponds was surrounded by constraints like poor quality and short lifetime
of the constructed ponds; low involvement of farmers within the construction of ponds; and wrong-site selection.
The incidence of local disputes among the farmers was the most important impact that un-utilized ponds have
exerted on the community. About 78 % of the ponds were found in a failed state and 75 % of the ponds have no
fences. The construction of RWH ponds in rural districts was based on a quota system which resulted in low
sustainability. About 72.2 % of the respondents have not participated in the construction of RWH ponds, on the
other hand, 81.5 % didn't get any training about RWH. The majority of the respondents replied that they have no
money for constructing and maintaining their ponds. Due to the different factors most of the RWH ponds didn't
store and serve for the designed service period which failed to satisfy the water demand. The government shall
give attention to the sustainability of ponds by facilitating the involvement of Non-Governmental Organizations
(NGOs) in capacity building, technical and financial support.

1. Introduction natural or artificial surfaces, like roofs, roads, pavements, ground

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an ancient technology practiced in
many parts of the planet like North America, the Middle East, North
Africa, China, and India. In Israel, complete rainwater harvesting systems
are found within the Negev Desert, which was about 4000 years old
(Girma, 2009; Oweis, 2004). RWH ponds are the widely used technolo-
gies following a shortage of water. These are techniques where rainwater
is intercepted and used ‘close’ to where it first reaches the earth's surface
either from roofs or ground surface (Thomas and Martinson, 2007).
The small-scale collection of rainwater from the roofs into traditional
jars and pots has been practiced in Africa and Asia for thousands of years
(Ruth, 2014). Rainwater is harvested in rural and urban areas, from
catchments, or slopes (Laura, 2014). In Ethiopia, rainwater harvesting
pond packages provide water for humans, livestock, and residential
garden horticultural crops (Desta, 2006; Alem, 1999; Amha, 2006).
The present water scarcity leads to a new paradigm in water re-
sources management, and therefore the application of sustainable
water supply solutions is essential (Uribe et al., 2015). However,
rainwater harvesting ponds are not sustained by the influence of local
biophysical and socio-economic parameters influencing water har-
vesting and water use processes (Mizyed, 2008). According to Erick-
son (2012), the socio-economic factors influencing the sustainability
of rainwater harvesting ponds were categorized in household vari-
ables (gender, education, and age) and economic variables (wealth

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: girum21g@gmail.com (G.G. Demeke).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07647
Received 20 February 2021; Received in revised form 7 April 2021; Accepted 20 July 2021
2405-8440/© 2021 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
G.G. Demeke et al.
status, access to credit, social status, and household members’
perception).
The government of Ethiopia promotes rainwater harvesting ponds to
fight food security problems. Some critics have minimized its role within
the context of acute land scarcity, absolute poverty, vulnerability to
malaria, and abundance of rivers within the country (Daniel, 2006; Nega,
2004; Emishaw, 2009). The Agriculture and Rural Development Office
(ARDO) of Lay Gayint District was engaged in the implementation of
rainwater harvesting ponds since 2013. Accordingly, many ponds were
dug in the nine rural kebeles of the District by governmental and
non-governmental organizations. The constructed ponds have no better
quality and most of them do not seem to be productive and sustainable
(ARDO, 2018).
In the study area, most of the rainwater harvesting ponds failed due to
various constraints. The existing failed ponds on the farmers' plot have
become additional constrictions to the local community (ARDO, 2018).
Therefore, investigating the factors affecting the sustainability of ponds
and the perception of farmers’ on RWH ponds in Lay Gayint District could
be a vital issue. This study was conducted to evaluate the sustainability of
RWH ponds with the subsequent specific objectives: (1) to assess the
Figure 1. Study area location.
2
Heliyon 7 (2021) e07647
perception of farmers on the potential of RWH ponds, and (2) to identify
factors influencing the sustainability of RWH ponds. This study may help
policymakers in planning the strategies for encouraging households to
sustain water harvesting and storage technologies.
2. Methodology̍
2.1. Study area description
Lay Gaint District is found within the South Gondar Administrative
Zone of the Amhara National Regional State. It lies within 11
040 to 12

