Public Toilets

The Implications In/For Architecture

By Allaa Mokdad
Advisor Deirdre Hennebury

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Architecture
in The Lawrence Technological University
[2017-2018]
Acknowledgments

Thank you to my advisor Dr Deirdre Hennebury for all the guid-

ance and support in this research inquiry; and my mom and
dad and the rest of the Mokdads for all their support during
the process.
Preface

“The toilet is the fundamental zone of interac-

tion-on the most intimate level-between humans

and architecture. It is the architectural space in
which bodies are replenished, inspected, and culti-
vated, and where one is left alone for private re-
flection- to develop and affirm identity”
- Koolhaas, 2014
Content

Introduction
1 Abstract
2 Research Method
3 Nomenclature
4 Guiding Questions

Theory
5-6 Public Toilet
7 Public
8 Private
9 Toilet

Analysis
10 Introduction
11-12 Timeline
13 Definitions
14-24 London
25-31 Paris
32-38 New York
39 Conclusion
40-41 References
Abstract

A reflection of societal values, the public toilet

is a politicized space that provides sanitation in
the public realm. In addition to its role in sup-
porting a basic human need through sanitation
provision, the public toilet is also a space that
provides solidarity in the face of congestion, a
place where one develops and affirms identity
[Koolhaas, 2014].

In the nineteenth century through the twen-

ty-first century, the public toilet has shifted from
an external urban condition to an interiorized
urban issue. It once stood as a symbol of moder-
nity in the congested streets of industrial cities,
and progressed to be prominently featured in ac-
cessibility debates. As a design object with many
significant facets, the public toilet continues to
appear on the foreground of polarizing trends
pertaining to social values.

This thesis is a historic-interpretive examination

of the public toilet in the last two centuries that
reconsiders the boundaries of architectural de-
sign. The research informs our understanding of
the public toilet in London, Paris, and New York
through the lens of hygiene, policy, and design.
Analyzing the similar urban conditions with vary-
ing political implication reveals compelling trends
in architecture. The project reflects on the pol-
itics of providing public amenities, the impact
of the public toilets in the social realm, and the
significance of the role of the architect in the life
of the public toilet moving into the twenty-first
century.
1
Research Method

The overarching research method employed in

both semesters has been Interpretive-Historical
with an emphasis on evidence found in printed
and digital sources including text, maps, photo-
graphs, and drawings. The majority of the tex-
tual material is secondary content though some
primary sources have been used, as well. Imag-
es and photographs are drawn from a variety of
sources including the author’s own collection.
The research was a triangulated approach with
readings taking tangents into a diverse range
of fields from policy and legislations to urban
design studies and to epidemiology. In order
to organize this content, a Timeline was devel-
oped to create the scaffolding for the findings
and begin to form connections between the
different fields. In this way, the Timeline serves
as a comprehensible diagram of the literature
review and it reveals particular moments or
“pressure points” that are further investigated
in three categories, hygiene, policy, and design
considerations come together in compelling
ways to influence the space of the public toilet.

Three case studies were selected based on the

pressure points identified in the Timeline de-
veloped in the first semester. The categories we
then applied in three individual Timelines curat-
ed for each case study in the second semester.
The Timelines in semester two are diagrammed
in an intertwined network of Policy, Hygiene,
and Design implications; which were further
analyzed and compared to reveal patterns and
trends across the three cities.

Audience
The primary audience for this research is tar-
geted towards designers and architects of the
public realm; as well as cultural historians, poli-
cy makers, and civic minded design theorist.
2
Nomenclature

Powder Room
Little Girl’s Room
Ladies’ Room
Men’s Room
Restroom
Washroom
Lounge
Can
John
Crapper
Head
Lavatory
Bathroom
Pot
Throne
Comfort Station
Arsenal
Toilet
Ajax
Relieving Stations
The Loo
Water Closet
Comfort Room
Gentlemen’s Room
Public Waiting Rooms
3
Guiding Questions

Can a study of historical movements in

public toilets ameliorate design changes
occurring in the twenty-first century public
toilet?
With an emphasis on pragmatic, human
needs, and specifically the public toilet,
how has architecture been leveraged
historically in the context of polarizing
trends?

4
Theory
Public Toilet
A public toilet is a communal space that pro-
vides hygiene and sanitation in the social
realm. Though simple toilets date back to early
civilizations in Mesopotamia, the public latrine
was a staple of the Roman City. The Roman
period is a time when public toilets were most
celebrated. They were constructed with simi-
lar significance to other public buildings such
as schools, churches, and government build-
ings. While the Roman periods offered public
facilities, they had not yet associate water with
diseases, hence the public toilets spread more
germs than actually providing a hygienic space.
The public latrine however provided a com-
munal space where people often socialized.
Cleansing was considered a collective activity,
using a communal stick with a sponge attached
to the head of the stick used to clean up af-
ter themselves. The public latrine was at large
a communal place that provided hygiene and
sanitation. While the Romans provided the first
public facilities for men, introducing public uri-
nals in the streets would not appear again until
the nineteenth century.
The ultimate realization of the public toilet
was when its introduction into the nineteenth
century metropolis as an object of modernity,
addressing issues of hygiene and sanitation,
which in turn contributed to the growth and
prosperity of the nineteenth century city. The
economic boost due to the industrial revolu-
tion and the end of WWII brought about many
improvements to the nineteenth century city
plans. Beautifying streets included adding
lights and street furniture, and other public
amenities, including the public toilet. Its intro-
duction into the city fabric modernized ideas of
hygiene and sanitation. As the public toilet be-
came more inclusive in the twentieth century,
it also became more standardized and
5
eventually became an amenity embedded in
other establishments as cities continued to
evolve.
In the twentieth century, the public toilet has
modernized social views of access and inclu-
sion. The public toilet has been accused of
discrimination against groups including but
not limited to women and people with disabil-
ities. The public toilet has since questioned
social values and norms, featuring in conten-
tious debated on issues of identity and access.
The first public toilets designed to address is-
sues of access in the nineteenth century were
introduced in varying conditions. Some, like
the ones in Paris were inclusive to all genders.
Some, however introduced in the nineteenth
century required separation between genders,
the separate spheres ideology of gender was
considered inherently carried into the twenti-
eth and twenty-first century. Women played a
much smaller role in society, and that was re-
flected by the lack of public toilets for women,
which is still often the case in the twenty-first
century [Greed, 2001]. The campaign for pub-
lic lavatories for women was a key component
of the Suffragette Movement beginning in the
nineteenth century, almost with equal impor-
tance to attaining the right to vote. Many other
groups saw themselves advocating for a civic
role in society through access to the public
toilet, and similar issues of access continued
to develop based on varying trends. In some
parts of the United States, up until 1960s there
were color segregated toilets for people [Pen-
ner, 2013]. Other access issues also surfaced
during the 1990s in North America for people
with disabilities and their rights to access pub-
lic facilities. Accessibility rights were eventually
granted and codes have been modified since
the early 1990s.
Theory
Public Toilet
Nearly all new public toilets are designed to
meet code requirements today.

