ISSN : 2277-131X (Print)

ISSN : 2277-1328 (Online)

ISRM
Vol. 7, No. 1, January 2018
(India)
Journal
Half Yearly Technical Journal of Indian National Group of ISRM
 Mangdechhu Hydroelectric Project Authority
(720 MW) : Trongsa, Bhutan

“GROSS NATIONAL HAPPINESS”

In his words “I feel that there must be some convergence among nations on the idea of what the primary
objective of development and progress should be – something that GNH seeks to bring about” and
further “There cannot be enduring peace, prosperity, equality and brotherhood in this world if our aims
are so separate and divergent especially as the world shrinks to a global village”.
-His Majesty the fifth King of Bhutan, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck

Vision
Adopt the best practices in the construction of environment friendly, State of the Art 720 MW
Hydropower Project on River Mangdechhu, at Trongsa to ensure energy security to the nation.

Mission
Implement the Project as per construction schedule and approved budget and ensure quality of
construction with minimal damage to the environment with timely commissioning and smooth operation
and maintenance.The Project will generate 2,926 GWh of electricity and offset 2.2 million tonnes of
CO2 per year from the atmosphere with CDM.

www.mhpa.gov.bt
 ISRM (INDIA)

Indian national Group of ISRM

ISRM (India) Journal

Volume 7, No. 1 January 2018

CONTENTS
Page No.
From Editor’s Desk 2
Articles
• Geotechnical Suitability of Tehri Dam Site, Uttarakhand, India
– Rajendra Sanwal and Dr. Harish Bahuguna 3
• Role of Probabilistic Interpretation in Recommendations of Rock Mass Parameters
– G.V. Ramana, Shashank Pathak and Hari Dev 11
• Blasting in Highly Occupied Location – Practice to Implementation
– Naveen G.C. and H.S. Venkatesh 21
• Static and Dynamic Analysis of a Theng Rock Slope in Sikkim
– K. Naveen Reddy and A. Murali Krishna 31
• Calculation of Factor of Safety for a Rock Slope Reinforced with Passive Bolt under Plane Failure
– Lok Priya Srivastava 39

International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM) 42

ISRM News 45
Indian National Group of ISRM 47

All communications to be addressed to :

The Member Secretary
Indian National Group of ISRM
CBIP Building, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110 021
Editors
• Mr. V.K. Kanjlia, Member Secretary, Indian National Group of ISRM and Secretary, Central Board of Irrigation & Power
• Dr. G.P. Patel, Treasurer, Indian National Group of ISRM and Director (WR), Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Associate Editor
• Mr. Uday Chander, Chief Manager, Central Board of Irrigation and Power

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 From the Editor’s Desk
First of all, I take this opportunity to wish all the members and readers a Very
Happy and Prosperous New Year.
With the support of all of you, the journal has entered into Seventh year of its
publication, and the thirteenth issue of the journal is now in your hands. I thank
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quality journal.
The growth of infrastructure is the key indicator of the economic growth. Good
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for rapid industrialization. The creation of additional infrastructural facilities below ground, instead of
surface, will be the order of day to ensure sustainable future.
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in the subsequent issues of the journal.

V.K. Kanjlia
Member Secretary
Indian National Group of ISRM

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018 2

 Geotechnical Suitability of Tehri Dam Site, Uttarakhand, India
Rajendra Sanwal Dr. Harish Bahuguna
Former Deputy Director General Head, Environment and Geology Cell
Geological Survey of India UJVN Ltd., India

ABSTRACT
Construction of a high earth core rock fill dam at Tehri is a first major attempt to tap the immense hydropower
potential of Bhagirathi River. This multipurpose mega hydro electric project envisages generation of 2400
MW (IC) of hydroelectricity in two stages and after completion of both the stages it will add 6200 million
units of electricity to the northern grid.
The project site, located in Garhwal Lesser Himalaya, exposes phyllites and its arenaceous variants of
Chandpur Formation, Jaunsar Group ( Proterozoic- III). The phyllites at the dam site were classified into
phyllitic quartzite thinly bedded (PQT), phyllitic quartzite massive (PQM), quartzitic phyllite (QP) and
sheared phyllite (SP) and they are characterized by seismic wave velocity (Vp) of 5.5–6.0 km/sec, 4.5–5.3
km/sec, 3.0–3.5 km/sec and 1.5–2.0 km/sec respectively. The location of such a big rock fill structure in
geodynamically active, seismically sensitive and geologically fragile Himalayan region has always invited
pessimism, however the advantages provided by this site, and the site response during and after the
construction, has dispelled all the nihilism.
The performance of the main dam and appurtenant structures has been actually tested with the real time
monitoring system. The total seepage, from different galleries is far less than 1 cusec and considering
the size of the reservoir is negligible. The dam body is stable and all zones of the dam, as such, are
functioning well.
In the spillways, no instrument has recorded abnormal values in any of the structures which indicate its
stability and efficient functioning. Convergence in the common wall between machine hall and transformer
hall is stabilised after achieving a maximum of 21.60 mm. The paper discusses the suitability and viability
of Tehri dam site by providing a detailed, yet critical review, from the point of view of geological disposition,
seismotectonic set up and geotechnical evaluation during and after the construction of the project.

Introduction behind a 260.50 m high earth core rock fill dam, in a

The Himalaya is perhaps one of the largest highland
reserves of water in the world. Its steep gradient and
fast flowing rivers have vast exploitable water and
power potential. The valleys provide multiple options
for the development of water resource projects. Efforts
to locate suitable site, are however constrained by
geological complexities, difficult terrain conditions
and poor accessibility. Ideal sites are therefore rare to
find. The project is located in Tehri Garhwal district of
Uttarakhand state in India (Fig. 1). The project site is
located approximately 80 km from Rishikesh, which is
also the nearest railway station. The nearest airport is at
Dehradun which is well connected with New Delhi.
Based on the geological considerations, the selected site
for a high storage dam (highest in south-east Asia and
fourth highest in the world), in 1949, in the narrow ‘S’
shaped gorge (Photo 1) at the end of an extraordinarily
wide valley at Tehri, has been the most ideal, feasible
and affordable site. The project, commissioned in 2006
(Stage-I), envisages to harness full potential of rivers
Bhagirathi and Bhilangana by storing 3540 Mm3 of water
reservoir spread of 42 sq. km. The stage II of the project
with installed capacity of 1000 MW is under construction.
The project tends to utilise the locally available rich natural
resources while recognizing the geo-environmental and
socio-economic constraints.
Authors express their sincere gratitude to the authorities
of THDC, India, Ltd. for providing Logistic and technical
support.
Site Characteristics and Early History
Tehri dam project site is located in a deep narrow, curved
gorge, roughly 1.5 km downstream of the confluence of
Bhagirathi and Bhilangana rivers. The gorge section
in the upstream opens into a very wide valley, capable
of holding a large pool of water. Extensively developed
unpaired river terraces flanking the wide valley section,
housing an enormous quantity of river borne material,
provided a huge source for the dam fill material.
The site at Tehri was recommended for a high dam (Fig. 3
and Fig. 4), by Geological Survey of India (GSI) in 1949.
Preliminary surveys and investigations to select a suitable

3 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 4 ISRM (India) Journal
Fig-1
site for storage, concentrated at four alternative locations,
namely Rotaria (Tehri), Dobata, Dobra and Uppu (Fig.
2). All these sites, except Rotaria (present Tehri), are
located in Bhagirathi valley, upstream of the confluence
and had a disadvantage of loosing storage capacity along
Bhilangana river. The techno-economic feasibility for the
construction of a high rock fill dam was thus found to be
more suited at the present site. Tehri site, with favourable
geological and topographical conditions and its potential
for optimum utilization of available natural resources out
paced the advantages offered by other sites.
Fig-3
Fig. 1 : Location map of Tehri Dam Site
Fig-1
Fig-4
Fig. 2 : Key Map indication Four Alternative Sites for Tehri Dam
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
Fig-2
Fig. 3 : Plan Layout of Tehri Dam Project
Fig. 4 : Cross Section of Dam indicating different
zones of fill material
Geological Setting
Tehri dam site is located in the Garhwal Lesser Himalaya,
confined between Main Central Thrust (MCT) in the north
and Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) in the south (Fig. 5).
The rocks within these two regional planes of separation
are represented by the Krol and Jaunsar Groups of rocks
(Proterozoic-III). The rocks of Jaunsar Group, in the south,
comprising Chandpur phyllites and Nagthat quatzites
terminate against quartzites, limestone and volcanic rock
sequence of Garhwal Group in the north along a major
tectonic lineament known as Srinagar Thrust. The MCT
separates Garhwal Group of rocks from the older Central
Crystallines, further in the north. Prominent tectonic
dislocations in the vicinity of Tehri dam are Gadolia tear,
Tehri tear, Deul tear and Chamba fault and a number of
shear planes.
Tehri gorge, at the dam site, is aligned in NNW- SSE
direction across the downstream dipping bedding and
foliation in rocks and marks steep slopes between El±
600 m and El± 1000 m. The right and left bank slopes
are dissected by numerous deeply incised gullies
and topographic depressions which mostly follow the
traces of weak zones (Photo 2, Photo 3 and Photo 4).
The rocks at the Tehri dam site form an uninterrupted
sequence of phyllites of Chandpur Formation having
 Geotechnical Suitability of Tehri Dam Site, Uttarakhand, India
variable proportions of argillaceous and arenaceous
materials (Fig. 6). These metamorphosed rocks have
been classified as phyllitic quartzite thinly bedded (PQT),
phyllitic quartzite massive (PQM), quartzitic phyllite (QP)
and sheared phyllite (SP).
Fig. 5 : Regional Geological Map around Tehri Dam Site
Fig-5
Fig. 6 : Generalised Geological Map of Tehri Dam Site
Fig-6
SP is a tectonised variant of PQT, PQM and QP. PQM are
the most competent rocks and geomechanically grouped
into grade-I phyllites, while QP and SP have been rated
as grade II and grade III, in the decreasing order of rock
strength, respectively (Nawani P. C. and Sanwal R. 1995,
1996).
PQM, PQT, QP and SP rocks are characterized by seismic
wave velocity (Vp) of 5.5 – 6.0 km/sec, 4.5 – 5.3 km/
sec, 3.0 – 3.5 km/sec and 1.5 – 2.0 km/sec respectively.
Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) of PQM and
PQT range from 330 – 460 kg/cm2 in saturated state to
520 – 930 kg/cm2 in dry state. UCS value of SP rocks
range from 310 kg/cm2 in saturated state to 400 kg/cm2
in dry state.
5
The rocks at the dam site, which are dipping in south-
westerly direction i.e. towards downstream, have been
found to be traversed by numerous major and minor
shears classified as diagonal (D) and longitudinal (L)
depending upon their geometric relationship with bedding
and foliation (Nawani, Sanwal and Khanduri, 1991; Fig.
7). The L-shears more or less coincide with bedding/
foliation traces and dip in southern quadrant i.e. towards
downstream, whereas D-shears (D1 to D6), displaying
normal faulting and at times strike-slip faulting have been
identified at the dam site. The orientation, width and shear
strength of the shear zones has a significant influence
on the stability of slopes and openings, intersected by
Fig-6
them.
Fig. 7 : Block Tectonic Model of Tehri Dam Site
Fig-7
Geological Compatibility
Site conditions which ideally suited the construction of a
high storage dam at Tehri, as ascertained during feasibility
and investigation stages were :
1. A wide funnel shaped valley abruptly tapering to a
narrow, curved, ‘S’ shaped gorge, downstream of the
confluence point of the two major rivers.
2. Rocky abutments with moderate to steep valley
slopes and at places covered by overburden mass.
3. The project site is occupied by almost the same
rock type (phyllitic quartzite), which are dipping
downstream at moderate to steep angles, precluding
any possibility of seepage from the upstream.
4. In the river bed section, less than 15 m thickness of
overburden mass was assessed and the weathering
in the bed rock extends down to less than 1m depth
only.
5. Rocks at the site lack primary or granular permeability
and equivalent permeability is essentially the fracture
permeability of rock mass. Permeability in river bed
section (10 – 30 m depth) varies from 0.06 to 7
lugeons.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
6 ISRM (India) Journal

6. Absence of a major river bed shear zone or any other

major fault system at the dam site.
7. Sound bed rock conditions for dam core foundation
are achieved at a level much higher than predicted
earlier in the preliminary design.
8. The area is optimally suited for underground
excavations as the geological conditions do not
favour any major rock failure, either stress induced or
structurally controlled.

Validation during Construction

Doubts expressed during the early stages, on the
existence of a shear zone/fault along the river course,
had triggered serious doubt on the feasibility of the site.
Subsequent exploration by drilling, drifting (under river
bed) and foundation mapping during the construction
phase (Fig. 8), proved its complete absence (Nawani,
Sanwal and Khanduri, 1991). Apprehensions on the
existence of a river bed fault were, in fact, one of the
prime consideration for preferring a rock fill structure in
place of the earlier proposed concrete dam. Disproval of
its existence has rendered the site even more feasible.
Fig. 8 : Geological Map of Main Dam Core Foundation
Fig-8
Guided by geological features, rock mass strength,
modulus of deformation, rock mass permeability and
status of rock weathering and de-stressing, the dam
section has been founded on fresh and un-weathered
sound rock, including most part of dam shell (Fig.
Post Construction Evaluation of Performance
9). Sound rock conditions at the foundation level are
confirmed by high seismic velocity (Vp of 4.5 – 5.6 km/
sec) and low permeability (K= 0.75 – 2.56 lugeons).
Deepest foundation level in the dam core was achieved
at El 593.30 m (Photo 2), which is 14.30 m higher than
the earlier proposed level of El 579 m, which in fact
avoided excavation of more than 0.1 million cubic meter
in hard rocks. Stripping of the valley abutments, at the
dam site and spillway has involved removal of 15–30
m of weathered and destressed rocks, in general. The
slopes of the core abutments have been kept at less
than 500, to avoid failures arising adverse orientation of
joints. In order to avoid critical failure zone resulting from
Fig. 9 : Geological Section along Dam Axis of Tehri Dam
the intersection of L5 and D2 shear, a wide sub vertical
core instead of a vertical core was preferred, during the
construction stage.
The chute spillway structure on the right bank has been
founded on fresh rock after removal of enormous quantity
of rock and overburden mass down to a depth of more
than 140 m (Photo 5 and Photo 6). The location of chute
spillway structure on the right bank became obligatory
since underground powerhouse was preferred on the left
abutment. The stability of the spillway slopes have been
assessed and compared to the present valley slopes, for
a pragmatic design.
Due to lack of adequate open space at the dam site
and in a bid to avoid huge excavation which would have
otherwise endangered the stability of dip slopes, an
underground powerhouse to accommodate the proposed
2000 MW capacity structure was favored on the left bank.
The orientation of the cavities have been kept in the most
competent rocks (grade I & II), nearly normal to the rock
strike, in structurally most favored condition.
Excavation for powerhouse caverns under a rock cover
of about 370 m, in essentially un-weathered jointed PQM
and PQT rocks (density 2.65 to 2.77 and UCS 40 to 93
MPa in dry state and 30 – 46 MPa in wet state) have not
shown any major instability problem during excavations,
where the principal vertical stress at the depth of
excavations is 10 MPa and the horizontal
3 stress parallel to
the cavern axis is 0.5 times the vertical stress (Bahuguna
Harish, Khanduri H.C., Dangwal D.P., Gajbhiye P. K. and
Chakraborty I. C. 2008). While minor failures along the
weak zones in Machine hall cavern (197 m x 24 m x 63
m) aligned normal to the rock strike, has an influence of
wide span, the failure in the Penstock Assembly Chamber
(PAC) (117.10 m x 13 m x 19.30 m) aligned sub-parallel
to rock strike, is only due to the unfavorable orientation
of the cavity with respect to rock trend and its disposition
roughly along the axial zone of a tight fold. In general, it
is assessed that rock stresses at the depth of excavations

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Geotechnical Suitability of Tehri Dam Site, Uttarakhand, India
are low enough to cause any significant failure and are
invariably less than one fifth of the uni-axial compressive
strength of rocks. Problems like slabbing and rock burst
have not been reported. Squeezing conditions, with very
short stand up time in the excavations of the portal end
of TRT, is only due to locally prevalent shallow rock cover
and weathered rock conditions.
Comparison with other High dams
Dams have been built world over in much more adverse
geological conditions compared to Tehri as:
1. Rogun, the highest (325 m) dam in the world, an earth
and rock fill dam, has two prominent faults below its
foundation, besides having a 20 m thick salt layer
below ground water level.
2. The 264 m high Chicoasen dam in Mexico, located
in a limestone carved valley, has two regional faults,
Muniz and Chicoasen faults in its close vicinity.
3. The depth of grout curtain at Tehri dam is down to
60 m whereas in Chicoasen it is 90 m and in case
of Nurek dam it is 130 m. It thus speaks of the
soundness and impermeable nature of the foundation
rocks which were available at Tehri dam site at much
shallower depth in contrast to the other comparable
projects.
4. The site of 270 m high Watana dam (earth and rock
fill) in North America, consists of locally prominent
fault zones and a buried channel issuing from its
reservoir area.
5. Steeply dipping (towards downstream) shear zones
and clay stone bands caused major foundation
problem, in 226 m high concrete gravity dam at
Bhakra, in India.
6. Satlitta thrust dipping 200 – 300 upstream, located 2.7
km downstream of 133 m high earth-cum-gravel shell
dam at Pong, across Beas river, in India, has brought
sub-recent gravel deposits over Upper Siwalik
Formations, suggesting Neotectonic movements.
7. The proposed 192 m high concrete dam, across
Yamuna river at Lakhwar, in India, has to be founded
on a heterogeneous rock medium.
It is a fact that many high earth and rock fill dam built in
high seismic areas and comparable to Tehri dam, have
withstood large earthquakes without suffering damage
of any consequence. Absence of any active dislocation
at the Tehri dam site, rules out the possibility of a rupture
in the dam foundation during local earthquakes (Nawani
and Sanwal, 1995).
Unique Features of the Site
Contrary to growing criticism against big dams in Himalaya
and the controversy on seismic risk to Tehri dam, there
7
are certain unique features which strongly advocate the
suitability of the site. These are :
1. The curved gorge section at the dam site has the
advantage of offering added resistance to horizontal
forces, likely to act on the dam body.
2. The entire working site and appurtenant structures
are located within a very compact area, within the
same rock type (phyllitic quartzite).
3. Most of the important structures have been placed
in most competent rocks available i.e. grade-I (PQM
& PQT).
4. The entire dam core has been founded on un-
weathered sound rock (Vp = 4.5 – 5.6 km/sec)
available at a very shallow depth i.e. 10 m – 12 m
(Nawani P. C. and Sanwal R. 2000).
5. The foundation for chute spillway is laid entirely on
the bed rock, though involving huge excavation.
6. The orientation of the main underground cavities
of the powerhouse complex has been kept nearly
normal to the strike of the rocks, in structurally most
favored condition (Shukla S.K. et.al. 2008).
7. Most vulnerable section, formed due to intersection of
‘D’ and ‘L’ shears, have been either avoided (D3 shear
in coffer dam) or structures designed accordingly.
8. The entire requirement for the dam fill was met
locally.
9. Possibility of leakage from the dam reservoir is
unlikely due to absence of any topographic saddle
or any adjacent lower valley into which reservoir can
leak.
10. On account of the location of the reservoir in the
Himalayan convergence zone, in a thrust environment,
chances of reservoir induced seismicity (RIS), is
remote.
Post Construction Evaluation of
Performance
Tehri dam project was commissioned on 30th July 2006
and since then the performance of the main dam and
appurtenant structures has been evaluated by different
means inter-alia, drilling of efficacy test drill holes in the
middle of the two rows of grout curtain, monitoring the
behaviour of the seepage through different drainage
galleries and downstream of the dam body, by visual
observations and also with the help of instruments,
deformations, inclination, settlement in the core and other
zones are being monitored with the help of a network
of instruments. The details of the different instruments
installed in dam (Fig. 10), chute spillway and shaft
spillways are given in Table 1.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
 8 ISRM (India) Journal

Table 1 : Monitoring instruments in Tehri Dam

and Spillways

S l . Instrument Dam Spillways

No.
1. Hydraulic piezometers 48
16
2. Vibrating wise piezometers 156
3. Vibrating wise 12
thermometers
4. Vibrating wise earth 96 64
pressure cells
5. Inclinometers 13 6
6. Horizontal movement 10
gauge Fig. 10 : Section along Dam Axis of Tehri Dam indicating
7. Full profile gauge 11 Location of the Instruments

8. Soil extensometer 04 The analysis of the records of the instruments installed

9. Seepage measuring 07 03 at different sites, vis-à-vis filling and draw down in
devices the reservoir, for a period between 2006 and 2010 is
10. Temperature gauge 110 summarized below.
11. Linear joint meter 35 (i) Dam
12. Three axis joint meter 34 The total seepage, from different drainage galleries is
of the order of 20 – 22 lit/ sec, which is far less than
13. Cable dynamometer 48
Post Construction Evaluation of Performance
1 cusec value and considering the volume of water
14. Reinforcement load gauge 132 corresponding to column of 215 m, in the reservoir, it
15. Multi point borehole 17 is negligible. It shows no significant changes with the
extensometer 3
rise in reservoir waters. Records of the piezometers
Total 357 465 corroborate the same. It thus speaks of the efficacy of
the grout curtain provided below the dam foundation.
The deformation and settlement records are also in
In the power house complex, instruments like multiple
line with the design criteria. The dam body is stable
bore hole extensometer (MPBX) and load cells were
and all zones of the dam, as such, are functioning
installed in the machine hall (at ch 45 m, 99 m and 155
well.
m) transformer hall and in the bus ducts no. 3 and 4.
(ii) Spillway Structures
The extensometers were installed from the drainage
galleries of the powerhouse and wall convergence of No instrument has shown abnormal values in any of
different orders was recorded in them. the structures which indicate the stability and efficient
_________________________________
_________________________________

Photo-1: Photo-2: View ofCore

Core Trench of Tehri dam
ViewView of ofBhagirathi gorge before diversion Photo-2: View
Photo 1 : View Bhagirathi gorge before diversion Photo 2 : of
View Trench
of Core Trenchof Tehri
of Tehri dam
dam
Photo-1: of Bhagirathi gorge before diversion

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Geotechnical Suitability of TehriPhoto-2:
Site, View of Core Trench of Tehri dam dam 9
Photo-1: ViewView
Photo-1: of Bhagirathi gorge
of Bhagirathi before
gorge diversion DamPhoto-2:
diversion
before View
Uttarakhand, of Core
India Trench of Tehri
Photo-1: View of Bhagirathi gorge before diversion Photo-2: View of Core Trench of Tehri
Photo-1: View of Bhagirathi gorge before diversion Photo-2: View of Core Trench of Tehri dam

Photo-4: View of Tehri dam after completion

Photo-3: Layers
Photo
Photo-3:
of different
3 : Layers
Layers
fillfillmaterials
of different
of different materials
fill
materials Photo-4:
Photo-4:
Photo 4 Photo-4:
View
View ofofTehri
: View Tehri View
dam
dam
of Tehri of Tehri
damafter
after
after dam after compl
completion
completion
completion
Photo-3: Layers
Photo-3: ofofdifferent
Layers differentfillfillmaterials
materials

Photo-5: Photo-6: Chute

Photo-6: spillway
Photo-6:
Chute during
Chute
spillway construction
spillway
during during construc
construction
Photo 5View
Photo-5:
Photo-5: View
: View ofChute
of ofChute
View of spillway
Chute
spillwayChute
spillway
area beforearea before
spillway
area area
before
excavation before
Photo 6 : Chute spillway during construction
excavation
excavation
excavation Photo-6: Chute spillway during construction
Photo-5: View of Chute spillway area before
functioning of the structures. The cut slopes above
excavation rock formations of more or less uniform nature, amply
the chute and stilling basin also show stabilizing demonstrate the geotechnical suitability of the site at
trends. Tehri, where a high storage dam across river Bhagirathi
(iii) Powerhouse Cavern has been constructed.