100 N latitude, and 38
120 to 38
37’ E longitude (Figure 1), and covers
an overall area of 1,522.43 square kilometers composed of 26 rural
kebeles. Lay Gaint is that the fifth largest District and accounts for 11 % of
the overall area of the South Gondar Administrative zone. The District
town, Nefas Mewcha is found 741 km far from the capital of Ethiopia and
175 km far from the regional town, Bahir Dar (EDHS, 2012). According to
Lay Gayint District Agricultural Development Office/LGDARO/(2011),
the minimum and maximum temperatures in the District are 5
C and 24


C respectively. It has two rainy seasons that are Belg (little rain) and
G.G. Demeke et al.
Kirmet (heavy rain) with erratic distribution varying from 600 mm to
1200 mm (LGDADO, 2018).
2.2. Study approach
2.2.1. Research design
To gather adequate information that meets the stated objectives of the
research, both qualitative and quantitative methods were employed
during this study. This research has no ethical issue that does not need
ethical approval. The collected data were coded, entered, and checked for
consistency before keying into the SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences) software for further processing.
2.2.2. Sampling techniques and procedures
Among the South Gondar Administrative Zone, within the Lay Gayint
District the adoption and implementation of RWH ponds are common as
compared to other districts (ARDO, 2018). Most of the RWH ponds
constructed within the District don't seem to be giving service to the
community (South Gondar ARDO, 2018). Due to this, the Lay Gayint
District was selected purposively to identify the factors that affect the
sustainability of ponds. This District comprises 25 rural kebeles that have
on-farm RWH ponds and one urban with no RWH pond. A simple random
sampling method was used to select farm household heads who partici-
pated in this survey.
From the 25 rural kebeles, Titra (Dega-highland), Barthiba (Woina-
dega-mid highland), and Amba Mariam (Kolla-lowland) were selected to
represent the study area supported the agroecology conditions. From
three kebeles, 108 households (28 were pond users and 80 non-users)
were systematically selected for the interview and focused group dis-
cussion (Table 1).
2.2.3. Methods of data collection
The sources of data for this research were both primary and secondary
data sources.
2.2.3.1. Primary data sources. Household survey: Structured closed-
ended and open-ended questions were used to gather primary house-
hold data at the village level. Accordingly, the demographic character-
istics of farm households; farmers’ perception about RWH ponds; and the
socio-economic impacts affecting the sustainability of ponds were
collected.
Key informant interviews: Unstructured interviews were done with
ARDO experts, development agents, and purposively selected pond user
and non-user household heads.
Focus group discussion: The focus group was composed of six
peasant association leaders selected from the sampled kebeles. The in-
depth discussion was led by the researcher to possess perceptions over
the RWH ponds.
2.2.3.2. Secondary data sources. In this study, published and unpub-
lished materials including reports, journals, articles, books were used.
2.2.4. Methods of data analysis
The quantitative data collected from the questionnaires were
analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science version 20.0)
and the result was presented using percentages and tables. The qualita-
tive data collected from respondents’ opinions and suggestions were
analyzed using content analysis and in-depth probing.
3. Results and discussions
3.1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of sample households
Educational status, age, and land ownership are important factors for
RWH technology adoption and utilization. About 55.56 % of the
3
Heliyon 7 (2021) e07647
Table 1. Sample size of farm HH heads.
Sample Kebeles* No of households No of sample households
Total Users Non-users Sum
Titra 704 12 23 35
Amba Mariam 659 7 26 33
Barthiba 797 9 31 40
Total 2160 28 80 108
*
Kebele-the smallest administrative unit of Ethiopia.
respondents were within the age range between 29 and 48. The academic
level of households was found to be 48.15 % illiterate, 34.26 % read and
write, and 17.59 % primary and above educations (Table 2).
About 46.25 % of non-users of RWH were found illiterate. The low
level of education attained limits the farmers' access to information and
also the adoption of new water resources management techniques. This
might have resulted in the reluctance to adopt and utilize new RWH
technologies. In most of the RWH adoption studies, farmers with higher
levels of educational attainment are more likely to adopt/practice rain-
water harvesting techniques as compared to less educated farmers
(Chianu and Tsujii, 2005).
About 35.71 % of RWH users and 33.75 % of non-users of RWH do not
have land for cultivation (Table 2). The absence of land ownership was
found to be a negative impact on the adoption of rainwater harvesting
technology. Farmers who had farms were, less likely to adopt the water
harvesting techniques. This however contradicts research findings by
Buyinza and Wambede (2008) who reported that farmers who had large
farmlands were more likely to adopt rainwater harvesting techniques.
3.2. The implementation and utilization of RWH ponds
A total number of eight operational ponds were surveyed, out of
which five were constructed by individual farmers, and the remaining
three were constructed by the local government (Table 3). Based on this,
50 % of the ponds were constructed in 2012/13 and 25 % of them in
2013/14. The remaining 25 % of the sample ponds were constructed in
2014/15 and 2015/16 (Table 4).
The excavated only, geomembrane lined, and cement-lined type of
ponds are common in the study area. About 75 % of the ponds were only
excavated type which might have problems in storing water effectively
since a significant amount of water seeps from the pond (Table 5).
Awareness about RWH and utilization of ponds have a positive impact
on the adoption of RWH technology. This initiates them to get involved in
RWH technology adoption. Thus, about 61.1 % of the sample households
have no information about rainwater harvesting before getting involved
in the technology (Table 6). Only 39.3 % of the RWH users had infor-
mation about RWH before getting involved in using RWH ponds.
The government assistance in RWH was also evaluated using focussed
group discussions (FGDs). Form FGDs it was found that about 67.9 % of
RWH pond users did not get any assistance from kebele, and district of-
ficials in promoting and financial support for maintenance (Table 7).
3.3. Perception of farmers towards RWH ponds
The participation of stakeholders during the initial stage, design and
implementation of RWH ponds is that the major factor for the success of
the technology adoption. The top-down approach within the adoption
and adaptation of the ponds to the local situation led to considerable
resistance by farmers to easily accept the intervention (Melete, 2007).
According to the woreda agriculture and rural development, and
kebele development agents response, the community fully participated
(as labor) during the construction of ponds through the mobilization
performed by the food for work program. This was done to maximize the
acceptance of the technology by the community. After 2015/16 the
G.G. Demeke et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e07647