Issues of access continue to reappear in the

twenty-first century, a pivotal moment for the
public toilet as it comes to face with polarizing
social views of privacy and identity. The most
recent issue of access question identity and
gender politics with the LGBT and Transgender
population, bringing to the foreground issues
of privacy.

Urbanistically the public toilet has shifted from

a public free standing object, to one embed-
ded in private facilities, and has evolved in
some cases to be a public space embedded in
a private establishment. It has become an in-
teriorized urban condition particularly since its
association with the private in public, not only
on an urban scale, but also on an architectur-
al scale with issues of individuality and privacy
emerging in the public realm.

6
Theory
Public
The concept of publicness brings with it an el- The development of public toilets and personal
ement of strangeness to the surroundings, in- hygiene are directly in relation to urbanization
cluding other users, and the level of hygiene and public health awareness and its relation-
which relates to a person’s concern regarding ship to sanitation. People approach the space
privacy. from a personal point as the public toilet is util-
itarian in nature, but are instead met with larg-
The private nature of a toilet makes public toi- er social issues that are beyond the individual,
lets a complex spaces, however privacy was a micro need meeting a macro issue of exclu-
never a concern prior to the sixteenth cen- sion based on social factors.
tury, as regions became more urbanized and
developed, and people hadn’t yet established
etiquettes for going in public. Privacy in the
face of defecation particularly hadn’t estab-
lished real boundaries until the introduction
of public toilets. As issues of hygiene and san-
itation began to emerge in the mid eighteenth
century Europe and North America, the idea
of bathing had been a new concept that was
associated with wealth and self-awareness. In
New York, public baths allowed people to clean
themselves and elevate the negative stigma at-
tached to the poor. In Europe, ideas around hy-
giene emerged in the upper class first, bathing
was a new art associated with wealth. These
practices eventually moved down the chain of
classes in the late eighteenth century. By the
time the public toilet was reintroduced into
the city, public urination and defecation had
still been a frequent scene in the streets of
some developed cities. In 1860s France, public
urinals were introduced to alleviate the city of
public urinations. Public toilets were only in-
troduced after public urinals, in an effort to be
more inclusive; however the demand stemmed
from a public urination problem which resulted
to some capacity in a new layer of privacy be-
ing introduced in the public realm.