Convergence in the common wall between machine hall No significant geotechnical problems or surprises have
and transformer hall measured by multiple point bore hole come to the fore, during and after the construction of
extensometer (MPBEX) has indicated that convergence the first phase of the project, which involve 12 Mm of
3

is stabilised after achieving a maximum of 21.60 mm, 4 excavation and about 30 km of tunneling works. Absence
of any 4
thus suggesting stable conditions of the cavern. 4 major slope and cavern failure during excavations,
availability of sound rock foundation conditions at most
Conclusions 4 appurtenant sites, a near confirmation of the predicted
The narrow ‘S’ shaped gorge at the end of an extraordinarily geological conditions also substantiate the geological
wide valley, dimensionally large river terraces housing suitability of the project site, during its construction stage.
enormous quantity of river borne material suitable for Judging from the case histories, it is opined that Tehri dam
construction, absence of a major tectonic plane at the site is compatible and better placed than most of the similar
dam site, moderate to steeply downstream dipping dam sites in the world.

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

10 ISRM (India) Journal
The performance of the main dam, chute spillway, four
shaft spillways, machine hall cavern, transformer hall
cavern and that of PAC and BVC, has been actually tested
with the real time monitoring system and also by day to
day visual observations. The measurements confirm that
all the components of the project are functioning without
any problem. This further attests to the choice of this site
for this behemoth i.e. Tehri dam.
References
1. Bahuguna Harish, Khanduri H.C., Dangwal D.
P., Gajbhiye P.K. and Chakraborty I. C. (2008)
Geotechnical Investigations in the Planning
of Powerhouse Complex of Tehri Dam Project
(Stage-I) India, WTA-ITA, World Tunnel Congress
on ‘Underground facilities for better environment and
safety – India’.
2. Balasubrahmanyam. S. and Jatana B.L. (2008) –
Considerations in the designs and construction of
fill dams in Earthquake zones, Jour. of Engineering
Geology XXXV nos. 1- 4.
3. Nawani P.C., Sanwal R. and Khanduri H.C. (1991),
On disproval of river bed dislocation at Tehri dam site,
in light of recent explorations, Jour. Of Engineering
Geology XX: 1 – 4.
4. Nawani P.C. and Sanwal R. (1995) – Construction
Stage Geological Investigations of Tehri Dam Project,
GSI. Rec. Vol. 128(8).
5. Nawani P.C. and Sanwal R. (1996) Geotechnical
assessment of Tehri dam foundation, Proc, Symp.
N. W. Himalaya and Foredeep, Geol. Surv. Ind. Spl.
Pub. 21 (2).
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
6. Nawani P.C. and Sanwal R. (1996) Geotechnical input
for Seismotectonic evaluation of the area around Tehri
dam site, - A review Proc, Symp. N. W. Himalaya and
Foredeep, Geol. Surv. Ind. Spl. Pub. 21 (2).
7. Nawani P.C. and Sanwal R. (2000) A Comprehensive
Geotechnical report on Tehri dam project, Garhwal
Himalaya, India, GSI, (Unpubl) report.
8. Nawani P.C., Sanwal Rajendra, Khanduri H.C.,
Bahuguna Harish and Dangwal D.P. (2006) Tehri
Dam Project – A geotechnical appraisal , GSI Bull.,
B – 62, Govt. of India Pub.
9. Nawani P.C., Khanduri H.C. and Bahuguna Harish
(2007) Geotechnical Aspects of Spillway Structures
of Tehri Dam, Water and Energy International, Sp.
Issue on Tehri Dam, CBIP.
10. Nawani P.C., Khanduri H.C. and Bahuguna Harish
(2007) Geotechnical Aspects of The Dam Foundation
Water and Energy International, Sp. Issue on Tehri
Dam, CBIP.
11. Khanduri H.C., Bahuguna Harish and Nawani P.C.,
(2007) Rockmass Characteristics of Underground
Caverns, Water and Energy International, Sp. Issue
on Tehri Dam, CBIP.
12. Shukla S.K., Prashad, G.M., Vishnoi R.K. and Rautela
T.S. (2008) – Managing geotechnical problems during
underground construction of Tehri H.P.P., World
Tunnel Congress on ‘Underground facilities for better
environment and safety – India’
 Role of Probabilistic Interpretation in Recommendations
of Rock Mass Parameters
G.V. Ramana, Shashank Pathak and Hari Dev
Central Soil and Materials Research Station, India

ABSTRACT
Shear strength and deformation characteristics of rock mass play an important role in stability analysis of
structures founded or constructed in rock mass. These design parameters are determined by conducting
direct shear and deformability tests in exploratory drifts or in open trenches. CSMRS is involved in in-situ
rock mechanics investigations of important hydropower projects of India and its neighbouring countries. It
has been seen through several field tests that there is considerable variability in in-situ design parameters
of rock-mass. Therefore, due to various limitations and errors associated with these tests, it may not be
appropriate to assign or recommend a single value of design parameters. However, BIS codes (IS 7317
and IS 7746) used by practicing engineers involved in interpretation of field data of uniaxial jacking test
and in-situ shear test are silent on this issue. In present study, a probabilistic framework is summarized and
illustrated to interpret in-situ shear and deformability test data collected from various hydroelectric projects
in Himalayan region. Probabilistic interpretation of shear test data leads to a new type of partial factor
of safety (PFOS) which is complimentary to conventional PFOS of IS: 6512 to be used in determination
of factor of safety against sliding failure and it is recommended that a better preliminary design must
satisfy conventional as well as proposed factor of safety against sliding. On the other hand, probabilistic
interpretation of in-situ plate load test data indicates that the total deformation occurred during the test is
log-normally distributed. Using this finding, values of modulus of deformation of rock mass are obtained
with desired level of confidence and an upper and lower bound on modulus values is also evaluated and
it is recommended to use these values for risk analysis by conducting parametric studies in numerical
modelling. Thus, present study advocates the probabilistic treatment of in-situ test data to improve the
quality of judgment taken by designers while making a choice of in-situ design parameters.

1. INTRODUCTION provide a better idea of rock-mass deformability and

Design and analysis of structures founded on rock
mass requires reliable estimate of shear strength
and deformation characteristics of foundation strata.
Determination of these input parameters includes
inherent variability (joints, fractures, clay filling, geological
variation, water content, etc.), measurement uncertainties
(human errors, instrument errors) and estimating
model uncertainties (Mohr-coulomb strength criterion,
Boussinesq’s equation). Therefore, instead of single
value of a design parameter, a cluster of values is
obtained. If it is assumed that systematic errors caused
by measurement uncertainties are almost negligible,
these design parameters are expected to be randomly
distributed around a mean value of the parameters.
Hence, instead of assigning a single value of these
design parameters, it is proposed to assign a distribution
with a mean value and a coefficient of variation. Such
that, mean value represents the basic design value
and coefficient of variation represents the effects of all
uncertainties. These uncertainties cannot be accounted
by using any theoretical treatment and therefore, in-situ
testing data, though proper probabilistic analysis, may
shear strength parameters. Further, the designs based
on these parameters must be assessed for associated
risk with uncertainty in these parameters and probability
of failure must be evaluated.
Laboratory tests conducted on intact rock samples may
not be true representative of actual field conditions. In-situ
tests are important as shear strength properties (friction
angle and cohesion) and deformability characteristics
(modulus of deformation) of rock mass depend upon the
properties of geological discontinuities such as frequency,
orientation, roughness, and persistency of joints. In-situ
shear strength parameters are determined by direct shear
tests on concrete over rock and rock over rock interfaces.
For determination of in-situ modulus of deformation of
rock mass, plate load tests (PLT) are generally carried
out either in exploratory drifts or in open trenches near
foundation level[1,2].
One of the direct application of shear strength
parameters is in determination of factor of safety (FOS)
against sliding failure i.e. ratio of resisting force to
driving force. Horizontal hydrostatic or hydrodynamic
force due reservoir or earthquake drives the sliding

11 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

12 ISRM (India) Journal
instability of dam-foundation system, whereas
frictional or shearing resistance at the interface of
the dam body and parent rock acts as resistive force.
Sliding resistance comprises cohesion (inherent in the
materials and at their contact) and the angle of internal
friction of material at the surface of sliding. In some
cases, sliding is resisted by friction alone especially
if rock is stratified and horizontally bedded, e.g. weak
phyllites. To quantify cohesion and friction-angle or
other equivalent shear strength parameters a suitable
strength criterion is used. A detailed summary of those
criteria can be found in literature[3-9]. Mohr–Coulomb
criterion is used most due to its simplicity. This criterion
based on the assumption that failure depends only
on maximum and minimum principle stresses and
the shape of the failure envelope can be linear or
nonlinear[10], whereas Coulomb’s criterion is based on
a linear failure envelope. The disadvantage of these
criteria is that the effect of intermediate principal
stress is not taken into account. Furthermore, Mohr’s
failure envelope for rock-mass is linear at low stress
level and non-linear at higher stress level. However,
Mohr-Coulomb criterion assumes it to be linear at all
stress levels. Mohr-Coulomb criterion relates peak
shear stress (τf) to applied normal stress (σn) as given
in Eq. 1.
tf = c + σn tan f ...(1)
where, c is cohesion and φ is friction-angle. Insufficient
shear strength is one of the important cause of failure of
concrete dams[11] and therefore, shear strength used in
stability analysis must be reliable. Safety evaluation of
design includes sliding stability analysis along concrete
over rock and rock over rock interfaces.
Mohr-Coulomb model is fitted on the peak shear stress
versus corresponding normal stress data to determine
cohesion and friction-angle. Partial factors of safety
(PFOS) are applied on the two parameters to account for
uncertainties, random errors and limitations associated
with in-situ testing. Subsequently, smaller FOS (less than
one) indicates unsafe design and appropriate revision of
design is made.
Factor of safety approach is useful when quality and
quantity of the information is poor[12]. Due to inherent
limitation, FOS approach may not be enough for
rigorous safety assessment. Now-a-days, modern
risk analysis tools are helpful in making risk-informed
decisions. Benefits from the risk analysis approach are
recognized even when limited data is available. Despite
several limitations, factor of safety approach is useful
in preliminary design calculations. Existing dams have
been designed using FOS concept. In dam engineering
practice, it is common to calculate FOS for a certain failure
mode to check the safety.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
1.1 IN-SITU TEST DATA
1.1.1 In-situ Shear Test
The data on in-situ shear tests at (rock to rock) R/R and
(concrete to rock) C/R interfaces is collected from the
tests conducted in exploratory drifts on both the banks
at dam axis of one of the proposed hydroelectric projects
in the Himalayas. Geology of the project area includes
fine-grained and dark-grey quartzitic phyllites with
multiple joint-sets. Tests were conducted as per standard
procedures[13-14]. The data is collected in the form of shear
stress versus shear displacement plots at various normal
stress levels.
Shear strength parameters are determined by fitting Eq.
1 on scatter of peak shear stress versus corresponding
normal stress. Regression parameters are determined for
the best fit line and are shown in Table 1 for both interfaces
(R/R and C/R) in right bank drift (‘R’), left bank drift (‘L’) and
for both bank tests combined together (‘R+L’). The data
shown in Table 1 indicate that frictional resistance is more
for R/R interface as compared to C/R interface, whereas,
cohesion in C/R interface is more than R/R interface.
Rock-mass at left bank shows higher cohesion at both
the interfaces as compared to right bank. Rock over rock
interface shows higher frictional resistance at right bank
as compared to left bank. However, C/R interface results
do not show significant variation in frictional resistance
from left bank to right bank. Variations in values from
left to right bank are possibly due to inherent geological
variation, differences in quality of concrete blocks, random
testing errors, variation in joint patterns and rock-mass
properties from one bank to other. Combined values are
assumed to account for overall rock-mass present on
the project site.
Table 1 : Peak shear strength parameters[15-16]
Drift c (MPa) φ (degree)
R/R C/R R/R C/R
R 0.065 0.162 55.50 33.30
L 0.183 0.213 39.10 34.80
R+L 0.073 0.157 50.70 36.10
1.1.2 Plate Load Test
In-situ plate load test data is presented as list of applied
stresses versus corresponding recorded average
deformations in five loading and unloading cycles. Peak
stresses attained in the five loading cycles were from 1
MPa to 5 MPa with an increment of 1 MPa after each
cycle. The deformation modulus takes into account the
complete deformation occurred in the rock mass during
the loading cycle. This contains mainly two components:
elastic and plastic deformations. Table 2 shows total
deformation of six tests carried out in Granites and sixteen
 Role of Probabilistic Interpretation in Recommendations of Rock Mass Parameters 13

tests in Phyllite rock masses as recorded from plate load on cohesion and friction-angle will give conservative
tests at the project sites. results and hence desired. Shear strength parameters
are determined using linear regression approach. Using
Table 2 : Total deformation in plate load tests of
standard errors of best fit linear (Mohr-Coulomb) model,
granite and phyllite rock mass[17,18]
confidence intervals are also determined for the two
Stress 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 parameters. Many statistical software packages provide
MPa the confidence intervals of regression parameters. In
PLT Total Deformation (cm) of Phyllite present work, Data Analysis tool pack in Microsoft-Excel
is utilized to generate confidence intervals of cohesion
1 0.147 0.084 0.072 0.063 0.055 and friction-angle.
2 0.154 0.127 0.118 0.117 0.114
1.2.1.1 Partial Factor of Safety
3 0.075 0.068 0.068 0.081 0.090
IS code 6512[19] defines PFOS for cohesion and friction-
4 0.048 0.127 0.139 0.114 0.117
angle. These PFOS account for uncertainties in physical
5 0.106 0.057 0.040 0.063 0.054 behaviour of dam-foundation system under prevalent
6 0.126 0.130 0.114 0.138 0.128 environmental conditions. For example, under normal
COV 0.380 0.335 0.409 0.327 0.347 operating conditions (i.e. full reservoir, dry weather and
normal uplift) partial factor of safety for friction-angle
PLT Total Deformation (cm) of Granite is given as 1.5, irrespective of C/R or R/R interface,
whereas, partial factor of safety for cohesion is given as
Stress 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 3.6 at C/R interface and 4.0 at R/R interface assuming
MPa that foundations are thoroughly investigated.
1 0.061 0.244 0.240 0.262 0.293
Based on probabilistic analysis of linear regression
2 0.046 0.254 0.266 0.209 0.245 method to determine cohesion and friction-angle, a new
3 0.079 0.209 0.253 0.252 0.283 type of PFOS has been defined as ratio of mean value
4 0.087 0.288 0.194 0.200 0.248 of the strength parameter to corresponding lower bound
estimate at a particular confidence level[20]. Proposed
5 0.034 0.207 0.254 0.281 0.305 definition accounts specifically for linear failure envelope
6 0.021 0.092 0.104 0.117 0.126 assumption of Mohr-Coulomb criterion. Proposed PFOS
7 0.046 0.155 0.138 0.173 0.163 is dependent on collected test data and would vary from
site to site. Further, it also depends upon the confidence
8 0.047 0.137 0.174 0.230 0.181
level. If data fits exactly to Eq. 1 then PFOS would be
9 0.112 0.063 0.068 0.081 0.087 unity at all confidence levels. More the data will deviate
10 0.380 0.233 0.319 0.160 0.167 from linear model, higher would be PFOS and it would
11 0.404 0.267 0.217 0.165 0.169 increase with increasing confidence level. Partial factor
of safety (PFOS) associated with a particular strength
12 0.717 0.464 0.438 0.387 0.366
parameter can be written as Eq. 2.
13 0.574 0.550 0.478 0.457 0.406
Mean Value
14 0.609 0.362 0.319 0.307 0.380 PFOS = ...(2)
Lower Bound
15 0.568 0.381 0.293 0.387 0.373
16 0.617 0.382 0.394 0.394 0.356 where, ‘Mean Value’ of the parameter is determined using
COV 0.963 0.496 0.440 0.428 0.390 linear regression analysis.

1.2 Probabilistic Interpretation 1.2.1.2 Evaluation and Discussion on PFOS

1.2.1 Shear Test
Several uncertainties and errors are associated with
in-situ method of determination of shear strength
parameters. An appropriate interpretation of the test data
could be found if confidence intervals are also found for
these parameters. Confidence intervals can be used to
express the degree of uncertainty associated with the
parameter. The upper limit of the interval is defined as
upper bound and lower limit is lower bound. Lower bound
Based on above discussion, PFOS are evaluated for
cohesion (FC) and friction-angle (FΦ) at 10%, 20%, 30%,
40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, and 90% confidence levels
(CL) at left bank (L), right bank (R), and combined left
and right bank (L+R) for R/R and C/R interfaces. These
values of PFOS are shown in Tables 3 and 4. If standard
errors are large enough then in such cases negative
values of lower bound may be obtained. It is worth noting
that cohesion and friction-angle are positive quantities
and hence, negative values of lower bound are omitted.

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

14 ISRM (India) Journal

Treatment of such cases is beyond the scope of present For results of both banks combined, FC and FΦ becomes
study. In such cases PFOS is not evaluated and is shown 6.5 and 1.3 times, respectively, when CL is increased
as ‘--’. Further, it indicates lesser reliability of determination from 10% to 70%. Thus, it is found that cohesion is
of the strength parameter in such cases. less precisely determined in present case as compared
to friction angle irrespective of location of testing and
Table 3 : PFOS for cohesion and friction-angle
interface. Therefore, higher PFOS are also justified for
at R/R interface (Rock Type)
cohesion as compared to friction angle.
Drift L R L+R 1.2.1.3 Factor of Safety against Sliding: Evaluation
CL FC FΦ FC FΦ FC FΦ and Discussion
10% 1.13 1.04 1.84 1.01 1.86 1.03 IS 6512[19] provides a combined formula to evaluate factor
20% 1.39 1.08 -- 1.03 -- 1.05 of safety against sliding (Eq. 3).
30% 1.77 1.14 -- 1.05 -- 1.09 (w – U) tan f CA
+
40% 2.55 1.20 -- 1.07 -- 1.13 FΦ F

50% 5.04 1.30 -- 1.09 -- 1.18 F= ...(3)
P
60% -- 1.42 -- 1.12 -- 1.24
70% -- 1.65 -- 1.17 -- 1.34 where, F = factor of safety against sliding, w = total
80% -- 2.22 -- 1.25 -- 1.52 weight of the dam, u = total uplift force, A = area under
consideration for cohesion and P = total horizontal force.
90% -- -- -- 1.49 -- 2.02 Other symbols have already been defined in above
Table 4 : PFOS for cohesion and friction-angle text.
at C/R interface To evaluate factor of safety against sliding, consider an
Drift L R L+R example of concrete gravity dam with a typical base width
of 70 m, dam height of 100 m, top width of 15 m and
CL FC FΦ FC FΦ FC FΦ concrete density of 25 kN/m3. All computations are carried
10% 1.08 1.03 1.22 1.07 1.13 1.03 out per unit length of the dam. Total uplift force has been
20% 1.17 1.06 1.62 1.17 1.28 1.06 ignored in the present analysis. Total horizontal force has
been taken only due to horizontal water pressure from
30% 1.29 1.10 2.47 1.29 1.48 1.10 reservoir and it is equal to 50,000 kN per unit length.
40% 1.45 1.14 5.73 1.46 1.77 1.14
Factors of safety for sliding are evaluated using Eq. 3
50% 1.68 1.19 -- 1.73 2.26 1.19 as given in Tables 5 and 6 for R/R interface and at C/R
60% 2.07 1.27 -- 2.27 3.29 1.26 interface respectively. Factor of safety is determined using
70% 2.92 1.38 -- 3.83 7.34 1.35 conventional PFOS[19] as well as using proposed PFOS
at various confidence levels and are represented as FIS
80% 7.34 1.59 -- -- -- 1.50
and FP, respectively.
90% -- 2.26 -- -- -- 1.86
Table 5 : FOS for sliding at R/R interface
Higher value of PFOS indicates large standard errors
in shear strength parameter. Partial FOS increases with Drift L R L+R
increasing CL. Higher CL provides a wider possibility CL FIS FP FIS FP FIS FP
of variation of parameter and hence higher PFOS is
observed at higher CL. 10% 3.06 1.84 2.58
Rate of increase in PFOS with CL will be higher for 20% 2.90 1.70 2.50
less precise parameter. For example, FC becomes 4.5 30% 2.76 1.65 2.39
times when CL is increased from 10% to 50% (left bank, 40% 2.62 1.62 2.30
R/R interface). On the other hand, FΦ becomes 1.25
times, 1.08 times, 1.15 times at left bank, right bank and 50% 2.09 2.40 1.21 1.60 1.75 2.20
combined bank, respectively, when CL is increased from 60% 2.17 1.54 2.08
10% to 50% CL at R/R interface. When CL is increased 70% 1.88 1.48 1.93
from 10% to 80% (left bank, C/R interface), FC and FΦ
becomes 6.8 and 1.5 times, respectively. Further, FC and 80% 1.39 1.38 1.70
FΦ becomes 4.7 and 1.36 times, respectively, when CL is 90% -- 1.16 1.29
increased from 10% to 40% (right bank, C/R interface).

