Chapter-1 - Plastic Analysis Lecture-One Final

November-2022
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
CEng5123
Duresa Dubale (MSc.)

Course Contents
1. Chapter One: Plastic Analysis
2. Chapter Two: Strip Method of Analysis For Slabs
3. Chapter Three: Earthquake Load
4. Chapter Four: Wind Load
5. Chapter Five: Design of Connections

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 2
November-2022
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
CEng5123
Chapter One: Plastic Analysis
Lecture One
Introduction
▪ So far, we have seen the analysis of structure by elastic theory in
which stress-strain relation is assumed to be linear.
▪ The design method based on this theory assumes that the structure
fails if the stress at any point reaches the yield stress.
▪ The service load is restricted to the value such that at the highly
stressed point the stress is equal to the working stress.
▪ The working stress is defined as yield stress divided by factor of
safety.

Introduction
▪ In other words, the designer has a concept that the structure
would fail if the design load applied is equal to the factor
safety times working load.
▪ But this is not the correct. To verify this, first let us see the
stress-strain curve for steel.

Cont.
Introduction
A= Limit of proportionality
B= Upper Yield point
C= Lower Yield Point
D= Ultimate stress point
E= Breaking Point

Cont.
Introduction
• The stress-strain curve is linear between the origin and the
elastic limit, which is very close to the yield point.
• After the upper yield point, there is a sudden drop in stress up
to lower yield point.
• The designer normally treats the lower yield point as the limit
of proportionality.
• From this yield point to the ultimate stress point, the zone is
called strain hardening zone.

Cont.
Introduction
• At ultimate stress point, neck formation starts and the load carrying
capacity reduces.
• Finally, breaking takes place at stress (normal stress) which is less than
the ultimate stress.
• Now, consider stresses across the highly stressed section of the simply
supported beam with gradually increasing load.

Cont.
Introduction

Cont.
Introduction
Stress Diagram at Various Loading Stages
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Cont.
Introduction
• Within the elastic limits, the stress varies linearly across the section
and the maximum stress is within the yield stress. (figure b)
• After more increase, the external fibres will reach the yield stress.
(figure c). Thus, these fibres have little capacity to resist load.
• Even if, we neglect this additional capacity due to strain hardening, the
section can still resist more load, because the interior fibres are still
under stressed.
• As the load is further increased, outer fibres just expand or contract
without resisting load but inner fibres continue to resist the load till
they also yield. (figure d)
Cont.
Introduction
• The resistance to load continues till the entire section yields.
• After all fibres at a section yield, the section behaves like a hinge for
further load, i.e., it rotates freely without resisting additional moment.
• Now, let us consider the load carrying capacity of a fixed beam.

Cont.
Introduction
• As the bending moment is maximum at supports, first extreme fibres
at supports yield. For further increase of load, entire section at
supports yield.
• Even at this stage, the structure will not collapse, since a beam with
two hinges at ends is a stable structure.
• For further load, it acts as a simply supported beam till all fibres at the
mid-span section yield.
• Thus, the elastic theory underestimates the load carrying capacity of
the structure. For indeterminate structures, this underestimation is
higher.
Cont.
Introduction
• Hence, the term factor of safety is not giving the correct idea about the
load carrying capacity of the structures.
• Hence, a new theory called plastic theory has been developed. This
theory gives the correct idea about the load carrying capacity of the
structure.
• It is based on the concept that a structure will carry load till the plastic
hinges are formed at the sufficient points to cause collapse of the
structure.
• However, to make the theory simple, strain hardening of the material
is neglected, which means load carrying capacity of the structure is
actually a little more than what plastic theory predicts.
Definitions of Plastic Hinge and Plastic
Moment Capacity
➢Plastic Hinge:
• It is a section at which all the fibres yield, and hence for any further
load rotation takes place at the section without resisting any additional
moment.
➢Plastic Moment Capacity:
• Plastic Moment capacity of a section may be defined as the moment
which makes all the fibres at that section to yield and thereby form a
plastic hinge.