7
Theory
Private
The discrete nature of public toilets extends
into the study of the topic itself. The language
is used to conceal the reality of toilets and of-
ten it goes farther beyond that. Recognizing
some of the social stigmas behind the topic
informs our understanding of the research na-
ture of the public toilet.
During the Roman Empire when the public
latrine was first introduced, the only known
scholars to write on the subject used satirical
tones [Kira, 1969]. Although there were many
advancements made in the life of the public
toilet, up until the 1960s countries like En-
gland went as far as not publishing words such
as “water-closet” and “having to go” in news-
papers as it was considered inappropriate. A
public health campaign also in England was
stymied because newspapers refused to print
key words such as “water closet” and “bowel
movement”. Around the same time in the Unit-
ed States, plumbing fixtures also would not be
advertised.
A more tangible example is the space program
authorities from NASA in the United States,
who ruled out the idea of throwing out solid
body waste from the capsule ruling it as “dip-
lomatically unacceptable, while other waste
materials were, as they vaporized and disap-
peared in space. A more contemporary per-
ception of toilet and waste is more accepting,
as civilization has overcome many issues of
hygiene and sanitation, and the technology is
often celebrated. The public toilet was rein-
troduced in the form of street furniture in the
nineteenth century. Its impact on the cities
however outstretched its capacity of simply
providing hygiene and sanitation. In 1917 Mar-
cel Duchamp’s urinal was put on display in the
New York Independents show, and in 2014 ar-
chitect Rem Koolhaas dedicated entire exhibit
to the toilet during the Venice Biennially.
8
Theory
Toilet
There are conflicting dates as to when the first
modern toilet flush was invented, however the
closest toilet flush to evolve to be linked to a
larger sewer system dates back to the sixteenth
century. In 1596, Sir John Harrington invented
the modern lavatory using water, it reduced
stench and filth, offered mostly in wealthier
homes. During this period, many of the toi-
lets being invented served a primary purpose
which was the elimination of the smell, they
had not yet been connected to sewer lines.
During the Victorian period, many toilets were
ornate and decorative in design, but had not
yet been connected to sewer lines. As the cen-
turies progressed, western countries contin-
ued to develop the toilet design infrastructure
developed in cities. As sewer lines began to be
added, the toilet design changed consequently,
and in extreme cases, the sewer systems had
been expanded to accommodate changes to
the toilet flush.
However, as the toilet became more adaptive
to sewer systems in the early nineteenth cen-
tury, by mid-century the toilet flush had been
advanced to successfully flush down what
amounted to ten apples, a sponge, and three
crumpled air vessels. This trend continued up
until the start of the twenty-first century. In the
United States, as early as the 2000s, American
Standard a highly standardized toilet company
launched its high-end Champion range of toi-
lets, with powerful flushes as the selling feature
with the slogan “Working Towards a Clog-Free
Nation” [George, 1969], American Standard
continued to work to develop a clogging rep-
utation to their flush toilets. Contemporary
views on the flush system have been guided
towards utilizing less water, as sewer systems
are once again being reconsidered.
9
The flush has evolved over the centuries as a
result of the changes occurring in response to
technological changes. Penner considers the
toilet as an object of technology, where “Soci-
ety and technology are bound in overlapping
and intertwined networks that mutually shape
each other”[Penner, 2013]
The materials used in the design of public toi-
lets reflects its time considering the impacts of
a regulated space. Nineteenth century public
toilets were most commonly designed with uri-
nals, and small spaces enough to stand but not
to sit. In some parts of Europe, they were made
of ornate steel, and were not connected to in-
frastructure as it had not yet been developed.
The public toilets in the next fifty years would
be a larger structure designed with wood on
the exterior, with the modern day toilet con-
nected to sewer lines. By the twentieth centu-
ry, public toilets were made of concrete, stone,
and brick materials, becoming larger structures
as they became more inclusive. Public toilets
also began to appear embedded in interior es-
tablishments. This reflected in the design of
the interior of the space, which included dec-
orative tile and copper. Towards the end of the
century, public toilets were being built using
more contemporary material such as concrete
and brick. In the twenty-first century, the pub-
lic toilet is predominantly considered as a tem-
porary plastic and metal structure that is con-
nected to infrastructure. It is automated, and
mapped out on digital printed sources.
Analysis
Introduction
The design of the public toilet is driven by ex-
ternal developments that extend beyond the
scope of architectural design, in many capac-
ities it is the final outcome. The design of the
toilets has been a consequence of many factors
including hygiene and infrastructure changes,
and policy and cultural value shifts. The public
toilet then has the capacity to become a tool in
figuring out how societies function, what they
value, and how they separate people from one
another, and other trade-offs that come to be
made [Molotch/Noren, 2010]. Understanding
the public toilet from design, hygiene and pol-
icy perspective helps to formulate a compre-
hensive understanding of the changes occur-
ring in the public toilet.

10
Analysis Stone Age
10,000 to 2100 BC
Initial Overall Timeline
First known Toilets
Skara Brae -Neolithic se�lement on
the Bay of Skaill, Orkney Bronze Age
Mycenaean
Islands,Scotland Greece
1600 BC — 395 AD
Delphic Greece
1200 — 700 BC
900 BC — 100 AD Phrygian / Hi�te
Delian Greece
625 BC — 1000 AD
509 — 27 BC Magna Graecia
Roman Republic
62 AD
292 BC — 700s AD Roman,Oplon�s
Biblical, New Testament 122 — 700 AD

79 AD Roman,
Imperial Roman, Britannia

Pompeii
144 public toilets 305 — 311 AD
Late Roman, Thessaloniki
1402 — 1921
Crusader 909 — 1171
Castle of Saint Peter at Halicarnassus, Fa�mid
Asia Minor Marble kilga or water jar stand
11th through the first half of the 12th
century Either Egypt or Syria
1140 — 1518
Medieval Scotland
1465 — 1853
No Privacy < 15th Century Imperial O�oman
1452- 1519 Leonardo Da Vinci
1516 “The seat of the
Codex Atlan�cus, on the Romoran�n toilet:
First lavatory, Mar�n Luther latrine should be able to swivel like
1596 the turns�le in a convent and return
Sir John Harrington to its ini�al posi�on by the use of a
invented the modern counterweight; and the ceiling
lavatory using water should have many holes in it so that
one would be able to breathe.”
Reduced stench and filth
1592 First Flush
1583
1650 Victorian period
toilets were at their most ornate and
decora�ve. Patents for siphonic flushes
were in demand.
siphonic flushes, for example, were being
requested

1660
1775 S-Trap
A popular theory suggests
that high heels date from the �me
when chamber pot contents were

1850s
AlexanderCummings fling from the window landing on
the streets.

In the Time
of Cholera
Mid 1800s
Waterborne diseases being realized
1884
Health Exhibi�on awards George Jennings’s Pedestal Vase gold medal. It was designed successfully
flush down what amounted to ten apples, sponge, and three crumpled air vessels.