Table 2. Demographic characteristics of sample households.

No. of RWH Users RWH Users (%) No. of RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
Education status
Illiterate 15 53.57 37 46.25 52 48.15
Read & Write 9 32.14 28 35 37 34.26
Primary & above 4 14.29 15 18.75 19 17.59
Age status
15–28 years 7 25.00 17 21.25 24 22.22
29–48 years 15 53.57 45 56.25 60 55.56
49–64 years 5 17.86 15 18.75 20 18.52
65 years 1 3.57 3 3.75 4 3.70
Land-holding
Yes 18 64.29 53 66.25 71 65.74
No 10 35.71 27 33.75 37 34.26

As indicated in Table 8, about 7.4 % and 13.9 % of the respondents

Table 3. Responsible body for the construction of RWH ponds.
rated the success of RWH ponds as successful and moderately successful
Who has constructed No. of RWH RWH ponds respectively, on the opposite hand, about 78.7 % of the respondents
the ponds? ponds constructed constructed (%) stated that RWH ponds are not successful (failed) because of the tech-
Government 3 37.5 nical, institutional, and environmental factors.
Individual Farmers 5 62.5 As presented in Table 9 above, about 63.1 % of the respondents
expressed that the expansion of the RWH ponds does not affect their farm
plots whereas about 38.9 % of the respondents believe that their plots are
not narrowed by the expansion of RWH ponds.
Table 4. Years of construction of RWH ponds.