Cont.
Definitions of Plastic Hinge and Plastic
Moment Capacity
Position of Plastic Hinge
❑It is likely to be formed
▪ At the point of application of load
▪ At the section of sudden change in geometry
▪ At the fixed end
▪ At the point of zero shear
▪ When two sections with different Mp meet, hinge shall be formed at
a section having smaller Mp

Assumptions
• The following assumptions are made in plastic theory:
1) The stress-strain relationship is idealized to two straight lines, i.e.,
strain hardening effect is neglected.

Cont.
Assumptions
2) Plane section before bending, remains plane even after bending, i.e., shear
deformation is neglected
3) The relationship between compressive stress and compressive strain is the

same as between tensile stress and tensile strain.
4) Whenever a fully plastic moment is attained at any cross-section, a plastic

hinge forms which can undergo rotation of any magnitude, but the bending
moment remains constant at the fully plastic value.

Cont.
Assumptions
5) Effect of axial load and shear on fully plastic moment capacity of the
section is neglected.
6) The deflections in the structure are small enough for the equations of
statically equilibrium to be same as those for the undeformed structures.

Shape Factor
• Within the elastic limit, bending moment M has a relation with
bending stress σy as M= σyZ, where Z has been defined as the
modulus of the section.
• Defining the moment causing extreme fibre to yield as yield moment
My, we can write
• My=σy Z
• If plastic moment capacity of a section is Mp, we define plastic
modulus of section Zp as the ratio of plastic moment capacity to yield
stress,
𝑀𝑝
𝑍𝑝 = , 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝑝 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝑍𝑝
𝜎𝑦
Cont.
Shape Factor
• The term shape factor may be defined as the ratio of plastic moment
capacity to the yield moment. Thus, shape factor S is given by:
𝑀𝑝 𝜎𝑦 ∗𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝
𝑆 = = =
𝑀𝑦 𝜎𝑦 ∗𝑍 𝑍
• Note that shape factor is always greater than unity, since plastic
moment capacity Mp is more than yield moment and the shape factor
is the property of the section.

Cont.
Shape Factor
➢Significance of Shape Factor
• It gives an indication of reserve capacity of a section from on set of
yielding at extreme fibres to full plastification.
• If My is known, Mp may be calculated.
• A section with higher shape factor gives a longer warning before
collapse.
• A section with higher shape factor is more ductile and gives greater
deflection at collapse

Shape factor for the General Section
❖Shape factor for any section may be found by the following
procedure:
1) From usual procedure, determine the moment of inertia of the given
section about the centroidal axis. Then, determine yield moment using
the equation.
𝐼
𝑀𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 ∗
𝑌𝑚𝑎𝑥
2) Locate plastic neutral axis, i.e., the axis which divides the area into
halves.

Cont.
Shape factor for the General Section

3) Since, the stress is equal to yield stress at all fibres, area multiplied by
yield stress gives force in that area. Determine the moment of forces in each
simple figures in tension and compression about plastic neutral axis
separately. Then,
𝑀𝑝 = ෍(𝜎𝑦 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑦)
where y is the distance of centroid of each simple figure from plastic neutral
axis.
4) Then shape factor
𝑀𝑝 𝜎𝑦 ∗𝑍𝑝 𝑍𝑝
𝑆 = = =
𝑀𝑦 𝜎𝑦 ∗𝑍 𝑍

Example: Calculate Shape factor
• Example-1: Analysis of Rectangular cross section
• Consider the rectangular section of width b and depth d as shown in

the figure below. The stress diagram corresponding to yield moment
and plastic moment is also shown in the figure below. Derive the
shape factor.

Cont.
Example: Calculate Shape factor

Worked Example
Part-1

November-2022
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
CEng5123
Lecture Two
Collapse Load
• A structure is said to have collapsed if the entire structure or part of the
structure starts undergoing unlimited deformation.
• This happens when the number of independent static equilibrium equations
available are more than the number of reaction components.
• The state at which this condition develops is said to be collapse mechanism and
the load carried at this state is called collapse load.
• The collapse load is also called as ultimate load carrying capacity of the
structure.

Cont.
Collapse Load
• Determining the collapse load of a structure is called plastic analysis.
• Normally, structures are permitted to carry only a fraction of collapse load, called
working loads. The relationship between collapse load and working load is:
• Collapse Load = Load factor x Working Load
• Load factor is a term similar to factor of safety in the elastic design.
• The load factor is the ratio of collapse load to working load whereas factor of
safety is the ratio of yield stress to working stress.