1778
Joseph Brama improved on the flushing toilet
Le Corbusier 1886-1965
“one of the most beau�ful
objects industry has ever 1851
invented”; Great Exhibi�on of London, Monkey
Closet
1852
Illegal to draw water from the river in London

1895 George Jennings

Here I sit Broken-hearted, came to shit but only farted, then

one day I took a chance, tried to fart and shit my pants

1887
Chap. 0103. An Act To
Secure Proper Sanitary
Provisions In
Factories And Workshops.
Sex segrega�on law
passed in Massachuse�s
43 States followed suit by 1920s
1940 1936 Public Health Act 1936 UK
4343 New Yorkers served by 1 public toilet
Roosevelt 1910
11
According to the U.S Census Bureau, American Restroom Associa�on

1942 “Ought to know how to dispose of sewage in some other

Western Electric Company Plant in Bal�more, Maryland way than pu�ng it into the drinking water.”(George, 1969)
1935 American Standards
1960s Beijing All public toilets are
banned Property na�onalized under Party
Communist
1950s
1970 Sulabh Shauchalaya Latrine India
Analysis Here I sit Broken-hearted, came to shit but only farted, then
one day I took a chance, tried to fart and shit my pants

Initial Overall Timeline

1887
Chap. 0103. An Act To
Secure Proper Sanitary
Provisions In
Factories And Workshops.
Sex segrega�on law
passed in Massachuse�s
43 States followed suit by 1920s
1940 1936 Public Health Act 1936 UK
4343 New Yorkers served by 1 public toilet
According to the U.S Census Bureau, American Restroom Associa�on
Roosevelt 1910
1942 “Ought to know how to dispose of sewage in some other
Western Electric Company Plant in Bal�more, Maryland way than pu�ng it into the drinking water.”(George, 1969)
1935 American Standards
1960s Beijing All public toilets are
banned Property na�onalized under Party
Communist

1973 Zimbabwe uBVIP

1950s
1970 Sulabh Shauchalaya Latrine India
EPAct Energy Policy Act 1992
was passed. It required all new toilets within two years to flushing with a max of six For decades 3.5 gallons of water was used per flush, some using up to 5 gallons, nearly half the household’s water supply. By now the
concept of water conserva�on began to formulate. (George, 2008)
liters or 15 gallons. (George, 1969)

The speed of change was not in par with produc�on lines, this resulted in rushed
Public Toilet Revolu�on in China 1995 and flawed toilet designs. (George, 2008)

1980s A million Shanghai households s�ll had “honey buckets” or night-stools

Japan- TOTO’s Washlet
Only 60 years prior to the washlet Japan was a pit latrine na�on.
People defecated by squa�ng. They did not use water to cleanse them-
selves, but paper or stone or s�cks. They did not know what a bidet was,
nor did they care. Today, only 3 percent of toilets
1990
produced in Japan are squat types. (George, 1696) WSSCC, Global Movement
1993
India:Employment of Manual Scavengers and Construc�on of Dry Latrines
(Prohibi�on) Act (No. 46 of 1993)

1995 Rem Koolhaas, [S,M,L,XL] “Toilets:

Toilets in modern water closets rise
up from the floor like white water lilies. The architect does all he
Disabili�es Act Passed in several countries can to make the body forget how paltry it is, and to make man
1990 in the United States ignore what happens to his intes�nal wastes a�er the water from
1990 in the UK the tank flushed them down the drain. Even though the sewer
2005 in Ontario pipelines reach far into our houses with their tentacles, they are
2005 France carefully hidden from view, and we are happily ignorant of the
invisible Venis of shit underlying our bathrooms, bedrooms, dance
halls, and parliaments.
1996 Public Toilet Act Bri�sh Columbia
1998
Jack Sim Singaporean Restroom Associa�on 1999 World Toilet Organiza�on
2000s
Hygiene Cur�s & Biran 2001 According to the environmental group Riverkeeper, the average weekly polluted discharge is about 500
million gallons, the amount of 2,175 Olympic-sized swimming pools.(George, 1969)

World Toilet Organiza�on

American Standard launch high-end Champion range of toilets, powerful flush as the selling feature with the slogan
“Working Towards a Clog-Free Na�on.” (George, 1969)

World Toilet College (China, Indonesia, India, Singapore) 2005 2003American Standard
A clogging reputa�on developed. A plunger is prac�cally part of the decor. (George, 2008)

2004
The Lesser S�nk-London
2006 London: 600,000 tons of raw sewage poured into the Thames. Hundreds of fish died.(George, 1969)
Les Sanise�es in France becomes free

2008
1.7 million people have no sanita�on in the US
(George, 2008)

TIME: 2009 NASA Toilet Design

“It’s Time to Kill the Flush Toilet“
Gates Founda�on
increase rate to 1:112,500 toilet per person in New York

2012
Sit or Squat app
by Charmin 2015 UN 17 Goals
According to studies, paper is considered to be the lest efficient medium of
cleaning the dir�est part of the body.(George,1969)
Nasa’s Water Recovery System

2018
Transgender & LGBT popula�on begin to win safe
NOV 19 UN World Toilet Day
Average person gets rid of 130 grams of defecate per day
access rights to public toilets 1/3 people do not have access to toilets
1 Billion people s�ll defecate out in the open

12
Analysis
Definitions
Hygiene [H]
The hygiene category refers to urban
conditions, including sewer and other
infrastructure developments, the social
value of sanitation, as well as overarch-
ing issues of epidemiology.

Policy [P]
The policy category refers to legislations,
as well as political and social movements
and that overlap with issues pertaining
to the public toilet.

Design [D]
The design category refers to the archi-
tectural space of the public toilet, as
well as the built form, material, technol-
ogy use, and adaptability.