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Role of Probabilistic Interpretation in Recommendations of Rock Mass Parameters 15

Table 6 : FOS for sliding at C/R interface determined design parameters. Furthermore, right bank
shows consistently lesser factors of safety for R/R and C/R
Drift L R L+R interfaces as compared to left bank. This indicates that left
CL FIS FP FIS FP FIS FP bank is more vulnerable to sliding failure as compared to
right bank. FP accounts for the uncertainty associated with
10% 1.71 1.48 1.70 Mohr-Coulomb strength criterion, whereas, FIS accounts
20% 1.65 1.30 1.60 for other environmental and physical uncertainties
30% 1.58 1.18 1.57 associated with sliding phenomenon. Therefore, a better
preliminary design must satisfy both types of factors of
40% 1.50 1.00 1.49
safety.The calculation presented in Tables 5 and 6 has
50% 1.07 1.41 0.99 0.80 1.10 1.40 also been shown in Figs. 1 (a) and (b).
60% 1.31 0.60 1.30 1.2.2 Plate Load Tests
70% 1.17 0.40 1.18
Tables 1 and 2 clearly show that the deformations at the
80% 0.97 -- 1.03 different testing locations are random in nature as the
90% 0.65 -- 0.83 behavior of discontinuities is expected to be spatially
In cases, where, FC is not available (see Tables 3 and random. This randomness of the discontinuities and other
4), term involving cohesion has been ignored in Eq. 2. physical properties of rock mass may better be studied
Ignoring cohesion will be a conservative assumption. As using the statistical description of recorded deformation
discussed by Ramana et al.[21], cohesion of Phyllite rock data. Furthermore, deformation of rock mass is never
mass is insignificant. Dispersion of data associated with expected to be negative quantity which poses a necessary
determination of cohesion values also strengthen the condition on the distribution of the rock mass deformation.
validity of this assumption. A hypothesis is made that rock mass deformation during
plate load test follows log-normal distribution and this
If F<1, a revised design may be required. FIS is less than hypothesis is tested using the three well-known goodness
unity only for C/R interface at right bank. However, more of fit tests Lilliefors test, Jarque-Bera test, and chi-squared
rigorous analysis (proposed analysis) has rejected the test at 5% level of significance(a) and found to be true[22].
design (i.e. FP < 1) for C/R interface at left bank (for CL
> 80%), at right bank (for CL > 40%) and for combined 1.2.2.1 Probability Distribution Function
analysis (for CL > 90%). Now, it is upto the judgment Fig.1.
The plate loadVariation
deformationofdata
FOSisagainst sliding
fitted with with confid
standard
of design engineer whether he/she wishes to make the log-normal distribution equation (Eq. 4, ) and
[23]
theinterface
C/R
design safe at all confidence levels or upto a certain level parameters of the distribution (m,s) are determined and
of confidence only. are shown in Table 7.
FP is reducing with increasing confidence level because
with increasing level of confidence, an uncertainty  (ln x   )2
1
associated with shear strength parameter is increasing. f x  x,  ,    e 2 2 ...(4)(4)
This observation is supported by the logic that any design x 2
will always show lesser factor of safety for less reliably

(a) (b)
(a)against sliding with confidence levels at (a) R/R interface
Fig. 1 : Variation of FOS (b)and (b) C/R interface.

Fig.1. Variation of FOS against sliding with confidence levels at (a) R/R interface
Volume 7  No. 1 and (b)
January 2018
C/R interface.
16 ISRM (India) Journal

Where, m and s represent the mean and standard
deviation of the corresponding logarithmic values of the
deformation. ‘x’ represents the deformation. It is worth
mentioning that the parameter values as given in Table
3 are expected to be low in accuracy due to small data
sets. However, the present study is expected to provide
a tentative order of magnitude of distribution parameters.
This study may be verified for a larger data set and then
a better estimate of the distribution parameters may be
made.
Figures 2 and 3 shows the actual (empirical) and estimated
cumulative distribution plots for each of the peak load
deformation case. Estimated cumulative distribution is
plotted based upon the parameters of Table 2. A good
matching between the two can clearly be seen in the plots.
It may be noted that exp (m) and exp (s) will be equal to
the geometric mean and geometric standard deviation
of deformation, respectively. For lognormal distributions,
geometric mean represents the median value (50%
confidence level value). Distribution parameters give an
idea of median deformation for the two rock types. For
an applied peak stress of 5.0 MPa, granite rock mass
shows median deformation of exp (-2.44) i.e. 0.87 mm
while phyllite rock mass shows median deformation of
2.37 mm which is 2.7 times higher than the granite rock
mass deformation.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e)
Fig. 2 Fig.
: Empirical and estimated
2 Empirical cumulativecumulative
and estimated distribution of deformation of
distribution in (a) 1st cycle, (b)in
deformation 2nd(a) 1st cycle,
Cycle, (c) 3rd Cycle,
(b)
nd (d)
rd 4 th
Cycle, and th(e) 5 th
Cycle for Granite
th rock mass
2 Cycle, (c) 3 Cycle, (d) 4 Cycle, and (e) 5 Cycle for Granite rock mass

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Role of Probabilistic Interpretation in Recommendations of Rock Mass Parameters 17

(a) (b)

(d)
(c)

(e)
Fig. 3 : Empirical and estimated cumulative distribution of deformation in (a) 1st cycle, (b) 2nd Cycle, (c) 3rd Cycle,
 1 
mean  exp    2 (d) 4 Cycle, and (e) 5 Cycle for Phyllite rock mass
th th
 
 2  (5)
Table 7 : Distribution parameters of the deformation A better matching can be seen for Fig. 3 due to availability
in the five stress cycles of higher no. of data points. It is interesting to note that
in case of Phyllite rock mass, the first stress cycle which
Peak Distribution
Pm (1   2 ) Distribution corresponds to peak stress of 1 MPa, shows significantly
E
stress d  parameters parameters
 d A rock higher dispersion in its values as compared to other stress
(MPa) (Granite (Phyllite rock cycles. It is due to closure of joints(6)
and cracks in the initial
mass) stress cycle. Higher standard deviation of the first cycle
mass)
m s m s indicates more variation in discontinuities. Therefore,
granite rock mass which has smaller standard deviation
1.0 -2.29 0.45 -1.92 1.26 in the first cycle can be assumed to be more uniform in
2.0 -2.37 0.36 -1.45 0.58 its discontinuity distribution throughout the rock mass,
3.0 -2.47 0.46 -1.46 0.52 on the other hand, phyllite rock mass is expected to vary
significantly from point to point. Generally, first cycle is
4.0 -2.39 0.34 -1.47 0.47
not considered for the design purpose and therefore first
5.0 -2.44 0.39 -1.44 0.45 cycle has been omitted in calculations further.

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 (c)
(c)

18 ISRM (India) Journal

1.2.2.2 Probabilistic Estimates of Deformation mass, at an applied stress of 5 MPa, deformation mean
Modulus deformation modulus is 2.6 GPa with a variation of 1.48
GPa to 5.30 GPa within band of 5%-95% confidence level
Further, based on the estimated distribution parameters
on deformation values. Similarly, for phyllite rock mass
95%, mean, and 5% confidence level values of the total
mean deformation modulus is 0.94 GPa with a variation
deformation are evaluated and given in Tables 4 and 5
of 0.49 GPa to 2.17 GPa (5%-95% band) at an applied
for granite and phyllite rock masses, respectively. It may
stress of 5 MPa.
be noted that the mean of the log-normally distributed
data with parameters m and s can be estimated using Table 9 : Summary of values of modulus
(e)
(e)
Eq. 5. of deformation[16,17]
 11 22  Peak Modulus of Modulus of
mean exp   2 
mean  exp   applied Deformation, Ed Deformation, Ed
 2  ...(5) (5)
Stress (GPa) (Granite) (5) (Phyllite)
(GPa)
Deformation modulus values (Ed) are also computed (MPa) Min Avg. Max Min Avg. Max
corresponding to the deformation values (dd) using Eq. 6
and are shown in Table 8. 2.0 0.752 1.105 1.712 0.178 0.501 1.568
Pm((11 ))
2
Pm 2 3.0 1.061 1.914 3.675 0.308 0.731 2.162
E
Edd  4.0 1.423 2.245 3.124 0.429 0.952 2.420
d AA
d ...(6) 5.0 1.922 2.990 4.559 0.603(6)
(6)1.145 2.833
Where, P is the applied normal load, ν is Poisson’s ratio Deformation values corresponding to 95% confidence
(~ 0.20 for granite rock mass), m is the shape factor of level shall provide lower bound and 5% confidence level
plate (0.96 for circular plate), and A is the area of the test shall provide upper bound on deformation modulus of
plate of 60 cm diameter. rock mass. In Figs. 4 and 5, ‘95% or 5% CLD’ refers
Thus, based on the probabilistic estimates of rock mass to ‘deformation modulus corresponding to 95% or
deformation, a probabilistic estimate of deformation 5% confidence level deformation’ and ‘MD’ refers to
modulus is also made. For granite rock mass, at an ‘deformation modulus corresponding to mean deformation
applied stress of 5 MPa, deformation mean deformation values’.
modulus is 2.6 GPa with a variation of 1.48 GPa to For granite rock mass, a preliminary investigation has
5.30 GPa within band of 5%-95% confidence level on shown that the envelope on the deformation values
deformation values. Similarly, for phyllite rock mass developed through the statistical approach covers the
mean deformation modulus is 0.87 GPa with a variation wider range of values and provides a conservative
of 0.41 GPa to 2.53 GPa (5%-95% band) at an applied estimate of mean deformation modulus value. For
stress of 5 MPa. example at applied stress of 5 MPa, average deformation
Table 9 shows the minimum, maximum and average modulus through deterministic treatment is found out to
values of the deformation modulus as obtained by the be 2.99 GPa while it is 2.60 GPa when computed using
deterministic treatment of the deformation data. These probabilistic approach.
envelopes of deformation modulus are compared with the For phyllite rock mass, interesting results can be seen
envelopes developed using the statistical distributions in in Fig. 5. Not much difference is observed for the lower
Figs. 4 and 5.Thus, based on the probabilistic estimates bound cases while in case of upper bound values,
of rock mass deformation, a probabilistic estimate of statistical approach provides rather conservative values
deformation modulus is also made. For granite rock of deformation modulus. This is more likely that the

Table 8 : Deformation values (cm) and corresponding deformation modulus (GPa)

Peak Deformations (cm) and deformation modulus Deformations (cm) and deformation modulus
stress (GPa) of granite rock mass (GPa) of phyllite rock mass
(MPa)
95% Mean 5% CL 95% Mean 5% CL
Ed Ed Ed Ed Ed Ed
CL, dd dd dd CL dd dd dd
2.0 0.170 0.576 0.100 0.979 0.052 1.899 0.606 0.162 0.278 0.353 0.090 1.089
3.0 0.181 0.812 0.094 1.563 0.039 3.731 0.545 0.270 0.266 0.553 0.099 1.486
4.0 0.160 1.228 0.097 2.023 0.053 3.734 0.501 0.391 0.257 0.763 0.106 1.853
5.0 0.165 1.482 0.094 2.600 0.046 5.304 0.501 0.489 0.262 0.935 0.113 2.174

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Role of Probabilistic Interpretation in Recommendations of Rock Mass Parameters
Fig. 4 : Comparison of probabilistic and deterministic Fig. 5 : Comparison of probabilistic and deterministic
mparisonFig.
of 4probabilistic
Comparison of (granite
deformation modulusand
probabilistic
deterministicand deterministic
rock mass) Fig. 5
rmation modulus deformation
(granite modulus (granite rock mass) deterministic
rock mass)
phyllite rock mass are weaker rock masses and there of peak shear stress versus normal stress data from
(Phyllite
may be exceptionally high values at few locations on the linearity
site. A thorough probabilistic approach may help to rule
out such outliers. This shows the reliability of statistical
characterization of deformability characteristics rock
mass. For phyllite rock mass, deterministic upper bound
of deformation modulus is 2.83 GPa while statistical upper
bound is 2.17 GPa. Probabilistic approach provides a
conservative estimate of the mean deformation modulus
values for phyllite rock mass also.
It is worth mentioning here that the probabilistic approach
as presented here is capable of removing the unreliable
field data. For example it is quite natural to get a localized
weak or strong rock mass at a project site. This localized
phenomenon should not govern the design basis. In
addition to this, spatial distribution of deformability
can also be accounted for in the design[24]. Therefore,
a proper statistical evaluation of the data has its own
importance.
CONCLUSIONS
Present work demonstrates probabilistic interpretation of
in-situ shear and plate load test data. The deformability
and shear strength data is recommended to be analysed
by proposed procedure while finalizing the design
parameters. From this study, the following conclusions
can be drawn:
(1) Shear Strength Parameters of Rock Mass : Due to
inherent geological uncertainties, differences in quality
of concrete blocks,variation in joint patterns, rock-
mass properties, random testing errors and limitations
associated with in-situ shear tests, in-situ shear test
parameters vary significantly within the project area. To
cater for such uncontrolled sources of errors, the test
data is seen through probabilistic view point and an
explicit PFOS is proposed to account for the deviation
19
Fig. 5modulus
Comparison
deformation Comparison of rock
(Phyllite ofmass)
probabilisticand
probabilistic an
deterministic deformation modulus
deformation modulu
(Phyllite rock
rock ofmass)
assumption mass)
M-C strength criterion. Proposed
PFOS is defined as the ratio of mean value of strength
parameter to corresponding lower bound estimate
at a given confidence level. IS 6512 also provides
PFOS to account only for environmental and loading
uncertainties. However, proposed PFOS does not
replace conventional PFOS, instead proposed PFOS
complements the conventional one. Through numerical
illustration, it is found that ‘conventional PFOS’ may not
recommend the revision of the design at some places
which ‘proposed PFOS’ may recommend beyond a
certain level of confidence. Based on this limited study,
it is recommended that a better preliminary design must
satisfy conventional as well as proposed factor of safety
against sliding.
(2) Deformability Characteristics of Rock Mass :
Total deformation of rock mass found to be log-normally
distributed. The parameters of distribution depend upon
applied stress. The probabilistic approach provides
a better envelop of the deformation modulus values.
This envelope is more likely to remove outliers and will
provide a more reliable set of values for risk analysis. The
probabilistic estimates of the mean deformation values
are conservative as compared to the direct arithmetic
averages of the field data. The reliability of probabilistic
estimates certainly depends upon the size of the data set.
Lower confidence level deformation is used to obtain the
upper bound on deformation modulus values.
Therefore, it is recommended to the practicing engineers
and all the stakeholders in hydropower projects to
encourage the application of probabilistic interpretation of
in-situ rock-mass data in evaluation of design parameters.
This would certainly improve the quality of engineering
judgment associated with hydropower projects.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
20 ISRM (India) Journal
REFERENCES
1. IS 7317 (1993): Indian Standard code of practice for
Uniaxial Jacking test for modulus of deformation of
rock, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
2. ISRM (1981): International Society for Rock
Mechanics (ISRM) suggested methods for rock
characterization, testing and monitoring, Editor: E.T.
Brown, Published by Pergamon press, pp. 1-211.
3. Yu, M.H., Zan, Y. W., Zhao, J., and Yoshimine, M.
(2002). A unified strength criterion for rock material.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, 39(8), 975-989.
4. Jaeger, J. C. and Cook, N. G. W. (1979). Fundamentals
of rock mechanics, 3rd ed. London: Chapman and
Hall.
5. Andreev, G.E. (1995). Brittle failure of rock materials:
test results and constitutive models. Rotterdam: A.A.
Balkema.
6. Sheorey, P. R. (1997). Empirical rock failure criteria.
Rotterdam: AA Balkema.
7. Hoek, E., and Brown, E. T. (1980). Underground
excavations in rock. London: The Institution of Mining
and Metallurgy.
8. Hudson, J.A., editor. (1993). Comprehensive rock
engineering: principles, practice and projects. Oxford:
Pergamon Press.
9. Lin, T.J., and Zhang, J. Z. (1981). Development of
strength theory in rock engineering in the last decade.
Mech. Practices; 3(2): 17–23 (in Chinese).
10. Labuz, J.F., and Zang, A. (2015). Mohr–Coulomb
failure criterion. In The ISRM Suggested Methods
for Rock Characterization, Testing and Monitoring:
2007-2014 (pp. 227-231). Springer International
Publishing.
11. ICOLD—International Commission on Large
Dams. 1995. Bulletin 99: Dam failures—statistical
analysis.
12. Kreuzer, H., and Bury, K. (1991). Safety assessment
of concrete dams: safety factor versus reliability
index. Dam Engineering, 2(2), 101-116.
13. IS 7746 (1991, 1996): Indian Standard code of
practice for in-situ shear test on rock.
14. ISRM Part 1 (1981): Suggested methods for
determining shear strength.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
15. CSMRS Report on “In-Situ Shear Strength Parameters
of Rock Mass in Right Bank Drifts at Dam Site of
Amochu Project, Bhutan”, 2011.
16. CSMRS Report on “In-Situ Shear Strength Parameters
of Rock Mass in Left Bank Drifts at Dam Site of
Amochu Project, Bhutan”, 2011.
17. C S M R S ( 2 0 1 3 ) , “ R e p o r t o n D e f o r m a b i l i t y
Characteristics of Rock Mass by Plate Load Test
conducted in Dam axis drift at Kirthai H.E. Project
stage -II, Jammu & Kashmir”, Central Soil and
Materials Research Station, New Delhi, India.
18. C S M R S ( 2 0 1 2 ) , “ R e p o r t o n D e f o r m a b i l i t y
Characteristics of Rock Mass by Uniaxial Jacking
Tests in Dam site drifts Amochu H.E. Project,
Bhutan”, Central Soil and Materials Research Station,
New Delhi, India.
19. IS 6512-1984 (reaffirmed 1998), Indian Standard,
Criteria for Design of Solid Gravity Dams (First
Revision), UDC 627.824.7.04.
20. Pathak, S,Ramana, GV, Dev, H, Singh, R (2015).
Probabilistic Interpretation of In-situ Shear Test
Data, 50th Indian Geotechnical Conference (IGC-
2015), Geotechnics for Infrastructure & Foundation
Techniques (GIFT), Pune, India, 17-19 December
2015.
21. Ramana, G.V., Pathak, S., and Kumar, N. (2013).
In-Situ Shear Strength Parameters of Phyllite
Rock Mass. Proceedings of Indian Geotechnical
Conference on Geotechnical Advances and Novel
Geomechanical Applications, Roorkee, Uttrakhand.
Volume, No. 1, ISBN: 978-81-925548-1-5, pp. 264.
22. Pathak, S, Ramana, GV, Gupta, VK, Dev, H, Singh,
R (2013). Statistical Approach for Rock Mass
Deformability Characterization, Proceedings of Indian
Geotechnical Conference on Geotechnical Advances
and Novel Geomechanical Applications, Roorkee,
ISBN: 978-81-925548-1-5.
23. Hines, William W., Montgomery, Douglas C.,
Goldsman, David M. and Borror Connie M. (2009).
Probability and Statistics in Engineering, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., Delhi, India.
24. Pathak S, Ramana, GV, Dev, H (2016). Quantification
of Variation in Rock Mass Deformability, 6th annual
rock conference, IIT Bombay, June 2016, Indorock-
2016.
 Blasting in Highly Occupied Location
– Practice to Implementation
Naveen G.C. and H.S. Venkatesh
National Institute of Rock Mechanics, India

Abstract
Excavation close to sensitive areas is a growing trend to accommodate the construction requirements in
civil engineering projects. Use of appropriate equipment, adopting innovative and integrated technologies
in drilling and blasting have led to successful hard rock excavation in these situations. Project planning,
systematic rock strata classification, selection of excavation methods, selection of drilling parameters,
choice of suitable explosive, compliance to safety and environmental norms and cost optimization are
the means for timely execution of excavation projects. The application of this approach is demonstrated
in this paper for the excavation of large rock quantity of rock by blasting and appropriate means at a
thermal project in eastern India.