Basic Theorems for Finding Collapse Load
• There are three basic theorems on which plastic analysis has been
developed. They are:
1. Static Theorem
2. Kinematic Theorem
3. Uniqueness Theorem

1. Static Theorem
• It states “ for a given structure and loading, if there exists any

distribution of bending moment throughout the structure
which is both safe and statistically admissible with a set of
loads W, the value of W must be less than or equal to the
collapse load Wc”

Cont.
1. Static Theorem
• The term statically admissible means the bending moment diagram satisfies
static equilibrium conditions.
• The term safe means at no point bending moment is more than plastic
moment capacity of the section.
• This theorem is called as Lower Bound Theorem, since the values of

loads obtained are always less than or equal to collapse load.

2. Kinematic Theorem
This theorem states “for a given structure subject to a set of loads W,

the value of W found to correspond to any assumed mechanism must
be either greater or equal to the collapse load Wc”
• Since, for any assumed mechanism, the value of W obtained is greater

than or equal to collapse load, this is called Upper Bound Theorem.

• The static and kinematic theorems can be combined to form a theorem

which gives unique value for collapse load. This theorem is called
uniqueness theorem.
• From static theorem, it is known that for any value of W>Wc, it is impossible
to find any distribution of bending moment which will be both safe and
statically admissible.

Cont.
• From kinematic theorem, it is known that it is impossible

to find any mechanism for which the corresponding load
is less than Wc.
• Combining these, the following theorem is framed to

get unique value of the load which will be equal to Wc.

Cont.
• “If for a given structure and loading at least one safe and statically
admissible bending moment distribution can be found and in this
distribution the bending moment is equal to the fully plastic moment
at enough cross-sections to cause failure of the structure due to
unlimited rotations at plastic hinges (forming mechanism), the
corresponding load will be equal to the collapse load Wc”

Method of Plastic Analysis
• Based on uniqueness theorem, there are two methods

of plastic analysis.
1. Statical Method
2. Kinematic Method

1. Statical Method
• This method is suitable for the analysis of structure for which the
shape of the bending moment diagram is easily known.
• The method consists of drawing statically admissible bending

moment diagram and equating bending moment at sufficient points
to plastic moment, so that collapse mechanism forms.

Cont.
1. Statical Method
• While doing this, care should be taken to see that bending moment
will not exceed plastic moment capacity of the section at any point.
• Problems on frames are not taken up by this method since, it is not

easy to draw such bending moment diagrams for them.

2. Kinematic Method
• This method starts with an assumed collapse mechanism.
• After collapse mechanism is formed, there can be no change of

curvature at any cross-section except where plastic hinges are formed.
• Hence, if a virtual displacement is given to the structure just after

collapse mechanism is formed, the internal work is done only at
plastic hinges, where plastic moment Mp is acting.

Cont.
2. Kinematic Method
• Hence, by equating internal work done by plastic moments at plastic

hinges to external work done by loads, we can get collapse load.
• However, according to kinematic theorem, this is greater than or

equal to the real collapse load.
• Hence, all possible mechanisms can be investigated and the one

giving least value may be considered as real collapse load.

Cont.
2. Kinematic Method
• For structures link continuous beams, single story, single bay frames,
it is possible to imagine all possible collapse mechanisms and arrive
at real collapse loads.
• However, for multi-story, multi-bay frames, some of the possible

mechanisms may go beyond imagination.

Cont.
2. Kinematic Method
• Hence, in such cases, to confirm the real mechanism, the bending
moments at various critical points are found in the assumed collapse
condition and checked whether anywhere bending moment is more
than plastic capacity of the section.
• If the bending moment is equal to or within the plastic moment

capacity of the sections, that is the real collapse mechanism and the
collapse load is the real collapse load.
Cont.
2. Kinematic Method
Applied to
Kinematic Beams
Method Applied to
Frames
Kinematic Method Applied to Beams
• For any span of a beam for collapse, there should be natural
(mechanical) hinges or plastic hinges at the support and one
plastic hinge in the span of the beam.
• To reduce the number of trial mechanisms, the point of maximum
moment in the span of the beam should be located quickly.
• For a set of concentrated loads, maximum moment is always
under a loads.
Kinematic Method Applied to Frames
• The frame may fail by forming any one of the following mechanisms shown in
the figure.