13
 Analysis
London, Nineteenth - Twenty-First Century

1851
In the 1800s, a common house hold item was England was to host the
The Chamber Pot. The word loo comes from Great Exhibi�on of 1851
the phrase “gardez l’eau!” the an�-social act held at Hyde Park, held in
of throwing the chamber pots content out of
the windows and onto the streets. The toilet
had been invented at this point, Sir John
1840s the cast and Iron and
plate-glass structure of
the Crystal Palace.
Harrington published the book “The Between the 1840s and 1850s,
Metamorphosis of Ajax” in 1596, designed the landscape of the city changed
the flushing toilet, however it was royals and as railway investments were
1800s

London
noblemen. Before there were sewage and added. Railway companies o�en Prior to the
infrastructure, nightsoil or nightmen would located the railway systems in exhibi�on, flushing a
Nineteenth Century London grew from a popula�on of gather the wastes from homes and would middle to lower class areas, toilet was restricted
900,000 in 1801, to over 2,363,000 in 1851, to more than take them out to the outskirts of London considering a means of clearance to the wealthy who
doubling by the end of the century reaching 4.5 million where they were used for agriculture. Howev- that the working class could were able to afford
inhabitants. It was the leading city in economy and by er it was also dumped in the Thames River, benefit from. modern technology.
contamina�ng the water as well as adding to
1885 it was recognized as one of the largest ci�es in the the stench that festered in the city. Fig 8C
world, London had become the commercial and financial Fig 2C
heart of England. Workers s�ll lived in the city in many
slums and structures that dated back to the 1666 while
some were converted to business buildings. As the Social Reformer Sir Edwin Chadwick
popula�on grew, sanitary condi�ons in the city deterio- tried to be bring clean air, adequate
rated. London was infamously filthy; conges�on in the sanita�on, and minimal standards of
city con�nued to elevate, makeshi� drains poured raw living to industrial ci�es, his “Report on
the Sanitary Condi�on of the Laboring The Public Health Act of 1848
sewage right into the streets and the Thames River, it had brought change to the water
Popula�on of Great Britain” was
not yet established basic infrastructure. published in 1842 urging to purify closet, as they were now required
Fig 1C
1848
dwellings, streets and the river. These to be connected to drainage.
changes would involve dispatching
London’s water in the direc�on of its
water supply. By 1850s London had
1842 begun to expand its sewage system.

At the Great Exhibi�on, a plumber

named George Jennings installed
Monkey Closets in the Re�ring Rooms
of the Palace. He introduced the
concept of Pay a Penny, which were the
first public toilets the visitors had ever
seen causing a great deal of excitement.
827,280 visitors paid one penny each to
use the toilets, receiving clean seat,
towel, comb, and a shoe shine. The
Fig 5C toilets were scheduled to close a�er the
exhibi�on ended, however Jennings
persuaded some of the organizers to
keep them open, which ended up
genera�ng roughly 1000 pounds a year.
These public toilets however were
provided for men only, as women
played smaller roles in the social realm.
Fig 3C Fig 10C

1854 1858 1855

In 1855, the first undergro
In 1854, John Snow made the ‘permanent’ public toilet
The Cholera epidemic led open with iron railing
observa�on of the mortality parliament to sanc�on a
among people using the designed in the Victorian s
comprehensive sewage plan most of the toilets undergro
pump in broad street during by Joseph Bazalge�e that
the 1854 cholera epidemic, date between 1884 and 19
protected London’s water More underground facili�es w
he theorized that water from supply from its sewage.
the pipes were being included later in the 1960s as
Bazalge�e’s sewage plan of a “motorway and pedest
polluted by leaked contents would ease the way of
into the water, however underpass program.” [Gre
growth and provide 2001] Later version of the pu
snows conclusions were infrastructure into the
dismissed. Snow’s map is a toilet were made of mar
twen�eth and twenty-first copper, and finished with
historic indica�ve of century.
waterborne diseases, as prior ceramics and �les. Later in
to Snow the connec�on was twenty-first century these pu
not realized. toilets would be converted
cafes and restaurants.

Prior to the
exhibi�on, flushing a
toilet was restricted
to the wealthy who
were able to afford
modern technology.

Fig 12C
Fig 4C Fig 16C

1800s-The suffrage�e movement

had begun in 1832, by now
women had been advoca�ng for
Cholera remained the right to access public toilets,
an issue in the it was considered an important
congested city. step in a�aining rights in the
London would face public realm. Victorian ac�vist
another outbreak groups for public facili�es, move
in 1854. contemporary organiza�ons
include Women’s Ini�a�ve which
advocate for equity in public
toilet provision.
Fig 11C

At the Great Exhibi�on, a plumber

1800s
named George Jennings installed
Monkey Closets in the Re�ring Rooms
of the Palace. He introduced the
concept of Pay a Penny, which were the
first public toilets the visitors had ever
seen causing a great deal of excitement.
827,280 visitors paid one penny each to
use the toilets, receiving clean seat,
towel, comb, and a shoe shine. The
toilets were scheduled to close a�er the The success of the Crystal Palace Fig 7C
exhibi�on ended, however Jennings toilets transcended into the
persuaded some of the organizers to streets as public toilers started to
keep them open, which ended up appear. By 1852 there had been
genera�ng roughly 1000 pounds a year. 95 public toilet facili�es. The
These public toilets however were toilets were called “Public Wai�ng
provided for men only, as women Rooms” made of a water closet
played smaller roles in the social realm. surrounded in wooden material.
Fig 9C

1852

1855
In 1855, the first underground
‘permanent’ public toilet was
open with iron railing and
designed in the Victorian style,
most of the toilets underground
date between 1884 and 1925.
More underground facili�es were
included later in the 1960s as part
of a “motorway and pedestrian
underpass program.” [Greed, A toilet design by Crapper’s
2001] Later version of the public flushing system was
toilet were made of marble, approved by the govern-
copper, and finished with fine ment and became the
ceramics and �les. Later in the standard, this was the switch
twenty-first century these public
toilets would be converted into
from cesspools to flush
toilets, which required more
sewers to be built.
1971
cafes and restaurants.
Fig 6C 1928 The pay a penny
concept remained in 1991
In 1885, the Thames 1893 1928- survey for
public provision in
use un�l 1971 when
the currency infla�ons A public sur
London Sch
River was coined the occurred.
“Great S�nk”, filled with 1893 More London showed Tropical Med
metropolitan roughing permanent there were 233 public toile
sewage and the hot dry public toilets public toilets for prior to 191
summer exposed the were added. men and 184 for and 71 built
river’s condi�on. women. total of 700
350 accomm
Fig 13C 125 to those
Fig 12C