1. Introduction including classification of the strata, type of excavation

Blasting is carried out in very sensitive areas under
proper guidance, supervision and implementation
of modern technologies. Blasting have very serious
positive impact on the economy of the project when it
is properly executed. Blasting carried in sensitive areas
are systematically monitored to gain maximum output
form each blast so that fatigue loading by repeated blast
are avoided and application of technology have led to
excavate the rock in any conditions without hampering the
daily activity of the adjacent areas. Blasting in such areas
are carried out with special permission form the concerned
authority (District Collector) and specific explosive rules
and regulations are followed.
The study was carried out for site levelling/grading for a
thermal power project. The practice for managing safety
risks associated with excavation work is discussed in
this paper that can be followed in any of the sensitive
excavation sites. This paper incorporates the techniques
adopted to classify the strata into soil, ordinary rock and
hard rock by adopting geological and geotechnical studies
and assessment of compressive strength of varying
strata which is influenced by weathering by adopting
Rebound hammer test and It was found that the use
of non-destructive techniques like Rebound Hammer
Test is much reliable and can well be fit to assess the
strength of the strata. This paper also incorporates the
methodology adopted for excavation in highly sensitive
zone where blasting is carried out and provides a practical
guidance for undertaking the excavation work. The
discussed method applies to all types of excavation work,
including bulk excavations more than 1.5 meters deep,
trenches, and open excavations. Authors were involved
in technically guiding the complete excavation operations
method that has to be adopted, designing and executing
appropriate blast design for controlling the vibration and
air overpressure within the regulated standards so as to
reduce the impact on the surrounding areas.
The top soil of about 3 lakhs cubic meter was removed by
shovel and dumper combination and the ordinary rock of
about 1.2 lakhs cubic meter was excavated by hydraulic
ripper and breaker. Hard rock of about 2 lakhs cubic meter
was excavated by drilling and blasting.
2. Classification of rock strata
The excavation is limited to maximum depth of 4m from
the surface, where site needed to be levelled/graded for
thermal power project (Fig. 1). The excavation quantity
was about 6.5 lakhs cubic meter in an area ofabout 1500
acres. Soil cover of about 1 to 2 m was observed all over
the excavation area. In some of the areas the soil was
below the desired excavation depth.Weathered rock
of about 1 m thick was observed below the soil cover.
The hard rock in the excavation area was peninsular
gneiss with the compressive strength varying from 100
to 150 Mpa and the grain size is course in nature. Rock
consisted of dark biotite gneiss of granitic to granodiorite
composition containing streaks of biotite. Remnants
of older rocks was seen in the form of enclaves (black
patches). Vertical joints with a spacing of about 2 to 5 m
and bedding planes were also observed in the hard rock
strata (Naveen G C et. al. 2015).
First step to economically excavate any type of strata
is to classify the strata with respect to its strength
parameters. The rock strata needed to be classified
for application of various excavation techniques which
includes mechanical excavation, drill blast technique

21 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 22 ISRM (India) Journal

and standards to be adopted for excavation of the strata. non-destructive techniques of classification of exposed
Rock strata was classified on the basis of rock type, rock strata for strength at site is using Schmidt hammer.
its hardness, fractures present, degree of weathering The Schmidt hammer tests are performed vertically
etc. Generally, the lower the seismic velocity of a rock downward. From the Schmidt hammer, rebound number is
mass, the greater is the ease of excavation of the rock identified. Higher R-number indicatesa greater hardness
mass. Most earth materials with seismic velocities less on the surface of strata (Table 1).
than 1,000 milliliters per second are prone to particle-
Table 1 : Quality of rock strata according
by-particle erosion (Caterpillar Tractor Company 1983;
to rebound number
Kirsten 1982) an obvious exception is highly plastic, non-
dispersive clay. Once the strata was classified, different Average rebound number Quality of strata
excavation methods was adopted to efficiently excavate >40 Very good hard layer
the strata. The choice of excavation depends primarily on
the economic and legal permissions obtained during the 30 – 40 Good layer
execution stage. From the geotechnical and geological 20 – 30 Fair
studies the strata was classified as soil, ordinary rock and < 20 Poor
hard rock and it was found that the RQD value was zero
0 Delaminated
in most of the cases but there was core recovery up to
90%. However, quality with respect to strength properties The rippability of an earth (rock) material is directly
was excellent with increasing depths (Fig. 2). The tested linked to the quality of strata and provides information
rock samples indicated that rock strength varied from low related to ability to excavate with conventional excavation
. 2015).
to high and needs to be excavated by various excavation equipment. A strata was classified as rippable, marginally
approach(Naveen G C et. al. 2015). rippable or non-rippable with respect to Schmidt hammer
. 2015). results. The rock classification based on hardness and
strength parameters for Excavability prescribed by Bell
(1992) (Table 2).
Table 2 : Excavation characteristics of rock mass
(in relation to hardness and strength)
Excavation characteristics
6 Fig. of test of rock mass in relation
out to
Fig. 6hardness
Sample Sample of test
results results
carried
and strength
carried
using
electronic Schmidt Hammer
electronic Schmidt Hammer
Rock I d e n t i f i c a t i o n Unconfined Excavation
hardness criteria compressive characteristics
and needed to be excavated only by drilling and
description strength
blasting.and needed to be excavated only by d
(Mpa)
Fig. 1Site to be graded/ levelled for thermal Very soft blasting.
Material crumbles 1.7-3.0 Easy ripping
Fig.
Fig.1Site power project
to be graded/ levelled for thermal
1 : Site to be graded/ levelled for thermal power project
rock under firm blows
with sharp end of
power project geological pick;
236 can be pealed with
235 a knife; too hard
Altitude, m

234 to cut a triaxial

236233 sample by hand.
235232
Altitude, m

231 STP will refuse.

234
233 0 50 100 150 Pieces up to 3
232 cm thick can be
231 UCS, Mpa broken by figure
pressure.
0 50 100 150
Fig 7 Ripper used for excavating the ordinary
Soft rock C a n j u s t b e 3.0-10.0 Hard ripping
Fig. 2 Trend of strata type with respect to altitude scraped with knife;
Fig. 2 : Trend of strata type with respect to altitude rock
UCS, Mpa identifications
2.1 Schmidt
2.1 Schmidt Hammer
hammerTest for for
test Rock Strength
rock strength 1mm to 3mm show
Properties
properties in the specimen
Fig 7 Ripper used for excavating the
Fig. 2 Trend of strata type with respect to altitude with firm blows of
There are different ways of outlining scientific classification the pick point; has rock
of the rock strata. These methodological elements dull sound under
2.1 depends
Schmidt on thehammer
availability of test
facilities,for
cyclerock strength
of testing and hammer
time involved in analyzing the results. One of the easiest
properties
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
 Fig. 3Testing of strata using Schmidt Ham
Blasting in Highly Occupied Location –and results
Fig. 3Testing
Practice of strata using Schmidt Hammer
to Implementation 23
and results
Hard rock Cannot be scraped 10.0-20.0 Very hard
with knife; hand ripping
specimen can be
broken with pick
single firm blow;
. 2015).rock rings under
hammer.
Very hard Hard specimen 20.0-70.0 Extremely
rock breaks with pick hard ripping or
after more than blasting
one blow; rock Fig. 4Testing of strata using Electronic Schmidt
rings under
hammer.
Fig.
hammer
Fig. 4Testing
4 : Testing of strata of strata
using using
Electronic SchmidtElectronic
hammer Sch
hammer
Extremely Specimen requires
hard rock many blows with
>70.0 Blasting
Fig. 6 Sample of test results c
geological pick electronic Schmidt Hammer
to break through
intact material; 7.2 B
rock rings under and needed to be excavated on
hammer.
Fig. 5 : Sample ofblasting.
test results carried out using electronic 0
2.2 Schmidt Hammer Results Fig. 5 Sample of Schmidt
test results
Hammercarried out using 80
Fig. 1Site to be graded/ levelled for thermal electronic Schmidt Hammer show
. 2015).
The results of Schimidt hammer are influenced by surface
power project
smoothness, grain size, air voidsand temperature of rock
face
Fig. 5 Sample of test results carried out drilleu
strata. For every layer of excavation conventional and
figur
electronic Schmidt hammer rebound tests were carried electronic Schmidt Hammer of 1
236 was determined. The strata for testing
out and strength
was selected235
Altitude, m

at random and tested for rebound reading

234
and direct compression (Figs. 3 and 4). Rebound hammer Fig. Fig. 6 : Sample of test results carried out using electronic
233 6 Sample of test results carried out using
Schmidt Hammer
testing followed
232 the requirements set forth by ASTM C electronic Schmidt Hammer
805-02. From231 the test results the rock was classified as
3. Excavation
ordinary rock/hard rock. One of the major advantages of
0 Hammers50 100 and needed to be excavated only by drilling and
150study report
using Schmidt rebound are it makes possibility The was analyzed for the excavation
blasting.
of testing the strength of strata structures where cores techniques that can be adopted for excavation of varying
Fig.be1Site
cannot drilledto be graded/ levelled for thermal
UCS, Mpa
and is of less expensive. Yilmaz and strata conditions. Approaches like mechanical excavation,
Sendir (2002) proposed power project
the empirical relation to correlate drilling and blasting and use of chemical for breaking the
strength and Schmidt rebound number (UCS = exp rock was adopted. Any Fig 7 Ripper used for excavati
excavation has to be done in an
Fig. 2 Trend of strata type with respect to altitude
(0.818+0.059N))
236 was used with a correlation coefficient economical way by implementing advanced techniques
of 0.98. The235average in-situ strength ranged from 5 to which are suitable for the type of strata. Any method rock
Altitude, m

234
140 MPa. The233 strata which falls below the 15 Mpa was have serious disadvantages with respect to time and cost
2.1 Schmidt
considered 232
as ordinary hammer testwasfor
rock and above rock strength
considered effectiveness when they are implemented in wrong site.
231
properties
as hard rock (Figs. 5 and 6). The economy by adopting drilling and blasting method is
0 50 100 150 very high when compared to other means of excavation
UCS, Mpa especially in hard rock condition and in case of ordinary
rock, mechanical means of excavation is more effective
Fig 7 Ripper used for excavating the ordinary
(Naveen G C et. al. 2015). The strata with strength of 15
Fig. 2 Trend of strata type with respect to altitude Mpa (Ordinary rock) wasrock excavated by ripper/hydraulic
breaker and the strata with strengthabove 15 Mpa was
2.1 Schmidt hammer test for rock strength excavated by drilling and blasting. This section provides
properties a practical guidance for undertaking the excavation work
in highly sensitive area by mechanical means and drilling
and blasting technique.
Fig. 3 : Testing of strata using Schmidt Hammer and results 3.1 Mechanical Excavation
Fig. 3Testing of strata using Schmidt Hammer
Mechanical means of approach for excavation of ordinary
and results Fig 8 Ordinary rock loosen
rock is very much economical when compared to blasting

Fig. 3Testing of strata using Schmidt Hammer Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
and results Fig 8 Ordinary rock loosened by ripper
 24 ISRM (India) Journal

in ordinary rock. With the author’s experience it was found overpressure, DGMS circular IS Code 14881:2001* and
that for an estimated blast design of about 35 m3, the DGMS (Tech)(S&T) Circular No. 7 of 1997 was adopted
outcome was about only 60%. This is because of explosive to restrict the ground vibration and air overpressure
energy getting absorbed by the rock due to weathering. levels.Adrian et al. (2002) from their studies with regard
The gases released by the detonation of explosive were to structural response of brick veneer houses to blast
transmitted within the already existing joints/cracks/ weak vibration observed from their experiments in Australia
rock. The machineadopted for ripping was Xcentric Ripper that environmental strains and rainfall contribute to
XR 30 with Hydraulic working pressure of 22-24 MPa the extension of existing cracks in a structure and the
and rock breaker (Fig. 7). The efficiency of mechanical strain induced due to these environmental loads upon
excavation is related to the joint spacing and rock type. conversion to equivalent PPV are much higher than from
The machine ripped the strata which have joint spacing blasting. They reported, no observable damage occurred
of one to two feet and fully weathered rock. In some until the ground vibration levels (PPV) exceeded 70
Fig. 6 Sample
conditions of test
mechanical results
means carried out
of excavation has using
to be mm/s. The damage at vibration levels of 70 - 220 mm/s
electronic Schmidt Hammer
Fig. 6 Sample
adopted for small of
scaletest results even
excavation carried
thoughout
theusing
cost was confined to the lengthening of existing cracks and
electronic Schmidt Hammer
of operation is very high when compared to drilling and the formation of new cracks in plasterboard. Studies on
and needed to be excavated only by drilling and structural response to blasting in India by (Adhikari et al.
blasting due to restrictive blasting regulations. Mechanical
excavation has led to excavate about 20% of the strata 2005) have shown that no new damage or extension of
blasting.
and needed to be excavated only by drilling and
(Fig 8) and harder strata was not rippable and needed to existing cracks were observed in residential structures at
blasting.
be excavated only by drilling and blasting. PPV exceeding just above 20 mm/s. In total about 500
controlled blasts were successfully conducted by NIRM
during the study period (Balachander et al. 2011).

4. Controlled blasting Procedure

Fig 7 Ripper used for excavating the ordinary necessary excavation permissions are taken care by
de
rock
Fig 7 Ripper used for excavating the ordinary
Fig. 7 : Ripper used for excavating the ordinary rock
de
th rock
th
er the operation which also determines the reasonably
Fig 8 Ordinary rock loosened by ripper
Fig. 8 : Ordinary rock loosened by ripper
er
Fig 8 Ordinary rock loosened by ripper
3.2 Drilling and Blasting
The strata that was not economically amenable to be
excavated by mechanical means was excavated by
drilling and blasting. The total rock quantity excavated was
around 2 lakhs cubic meter by adopting controlled blasting
technique that was complied with Indian Standard (IS
4081:2013 Code of safety for blasting and related drilling
operations). With respect to ground vibration and air
Controlled blasting in sensitive areas in any form like
excavation close to the habitats, close to the structure
etc. needs special permission only to make excavation
safer and also to enhance precautions not to effect or
cause any damage to the existing setup. For mining
activity DGMS is the prime organization to control the
operation of the mines, whereas in case of civil purpose
district commissioner or the district administrator of the
concerned area. The use of explosives are governed
by Explosives Act, 1884 and Explosives rules, 2006.
For civil purpose the excavation is for setting up the
new structure, even though the use of explosives are
minimum when compared to application in mines, special
care has to be taken to control the ill effects of blasting
by adopting modern techniques and proper supervision.
Even if the quantity of explosive used is minimum it should
not damage the surrounding rock, which may affect the
integrity of the rock and may lead to pose serious threat to
the structure built on it. The rule of practice is a practical
guide for achieving the standards of safety required during
practicable method of operation.
4.1 Permission under Regulations 164 (1-A) of
MMR, 1961 to Conduct Controlled Blasting
Operations
For carrying out excavation in highly occupied areas, 2008
permission for blasting is provided by District Magistrate in
LE-3 form of Explosive rules, 2008 (License to possess for
use, for agricultural purpose or in small quarry, explosives
not exceeding 25 kilogrammes of Class 1 or 2 or 3 and

idt
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
idt
 Blasting in Highly Occupied Location – Practice to Implementation
1500 numbers detonators; and1500 meters of detonating
fuse or safety fuse at any one time in a magazine). When
blasting is carried in such a way that the flying fragments
from blasting is controlled within a distance of ten metres
from the place of firing/blasting location, there is no
need to fulfill the procedure of danger zone of 300 m.
It is also to comply that the blasting shall be done with
delay detonators and the maximum charge of 2 kgs can
be used in each hole and the blasting operations to be
carried out by competent person holding a valid shot firer
certificate.
5. Public participation
Human beings are far more sensitive to ground vibrations
and noise than structures. People tend to complain about
ground vibrations even when the vibration level is below
the minimum permissible limit of 5 mm/s (Anon, 1997).
One of the most important factors for complaining is the
presence of secondary sounds such as rattling windows
and doors. Air overpressure, or air blast, is the term used
to describe the pressure waves in the air exerted from
an explosion (Dowding, 1996,.Siskind, et. al., 1980). Air
overpressure, however, is not simply the sound that is
heard, it is an atmospheric pressure wave consisting of
high frequency sound that is audible (20 to 20,000 Hz) by
human beings and low frequency sound or concussion
that is sub-audible (<20 Hz) and cannot be heard by
human beings.
The threshold of perception for motion (without sound
effects) is roughly 0.51 mm/s (Anon, 1998) for most
people at typical blasting frequencies. During a study by
NIRM at Bangalore, blasting in rock was carried out in
different locations of an excavation area. In total 27 blasts
were carried out during the field studies period of 12 days.
The closest and farthest distance between the residence
at fern paradise layout and blasting location was 30 m and
115 m respectively. It is worthwhile to mention that though
the vibrations were limited below the permissible limit of
5 mm/s at the structures belonging to Fern Paradise, the
human perceptions were that whenever the vibrations
were below 1.5 mm/s there were no complaints from the
residents, and when the vibrations were between 1.5
mm/s and 2 mm/s they were uncomfortable and when
the vibrations were above 2 mm/s they complained of
excessive vibrations (Naveen G C et. al, 2016).
It is good to have a good close relationship with public
and educated the public with respect to blasting method,
type of charge used, quantity of charge used, safety
standards to follow, protection of workers conducting
blasting and the monitoring mechanism established for
monitoring blasting activities. Before blasting begins in
new areas, it is wise to define how the blasting might
impact neighbours, animals, structures, utilities and the
environment in general. Reconnaissance survey was
25
carried out and a survey report with respect to blasting
was prepared like describing the blast location/residential/
commercial/industrial/structure details and its distance
from the blasting site. Obviously, the degree of risk and
impacts will vary depending on the nature of the blasting
work. Blasting programs in highly occupied areas must
control flyrock, vibration, air overpressure and also public
litigations. When the individual feels the vibration is greater
than the perception threshold then there is possibility of
expression regarding blasting. The expression normally
will be related to the vibrations causing damage to the
complainant’s property. Concern may be expressed that
damage has already occurred due to the recent discovery
of cracking that may have been present for some time
or have been caused by natural processes. More often,
however, concerns are based on the fear that damage
will be caused at some time in the future as a result of
repeated blast vibration.
A common man understands that many causes ranging
from poor construction to normal environmental
stresses have contributed to the development of cracks.
However, when a blasting activity is being carried out at
a construction site the people around frequently complain
about damage to their structure due to ground vibration
and air over pressure. In this regard psychophysiological
perception of the blast is generally more important than
the numerical values of the ground vibration and air
overpressure.
6. Ground vibration limits for sensitive
blasting
Now a days blasting for civil purpose is regulated in line
with mining blast. A structure readily catches the blast
induced ground vibration when the frequency of ground
vibration falls close to the natural frequency of the
structure (Dowding, 1985; Siskindet al, 1980). At resonant
frequency, the structure absorbs most of the energy of
ground vibration and oscillates with a larger amplitude for
a longer period. Because of this amplification, structural
damage may occur even at a relatively low peak particle
velocity. Amplification factor is defined as the ratio of
structural vibration to that of the ground vibration. It has
been found to vary between 3.2 and 5.2 (Siskindet al,
1980), and between 1.00 and 2.82 (Adhikariet al, 1989).
Athanasopoulos and Pelekis (2000) report that with
regard to high rise structures (up to 22 floors) the blast
vibrations decreased in the upper floors. Similar studies
conducted by Athanasopoulos and Pelekis (2000) for pile
driving revealed that ground level motion was amplified in
the upper levels (up to 7th floor) beyond which the rate of
amplification ratio decreased with the floor levels. Cathy
et al, (2014) have found that the tall structures develop
lower strains when compared to midrise buildings for the
same ground displacements.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
26 ISRM (India) Journal
Probability studies made by Dowding (1985) revealed
that no cosmetic or threshold cracking takes place below
a particle velocity of 12 mm/s. Residential structures
typically resonate at frequencies in the range of 3 Hz
to 8 Hz indicating a problem. However, the above study
indicated no danger even upto 12 mm/s with such low
frequencies. Adhikariet al, (2005) conducted studies on
correlation of vibration level to blasting damage to surface
structures. Pre- and post-blast observations were made
for any noticeable change in the existing cracks or for
the formation of new ones. At site one, no new damage
or extension of existing cracks were observed in any of
the structures at PPV exceeding just above 20 mm/s at
frequencies varying by and large between 5 and 27 Hz.
Even at site two, peak particle velocity in excess of 20
mm/s was too low to cause any damage to these structures
over a frequency range of 4 to 40 Hz. Adrian et al, (2002)
from their studies with regard to structural response of
brick veneer houses to blast vibration observed from
their experiments in Australia that environmental strains
and rainfall contribute to the extension of existing cracks
in a structure. No observable damage occurred until the
ground vibration levels (PPV) exceeded 70 mm/s while
the damage at vibration levels of 70 - 220 mm/s was
confined to the lengthening of existing cracks and the
formation of new cracks in plasterboard. New (1990) gives
an assessment of the magnitude of vibration which the
common types of structures are daily subjected to during
normal use. It was seen that common masonry dwellings
experience a PPV of 11 to 17 mm/s when doors are
slammed several times during a day and still structures
do not suffer any damage. During the excavation of the
TBM launching shaft for Tan Tah Kee Station, Singapore,
rock was encountered at a depth of 13 m below the ground
level and another 10 m had to be excavated in order to
reach the final depth. The permissible vibration limits
followed in case of this Singapore project was 300 mm/s
for the Earth Retaining Stabilising Structures (ERSS)
and 15 mm/s for residential buildings and buried utilities
(Manolas and Arusu, 2012).
Rock excavations for Stockholm City Station, Sweden
was carried out under and over T-Centralen, the central
underground metro station. The approach tunnels had
to cross under existing metro tunnels in an area of high
horizontal rock stress with as little as 3 m of rock cover,
extremely close to sensitive installations. In general, it can
be seen that different countries adopt different standards
of safe limits of vibration. As there are no defined standards
for urban blasting invariably the vibration standards
applicable in mines are being practised globally. The
permissible ground vibration limits prescribed for mining
blasts by Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS),
which considers PPV and the frequency of ground
vibration for deciding the permissible levels (Anon, 1997)
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
is adopted for urban blasting. Probably this is because
the blasting procedure and structures are similar in both
cases of blasting (Mining and Civil). However, Gupta et
al, (2013) report that the frequencies in the mining blasts
are different from that of the construction blasts.They
state that though, both the blasts are characterized by
same peak particle velocity, a structure with fundamental
frequency of about 10 Hz would respond to the mining
blasts with relative displacement of about three times
that of typical construction blasts as mining blasts, in
general produce much higher structural response in the
low frequency range (about 4 to 25 Hz) compared to
construction blasts.The frequencies due to construction
blasts are generally beyond the frequency range of most
civil engineering structures which can be gainfully used in
defining the safety criteria for construction blasts (Gupta
et al, 2013).
The weakest component of structures that may be affected
is glass panes which is unlikely unless air overpressure
levels exceed 160 dB. The air overpressure levels at
critical structures are restricted to below 133 dB being
the permissible level as per US Bureau of Mines and
IS code. At sound pressure levels below 130 dB there
will be audible rattle, mainly from windows and doors
and from objects standing on shelves. With increasing
amplitude, window panes begin to break at about 152
dB. Most windows in an area would break at amplitude of
172 dB, and structure damage would occur at 182dB or
over (Siskind et al. 1980, Anon. 1998, Konya et al. 1990).
Stemming is that to withhold the explosive energy within
the blast hole, so that the energy is efficiently utilized
to break the surrounding the rock. The blow outs are
controlled by interlocking of inert materials with the blast
holes (Konya and Davis, 1978).
As mentioned earlier, various codes and standards have
been prescribed for ground vibration limits in different
countries for residential and industrial structures. Siskind
et al developed a criterion based on frequency. According
to this criterion, for frequencies between 2.7 and 10 Hz, a
peak particle velocity of 12.5 mm/s is safe for older plaster
on wood lath interiors and 19 mm/s for modern dry wall
houses. For frequencies beyond 40 Hz, a peak particle
velocity of 50 mm/s is safe for all houses (Konya and
Davis, 1978). Australian standards specify a displacement
of 0.2 mm for frequencies below 15 Hz and a peak particle
velocity of 19 mm/s for frequencies above 15 Hz (Konya
and Davis, 1978). According to the Indian Standard 6922
the permitted peak particle velocity should not exceed
50-70 mm/s (Grant, C. H., 1970). Directorate General of
Mines Safety (DGMS) circular of 1997 prescribes a limit
of 10 mm/s, 20 mm/s and 25mm/s for Industrial Buildings
RCC and framed structures) depending on the frequency
(Brady, B.H., 1990).
 electronic Schmidt Hammer