Year of Construction No. of RWH ponds RWH ponds

3.4. Factors affecting the sustainability of RWH ponds
constructed constructed (%)
2012/13 4 50
RWH could also be a cross-cutting issue. It is a complex interface
2013/14 2 25
within the environment, economy, social, health, and policy (Daniel,
2014/15 1 12.5
2006). In Ethiopia, since the adoption of RWH technology, it is sur-
2015/16 1 12.5
rounded by constraints that have the character of varying from place to
place and from time to time. The factors that affected the sustainability of
ponds were technical problems, institutional and environmental factors.
Table 5. Pond types of the sample households.
3.4.1. Technical problems
Type of pond No. of RWH ponds RWH ponds The absence of fences, roof covers, and silt traps was identified as
constructed constructed (%)
the main technical constraints that affected the sustainability of
Excavated only 6 75
ponds. About 75 % of the ponds had not any fences and all the ponds
Geomembrane lined 1 12.5
did not have any roof covers (Table 10). The absence of roof covers
Cement lined 1 12.5 in RWH ponds resulted in the loss of a significant portion of the
The most common rainwater harvesting pond types in the study area are as water stored through evaporation. The presence of fences protects
shown in Figure 2. the edges of ponds from being eroded and entry of debris to the
pond.
Sediments generated from the encompassing area were identified as a
development of ponds by the government was stopped and farmers were major constraint affecting the sustainability of ponds. The interviewed
not interested to invest in the development of ponds. Due to this, most ARDO experts disclosed that almost all of the ponds were constructed
farmers were not benefited from the adoption of ponds and had no good without a silt trap. Through time the accumulated sediment might reduce
perception of the development of ponds in the area. the water holding capacity of the ponds. Hence the excavated only type of

Figure 2. Major RWH ponds types in study area a) Excavated only b) Geomembrane lined c) Cement lined type.

4
G.G. Demeke et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e07647

Table 6. Households’ information about RWH before getting involved in the technology.

Have information either from the government RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
or neighbors before getting involved in RWH
Yes 11 39.3 31 38.8 42 38.9
No 17 60.7 49 61.3 66 61.1

Table 7. Assistance of government in RWH ponds.

Is there government assistance in RWH? RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
Yes 9 32.1 17 21.3 26 24.1
No 19 67.9 63 78.8 82 75.9

Table 8. Farmers perceptions about the success of RWH ponds.

How do you rate the success of RWH ponds in your village? RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
Successful 5 17.9 3 3.8 8 7.4
Moderately successful 4 14.3 11 13.8 15 13.9
Failed 19 67.9 66 82.5 85 78.7

Table 9. Perception of farmers on the expansion of RWH ponds.

Do you think that expansion of RWH ponds RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
have narrowed down your plots?
Yes 9 32.1 33 41.3 42 38.9
No 21 75.0 47 58.8 68 63.1

participated in the site selection, design, construction, and mainte-

Table 10. Fences and roof covers of ponds. nance of the RWH pond which might reduce the sustainability ponds
(Table 12).
Do ponds have fences Fences of RWH ponds Roof covers of RWH ponds Onsite training about the operation and maintenance as well as water
and roof covers?
No. Percentage No. Percentage use and management aspects are highly essential to RWH users that could
Yes 2 25 0 0 maximize the return obtained from the technology. Hence the absence/
No 6 75 8 100 shortage of training for farmers was found to be a problem for promoting
and sustaining the constructed ponds in the study area.
As revealed in Table 13, about 81.5 % of farmers didn't get training
ponds was found the foremost sensitive for sedimentation than geo- over the operation and maintenance of ponds. Community participation
membrane and cement-lined types (Table 11). enhances skill development and a sense of ownership that ends up in the
In the absence of roof covers, the stored water decreases in a short effective implementation and therefore the sustainability of ponds
period. This is because the uncovered ponds lose a significant portion of (Mamburi, 2014; Olukotun, 2008; and Rimbera, 2012). Hence, there
their water through sedimentation and evapotranspiration (Ahmed et al., have been no active involvement and awareness creation to the farmers
2015). that would minimize the sustainability of rainwater harvesting ponds
(Mamburi, 2014).
3.4.2. Institutional factors
At the initial stage, RWH ponds were adopted as a “quota system” to
adapt the community to the technology. To satisfy the quota, the au- 3.4.3. Environmental constraints
thorities were pushing the experts to dig as many ponds as possible. The According to Woldeamlak (2007), cracking of ponds on the edges
ARDO experts revealed that the technology was expanded in many parts of causes leakage of the stored water. During field observation of the pre-
the district without considering the environmental and social differences. vailing ponds, it had been found that the majority of the ponds were
The participation of farmers in the implementation of the ponds cracked at the bottom and sides of the pond that leaks the stored water
could increase the sense of ownership and sustainability of the con- into the ground. Due to this problem, the bulk of the ponds observed
structed ponds. But about 72.2 % of the households have not within the area were failed.