Fig 15C

ement In 1891, there was a

The toilets charged an entrance growth in the number of 1936 Public Health Act in the UK gave
now granted rights for authori�es to
ng for fee and charged more for public toilets a�er the By the end of the twen�eth century,
washing or clothes brushing. 1891 Public Health Act provide public toilets and charge for
oilets, their usage, with the excep�on of male there had been a decline of public
ortant There were two classes of toilets, in London, which toilets contributed to many factors.
1872- Changes to the design of allowed local authori�es urinals which was thought would
n the the gentlemen and a regular one. toilet occurred due to The
They were adver�sed in The to use public roads as increase public urina�on if charges
c�vist Metropolitan Water Act of were implemented. This would be The Aids Epidemic in the 1980s added
move Times. The designs however did property for the a layer of fear in Aids transmission in
1872, which stated that development of public protested by women ac�vist groups
a�ons not live long, as the flushing sewage systems should be public toilets.
technique had not yet been toilets. later on in the century. Women’s an
which water-based. ac�vist group, as there remained an As well, associated cost of mainte-
public mastered.
1891 imbalanced number of public toilets nance remains higher than the
average cost of maintaining street
1872
for women than for men.
furniture, and remains less of a
1936 priority overall.

1980

By 1895 the flush had

improved and Jennings
Company con�nued to add
public toilets in 36 Bri�sh
towns among other places
including Paris, Florence,
Berlin, Madrid, Sydney, and
South America.

Fig 14C
1895

2018
2009
In 2009, The mayor of
London launched a scheme
to open up public toilets in
established where non
y
1991 2000s consumers could use the
n
n
In the 1990, the Transgender popula-
�on began to advocate for their right
By the end of the early 21st
century, the public toilet had
facili�es called Community
Toilet Scheme which s�ll
exists today. the Community
2013
ns A public survey undertaken by the
London School of Hygiene and to public services including the become associated with drug Toilet Scheme has 31 In 2001, World Toilet Day was
public toilet. The main issues relate In 2014 Bri�sh authori�es
Tropical Medicine showed that 281 usage, security issues, sexual par�cipants in London. established by the World Toilet Organiza- published The Great Bri�sh Public
public toilets were constructed to discrimina�on against gender and ac�vity, hygiene, and other �on, and was declared an Official UN day
ques�oning iden�ty. This issue is Toilet Map on World Toilet day,
prior to 1918, 178 during the war, illegal trends. The use of public in 2013. The UN declared World Toilet which allowed people to find the
and 71 built a�er 1940. By 1991, a par�cularly conten�ous as opposing toilets was dropping. 2000- Day to raise awareness of some of the
groups argue that redesigning public nearest public toilet to them,
total of 700 public toilet, of which 486 public toilets, 2004- global issues pertaining to toilets around gathering data from Freedom of
350 accommodated disability, and toilets to accommodate the dropped to 419. the world.
transgender popula�on can be a Informa�on requests, council
125 to those with infants. websites, local government open
security concern.
data. It is the largest public toilet
database in the country, and
offers informa�on on over 8,000
public toilets.

The private sector has

responded to the lack
By the end of the twen�eth century, In 2011- The city of London of ameni�es. AirPnP
there had been a decline of public In 2005 the general implemented budget cuts, of allows people to put
toilets contributed to many factors. consensus was that there which the public toilets were first their toilets up for
was a shortage of to be on the list as maintenance rent. Other compa-
The Aids Epidemic in the 1980s added In 1995 the Disability func�oning public toilets costs were of the highest. nies are pu�ng up
a layer of fear in Aids transmission in
With all these public health acts being
Discrimina�on Act was in London. Between Sparing only 401 local authority public toilets in places
public toilets.
incorporated into water and sewage,
passed in the UK, which 2005-2015 50% of public maintained public toilets, which to improve business.
created a path for the public toilet to be
toilets have shut down. Fig 19C
As well, associated cost of mainte- invented and reinvented as it was part of a would prevent discrimi- is the current standing number.
nance remains higher than the larger scheme that was changing the city na�on against disabled
average cost of maintaining street
furniture, and remains less of a
fabric. In 1990 Public toilet were
renovated as part of the conser-
people. This brought
many changes to the 2011
priority overall. va�on improvements done to the special design of the
city, considering the public toilets toilet.
were designed in the Victorian
1980 and Edwardian in style, today
they are more u�litarian in 1995
design. Automated Public Toilets
were introduced to London,
however they were not very
popular.

Fig 17C
1990s

14
Analysis
London
[H] Nineteenth Century London grew from
a population of 900,000 in 1801, to over
2,363,000 in 1851, to more than doubling by
the end of the century reaching 4.5 million in-
habitants. It was the leading city in economy
and by 1885 it was recognized as one of the
largest cities in the world, London had become
the commercial and financial heart of England.
Workers still lived in the city in many slums and
structures that dated back to the 1666 while
some were converted to business buildings.
As the population grew, sanitary conditions in
the city deteriorated. London was infamously
filthy; congestion in the city continued to ele-
vate, makeshift drains poured raw sewage right
into the streets and the Thames River, it had
not yet established basic infrastructure.
Fig 1C
[D] In the 1800s, a common house hold item
was The Chamber Pot. The word loo comes
from the phrase “gardez l’eau!” the anti-so-
cial act of throwing the chamber pots content
out of the windows and onto the streets. The
toilet had been invented at this point, Sir John
Harrington published the book “The Metamor-
phosis of Ajax” in 1596, designed the flushing
toilet, however it was royals and noblemen.
Before there were sewage and infrastructure,
Nightsoil or Nightmen would gather the wastes
from homes and would take them out to the
outskirts of London where they were used for
agriculture. However it was also dumped in the
Thames River, contaminating the water as well
as adding to the stench that festered in the city.
Fig 2C
15
Analysis
London
[P] Social Reformer Sir Edwin Chadwick tried [P] The Public Health Act of 1848 brought
to be bring clean air, adequate sanitation, and change to the water closet, as they were now
minimal standards of living to industrial cit- required to be connected to drainage.
ies, his “Report on the Sanitary Condition of
the Laboring Population of Great Britain” was
published in 1842 urging to purify dwellings,
streets and the river. These changes would in-
volve dispatching London’s water in the direc-
tion of its water supply. By 1850s London had
begun to expand its sewage system.