and needed to be excavated only by drilling and

Blasting in Highly Occupied Location – Practice to Implementation
blasting. 27
Fig. 1Site
7. Blast to be graded/ levelled for thermal
design the-hole delay (DTH) of 200 ms in combination with
power project surface trunk line delays (TLD) of 17 ms, 25 ms and 42
When blasting is not conducted in systematic way, it
ms. Drill cuttings were used for stemming.
generates environmental issues like ground vibrations,
236
noise and flyrock which can affect nearby residents and 7.1 Bench Blasting
235
Altitude, m

other activities
234 in the vicinity of the blasting area. Lacking
233 of risks associated with blasting projects Drilling was carried out by 38 mm and 45 mm diameter
understanding232 holes. Square pattern of 1 m burden and spacing was
may lead 231 to over-conservative design assumptions,
maintained for 38 mm diameter holes and drilled to a
resulting in unnecessary
0 costs
50 to rectify100
the damage
150caused
depth of 1.5 m. Square pattern of 1.5 m burden and
by the blasting activity. Alternatively, underestimating
spacing was adopted for 45 mm diameter holes and
vibration risks can result inUCS, Mpa
unexpected damages to
drilled to a depth of 3 m. Maximum of 45 cubic meter
buildings, complaints from the public and unforeseen
rock was blasted for 38 mm diameter drilled holes for a
Fig 7 Ripper used for excavating the ordinary
costs and delays. By applying a proper planned blast
Fig. 2 Trend of strata type with respect to altitude blast and for 45 mm diameter
rock drilled holes, 125 cubic
design, the project can be completed without generating
meter per blast was blasted for single blast. For 38 mm
uncontrollable
2.1 Schmidt risks. hammer Proper
test assessment of risks
for rock strength and 45 mm the charge per hole was 0.5 kg and 2 kg
associated
properties with blasting projects requires fundamental
respectively.Shock tube initiation system of 17/25/45-
understanding of strata condition, vibration propagation
250 ms was used for initiating the charge. Multiple
and their interaction with structures, air vibration effects
faces at different locations was created to increase
on the structures and human beings/animals and effect
the production. However the size of the blast, charge
of fly rock. To overcome the risks associated with the
per hole was altered depending on the site specific
blasting, technical advances like blast design tools, fly
conditions and vibration/noise/flyrock control measures.
rock assessment tools, vibration monitoring, and data
By keeping the specific charge of about 0.4 kg/m3 the
acquisition systems of rock excavation by blasting have
blasts were carried out. For every blast the number of
been implemented which provide valuable information
rows per blast was limited to three, as the number of rows
about wave propagation in the ground and dynamic
Fig. 3Testing of strata using Schmidt Hammer increases leads to more vertical movement (reduction
interaction with the structures and assessment of outcome Fig 8 Ordinary rock loosened by ripper
of relief towards free face) of rock. V pattern firing was
ofand results
the blast.
adopted for all the blasts (Fig 9).
When excavation is carried out in very sensitive zone
like adjacent to buildings, in populated areas etc. special
care has to be taken in the initial stage itself to overcome
the unexpected ill effects. Tocarry out the blasting,
information was collected with respect to type of rock
to be excavated, type of structure around the blasting
location and the distance between the structure and
the blast location. Blasting area was cleaned for soil
and loose stone pieces prior to marking the drill hole
Fig. 4Testing of strata using Electronic Schmidt
location to minimise the risk of flyrock and to minimise
hammer
the effect of dust which is one of the environmental
concern in sensitive area. Brady, B.H., 1990 observed
that fatigue loading due to repeated blasting will be
reduced by adopting large diameter holes but large
FigFig.
9 Blast design for bench
9 : Blast design for bench blasting
blasting
diameter blasting was overruled because of its ground 7.2 Blast Design for Trenching
vibration influence up to a distance of more than 300 m 7.2 Blast design for Trenching
and uncontrollable flyrock. The marked locations were For trenching the blasting pattern was decided based on
drilled by 32/45 mm dia holes. Accuracy with respect not available, the holes were drilled at
the availability of free face. Trenches of 1 m wide was
0
toFig. 5 Sample
holes position, of test results
verticality, carried
spacing, out using
burden, depth, excavated
80 angle bytowards
drilling 38the
mmaxis
diameter holes
of the to a depth
trench as of
electronic Schmidt Hammer
number of holes was maintained. Plastic plugs were 1.5 m. For the blasts where
shown in the figure free face was not available,
10. For the blasts were free
used to avoid choking of drilled holes from water, mud, the holes
face was were drilled at 800
available, the angle towards
inclined the axis
holes of the
were
drill cuttings etc. After completion of drilling, all the holes trench
drilled towards the free face as shown in the face
as shown in Figure 10. For the blasts were free
were checked up with respect to design. Priming of was available,
figure the inclined holes were drilled towards the
11.Each blast was carried out for a length
explosive was done at site and the holes were charged free face as shown in Figure 11. Each blast was carried
of 10m. When there is availability of free face in
as per the approved design. The blasts were initiated out for a length of 10 m. When there is availability of free
with shock tube initiation systems comprising of down- face in two sides, 20 m stretch was blasted in a single
blast by firing the holes at both the ends.

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 two sides, 20 m stretch was blasted in a single
blast by firing the holes at both the ends.
28two sides, 20 m stretch was blasted in a single
ISRM (India) Journal
blast by firing the holes at both the ends.
8. Control of fly rock within 10 m
distance
Control of flyrock distance as per Regulations 164
(1-A) of MMR, 1961 for conducting controlled blasting
operations in highly occupied areas can be done through
proper blast design and implementing delay sequencing.
In case of arresting the flyrock within 10 m from the
blast location, additional measures to physically arrest
two sides, 20 m stretch was blasted in a single flyrock by muffling/covering the blasting area by heavy
blast by firing the holes at both the ends. rubber mats/wire rope mats (Fig 13) with other covering
materials have led in minimizing the flyrock distance
within 20 m and also decreases the impact of air over
Fig1010
Fig. blast design for trench excavation when
: Blast design for trench excavation when free face pressure by 30%. (Venkatesh et. al. 2013). To avoid the
Fig 10 blast design for trench excavation when
free face was not available
was not available flyrock, muffling sequence followed was placing sand
free face was not available bags in such a way that the sand bag covered the hole
mouth and the trunk line delay detonator (to avoid air
overpressure), followed by sufficient number of over
lapping rubber blasting mats of minimum specified
size (1.5 m x 2.7 m, 1100 kg weight per mat) as per
the design. Implementation under strict supervision by
competent authorityhad led desired results by controlling
the flyrock within 10 m for all the blasts.
Fig 10 blast design for trench excavation when
two sides, 20 m stretch was blasted in a single
two sides, 20 m stretch was blasted in a single
free face was not available Fig 13 Blasting mats laid to physically arrest
blast blast
by firing the holes at
Fig 11 both the ends.
blast design for trench excavation when
by firing the holes at both the ends. Fig 13 Blasting mats laid to physically arres
Fig 11 blast design for trench excavation when flyrock
free face was
Fig. available
11 : Blast design for trench excavation when free face flyrock
free face was available
was available
box cut blast wascarried out to achieve desired
7.3 Spot Box
box cut blast wascarried out to achieve desired
depth at the same location.
Spot box is a pit of 4 square meter to a depth of 1.5 m.
depth at the same location.
For spot box, a box cut blast pattern was adopted to
create pit of 1.5 m deep in an area of 4 square meter.
Spot box pit was created by using small diameter holes
(jack hammer drills)drilled to a depth of 1.4 m in an area Fig 13 Blasting mats laid to physically arrest
FigThe
of 4 sqm. 11 blast design for trench excavation when
spacing of 0.8 m was maintained between flyrock
free face was
the holes. available
The blast design parameters for box cut is in
Figure 12 In certain cases, after executing one blast (box
box cut blast wascarried out to achieve desired
cut blast), another box cut blast was carried out to achieve
desireddepth at the same location.
depth at the same location.
Fig 10 blast design for trench excavation when
Fig 10 blast design for trench excavation when
free face was not available
free face was not available

Fig 12 Blast design for spot box (box cut) with

jack hammer drill

Fig 12 Blast design for spot box (box cut) with

jack hammer drill
Fig. 13 : Blasting mats laid to physically arrest flyrock
Fig 13 Blasting mats laid to physically arrest
Fig 11 blast design for trench excavation when flyrock
free face was available
Fig 13 Blasting mats laid to physically arrest
9. Smooth wall blast design
Fig 11 blast design for trench excavation when flyrock
Fig available
free face was 12 : Blast design for spot box (box cut) To ensure the stability of the slopes, the final slope was
Fig 12 Blast design for spot box (box cut) with
box cut blast wascarried out to achieve desired
with jack hammer drill trimmed by smooth blasting. The results of production
jack hammer drill
depth at the same location.
box cut blast wascarried out to achieve desired
depth at the same location.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
 Blasting in Highly Occupied Location – Practice to Implementation
blasts had led to form uneven faces and to get the smooth
wall trimming was carried out. Small diameter line drilling
with high accuracy was drilled and simultaneously single
row was blasted only to produce cracks between the
holes. Smooth blasting method involved simultaneous
detonation of 38 mm diameter drilled holes a row at 0.3
m spaced, charged by 0.125 gm cartridge, which resulted
in very clean faces with a minimum over break.
10. Chemical expansion cement
In some of the locations, situations were arrived that
blasting was not allowed due to restrictive regulations
and ripper or breaker were not performing economically.
In this situation expansive cement was used to break the
rock into smaller fragments. Even though the quantity of
rock breakage was limited but the purpose of removing
the rock was successful. The expansive cement was
mixed with water in a ratio of 1 kg: 1.5 lt mixed well and
poured into 38 mm diameter drilled holes. After filling all
the drilled holes the initiation of crack took place after 20
to 24 hrs. The average consumption was 400 grams per
feet. The cracked rockmass was then excavated using
excavator.
Conclusion
Use of appropriate mechanical excavation means
and integrating the latest technologies in drilling and
blasting and the approach suggested in the paper
has led to the successful excavation of hard rock by
blasting in proximity to habitation. Adoption of simple
non-destructive testing approach and classification
of strata,comparison of excavation methods vis-à-vis
the economics has led to minimization of disputes and
implementation of appropriate excavation method. It
is once again established through this study that rock
blasting still continues to be the cheapest and safest
means of excavation. In total 3 lakh cubic meter was
excavated by shovel and dumper combination, 1.2
lakh cubic meter of ordinary rock was excavated by
hydraulic ripper and breaker and hard rock of about 2
lakh cubic meter was excavated by drilling and blasting.
The procedures discussed in this paper can be followed
in other sensitive excavation sites with site specific
considerations. Control of flyrock and air overpressure
happens to be the most challenging factors while blasting
in proximity to structures and muffling and design
requirements suggested in this paper have mitigated the
issues to acceptable limits. Involvement of public and
educating the public with respect to blasting method,
safety standards that are being followed and monitoring
mechanism established have led to harmonious
relationship cooperation from the public. This study also
demonstrates that human response is more important
than the standards that are adopted.
29
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 Static and Dynamic Analysis of a Theng Rock Slope in Sikkim
K. Naveen Reddy and A. Murali Krishna
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

ABSTRACT
Discontinuities in the form of joints, bedding planes and faults create anisotropy in the rock mass.
Discontinuities are the weakest zones in the rock mass. The slope stability analysis of rock masses has
been a challenging task due to the presence of discontinuities in various forms which result in different
types of slope failures. Failure mechanism of a rock slope mainly depends on the characteristics
of discontinuities. This paper deals with the stability assessment of a rock slope in Sikkim by static
analysis and pseudo-static analysis using shear strength reduction technique coupled with finite
element method and dynamic analysis using time response analysis in PHASE2 software. The results
obtained are presented in terms of the variations of horizontal and vertical displacements along the
face of the slope corresponding to the different acceleration – time histories of different earthquakes.
The results obtained from both static and pseudo-static analyses confirmed the global stability of
the slope as the FOS is above the permissible limit and the displacements observed in case of time
response analysis are within the permissible limits.
Keywords : Theng Rock Slope; Static Analysis; Pseudo-Static Analysis; Time-Response Analysis;
FEM; PHASE2; Sikkim

1. INTRODUCTION PHASE2. Kainthola et al., (2015) conducted the stability

analysis of cut slopes along State Highway-72, using
The stability evaluations of natural rock slopes are very
the FEM-SSR technique in PHASE2. Hammah et al.,
essential for any construction activity on the rock slope,
(2007) concludes that FEM-SSR in PHASE2 gives
especially, when the slopes were located in residential
better results than Distinct Element Method (DEM)
areas. Rock slope fails in one or more combination of
in UDEC corresponding to factor of safety.Singh and
failure mechanisms like circular failure, plane failure,
Verma (2007) conducted the stability analysis of rock
buckling failure, toppling failure and wedge failure
slope of the Amiya area under gravity loading using
(Cai and Hori 1992). Slope instability is dictated by the
FEM in PLAXIS and Finite Difference Method (FDM)
presence of discontinuities in the form of joints, bedding
in FLAC. Singh et al., 2013 conducted analysis the
planes and faults create anisotropy in the rock mass.
stability analysis of road-cut slopes at five different
Discontinuities are the weakest zones in the rock mass.
locationsin the Lesser Himalaya of Uttarakhand using
Failure mechanism of a rock slope mainly depends
Bishop’s simplified method in SLIDE and using FEM in
on the characteristics of discontinuities. The stability
PLAXIS2D. Kanugo et al., (2013) performed the stability
analysis of a rock slope becomes very critical if the
analysis of rock slopes using FEM in PHASE2.Vishal et
slope lies in earthquake prone areas. Landslides and
al., (2010) concludes that the concentration of stresses
slope failures are the most common natural hazards
and total displacements along the free face of the slope
and mainly caused due to the earthquake induced
and the weak underlying materials lead to slope failure.
ground shaking. Even earthquakes of very small
Liu Yaqun et al., (2014) on the seismic stability analysis
magnitude can trigger failures of rock slopes in jointed
of a layered rock slope using pseudo static analysis in
rock masses which are perfectly stable. Hence the
UDEC.Pal Shilpa et al., (2012) conducted the dynamic
study of the behavior of rock slope in actual dynamic
analysis of Surabhi landslide in the Uttaranchal located
scenarios is to be checked.
in Mussoorie using the distinct element method (DEM)
Several researchers conducted the dynamic analysis in UDEC. Tiwari et al., (2014) performed the stability
of a jointed rock slope using different techniques. analysis of Himalayan rock slope using continuum
Gupta et al., (2016) conducted the stability analysis interface approach by FEM-SSR technique in PHASE2.
of Surabhi landslide in the Uttaranchal located in Hatzor et al., (2004) carried out dynamic 2D stability
Mussoorie using the Finite Element Method (FEM) analysis of upper terrace of King Herod’s Palace in
based Shear Strength Reduction (SSR) technique in

31 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

32 ISRM (India) Journal
Masada, which is a highly discontinuous rock slope. Li
(2007) conducted the finite element analysis of slope
stability with the consideration of earthquake effects
using a nonlinear shear strength criterion of power – law
type. Latha and Garaga (2010) performed the seismic
slope stability analysis of a 350-m-high slope using
the equivalent continuum approach in FLAC.Bhasin
and Kaynia (2004) performed static and dynamic rock
slope stability analyses for a 700-m high rock slope
in western Norway using a numerical discontinuum
modeling technique in UDEC.The wave transmission
during the dynamic event across a rock slope consisting
of multiple joint sets is complicated due to multiple wave
reflections (Zhu et al., 2013).
This paper presents the results obtained from the static
and pseudo-static slope stability analysis of a jointed rock
mass using FEM-SSR technique in PHASE 2 (Rocscience
2016) and also from the dynamic slope stability analysis
using time response analysis in order to estimate the effect
of acceleration – time histories of different earthquakes on
the variation of the horizontal and vertical displacements
of the jointed rock mass.
2. DESCRIPTION OF THE CASE STUDY
The case study considered for the study is the Theng
rock slope which is located along North Sikkim Highway
between Chungthang (27.603910 N, 88.646440 E)
and Tung (27.543680 N, 88.648210 E). North Sikkim
Highway is one of the major transportation corridors in
Sikkim which passes through central part of the state
and it is the lifeline of the state for maintaining regular
Fig. 1 : Theng Rock Slope with some partial failure (Source: Ghosh et al., 2014)
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
life. Teesta River flows nearly parallel to the highway
in north to south direction. The corridor is major link
that connects Chungthang to the rest of Sikkim. The
area is found to have been subjected frequent rock
falls and rock slides due to which several commuters
are stranded especially during rainy seasons. Figure 1
shows the Theng rock slope located in Sikkim with
some partial failure.
Previously, stability analysis on the rock slope based
on Kinematic analysis and Slope Mass Rating (SMR)
method had been conducted by Ghosh et al. (2014).
The geology of the site is mainly composed of quartzose
and quartzose felspathic gneiss.The rock mass is
traversed by prominent foliations which are folded and
crenulated at specific intervals (Ghosh et al. 2014). The
rock slope is intersected by four prominent joint sets.
Each joint set possess specific joint orientation and
strength characteristics, thus influencing the stability of
the rock slope. The RMR basic suggested for various
sections of the Theng rock slope lies between 64
-74 which suggests that the rock slope is of “Good”
category (Ghosh et al. 2014).The summary of the joints
present in the area and properties of the rock mass
and joints are adapted from Ghosh et al., (2014) and
are given in Table 1. In this paper, numerical modeling
is done using combined continuum interface approach
in which joints are incorporated into the intact rock in
PHASE2 along with Generalized Hoek–Brown failure
criteria were used to define material characteristics of
rock mass and Mohr-Coulomb failure criteria is used
to define joints.
 Static and Dynamic Analysis of a Theng Rock Slope in Sikkim 33

Table 1 : Properties of Joints and Rock mass (Source: Ghosh et al., 2014)
Joints Dip (o) Dip Normal Shear Joint Joint Friction Angle (o)
direction Stiffness Stiffness Cohesion
(o) (GPa/m) (GPa/m) (KPa)
J1 65 110 38 3.8 148 35
J2 50 55 23 2.3 148 35
J3 30 210 23 2.3 148 35
J4 75 342 23 2.3 148 35
Elastic Modulus UCS Rock mass Parameter Poisson’s Unit Weight
Rock Ratio (kN/m3)
(GPa) (MPa) mb s a
Mass
26.25 70 8.314 0.023 0.502 0.3 27
3. STATIC AND PSEUDO-STATIC SLOPE STABILITY As the slope under consideration is situated in seismic
ANALYSIS zone V of India, where severe earthquakes are expected,
it is mandatory to assess the stability of the slope
Numerical modelof a rock slope, located in Sikkim,
under seismic conditions. The seismic slope stability is
India, was developed in an elasto-plastic finite element
estimated initially using pseudo-static approach and then
analysis program, PHASE2 (Rocscience, 2016), which
by dynamic approach using time-response analysis. In
permits two-dimensional plane strain uncoupled analysis.
static and pseudo-static analysis, Finite element based
Joints are introduced in between intact rock as negligible
Shear strength reduction (SSR) technique has been used
thickness interface element formulated by Goodman et
to obtain strength reduction factor (SRF) or factor of safety
al. (1968), which connects two intact rock element. Shear
(FOS) of the rock slope.
and normal stiffness of the interface element governs the
displacement of the jointed system. Joints are introduced In the pseudo-static analysis, the time-history sequence
with a persistence ratio of 0.5 as reported in Ghosh et of the earthquake is considered in terms of pseudo–static
al., (2014) with uniform spacing of 3 m. Generalized acceleration coefficients ‘kH’ and ‘kv’ whichin turn produces
Hoek–Brown failure criteria were used to define material inertial forces ‘FH’ and ‘FV’ which act through the centroid
characteristics of rock mass and Mohr-Coulomb failure of the potential failure mass. The horizontal acceleration
criteria is used to define joints. The ratio of horizontal to coefficients (kH) considered for the present study are
verticalstress in the rock mass is considered to be 1.0 (Pal the ‘amax’ values of the three earthquakes Uttarkashi,
et al., 2012). In this study the intact rock is discretized Chamba and Chamolii.e., 0.309, 0.146 and0.359
using six nodded triangular meshing element with uniform respectively and the vertical acceleration coefficient
gradient of 1.0 m. Fixed boundary condition is assumed at (kV) is taken as two-thirds of the horizontal acceleration
the base of the model which will restrict displacement in x coefficient.The stability analysis of slope is carried out for
and y direction at the base and roller boundary condition is three different cases, i.e., considering the static condition
assigned at the left side and right side of the slope which in the first case and kH alone in the second case and
will allow movement in the vertical y direction. both kH and kV in the third case. Figure 2(a) represents
the numerical model of the rock slope used for static and
pseudo-static analysis.