Table 11. Sedimentation of RWH ponds.

Type of pond Volume/capacity of Pond in M3

Under construction (2013/14) April, 2018 April, 2019 Change in volume b/n 2013/14 & 2019 (%)
Excavated only 104 96.5 93 14.6
Geomembrane lined 24.5 23 22.5 8.2
Cement lined 14 13.5 13.2 5.7

5
G.G. Demeke et al. Heliyon 7 (2021) e07647

Table 12. Participation of households in the implementation of RWH ponds.

Have you participated in the implementation of RWH ponds? RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
Yes 19 67.9 11 13.8 30 27.8
No 9 32.1 69 86.3 78 72.2

Table 13. Households training about RWH ponds.

Have you got training in rainwater harvesting RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
pond construction, usage, and maintenance?
Yes 11 39.3 9 11.3 20 18.5
No 17 60.7 71 88.8 88 81.5

Table 14. Availability of income to maintain RWH ponds.

Have you enough money to maintain RWH ponds? RWH Users RWH Users (%) RWH Non-users RWH Non-users (%) Total Total (%)
Yes 3 10.7 5 6.3 8 7.4
No 25 89.3 75 93.7 100 92.6

3.4.4. Financial constraints Declarations

During the initial periods of rainwater harvesting technology
adoption; the development of ponds was financed by the government.
Most of the constructed ponds that were afforded freely for RWH
demonstration were not long-lasting. Due to financial constraints,
most of the RWH ponds were not maintained for a long period. As
indicated in Table 14, 92.6 % of the sample farmers did not have
enough money to maintain ponds. Farmers’ income level was a crucial
factor that affects the sustainability of rainwater harvesting ponds (He
et al., 2007).
Author contribution statement
All authors listed have significantly contributed to conceived and
designed the experiments; performed the experiments; analyzed and
interpreted the data; contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or
data and wrote the paper.
Funding statement

4. Conclusions Mr. Girum Getachew Demeke research was supported by Debre Tabor
University (DTU-001).
Rainwater harvesting is a key water management tool for water-
scarce areas. For meeting the demands of water for various purposes
several rainwater harvesting ponds are constructed in numerous Data availability statement
parts of the country. The evaluation of the sustainability of rainwater
harvesting ponds is critical for ensuring the aim of construction and Data included in article/supplementary material/referenced in
taking measures on future development and maintenance activities. article.
During this study, the perception of farmers and constraints affecting
the sustainability of rainwater harvesting ponds was evaluated. In Declaration of interests statement
most of the rural kebeles, the development and implementation of
the rainwater harvesting ponds were a quota system rather than The authors declare no conflict of interest.
demand-driven and participatory construction that resulted in low
sustainability. Most of the ponds didn't serve for the designed service
Additional information
period and did not store water for various uses. The RWH ponds
might play a key role in increasing the water supply, food security,
No additional information is available for this paper.
and overall GDP. Besides, the performance of the RWH ponds needs
regular checking and maintenance for reducing the probability of
Acknowledgements
failure. The sustainability of the ponds within the district was sur-
rounded by technical problems, financial, institutional, and envi-
The investigators are highly thankful to Debre Tabor University for
ronmental factors. Constraints just like the absence of fences and
supporting in finance and vehicle arrangement for data collection.
covers, sedimentation, low participation of farmers during the
implementation of ponds, inappropriate location of ponds, lack of
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