Cont.
Combined mechanism-l
Sway mechanism Combined mechanism-ll

Cont.

• These mechanisms may be grouped into three:
1. Beam Mechanism
2. Sway Mechanism
3. Combined Mechanism
• Beam Mechanism
• The individual members of the frame may fail by formation of
mechanism similar to those, we saw in the analysis of beams.

1. Beam Mechanism
• This mechanism can take place only in the member with loads acting
on its span.
• As seen in the analysis of beams, in a beam mechanism three hinges
are necessary, two at the ends ( some may be mechanical hinges
also) and one in the intermediate hinge is under any one of those
loads.
• Hence, in a member with concentrated loads, possible beam
mechanisms to be tried is equal to the number of concentrated loads.

Cont.
1. Beam Mechanism
• If both ends of a member are continuous (including fixed case) or

simply supported and load is uniformly distributed over entire span,
intermediate hinge will develop at mid-span.
• If one end is continuous/fixed and the other end is hinged/simply

supported and the load is uniformly distributed over the entire span,
intermediate hinge develops at 0.414L from hinged/simply supported
end.
2. Sway Mechanism
• Due to lateral forces, a frame may sway considerably and form

collapse mechanism as shown above.
• Two hinges at bottom and two hinges at the top of the columns are
necessary for this type of collapse.
• Sometimes, hinges at bottom may be mechanical.
• Works is done by plastic moments acting at plastic hinges.

Cont.
• Combination of beam mechanism and sway mechanism may also

takes place as shown in the figure above.
• The real mechanism is the one in which internal work done is less and
external work done is more, so that least collapse load or maximum
plastic moment capacity required is existing.

Cont.
• Hence, while combining the mechanism, one should aim at reducing

internal work and increasing the external work.
• In combined mechanism, sway will be on the windward direction.
• Formation of hinges in the intermediate portion of columns

(combining beam mechanisms of columns) increases internal work
considerably, hence, it will not yield real collapse condition.

Cont.
• Investigations should be carried out for all the above

three types of mechanisms and one which gives least
collapse load or needs maximum plastic moment
capacity is selected as real collapse condition.

Worked Example
Part-2

THANK YOU!

Chapter-1 - Plastic Analysis Lecture-One Final

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November-2022

Duresa Dubale (MSc.)

1. Chapter One: Plastic Analysis

2. Chapter Two: Strip Method of Analysis For Slabs

3. Chapter Three: Earthquake Load

4. Chapter Four: Wind Load

5. Chapter Five: Design of Connections

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 7

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 8

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 9

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24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 20

3) The relationship between compressive stress and compressive strain is the

4) Whenever a fully plastic moment is attained at any cross-section, a plastic

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 21

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 22

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 24

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 25

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 26

Shape factor for the General Section

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 27

• Example-1: Analysis of Rectangular cross section

• Consider the rectangular section of width b and depth d as shown in

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 28

Example: Calculate Shape factor

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 29

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 30

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 32

• Load factor is a term similar to factor of safety in the elastic design.

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 33

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 34

• It states “ for a given structure and loading, if there exists any

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 35

• This theorem is called as Lower Bound Theorem, since the values of

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 36

This theorem states “for a given structure subject to a set of loads W,

• Since, for any assumed mechanism, the value of W obtained is greater

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 37

• The static and kinematic theorems can be combined to form a theorem

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 38

• From kinematic theorem, it is known that it is impossible

• Combining these, the following theorem is framed to

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 39

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 40

• Based on uniqueness theorem, there are two methods

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 41

• The method consists of drawing statically admissible bending

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 42

• Problems on frames are not taken up by this method since, it is not

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 43

• This method starts with an assumed collapse mechanism.

• After collapse mechanism is formed, there can be no change of

• Hence, if a virtual displacement is given to the structure just after

24-Nov-22 By: Duresa Dubale 44

• Hence, by equating internal work done by plastic moments at plastic

• However, according to kinematic theorem, this is greater than or