Fig. 2 : Numerical model used for stability conditions (a) static and pseudo-static analysis (b) dynamic analysis

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

34 ISRM (India) Journal
4. DYNAMIC SLOPE STABILITY ANALYSIS
The pseudo-static approach for stability analysis is
simple and straight forward but it cannot simulate the
transient dynamic effects of earthquake shaking, because
it assumes a constant unidirectional pseudo-static
acceleration. Dynamic analysis is carried out on the
rock slope by subjecting to base shaking corresponding
to the Uttarkashi earthquake, Chamba earthquake,
Chamoli earthquake recorded on 20 October 1991, 24
March 1995, 29 March 1999. The values of ‘amax’ for the
three earthquakes Uttarkashi, Chamba and Chamoliare
0.309, 0.146 and 0.359 respectively. The corresponding
durations of these three earthquakes are 39.9, 18.3 and
24s respectively. The dynamic input can be applied by
any one of the following ways: an acceleration history, a
velocity history, a stress (or pressure) history or a force
history.
The dynamic analysis option in PHASE 2 permits
two-dimensional plane-strain dynamic analysis. The
dynamic input applied is the transverse component of
the acceleration–time history of the different earthquakes
and is applied at the base of the slope. The transverse
component of the acceleration-time history of different
earthquakes which is used as dynamic input in the present
study is filtered and then corrected for base line correction
in Seismosignal (2016) and the corrected transverse
component of acceleration-time history is shown in Fig. 3.
The displacements in both x and y directions are fixed at
the base and displacements in x direction are fixed on the
left side of the slope along y axis and the slope is allowed
free to move in both directions. Boundary conditions such
as absorber and transmitter is applied at the base and left
side of the slope. Figure 2(b) represents the numerical
model of the rock slope used for dynamic analysis.
Fig. 3 : Corrected transverse component of acceleration-time history (a) Uttarkashi earthquake
(b) Chamoli earthquake (c) Chamba earthquake
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
Natural dynamic systems contain some degree of
damping of the vibration energy within the system. In the
absence of energy dissipation, vibration of any undamped
system continues for longer time durations. In practice,
attenuation of the propagating wave is imminent due to
material damping. It is difficult task to make an estimate
of each type of damping mechanism in a system, hence
the cumulative effect is represented by Rayleigh damping
in the numerical model (Pal et al., 2012; Liu et al., 2014),
which commonly lies within 2-5%. In the present study,
5% Rayleigh damping is considered for the analysis.
5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Static slope stability analysis is carried out and FOS
obtained without considering the earthquake loading was
found to be 1.8 and the displacement observed is 2.9 mm
and the displacement response of the rock slope is shown
in Fig. 4(a). By considering the horizontal acceleration
coefficientalone, resulted FOS of 1.2, 1.05 and 1.48
and the displacements observed are 5.11, 7.5 and 4.31
mmfor Uttarkashi, Chamoli and Chamba Earthquakes
respectively. Similarly, by considering both horizontaland
vertical acceleration coefficient, resulted FOS of 1.14,
1.01 and 1.39 andthe displacements observed are 6.85,
7.25 and 5.25 mm and displacement responses of the
rock slope for both the cases for Chamba Earthquake
are shown in Fig. 4(b) & Fig. 4(c). The results implies
when the horizontal acceleration coefficient and vertical
acceleration coefficient is more, then the factor of safety
of a rock slope reduces. The slope is in marginally
stable for Chamoli earthquake as FOS value of 1.0 is
acceptable as per the guidelines of National Earthquake
Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP), US, for land
sliding hazards.
 Static and Dynamic Analysis of a Theng Rock Slope in Sikkim
Fig. 4 : Displacement response (a) in static condition (b) in Pseudo-static condition (kH) for
Chamba Earthquake (d) in Pseudo-static condition (kH& kV) for Chamba Earthquake
Dynamic slope stability analysis is carried out on the rock
slope to determine the effect of the acceleration-time
response of the earthquake on the variation of horizontal
and vertical displacements of the rock slope.
5.1 Effect of Acceleration-Time History
Three earthquake scenarios namely Uttarkashi
earthquake, Chamba earthquake and Chamoli
earthquake occurred in India.The values of ‘amax’ for the
three earthquakes Uttarkashi, Chamba and Chamoliare
0.309, 0.146 and 0.359 respectively. The corresponding
durations of these three earthquakes are 39.9, 18.3
and 24 s respectively. The slope under consideration
is analyzed for all the three earthquake scenarios
and the results are presented individually in terms of
displacements in the slope. The properties of the rock
and joints were kept constant and 5% Rayleigh damping
was considered for all the cases. Numerical model of
rock slope used for dynamic event and the variation of
displacement of rock slope with time along the face of
the slope during the earthquake is observed at points A
(75, 0), B (70, 35), C (20, 90) and D (0, 96.8) as shown
in Fig. 2(b). Figure 3 shows the corrected acceleration-
time histories of these events.
Figure 5 shows the displacement response and the
displaced shape of the rock slope after the complete
dynamic event subjected to Chamoli earthquake.The
effect of acceleration-time response which includes
the amplitude, frequency content and duration of
the earthquake on the displacement pattern along
the slope is studied. The variation of horizontal and
35
vertical displacements at various points on the slope
face from toe to crest, at the end of the dynamic event
for the three earthquakes considered is shown in Fig.
6.A maximum horizontal displacement of 32.56 mm,
5.38 mm and 82.34 mm was observed at a distance
of 40 m along the slope from the toe and similarly the
maximum vertical displacement of 6.23 mm, 1.65 mm
and 52.34 mm was observed at a distance of 40 m
along the slope from the toefor Uttarkashi earthquake,
Chamba earthquake and Chamoli earthquake and
then it is slowly reduced towards the crest. It can
be observed from the Fig. 6 that both horizontal and
vertical displacements reached maximum at a distance
of about 40-50 m along the slope from the toe for all the
three earthquakes and stabilized afterwards and Fig.
5(b) also depicts that the displacements are more at
that particular distance from the toe of the rock slope. It
is observed that peakhorizontal acceleration (amax) is
not only the parameter that governs the displacements.
Along with amax, the frequency content and duration
of the earthquake also play a vital role in influencing
the displacements during the event.
Sriram and Khattri (1997) and Singh et al., (2002)
have estimated the corner frequency for the Uttarkashi
and the Chamoli earthquakes as 0.08 and 0.13 Hz,
respectively. Chamoli earthquake has more corner
frequency than others. Hence, the horizontal and
vertical displacements observed are high for Chamoli
earthquake. Based on this, it is observed that frequency
content also plays a vital role in influencing the
displacements during the event.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
36 ISRM (India) Journal

Fig. 5 : (a) Displacement response after dynamic event for Chamoli Earthquake (b) Displaced shape after
dynamic event for Chamoli Earthquake

Fig. 6 : Comparison of Horizontal (a) and Vertical (b) displacements along the face of the slope from
toe to crest for all the three earthquakes after dynamic event

Figure 7 shows the variation of horizontal and vertical
displacement along the slope face at four points A (75,
0), B (70, 35), C (20, 90) and D (0, 96.8) against dynamic
time during the dynamic event of Uttarkashi earthquake.
It is observed that maximum displacements are occurring
at 5.9 s (time corresponds to peak horizontal acceleration)
after the initiation of the event. It is observed that the
displacement is more at the point of application of peak
amplitude and diminishing thereafter. From the Fig. 7, it
is observed that point B along the slope face receives
maximum horizontal and vertical displacements during
the dynamic event.

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Static and Dynamic Analysis of a Theng Rock Slope in Sikkim 37

Fig. 7 : Variation of horizontal and vertical displacement with time along slope face during the dynamic
event of Uttarkashi earthquake

Figure 8 shows the variation of horizontal and vertical
displacements at point B along the slope face plotted
against the dynamic time. The variations of horizontal
and vertical displacements are plotted for all the
three earthquakes scenarios under consideration. It
can be seen from the figure maximum displacement
is observed for Chamoli earthquake since it has the
highest magnitude of all. The horizontal displacements
observed corresponding to time period of peak amax are
68.58, 185.36 and 14.66 mm for Uttarkashi,Chamoli and
Chamba earthquakes, respectively. Similarly the vertical
displacements observed corresponding to time period
of peak amax are 10.54 and 29.82 mm for Uttarkashi
and Chamoli earthquake. The vertical displacement
corresponding to Chamba earthquake is negative since
the slope moves upward at point B (by consideration of
the downward movement of slope as positive).
The above results indicate that peak amplitude of an
event has no significance on the deformations of the
slopes during earthquakes. It is the total acceleration–time
response which includes the amplitude, frequency content
and duration of the event that needs to be considered in
the analysis. Pseudo-static analysis, where only peak
amplitude of the earthquake is considered, will lead to
inaccurate results while predicting the deformations of
the slopes.

Fig. 8 : Variation of horizontal and vertical displacement with time at point B along slope face for different earthquake

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

38 ISRM (India) Journal
6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Stability analysis of Theng rock slope in Sikkim is studied
using static, pseudo-static and dynamic analysis by
time response analysis using finite element method in
PHASE2. The rock slope is found to be stable in static
condition and pseudo-static condition for Uttarkashi and
Chamba earthquake and it is found to be marginally stable
for Chamoli earthquake, which are within permissible
limits.The results from pseudo-static analysis implies
when the horizontal acceleration coefficient and vertical
acceleration coefficient is more, then the factor of safety of
a rock slope reduces. The response of the slope to different
earthquake events and the effect of different parameters
on the dynamic response of the slope are also studied.
The variation of horizontal and vertical displacements
observed in the slope for three earthquake scenarios are
presented and are well within the permissible limits. It was
observed that peak amplitude of the earthquake event
has less influence on the dynamic response of the slope.
It is the total acceleration–time response which includes
amplitude, frequency and duration of the event that needs
to be considered in the analysis.Pseudo-static analyses,
where only peak amplitude alone is considered, will lead
to incorrect results while predicting the deformations.
References
Bhasin, R., &Kaynia, A. M. [2004]. Static and dynamic
simulation of a 700-m high rock slope in western Norway.
Engineering Geology, 71(3), 213-226.
Cai, M., & Horii, H. [1992]. A constitutive model of highly
jointed rock masses. Mechanics of Materials 13: 217-
246
Ghosh, S., Kumar, A., & Bora, A. [2014]. Analyzing the
stability of a failing rock slope for suggesting suitable
mitigation measure: a case study from the Theng
rockslide, Sikkim Himalayas, India. Bulletin of Engineering
Geology and the Environment, 73(4), 931-945.
Goodman, R.E., Taylor, R. L., & Brekke, T. L. [1968]. A
model for the mechanics of jointed rocks. Journal of Soil
Mechanics & Foundations Div.
Gupta, V., Bhasin, R. K., Kaynia, A. M., Kumar, V., Saini,
A. S., Tandon, R. S., & Pabst, T. [2016]. Finite element
analysis of failed slope by shear strength reduction
technique: a case study for Surabhi Resort Landslide,
Mussoorie Township, Garhwal Himalaya. Geomatics,
Natural Hazards and Risk, 7(5), 1677-1690.
Hatzor, Y.H., Arzi, A. A., Zaslavsky, Y., &Shapira, A. [2004].
Dynamic stability analysis of jointed rock slopes using
the DDA method: King Herod’s Palace, Masada, Israel.
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining
Sciences, 41(5), 813-832.
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Kainthola, A., Singh, P. K., Wasnik, A. B., Sazid, M., &
Singh, T. N. [2012]. Finite element analysis of road cut
slopes using Hoek and Brown failure criterion. Int J Earth
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Kanungo, D. P., Pain, A., Sharma, S. [2013] Finite element
modeling approach to assess the stability of debris and
rock slopes: a case study from the Indian Himalayas.
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and Mitigation of Natural Hazards 69:1-24
Latha, G.M., & Garaga, A. [2010]. Seismic stability
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Liu, Y., Li, H., Xiao, K., Li, J., Xia, X., & Liu, B. [2014].
Seismic stability analysis of a layered rock slope.
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Earthquake stability analysis of rock slopes: a case
study. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 45(2),
205-215.
Rocscience Inc. [2016]. PHASE2 Version 9.0 - Finite
Element Analysis for Excavations and Slopes. www.
rocscience.com, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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seismosoft.com/en/HomePage.aspx)
Singh, S. K., Mohanty, W. K., Bansal, B. K., & Roonwal, G.
S. [2002]. Ground motion in Delhi from future large/great
earthquakes in the central seismic gap of the Himalayan
arc. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America,
92(2), 555-569.
Singh, T. N., & Verma, A. K. [2007]. Evaluating the slope
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 Calculation of Factor of Safety for a Rock Slope Reinforced with
Passive Bolt under Plane Failure
Lok Priya Srivastava
Consultant (Civil Engineering), Accendere, India

ABSTRACT
Rock slopes are always subjected to failure due to external or internal forces. Based on the characteristics
of in-situ rocks, there are numerous type of slope failures. Plane failure is one of them, in which a certain
portion of the rock mass slide or fail along a particular plane. To avoid the failure and reinforce the slope,
rock bolting is used. Provision of bolts increases the shear strength at failure plane that enhances the
factor of safety. The present paper summarized a methodology for calculation of factor of safety for rock
slope reinforced with passive rock bolts under plane failure.
Keywords : Rock bolts; plane failure; cohesion

LIST OF NOTATIONS
Fb= factor of safety for rock bolt reinforced slope
F = factor of safety for unreinforced slope
cu = cohesion along the base of wedge
A = area of base of wedge
W = weight of wedge
ϕu = friction angle along the base of wedge
i = slope angle with horizontal
θ = slope angle after failure
H = Height of slope
g = unit weight of rock material
n = number of bolts
Ab = area ratio
N = spacing ratio
ci = cohesion of intact material
cj = cohesion of single joint in mass
INTRODUCTION
The failure of a natural rock slope is a common problem
in hilly regions. Sometimes it causes losses of life and
damage of properties. Rock consists of intact blocks
separated by the discontinuities (or joints). The presence
of discontinuities make planes of weaknesses in the rock
mass, and generally failure occurs along these planes.
The sliding failure of rock mass along a joint plane is
termed as plane failure. The plane failure occurs when
forces induces sliding along joint is greater than the
resisting forces. The failure depends on the slope angle,
orientation, and characteristics of the predominant joint
plane and type of external forces (surcharge, water
pressure etc.).
To reinforce the rock slopes and avoid plane failure,
generally as a primary support rock bolts are used.
Installation of bolts makes the slope stronger and
stiffer. Bolts also restrict the sliding along joint plane
and enhance the failure stress (shear strength). Studies
conducted by the various researchers [Bjurstrom 1974;
Ludvig 1983; Ferrero 1995; McHugh and Signer 1999;
Grasselli 2005; Srivastava 2015; Srivastava & Singh
2015] indicated that the, engineering behaviour of a
rock bolt reinforce mass, depends on the properties
of rock, joint and bolt.
Passive bolt is the simplest type of bolt used in the field to
reinforce the mass. It consists a steel bar with face-plate
and grouted throughout its length. Passive bolts induce
the additional normal stress on the joint plane due to
development of tension in it. This additional normal stress
increases the effective normal stress on the joint plane
resulting higher stiffness and strength [Srivastava, 2015].
Srivasatava [2015] and Srivastava and Singh (2015),
suggested that the provision of passive bolt substantially
affected the cohesion and friction angle of joint plane
in the mass. The effect of passive bolt on cohesion is
more as compared to friction angle. Keeping this aspect
in mind, a simple methodology for assessing the factor
of safety for reinforced rock slopes is proposed in the
present paper.
METHODOLOGY
A line diagram of plane failure of a rock slope is presented
in Figure 1. The height of the slope is H and it makes an
angle i with horizontal. The weight of sliding wedge ‘a-d-b’
is W. The wedge ‘a-d-b’ slide (or fail) though the plane
‘db’ which make an angle θ with the horizontal. For a
plane failure in a rock slope the factor of safety (F) can
be calculated as

39 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 𝑢
𝐹 =𝑐𝑢 𝐴 + 𝑊 co
𝐹= 𝑊
𝑊 si
𝑐𝑢 𝐴 tan 𝜙
40 ISRM (India) Journalor𝐹
= 𝛾𝐻 𝑢 sin (𝑖−𝜃+ ) (1)
𝑐2 𝐴 (1)
tan 𝜙
or𝐹 = 𝑊 sin 𝜃 + tan
𝑊= sin 𝑖𝜃sin 𝜃tan(2a)
𝜃
𝑊 𝜃
Force available to resist sliding
2 sin
F= where cb and ϕb is the altered value of cohesion and
Force available to resist sliding Force to induce
friction sliding
angle respectively
(2b) due to installation of bolts. In
𝐻
F= Forceavailable
Force available to to resist= sliding
𝐴 sliding
resist
Force to induce sliding F= Equation 3, Wsin is
𝜃 weight of wedge including weight of
F= Force to to induce sliding
b 2
𝛾𝐻 (𝑖−𝜃) )
sin(𝑖−𝜃
Force𝑐𝑢 𝐴 +induce
𝑊
bolts.cossliding
As
𝑊𝑊𝜃 tan
the
=
= 𝜑 2 sin
weight
𝛾𝐻 of bolts
(2a)is much smaller than the
(2a)
𝑐𝑢 𝐴 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜑 𝐹= weight ofγ =
rockunit weight
22sin
sin
mass, 𝑖𝑖sin
sin
for of rock material.
𝜃𝜃convenience, Wb can be taken as
𝐹= 𝑊 sin 𝜃
𝑊 sin 𝜃 𝑐𝑢𝑐𝐴𝑢 𝐴
++ 𝑊W.𝑊cos cos 𝜃 tan
Srivastava
𝜃 tan 𝜑 Singh [2015] concluded that the impact
𝜑 and
𝐹 𝐹== 𝐴
𝐻
𝐻
= sin 𝜃 (2b)(2b)
tan 𝜙 or or𝐹 = 𝑐𝑢 𝐴 + tan 𝜙 (1) ...(1) 𝑊of 𝑊 bolt
sin 𝜃 on
sin 𝜃 cohesion
sin 𝜃
of joint is higher as compared to friction
(1) 𝑊 sin 𝜃 tan 𝜃 angle. The tension developed in the bolt, increases the
tan 𝜃
𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑢𝐴𝐴 tan𝜙𝜙
tan cohesion significantly.
𝑐 𝐴+𝑊 𝑏 However,
cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙 𝑏for simplicity the change
or𝐹cu=
where = cohesion +
+ along (1)
(1)
the base (‘d-b’) of wedge; A = unit
= 𝑏weight
γ𝐹=𝑏angle
unit weight of
of rock
rockmaterial.
material.
(3)
𝑊
𝑊 sin
sin 𝜃𝜃 tan
tan𝜃𝜃 in friction due 𝑊 to bolt
𝑏 sin 𝜃 can be neglected. In other
area of base of wedge (‘a-d-b’) considering unit length in words, it can be taken as friction angle of single joint or
) perpendicular2direction; ϕ = friction angle along theForce base available to resist
friction angle sliding
of failure plane (ϕb = ϕ). Now Equation 3,
(2a) 𝛾𝐻 sin (𝑖−𝜃 ) F= as
of wedge. The
𝑊= value of(2a)W and A can be computed cab be re-written as
2 sin 𝑖 sin 𝜃 Force to induce sliding 𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 𝑏 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙 𝑏
2 𝐹𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 𝐴+𝑊𝑏cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙 𝑏 (3)
𝑐 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙
sin(𝑖−𝜃
(𝑖−𝜃))
(4)(3)
𝛾𝐻
𝛾𝐻 2 sin 𝐹
𝑊=
𝑊 =
𝐻sin
22
(2a)
(2a) ...(2a) 𝐹𝑏𝑏 == 𝑏 𝑊𝑊𝑏𝑏sin 𝜃
sin𝜃 𝜃 ...(4)
𝐴= sin 𝑖𝑖sin
(2b) sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑐𝑢 𝐴 + 𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜑 𝑊 sin
sin 𝜃 𝐹 = In Equation 4, only unknown factor is cb (altered cohesion
of rock material. 𝐻 𝑊installation
sin 𝜃
𝐴 = sin 𝜃 (2b)
𝐴 = 𝐻 ...(2b) due to
(2b) of bolts).
γ = unit
sin 𝜃weight of rock material. 𝑐 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙
g = unitor𝐹
𝑐𝑢 𝐴 tan 𝜙
material.(1) To compute
𝐹𝑐𝑏𝑏 −𝑐 𝑏
=𝑗 the value
𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃oftan ,(4)
𝐴 cb𝜙 correlation proposed by
weight
γ = unit = of rock +
weight 𝐹 = = 0.04
𝑊 sin𝑙𝑛𝜃 � 𝑟� +(4)0.24 (5)They propose
γ = unit 𝑊 sin of
weight 𝜃 rock
of rock tanmaterial.
material.
𝜃 Srivastava 𝑏 𝑐 and Singh (2015)
𝑊 sin 𝜃 𝑁 can be used.
𝜃 tan 𝜙 𝑏 The characteristics of joint plane (c u, ϕ, θ) play an 𝑖
(3) the following equation to calculate the cohesion along a
𝜃 important role to resist the failure. The cu and ϕ induced joint in a mass
the resistance as due to provision of passive bolts
𝐹𝑏 = 𝑏 along
𝑐 𝐴+𝑊 𝑏 costhe 𝜃 tanjoint
𝜙 𝑏plane. If the value of c and
(3) u
𝑐 𝑏 −𝑐 𝑗 𝐴𝑟
ϕ gets altered due 𝑊to𝑏 sinsome
𝜃 tan) 𝜙reasons
𝜃 it affected the overall =𝐴0.04 𝑙𝑛 � 𝐴� + 0.24 (5)
𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 2 cos ...(5)
𝜙 𝑏 (3)
𝑏 (𝑖−𝜃 𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐−𝑐
𝐹𝑏 𝑊
stability=of = 𝛾𝐻 sin
𝑐slope.
𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan (2a) 𝐴𝑟𝑖 𝑗== 0.04
𝑏 𝑁
𝑙𝑛 �%𝑟 �(6a)
× 100 + 0.24 (5)
tan 𝜙 𝐹 𝑏 =
(4) Now consider a 𝑊 2
𝑊𝑏𝑏 sin 𝜃
sin 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (3) where c is𝑐 𝑖the cohesion
𝐴 of intact
𝑁 rock material and cis the
𝑏 sinslope
rock 𝜃 reinforced with passive rock i j
cohesionasof a single joint. In Equation 5, Ar is area ratio
bolts (Figure 2). 𝐻 The bolts are installed in the slope at 𝑆
direction𝐴= 𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 (2b)
perpendicularcos 𝜃 tanto 𝜙 failure plane (‘d-b’). Based and N is 𝑁as= 𝐷𝑏 ratio. Both Ar and N are non-dimensional
spacing (6b)
𝐹𝑏 = sin 𝜃 (4) factors 𝐴 𝐴𝑏𝑏
and=expressed as
on the experimental 𝑊 sin
𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜃investigations
𝜙 Srivastava (2015) 𝑟 × 100 % (6a)
𝐴𝑟 𝐹 𝑏
suggested
= 𝑐that the provision
(4) 𝐴𝐴
(5) 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃𝜃 tan 𝜙 of bolt substantially affected 𝑏
𝐴A𝑟b==total×cross % (6a)area of bolts on failure
100section
� � + 0.24
𝑁 𝐹𝑏 γ== unit weight of rock
𝑊 sin
(4) material. 𝐴 ...(6a)plane,
the cohesion and𝑊 friction
sin 𝜃 angle 𝑑 of
2 the joint in a rock mass. 𝑆
𝜋� � 𝑁= 𝑏 (6b)
Hence, in case of rock bolt 𝐴 𝑟 = reinforced
2
𝐴
× 100 % slope the factor of 𝐷𝑏
A = area
𝑆𝑏 of base
𝑐 𝑏 −𝑐
safety (Fb)=𝑗 can be written
0.04 𝑙𝑛 � 𝑟 �as
𝐴
+ 0.24 (5) 𝑁= (6b)
...(6b)
𝐷𝑏
𝑐 𝑏 −𝑐
𝑐 𝑖𝐴𝑗 𝐴𝑟𝑁 Ab= total cross section area of bolts on failure plane,
𝑛 = 0.04 𝜙 𝑏 (5)
𝑙𝑛 �𝑏 cos� 𝜃+tan0.24
𝑆 = �
% (6a) 𝑏
𝑐 𝑏 𝑐−𝑐 𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑖𝐹𝑗 =
𝑏 = 0.04 𝑙𝑛 �
𝑁𝐴𝑟
� + 0.24(3)
(5) ...(3) A𝑆b𝑏= = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
total = �on failure plane,
cross section area of bolts 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑐as𝑖
𝑊𝑏 𝑁 sin 𝜃
A = area of base
as (6b)
A = area of base 3
𝐴as𝑟 = 𝐴𝑏𝑏 × 100 % (6a) 𝐷𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = �𝑣
𝐴
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
ection area of 𝐴
bolts on failure plane,
𝐴 𝑆𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = � ,
𝑟 = 𝐴 × 100 % (6a) 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐴𝑏 𝑐 𝑏 𝐴+𝑊 cos 𝜃 tan 𝜙
𝑆If𝑏 the (cj)�is𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠
cohesion of a single joint = negligible as co
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛
𝑆 × 100 % (6a) (4)
𝐴𝑟 𝐹=𝑏 = = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑁 = 𝑆𝑏𝐴𝑏 𝑊 sin 𝜃 (6b) 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝑁= 𝑏 𝐷 (6b) 𝐷𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 3�𝑣𝑜𝑙
𝐷𝑏
𝑆𝑏
written as
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑁 =�total cross section, area of bolts on failure(6b)
A==
3
b 𝐷 𝑏 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 plane, If the cohesion of a 𝐷 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
single joint (cj) is negligible as=comp
�
A b= total cross section area of bolts on failure plane, 𝐴𝑟
𝑐 𝑏 −𝑐 𝑗 𝐴 𝑐𝑏 = 𝑐𝑖 �0.04 𝑙𝑛 � � + 0.24� (7)
AAb== total
area
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 =cross
of 0.04
base � 𝑟 �area
section
= + 0.24
of (5)on failure plane,
𝑙𝑛3�𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
bolts If the cohesion
written as
𝑁
of a single joint (cj) is negligible as co
𝑐𝑖 𝑁
A = area of base
𝐴
of a single joint
A (c= j)as
area of base as compared to cb and c𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠
is negligible i then the equation (5) can
ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 𝑐 be=re-
written𝑐 as 𝑛 = 𝑙𝑛 �𝐴𝑟 � + 0.24� (7)
�0.04
𝑆 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 , 𝑏 𝑖 𝑚 𝑁
𝑆𝑏𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = �� 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 ,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐴𝑏 θ 𝐴
𝑆 𝐴
= = × 100 %
𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 (6a) = �
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
, 𝑐𝑏 = 𝑐𝑖 �0.04 𝐴𝑙𝑛 � 𝑟 � + 0.24� (7)
𝑏 𝐴 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 3 𝑛 = 𝑁
𝐷𝐷𝑏==𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = =3�𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
�𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
𝐴
� 𝑟 � + 0.24� (7) 𝑚
𝑁 𝑏
𝑆𝑏 𝐴
If 𝑁
the=cohesion of a𝐷single joint (c ) is negligible (6b)
as3
compared to c 𝑛 =
and c
If the cohesion
𝐷 𝑏 Fig. 1of
Plane 𝑏 =
a single
failure 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
ofjoint
a rock slope j
Fig. 1 : Plane failure of a rock slope
= b 𝑚i then
the the
�𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
(cj) is negligible as compared to cb and ci then equation
equation (5) can
(5) can be re-
be re-
Fig. 2 : Slope reinforced with Rock bolts
written
If the
written as cross
Ab=cohesion
total
as of section
a singlearea
jointof(cbolts compared Fig.
on failureasplane,
j) is negligible to c2b Slope
and reinforced with equation
ci then the Rock bolts (5) can be re-