Fig 5C

[H] England was to host the Great Exhibition of

1851 held at Hyde Park, held in the cast and
Iron and plate-glass structure of the Crystal Pal-
ace.

Fig 3C

[H] Between the 1840s and 1850s, the land-

scape of the city changed as railway invest-
ments were added. Railway companies often
located the railway systems in middle to lower
class areas, considering a means of clearance
that the working class could benefit from.
Fig 8C
16
Analysis
London
[D] At the Great Exhibition, a plumber named [D] Prior to the exhibition, flushing a toilet was
George Jennings installed Monkey Closets in restricted to the wealthy who were able to af-
the Retiring Rooms of the Palace. He intro- ford modern technology.
duced the concept of Pay a Penny, which were
the first public toilets the visitors had ever seen [D] The success of the Crystal Palace toilets
causing a great deal of excitement. 827,280 transcended into the streets as public toilers
visitors paid one penny each to use the toilets, started to appear. By 1852 there had been 95
receiving clean seat, towel, comb, and a shoe public toilet facilities. The toilets were called
shine. The toilets were scheduled to close after “Public Waiting Rooms” made of a water closet
the exhibition ended, however Jennings per- surrounded in wooden material.
suaded some of the organizers to keep them
open, which ended up generating roughly 1000
pounds a year. These public toilets however
were provided for men only, as women played
smaller roles in the social realm.

Fig 9C

Fig 10C

17
Analysis
London
[H] In 1854, John Snow made the observation [H] Cholera remained an issue in the congest-
of the mortality among people using the pump ed city. London would face another outbreak
in broad street during the 1854 cholera epi- in 1854.
demic, he theorized that water from the pipes
were being polluted by leaked contents into
the water, however snows conclusions were
dismissed. Snow’s map is a historic indicative
of waterborne diseases, as prior to Snow the
connection was not realized.

Fig 7C

Fig 4C
18
Analysis
London
[P] In 1858, the Cholera epidemic led parlia-
ment to sanction a comprehensive sewage plan
by Joseph Bazalgette that protected London’s
water supply from its sewage. Bazalgette’s
sewage plan would ease the way of growth and
provide infrastructure into the twentieth and
twenty-first century.

Fig 16C

[H] 1800s-The suffragette movement had be-

gun in 1832, by now women had been advo-
cating for the right to access public toilets, it
was considered an important step in attaining
rights in the public realm. Victorian activist
groups for public facilities, move contemporary
organizations include Women’s Initiative which
advocate for equity in public toilet provision.

Fig 11C

19
Analysis
London
[D] In 1855, the first underground ‘permanent’
public toilet was open with iron railing and de-
signed in the Victorian style, most of the toilets
underground date between 1884 and 1925.
More underground facilities were included
later in the 1960s as part of a “motorway and
pedestrian underpass program.” [Greed, 2001]
Later version of the public toilet were made of
marble, copper, and finished with fine ceram-
ics and tiles. Later in the twenty-first century
these public toilets would be converted into
cafes and restaurants.
Fig 12C
20
[P] The toilets charged an entrance fee and
charged more for washing or clothes brushing.
There were two classes of toilets, the gentle-
men and a regular one. They were advertised
in The Times. The designs however did not live
long, as the flushing technique had not yet
been mastered.
[H] In 1885, the Thames River was coined the
“Great Stink”, filled with metropolitan roughing
sewage and the hot dry summer exposed the
river’s condition.
Fig 6C
Analysis
London
[PD] In 1872, changes to the design of toilet [P] In 1891, there was a growth in the number
occurred due to The Metropolitan Water Act of public toilets after the 1891 Public Health
of 1872, which stated that sewage systems Act in London, which allowed local authorities
should be water-based. to use public roads as property for the devel-
opment of public toilets.
[DP] A toilet design by Crapper’s flushing sys-
tem was approved by the government and be- [H] In 1893, more permanent public toilets
came the standard, this was the switch from were added.
cesspools to flush toilets, which required more
sewers to be built.

Fig13C
21
Analysis
London
[D] By 1895 the flush had improved and Jen-
nings Company continued to add public toilets
in 36 British towns among other places includ-
ing Paris, Florence, Berlin, Madrid, Sydney, and
South America.
Fig 14C
[H] In 1928, a survey for public provision in
London showed there were 233 public toilets
for men and 184 for women.
22
[P] In 1936, the Public Health Act in the UK gave
granted rights for authorities to provide pub-
lic toilets and charge for their usage, with the
exception of male urinals which was thought
would increase public urination if charges were
implemented. This would be protested by
women activist groups later on in the century.
Women’s an activist group, as there remained
an imbalanced number of public toilets for
women than for men.
[D] The pay a penny concept remained in use
until 1971 when the currency inflations oc-
curred.
Fig 15C
[H] By the end of the twentieth century, there
had been a decline of public toilets contribut-
ed to many factors. The Aids Epidemic in the
1980s added a layer of fear in Aids transmis-
sion in public toilets. As well, associated cost of
maintenance remains higher than the average
cost of maintaining street furniture, and re-
mains less of a priority overall.
Analysis
London
[H] A public survey undertaken by the Lon- [H] In 1995 the Disability Discrimination Act
don School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine was passed in the UK, which would prevent
showed that 281 public toilets were construct- discrimination against disabled people. This
ed prior to 1918, 178 during the war, and 71 brought many changes to the special design of
built after 1940. By 1991, a total of 700 public the toilet.
toilet, of which 350 accommodated disability,
and 125 to those with infants.