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

written as 𝐴𝐴𝑟
𝑐𝑐𝑏𝑏 A
===𝑐𝑐𝑖 area of𝑙𝑛𝑙𝑛
�0.04
𝑖�0.04
base 0.24� (7)(7)
��𝑟 ��++0.24�
 𝐴𝑟 = × 100 % (6a)
𝐴
𝑆𝑏
=
𝐴𝑏 𝑁
× 100 % (6a) = (6b)
𝐴 𝑆 𝑏 𝐷𝑏
𝑁= (6b)
𝐷𝑏
=
𝑆𝑏 Calculation(6b)
of Factor of Safety for a Rock Slope Reinforced with Passive Bolt under Plane Failure
Ab= total cross section area of bolts on failure plane, 41
𝐷𝑏
Ab= total cross section area of bolts on failure plane,
total cross A = total
section
b = cross
Aarea ofsection
of bolts
area on failurearea
base plane,of bolts on failure plane, (ix) Repeat the step (ii) to (vii) until required value of
A = area of base factor of safety is achieved.
area of base
A = area of base
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 CONCLUSION
𝑆 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑏
𝑆𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
= �ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒 ,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠
= �
,
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
= 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔 = �
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑠 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑒
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 , In the present paper, a methodology for calculating the
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑏𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
factor of safety of rock-bolt reinforced slope under planner
𝐷 𝑏 = 𝐷𝑏 =3𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒
𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = 3 = 3�𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
failure
�𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘 condition is presented. By using cohesion of intact
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑏𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑘𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 = �𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑏𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑘
rock, amount of reinforcement and their spacing the factor
Ifthe
he cohesionIfof athe Ifcohesion
thejoint
single cohesion
cohesion (cof
j) is
of
a asingle
single single
aofnegligible
joint joint (ctoj)) cisis
j) is negligible
(cjoint
as compared (c negligible
b and as theasequation
compared
ci then
negligible compared
asto cbof(5)
and cto
can cbfor
i then
safety be and cslope
i then can
thea equation
re- the
(5)equation
be re-(5) canMethod
cancalculated.
be be re- is simple
j
compared to cb and ci then the equation (5) can be re- and need few steps for calculation. It can be used in the
ten as written as
written
written as as field for quick estimation of reinforcement amount and
𝐴𝑟 spacing when a particular factor of safety is required.
= 𝑐𝑖 �0.04 𝑙𝑛𝑐� = � + 0.24� 𝑙𝑛(7) 𝐴
� 𝑟 �𝑙𝑛+�𝐴0.24� (7)
𝑏𝑁 𝑐𝑐𝑖 �0.04 𝑟
(7)
𝑏 = 𝑐𝑖 �0.04 𝑁 � + 0.24�
𝑁 ...(7) REFERENCES
𝐴
𝑛 = Combining Equations 𝐴
𝑚 𝑛= 𝐴 4 and 7, the required factor safety Bjurstrom, S. 1974. Shear strength of hard rock joints
for slope reinforced 𝑚𝑛 = with passive bolts can be estimated. reinforced by grouted un-tensioned bolts. In Proc. 3rd Int.
𝑚
The step-by-step procedure is given below. Congress on Rock Mech. Denver, Colorado. p. 2B.
(i) First choose a trail spacing (m) between the bolts Ferrero, A.M.M. 1995. The shear strength of reinforced
(Figure 2). rock joints. International Journal of Rock Mechanics
(ii) Using m calculate the number of bolts (n) required and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, 32(6),
to reinforce the plane. pp.595–605. Available at: http://www.sciencedirect.com/
n = A/M science/article/pii/014890629500002X.

(iii) Choose a diameter (d) of bolts and calculated the Grasselli, G. 2005. 3D behaviour of bolted rock joints:
area ratio as Experimental and numerical study. International Journal
of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 42(1), pp.13–
𝑑 2
𝜋� �
2
24.
𝐴𝑟 = × 100 %
𝐴 𝑑 2
Ludvig, B. 1983. Shear tests on rockbolts. In Proceedings
𝜋� �
2
𝐴𝑟 =
𝐴
× 100 % of the International Symposium on Rockbolting, Abisko,
(iv) Calculate Sb as
Balkema. pp. 113–123.

𝑆𝑏 = �
𝐴 McHugh E. and Signer S. 1999. Roof bolt response to
𝑛 shear stress: Laboratory analysis. In Proceedings 18th
(v) Calculate the Db considering the area ‘a-d-j-h-b’ International Conference on Ground Control in Mining
(Figure 2). For calculation of Db, area up to bolt Morgantown. pp. 232–238.
length should be considered. Srivastava, L.P. 2015. Strength Behaviour of Jointed
(vi) Compute N using Sb and Db. Rocks Reinforced with Passive Bolts. PhD Thesis, IIT
Roorkee, India.
(vii) Using value of ci, Ar and N calculate the value
of cb. Srivastava, L.P. and Singh, M. 2015. Effect of fully grouted
passive bolts on joint shear strength parameters in a
(viii) As cb is obtained, compute the Fb using Equation
blocky mass. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering,
4.
48(3), pp.1197–1206.

θ
θ

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR ROCK MECHANICS (ISRM)
The International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)
was founded in Salzburg in 1962 as a result of the
enlargement of the “Salzburger Kreis”. Its foundation
is mainly owed to Prof. Leopold Müller who acted as
President of the Society till September 1966. The ISRM is
a non-profit scientific association supported by the fees of
the members and grants that do not impair its free action.
The Secretariat of ISRM is in Lisbon (Portugal). ISRM has
50 National Groups, including India.
The field of Rock Mechanics is taken to include all studies
relative to the physical and mechanical behaviour of rocks
and rock masses and the applications of this knowledge
for the better understanding of geological processes and
in the fields of Engineering.
The main objectives and purposes of the Society are
to encourage international collaboration and exchange
of ideas and information between Rock Mechanics
practitioners; to encourage teaching, research, and
advancement of knowledge in Rock Mechanics and to
promote high standards of professional practice among
rock engineers so that civil, mining and petroleum
engineering works might be safer, more economic and
less disruptive to the environment.
ISRM BOARD
The Board of the Society in 2015-2019 is composed of:
• the President
• six regional Vice Presidents
• up to three Vice Presidents at Large, at least one of
them from Europe
• for the last two years of the term, the President
Elect
• the Secretary General
For the term of office 2015-2019 the composition is as
follows:
President : which is both useful to the ISRM and produced on time.
Dr EdaFreitas de Quadros, BRAZILIL
Vice President for Africa: followed by Commissions and Joint Commissions”, ISRM
Mr William Joughin, SOUTH AFRICA
Vice President for Asia:
Prof. Seokwon Jeon, KOREA
Vice President for Australasia: • Commission on Application of Geophysics to Rock
Mr Stuart Read, NEW ZEALAND
Vice President for Europe:
Prof. Charlie Chunlin Li, SWEDEN
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
Vice President for North America:
Dr Doug Stead, CANADA
Vice President for South America:
Prof. Sergio A.B. da Fontoura, BRAZIL
Vice President at Large:
Prof. Norikazu Shimizu, JAPAN
Vice President at Large:
Prof. Manchao He, CHINA
Vice President at Large:
Dr PetrKonicek, CZECH REPUBLIC
Secretary General:
Dr Luís Lamas, PORTUGAL
ISRM COMMISSIONS AND Joint Technical
Committees
The ISRM Board has appointed several Commissions for
the period 2015-2019 in order that they may study some
scientific and technical matters of topical interest to the
Society. Other proposals are currently being analysed.
For proposing the creation of a Commission, the proposed
Commission President shall fill up an application form
and send it to the ISRM President, with copy to the
Secretariat.
Please note that all ISRM Commissions only run for the
ISRM Presidential period during which they have been
approved, i.e. for the 4-year period between the ISRM
Congresses. However, some ISRM Commissions can
be extended into a new 4-year period. This form should
be completed by the Commission President (proposed
or existing) for the purpose of starting or continuing an
ISRM Commission.
It is important to note that Commissions can only
be approved if it is clear that the Commission is well
organised and that there will be a significant product –
In accordance with the ISRM By-law No. 3 “Rules to be
Members wishing to participate in the work of any of the
Commissions shall contact the respective President.
The current list of ISRM Commissions is the following:
Engineering
• Commission on Crustal Stress and Earthquake
• Commission on Design Methodology
42
 International Society for Rock Mechanics (ISRM)
• Commission on Discontinuous Deformation Analysis
- DDA
• Commission on Education
• Commission on Evolution of Eurocode 7
• Commission on Grouting
• Commission on Hard Rock Excavation
• Commission on Petroleum Geomechanics
• Commission on Preservation of Ancient Sites
• Commission on Radioactive Waste Disposal
• Commission on Rock Dynamics
• Commission on Soft Rocks
• Commission on Subsea Tunnels
• Commission on Testing Methods
• Commission on Underground Nuclear Power
Plants
• Commission on Underground Research Laboratory
(URL) Networking
Three Joint Technical Committees operate under
the umbrella of the Federation of International Geo-
engineering Societies - FedIGS, which join the effort of
the Sister Societies IAEG, IGS, ISRM and ISSMGE.
The current list of JTCs is the following:
• JTC 1 - Joint Technical Committee on Natural Slopes
and Landslides
• JTC 2 - Representation of Geo-engineering Data in
Electronic Form
• JTC 3 - Education and Training
The ISRM and the International Tunnelling and
Underground Space Association - ITA celebrated a
Memorandum of Understanding, whereby ISRM may
appoint members to selected ITA Working Groups and ITA
may appoint members to selected ISRM Commissions.
Important Positions held by Indians on ISRM
Board
• Dr. T. Ramamurthy, Professor, IIT Delhi, served ISRM
as its Vice President (Asia) during 1987-1991.
• Dr. Manoj Verman served as ISRM Vice President at
Large for the term 2011-2015.
• Dr. V.B. Maji, Assistant Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, IIT Madras, selected for the ISRM Young
Members Presidential Group.
ISRM Fellow
• Dr. T. Ramamurthy, Former Professor, IIT Delhi.
43
Indian Representation on ISRM Commissions
• Dr. Manoj Verman is President on ISRM Commission
on “Hard Rock Excavation”
• Dr. K.G. Sharma, Professor, Department of Civil
Engineering, IIT Delhi is representing on ISRM
Commission on “Education”
• Mr. Asutosh Acharya, SO (F), Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre, is representing on ISRM Commission on
“Radioactive Waste Disposal”
ISRM Awards
Following Four awards have been instituted by ISRM :
The Müller Award
The ISRM Board decided at its Pau meeting in September
1989, to institute an award to honour the memory of Prof.
Leopold Müller, the founder and first President of the
Society. Prof. Müller, as the enthusiastic founder of the
Society, took the initiative to aggregate to the Salzburger
Group scientists from all over the world interested in the
new-born branch of science, rock mechanics, with the
purpose to bring together and to give unity not only to the
scattered knowledge obtained by groups working more
or less isolated on problems posed by rock masses, but
even to knowledge contributed by those pursuing other
aims but with interest in the field.
The award is made once every four years in recognition
of distinguished contributions to the profession of rock
mechanics and rock engineering and consists of a special
Müller Lecture to be delivered at the ISRM International
Congresses, a work of art typical of the culture of the
country hosting the Congress and a silver medallion with
a portrait of Leopold Müller.
The Rocha Medal
The ISRM Board decided at its Tokyo meeting in September
1981, to institute an annual prize with a view to honour the
memory of Past-President Prof. Manuel Rocha. Profiting
from the basis established by Prof. Müller, Prof. Rocha
organized the first ISRM Congress and he was the leader
that was responsible for transforming the international
collaboration carried out in an amateurish way into a
real international scientific association, having for the
purpose settled the fundamental lines that have guided
and supported the ISRM activity along the years.
The Rocha Medal is intended to stimulate young
researchers in the field of rock mechanics. The prize,
a bronze medal and a cash prize, have been annually
awarded since 1982 for an outstanding doctoral thesis
selected by a Committee appointed for the purpose.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
44 ISRM (India) Journal

Starting with the 2010 award, one or two runner up
certificates (Proxime Accessit certificates) may also be
awarded.
ISRM Franklin Lecturer
The ISRM Board decided, in July 2011, to institute the
ISRM Lecture. In November 2012 it was renamed ISRM
Franklin Lecture, in order to honour the memory of
Professor John Franklin, president of the International
Society for Rock Mechanics from 1987 to 1991.
The purpose of the ISRM Franklin Lecture is to recognise
a mid-career ISRM member who has made a significant
contribution to a specific area of rock mechanics and/or
rock engineering. The ISRM Franklin Lecture is given
in every year, at the respective ISRM International
Symposium, except for those years when the 4-yearly
ISRM Congress is held. The selection of the ISRM
Franklin Lecturer is done in accordance with the Guideline
for the ISRM Franklin Lecture.
ISRM Fellows
The ISRM Council decided at its New Delhi meeting
in October 2010, to create the status of Fellow, as the
highest and  most senior grade of membership  of the
ISRM. It is  conferred on individuals, affiliated with the
ISRM, who have achieved outstanding accomplishment
in the field of rock mechanics and/or rock engineering
and who have contributed to the professional community
through the ISRM.
The appointment of ISRM Fellows is made by the ISRM
Board.
The first group of Fellows was inducted in Beijing, during
the 12th International Congress held in October 2011 on
Rock Mechanics.

Forthcoming Events
Event title Start date End date Country City
1st International Conference on Advances in 2018-03-29 2018-03-31 Tunisia Hammamet
Rock Mechanics
EUROCK 2018 - The ISRM European Rock 2018-05-22 2018-05-26 Russia Saint
Mechanics Symposium Petersburg
RockDyn-3 - 3rd International Conference on 2018-06-26 2018-06-27 Norway Trondheim
Rock Dynamics and Applications - An ISRM
Specialised Conference

ARMS10 - The ISRM 10th Asian Rock 2018-10-29 2018-11-03 Singapore Singapore
Mechanics Symposium
ISRM 14th International Congress on Rock 2019-09-13 2019-09-18 Brazil Foz do Iguaçu
Mechanics
YSRM 2019 - The 5th ISRM Young Scholars’ 2019-12-01 2019-12-04 Japan Okinawa
Symposium on Rock Mechanics and REIF
2019 - International Symposium on Rock
Engineering for Innovative Future

EUROCK 2020 - Hard Rock Excavation and 2020-06-00 2020-06-00 Norway Trondheim
Support - An ISRM Regional Symposium

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 ISRM News
New titles launched in the ISRM book
series
The ISRM Book Series comprises significant scientific
publications in rock mechanics and related disciplines.
The aim of the Series is to promote the scientific output
of International Society for Rock Mechanics.
The Series is published on a regular basis, according to
the emergence of noteworthy scientific developments.
Each volume in the Series is prepared independently
and focuses on a topical theme. Volumes are published
on an occasional basis, and include high quality scientific
contributions that have not been published elsewhere
before. Contributions will be rigorously peer-reviewed by
experts in the field, ensuring strong scientific standards,
and are expected to be leading in rock mechanics
and related disciplines. The Series may include edited
volumes, textbooks, reference works and books on
advanced scientific topics.
ISRM members benefit from a 30% discount on ISRM
Book Series volume purchases. Volumes can be ordered
via https://www.crcpress.com/ISRM-Book-Series/book-
series/ISRM.
1. Rock Engineering Risk, by John A. Hudson and Xia-
Ting Feng
2. Time-Dependency in Rock Mechanics and Rock
Engineering, by ÖmerAydan
3. Rock Dynamics, by Omer Aydan
4. Discontinuous Deformation Analysis in Rock
Mechanics Practice, by Yossef H. Hatzor, Guowei
Ma and Gen-hua Shi
5. Back Analysis in Rock Engineering, by Shunsuke
Sakurai
“Rock Mechanics and Engineering”, a
5-volume set edited by Prof. Xia-Ting Feng
The five-volume set “Comprehensive Rock Engineering”,
which was published in 1993, has had an important
influence on the development of rock mechanics and
rock engineering. Significant and extensive advances and
achievements in these fields over the last 20 years now
justify the publishing of a comparable, new compilation.
“Rock Mechanics and Engineering” represents a highly
prestigious, multi-volume work edited by Professor Xia-
Ting Feng, with the editorial advice of Professor John
A. Hudson. This new compilation offers an extremely
wide-ranging and comprehensive overview of the state-
of-the-art in rock mechanics and rock engineering and is
45
composed of peer-reviewed, dedicated contributions by
all the key experts worldwide.
Key features of this set are that it provides a systematic,
global summary of new developments in rock mechanics
and rock engineering practices as well as looking ahead to
future developments in the fields. Contributors are world-
renowned experts in the fields of rock mechanics and rock
engineering, though younger, talented researchers have
also been included.
This multi-volume work sets a new standard for rock
mechanics and engineering compendia and will be the
go-to resource for all engineering professionals and
academics involved in rock mechanics and engineering
for years to come.
The “Rock Mechanics and Engineering” set includes the
following 5 volumes:
1. Principles
2. Laboratory and Field Testing
3. Analysis, Modeling & Design
4. Excavation, Support and Monitoring
5. Surface and Underground Projects
CRC Press offers ISRM members a 30% discount.
Time-Dependency in Rock Mechanics and
Rock Engineering, by ÖmerAydan - a new
book on the ISRM Book Series
This book is concerned with time-dependency in rock
mechanics and rock engineering, whose spectrum is
very wide. While the term “time-dependency” involves
time-dependent behaviour/rate-dependent behaviour
of rocks in a conventional sense, this books attempts
to cover the spectrum as much as possible including
coupled processes of thermal, hydrological and diffusion
in rocks. It presents theoretical formulations, experiments,
numerical formulation and examples of applications. Of
paramount concern is the long-term response and stability
of rock engineering structures, including for instance man-
made and natural slopes and underground facilities such
as tunnels and powerhouses.
The main features of the book are:
• Discusses time-dependence of rocks and its
evaluations
• Deals with degradation of rocks in the long-term and
its modeling
• Examines coupling of heat transport, seepage and
diffusion
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
46 ISRM (India) Journal
• Offers experimental procedures and practical
examples
• Contains numerical techniques and their
applications
Dr. ÖmerAydan studied Mining Engineering at the
Technical University of Istanbul, Turkey, Rock Mechanics
and Excavation Engineering at the University of Newcastle
upon Tyne, UK (M.Sc.), and finally received his Ph.D.
in Geotechnical Engineering from Nagoya University,
Japan. He has worked at seberal Universities in Japan
and is currently Professor at the University of Ryukyus,
Okinawa, Japan. Ömer has played an active role on
numerous ISRM, Rock Mechanics National Group of
Japan committees, and has organized several national
and international conferences. He is Honorary Professor
in Earth Science by Pamukkale University since 2008.
Ground Engineering - Principles and
Practices for Underground Coal Mining,
by Jim Galvin
This new book, authored by Prof. Jim Galvin, teaches
readers ground engineering principles and related
mining and risk management practices associated
with underground coal mining. It establishes the basic
elements of risk management and the fundamental
principles of ground behaviour and then applies these
to the essential building blocks of any underground coal
mining system, comprising excavations, pillars, and
interactions between workings.
Written by an expert in underground coal mining and risk
management, this book will help students and practitioners
gain a deep understanding of the basic principles behind
designing and conducting mining operations that are safe,
efficient, and economically viable.
Digital Library at OnePetro
The ISRM Digital Library makes available to the Rock
Mechanics community worldwide the materials published
in the ISRM Congresses and sponsored Symposia.
The ISRM Digital Library is part of OnePetro, a large
online library managed by the Society of Petroleum
Engineers that hosts contributions from more than
twenty publishing partners. Papers from forty-two ISRM
Congresses and sponsored Symposia, ranging from 1966
to the current year, are available and more are gradually
regularly introduced in the Library.
At the beginning of every year, ISRM individual members
registered on the ISRM website must follow these
instructions to download, at no cost, up to 100 papers
from the ISRM conferences.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018
ISRM Suggested Methods page
ISRM Suggested Methods (SM) are “explanations of
recommended procedures to follow in the various aspects
of rock characterisation, testing and monitoring” (from the
introduction of the ISRM Blue Book) and are written and
reviewed by the ISRM Commission on Testing Methods,
currently chaired by Prof. ResatUlusay, for more than 40
years. All SM have been published in the Rock Mechanics
and Rock Engineering and the International Journal for
Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences journals.
ISRM has compiled two books. The Blue book covers
SM from 1974 to 2006 and the Orange Book from 2007
to 2014. Both books are available for sale, and ISRM
members can download all SM for free.
More recently videos of some SM have been recorded
by the ISRM Commissions on Testing Methods and on
Education, in cooperation with Prof. Seokwon Jeon from
Seoul National University (South Korea) and are also
available on the ISRM site
The web page dedicated to the Suggested Methods
has been enhanced to make them easier to find and
download.
ISRM COURSES
The ISRM has started a collection of courses in the
field of Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, both in
powerpoint and video format. ISRM members are allowed
to use the lectures of the courses for their personal use.
Since access to the lessons is a member previlege, login
is necessary.
The ISRM is extremely grateful to the following contributors
to the downloadable ISRM courses:
• Zhao Jian of the Monash University in Melbourne
of Australia for preparing the Video Course on Key
Principles in Rock Mechanics (2016)
• John Hudson of the Imperial College in UK for
preparing the Course on Key Principles in Rock
Mechanics (2014)
• Erik Eberhardt of the University of British Columbia
in Canada for preparing the ISRM Course on Rock
Mechanics and Rock Engineering (2011)
• Maurice Dusseault of the University of Waterloo
in Canada for preparing the ISRM Course on
Introduction to Petroleum Geomechanic (2008).
Please contact the ISRM Secretariat if you would like
your lectures to be considered for inclusion on the ISRM
website.
 INDIAN NATIONAL GROUP OF
INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR ROCK MECHANICS
GOVERNING COUNCIL FOR THE TERM 2017-2020
President
• Dr. Manoj Verman, Tunnelling& Rock Engineering Expert

Vice Presidents
• Mr. Imran Sayeed, General Manager (Geo-Tech), NHPC Limited
• Dr. H.S. Venkatesh, Head (Excavation Engineering), National Institute of Rock Mechanics

Immediate Past President

• Dr. H.R. Sharma, Specialist Consultant-Hydro

Hon. Member:
• Dr. T. Ramamurthy, Former Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi

Members
• Dr. Harish Bahuguna, Head Environment and Geology Cell, UJVN Limited
• Dr. Debasis Deb, Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
• Dr. R.K. Gupta, Chief Engineer (Design), Central Water Commission
• Ms. Minimol Korulla, Vice President, Maccaferri Environmental Solutions Pvt.Ltd.
• Dr. Florian Krenn, Managing Director, Geoconsult India Pvt. Ltd.
• Mr. M.M. Madan, CEO (Hydro & Renewable Business), Jindal Power Ltd.
• Dr. A. Murli Krishna, Associate Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Guwahati
• Mr. Sanjeev Malik, Executive Director, National Highways & Infrastructure Development Corporation Ltd.
• Dr. V.M.S.R. Murthy, Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Dhanbad
• Mr. G.B. Nagendra, Chief Engineer (Project), Konkan Railway Corporation Ltd.
• Mr. B.K. Ojha, Project Director, NavayugaEngineering Company Ltd.
• Dr. Mahendra Singh, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee
• Dr. Rajendra Singh, Chief Scientist & Head, Strata Mechanics Section, Central Institute of Mine & Fuel
Research
• Dr. L.K. Sinha, Scientist G, Defence Terrain Research Laboratory, Defence Research & Development
Organisation
• Mr. J.S. Rathore, Vice President, IL&FS Transportation Networks Limited
• Dr. Altaf Usmani, Manager, Underground Storage Group, Engineers India Limited
• Dr. H.R. Yadav, Group General Manager (Metro), Rail Vikas Nigam Limited

Member Secretary
• Mr. V.K. Kanjlia, Secretary, Central Board of Irrigation & Power

Treasurer
• Dr. G.P. Patel, Director (WR), Central Board of Irrigation & Power

47 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Indian National Group of ISRM
Indian National Group of ISRM was got registered as the Committee of the International Society for Rock Mechanics
(ISRM), under Societies Registration Act XXI of 1860 in the year 1991 and it represents the International Society for
Rock Mechanics (ISRM) as Indian National Group, and has its Secretariat at the Central Board of Irrigation & Power
(CBIP), Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi.
The Indian national Group of ISRM, presently designated as ISRM (India), has been involved in dissemination of
information on rock mechanics, mining and tunnel engineering by organising symposia, seminars, workshops, and
training courses, both at national as well as international level, in liaison with international organizations, since its
inception in 1991.
The Society aims to fulfill the objectives of ISRM. ISRM (India) is administered by the General Body and the Governing
Council.
The office bearers of the Governing Council of Indian National Group of ISRM, for the term 2017-2020 are :
President : Dr. Manoj Verman, Tunnelling & Rock Engineering Expert and Vice President, International Society for
Rock Mechanics
Vice Presidents : Mr. Imran Sayeed, General Manager (Geo-Tech), NHPC Limited
Dr. H.S. Venkatesh, Head (Excavation Engineering), National Institute of Rock Mechanics
Immediate Past President : Dr. H.R. Sharma, Specialist Consultant – Hydro Power
Member Secretary : Mr. V.K. Kanjlia, Secretary, Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Treasurer : Dr. G.P. Patel, Director (WR), Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Past Presidents
• Dr. T. Ramamurthy, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi
• Dr. A. Varadarajan, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi
• Dr. K.G. Sharma, Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Delhi
ISRM (India) Journal
The Indian National Group of ISRM is publishing a Technical Journal “ISRM (India) Journal”, on half yearly basis
(January – June and July-December), since January 2012.
The aim of the journal is to encourage exchange of ideas and information among rock mechanics practitioners
worldwide. The journal provides an information service to all concerned with Rock Mechanics about the development
of techniques, new trends, experience gained by others to enable updating of knowledge. The original manuscripts that
enhance the level of research and contribute new developments to the Rock Mechanics are encouraged. The journal
is expected to exchange ideas and information between Rock Mechanics practitioners, help researchers, technologist
and policy makers in the key sector of Water Resources, Infrastructure Development (including underground works),
Hydro Power, Mining and Petroleum Engineering, etc. to enhance their understanding of it.
The Journal has both print and online versions.
Events Organised
1. Workshop on Rock Mechanics, May 1980, IIT Delhi
2. Indo Soviet Workshop on Rock Mechanics, July 1984, New Delhi
3. Workshop on Engineering Classification of Rocks, March 1985, New Delhi
4. Workshop on Rock Reinforcement, September 1986
5. Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 17-21 September 1990, New Delhi
6. Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 21-23 November 1991, New Delhi
7. Regional Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 18-21 May 1992, Guwahati
8. Regional Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 16-19 September 1992, Kochi
9. Regional Symposium on Rock Slopes, 7-11 December 1992, New Delhi

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018 48

 Indian National Group of ISRM 49

10. Training Course on Landslide Hazard Mitigation & Management, 5-10 April 1993, Guwahati
11. Regional Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 1-4 November 1993, Udaipur
12. Workshop on Blasting in Opencast Mining, 28 February 1994, Nagpur
13. Training Course on Landslide Hazard Mitigation & Management, 19-23 April 1994, Kozhikode
14. Workshop on Shotcreting, 23-24 November 1994, Vadodara
15. Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 22-25 March 1995, Panaji (Goa)
16. Workshop on Rock Mechanics, 12-14 August 1996, New Delhi
17. Workshop on Rock Mechanics & Tunnelling Techniques, 14-17 April 1999, Shimla
18. Workshop on Rock Mechanics & Tunnelling Techniques”, September 2001, Kathmandu, Nepal
19. ISRM Regional Symposium – Advancing Rock Mechanics Frontiers to Meet the Challenges of 21 Century,
24-27 September 2002, New Delhi
20. Seminar on Productivity and Speed in Tunnelling, 26-27 June 2003, Dehradun
21. International Conference on Accelerated Construction of Hydropower Projects, 15-17 October 2003, Gedu,
Bhutan
22. Conference on Development of Hydro Power Projects – A Prospective Challenge, 20-22 April 2005, Shimla
23. Workshop on Rock Mechanics & Tunnelling Techniques”, 10-12 October 2007, Gangtok
24. Workshop on Rock Mechanics & Tunnelling Techniques”, 24-26 April 2008, Manali
25. Workshop on “Applications of Rock Mechanics – Tools and Techniques”, 15-17 January 2010, Nagpur
(Maharashtra)
26. Seminar on “Rock Engineering”, 8-9 March 2010, New Delhi
27. Seminar on “Meeting Rock Mechanics Challenge of Deep Underground Mining”, 22-24 April 2010, Dhanbad
(Jharkhand)
28. ISRM International Symposium 2010 and 6th Asian Rock Mechanics Symposium, 23-27 October 2010, New
Delhi
29. Workshop on “Construction of Dams and Tunnels in Weak Rocks”, 25-26 May 2011, JUIT, Waknaghat (Solan),
Himachal Pradesh
30. Seminar “Grouting and Deep Mixing”, 25-26 August 2011, New Delhi
31. Seminar on “Slope Stabilization Challenges in Infrastructure Projects”, 20-21 October 2011, New Delhi
32. Seminar on “Geotechnical Challenges in Water Resources Projects”, 19-20 January 2012, Dehradun
(Uttarakhand)
33. International Seminar on “Survey and Investigations of Hydroelectric Projects – Issues and Challenges”,
28th March 2012, New Delhi
34. Seminar on “Ground Control and Improvement”, 20-21 September 2012, New Delhi
35. International Seminar on “Minimizing Geological Uncertainties and Their Effect on Hydroelectric Projects”,
27-28 September 2012, New Delhi
36. Seminar on “Slope Stabilization Challenges in Infrastructure Projects”, 29-30 November 2012, New Delhi
37. Seminar on “Geotechnical Challenges in Infrastructure Projects”, 25-26 April 2013, New Delhi
38. Workshop on “Best Practices & Advancements in Geotechnical Investigations of Hydropower and Infrastructure
Projects”, 24-25 July 2014, New Delhi
39. International Symposium on “Rock India 2014 – Present Technology and Future Challenges” and Workshop on
“Open Pit Mining”, 20-22 August 2014, New Delhi
40. Conference on Challenges and Barriers in Hydropower Development, 18-19 September 2014, Shimla (H.P.)
41. Symposium on Advances in Instrumentation, Geo-Monitoring and Validation, 23-24 July 2015, New Delhi
42. Conclave on Tunneling in Infrastructure Development : Issues and Challenges, 29-30 October 2015, Mumbai.
43. Tunnelling Asia 2017, 9-10 February 2017, Mumbai
44. International Conference on “Underground Excavations in Difficult Ground Conditions: Issues & Challenges”,
27-28 April 2017, New Delhi

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 AIMS AND SCOPE

ISRM (India) Journal is a half yearly journal of the Indian National Group of International Society for Rock
Mechanics (ISRM), which is involved in dissemination of information on rock mechanics, and its related
activities in the field of foundation and abutments of dams, tunnel engineering, mining, underground works,
rock slope stability, road works, etc.
The aim of the journal is to encourage exchange of ideas and information between rock mechanics
practitioners worldwide. The journal provides an information service to all concerned with Rock Mechanics
about the development of techniques, new trends, with a view to enable updating of knowledge. The original
manuscripts that enhance the level of research and contribute new developments to the Rock Mechanics
are encouraged. The journal is expected to provide useful information to researchers, technologist and policy
makers in the key sector of Water Resources, Infrastructure Development (including underground works),
Hydro Power, Mining and Petroleum Engineering, etc. The Journal has both print and online versions.
Being peer-reviewed, the journal publishes original research reports, review papers and communications
screened by the Editorial Board, consisting of renowned experts.
The manuscripts must be unpublished and should not have been submitted for publication elsewhere.
There are no Publication Charges.

EDITORIAL BOARD

• Dr. David Beck, Beck Engineering, AUSTRALIA

• Dr. A.K. Dhawan, Former Director, Central Soil and Materials Research Station, INDIA
• Prof. Xia-Ting Feng, Institute of Rock and Soil Mechanics, The Chinese Academy of Sciences,
CHINA
• Dr. Abdolhadi Ghazvinian, Department of Mining Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Tarbiat-
Modares University, IRAN
• Dr. R.K. Goel, Chief Scientist, Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, Regional Centre,
Roorkee, INDIA
• Dr. R.K. Gupta, Chief Engineer (Design), Central Water Commission
• Dr. Luis Lamas, Secretary General, ISRM and Head of the Foundations and Underground Works
Division, Portuguese National Laboratory of Civil Engineering, PORTUGAL
• Dr. A. Nanda, Deputy General Manager, Engineers India Limited, Sub Surface Projects Division,
INDIA
• Dr. V.R. Sastry, Professor, Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Karnataka
• Dr. H.R. Sharma, Specialist Consultant, Hydro Power, INDIA
• Dr. K.G. Sharma, Former Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Delhi, INDIA
• Dr. Antonio Samaniego, Principal Lecturer (Rock Mechanics), Catholic University of Peru, PERU
• Dr. Yingxin Zhou, Defence Science & Technology Agency, SINGAPORE

Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018 50

 INDIAN NATIONAL GROUP OF ISRM
Introduction
The study of rock mechanics has assumed considerable importance because of its wide application in civil engineering,
more predominantly in water resources, mining engineering and underground structures. For the execution of
multipurpose water resources projects located in complicated geological settings, the significance of rock mechanics
in the design and construction was realised in late 1950s. Despite tremendous alround advancement in technology,
a full understanding of natural forces and phenomena eludes the design engineer. Liberalisation of economy has
facilitated planning and execution of many exciting and complicated projects. These projects require application of
modern principles of rock mechanics, which warrants deliberations and collaboration to facilitate flow of appropriate
technology to enable successful implementation of such projects under a time-bound programme in a cost-effective
manner, conforming to environmental requirements.
The Indian National Group of ISRM - ISRM (India) is involved in dissemination of information regarding rock
mechanics, mining and tunnel engineering by organising symposia, seminars, workshops, and training courses,
both at national as well as international level, in liaison with international organisations.
ISRM (India) represents International Society for Rock Mechanics, founded in Salzburg in 1962, as its Indian
National Group.
Objectives
• to encourage collaboration and exchange of ideas and information between rock mechanics practitioners in
the country
• to encourage teaching, research and advancement of knowledge in the rock mechanics
• to promote high standards of professional practice among rock engineers so that civil, mining and petroleum
engineering works might be safer, more economic and less disruptive to the environment
• to hold events periodically on rock mechanics and rock engineering themes of general interest to the majority
of the membership
• to cooperate with international bodies whose aims are complementary to those of the society
• to encourage the preparation of internationally recognized nomenclature, codes of practice, standard tests and
procedures
• to encourage collaboration with and support of international programme in the field of Rock Mechanics including
cooperation with other organizations in the activities of common interest
• to act as a coordinating National Body of International Society of Rock Mechanics, comprising of members in
the country concerned with Rock Mechanics
Membership Fee
• Individual Membership for 01 calendar year: Rs. 800.00
• Individual Members for 10 calendar years: Rs. 7,500.00
• Individual Members for 20 calendar years: Rs. 14,000.00
• Institutional Membership for 01 calendar year: Rs. 15,000.00
• Institutional Membership for 02 calendar years Rs. 25,000.00
• Institutional Membership for 03 calendar years Rs. 40,000.00
• Institutional Membership for 05 calendar years Rs. 50,000.00
For membership and other details, please contact:
Mr. V.K. Kanjlia
Member Secretary
International Society for Rock Mechanics (India)
C/o Central Board of Irrigation and Power
Plot No. 4, Institutional Area, Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri, New Delhi 110 021
Phone : 91-11-2611 5984/2611 1294, Fax : 91-11-2611 6347
E-mail : uday@cbip.org/kanjlia@cbip.org/cbip@cbip.org

51 Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018

 Workshop
Design and Construction of Pavements
using Geosynthetics
30-31 January 2018, New Delhi
OBJECTIVE
Roads built on soft and expansive soil subgrades suffer
from many problems and deteriorate early. Investigation
on failure of such roads reveal that one of the major
causes of failure could be attributed to penetration of fine
grained soils in base course of the pavement structure
leading to improper drainage and loss of support.
On the other hand, in the hilly areas of the country,
erosion of slopes often leads to catastrophic landslides
disrupting road communication network. To overcome
problems associated with soft ground and soil erosion,
‘Geosynthertics’, both polymeric as well as agro based
variety like Jute/Coir, have become an increasingly
important construction material.
International Geosynthetics Society (India), with its
Secretariat at Central Board of Irrigation & Power (CBIP),
acts as Indian Chapter of International Geosynthetic
Society (IGS) and is contributing in a big way to promote
use of Geosynthetics in the country, through conferences,
training programme, workshops etc. from time to time to
disseminate the latest knowledge on the subject.
The objective of this workshop is to provide an opportunity
for the researchers, academicians, engineers, and
students to learn about geosynthetic applications in road
construction and maintenance.
The workshop deliberations will consist of lectures
by invited speakers and presentation of case studies
contributed to the workshop.
TOPICS
The following will be the topics for discussion during the
workshop:
• Geosynthetics and Their Basic Functions.
• Properties of Geosynthetics, Their Evaluation, and
Selection.
• Use of Geosynthetics in Construction and Maintenance
of Unpaved Roads.
• Use of Geosynthetics in Construction and Maintenance
of Paved Roads.
Volume 7  No. 1  January 2018 52
• Use of Geosynthetics in Slope Stabilization
• General Application Guidelines for Road Construction
and Maintenance
• Case Studies
REGISTRATION FEE
The registration fee payable, per delegate, by the
delegates, including authors of papers, for participation
in the Seminar is as follows:
Members of CBIP/IGS/ INR 9,000/- + GST @18%
ISRM
Others INR 10,000/- + GST @18%
Academic/Research INR 6,000/- + GST @18%
Institutes
Students INR 5,000/- + GST @18%
To avail the student concession in the registration fee,
the registration form/request will have to be submitted
along with a certificate from the head of the Department/
institute.
In case of 4 or more nominations from an organization,
one delegate will be offered complimentary
registration.
The registration fee covers the cost of registration kit,
and lunch and tea in-between the technical sessions. The
participants will have to make their own arrangements for
travel and stay. No financial support will be provided by
the organizers.
Spot registration facilities will also be available,
provided the prior information is received.
WORKSHOP SECRETRAIAT
Central Board of Irrigation & Power
Malcha Marg, Chanakyapuri
New Delhi 110 021
E-mail: uday@cbip.org; cbip@cbip.org