[D] With all these public health acts being in-

corporated into water and sewage, created a
path for the public toilet to be invented and re-
invented as it was part of a larger scheme that
was changing the city fabric. In 1990 Public toi-
let were renovated as part of the conservation
improvements done to the city, considering
the public toilets were designed in the Victori-
an and Edwardian in style, today they are more
utilitarian in design. Automated Public Toilets
were introduced to London, however they
were not very popular.

[H] By the end of the early twenty-first cen-

tury, the public toilet had become associated
with drug usage, security issues, sexual activi-
ty, hygiene, and other illegal trends. The use of
public toilets was dropping. 2000- 486 public
toilets, 2004- dropped to 419.

[H] In 2005 the general consensus was that

Fig 17C
[P] In the 1990, the Transgender population
began to advocate for their right to public
services including the public toilet. The main
issues relate to discrimination against gender
and questioning identity. This issue is partic-
ularly contentious as opposing groups argue
that redesigning public toilets to accommodate
the Transgender population can be a security
concern.
there was a shortage of functioning public toi-
lets in London. Between 2005 and 2015, 50%
of public toilets have shut down.
[D] In 2009, the mayor of London launched a
scheme to open up public toilets in established
where non consumers could use the facilities
called Community Toilet Scheme which still ex-
ists today. The Community Toilet Scheme has
31 participants in London.
23
Analysis
London
[H] In 2011- The city of London implemented [H] In 2014 British authorities published The
budget cuts, of which the public toilets were Great British Public Toilet Map on World Toilet
first to be on the list as maintenance costs were day, which allowed people to find the nearest
of the highest. Sparing only 401 local authority public toilet to them, gathering data from Free-
maintained public toilets, which is the current dom of Information requests, council websites,
standing number. and local government open data. It is the larg-
est public toilet database in the country, and
[P] In 2001, World Toilet Day was established offers information on over 8,000 public toilets.
by the World Toilet Organization, and was de-
clared an Official UN day in 2013. The UN de-
clared World Toilet Day to raise awareness of
some of the global issues pertaining to toilets
around the world.

Fig 20C

Fig 18C

[D] The private sector has responded to the

lack of amenities. AirPnP allows people to put
their toilets up for rent. Other companies are
putting up public toilets in places to improve
business.

24

a French company that special-
furniture and other adver�se-
-stops and bike rental systems.
1964, it supplies over 300 other
cluding New York.
anise�es were first implement-
the city council decided to
400 around the city, but they
to access.
rrier free. They are made of
el and aluminum and can be
d also save 30% on water waste,
ate a skylight that lets natural
es work in 15 minute intervals,
y shut down a�er 15 minutes,
pros�tu�on and drug trade.
oor shuts of the Sanise�e, the
ected and cleaned automa�cal-
lights on the exterior indicates
ready for the next user.
1990
Analysis
Paris, Nineteenth - Twenty-First Century
Barrels of Easement were
provided in street corners
in an effort to reduce
public urina�on and
defeca�on.
While privacy in the social realm
doesn’t really develope un�ll the
1848
eighteenth century, women o�en
In 1848, Louis-
sought out privacy from the group
president, later se
1817 of persons they were with and
referred to urina�on/defeca�on as had a par�cula
Paris
1800s The streets were narrow and picking a flower. The persons the city of Pari
accompanying the women would Throughout the 19th century, By the the City were concid
o�en did not get any sunlight. par�cularly in the 1830s,
Conges�on was high, by typically form in a circle while the mid-1830s, of the city center and
In nineteenth century Paris person in the middle went on doing many embellishment over 8000
living condi�ons were 1817, 17000 carts had been schemes were presented to
circula�ng the streets of their business. This contributed to meters of During this �m
deteriora�ng while the stench in the narrow and city councils in an effort to sewers had
Paris, and the streets were reduce conges�on and s�ll growing to
conversely facing popula- unsanitary. congested streets. b e e n
diseases in the city. added. as the unemp
�on growth The nineteenth Fig 2A
brought about a
century was a turning point
for the city of Paris. Unprec-
edented Popula�on growth
The city was overcrowded. Paris was
caused conges�on and Although there was a ban on public facing its first
diseases to fill the streets, Sewage water was being urina�on/defeca�on put in place The popula�on growth
dumped right into the Siene Cholera
con�nuing to steadily da�ng back to 1700s, this didn’t had gone up from outbreak
River contamina�ng the prevent people from going in the 547,756 people in 1801
increase water while there was a epidemic.
streets. to to 759,000 in 1830s ,
shortage of drinking water. and 1,053,262 , it had a
Fig 1A Fig 8A
reputa�on of being one
of the dir�est ci�es in
France.
1830s
Claude Phiber Berthelot
Comte de Rambuteau first
introduced the public
urinal to Paris in 1834,
known as the pissoirs or
vespasienne which
significantlyreduced
urina�on on streets and
buildings. This establishes
some of the fundamental
groundwork that George
Haussmann later takes on
later in century.
Haussmann’s work would be part of a public
works program aimed at modernizing the city
and mee�ng the demands of the growing popula-
Fig 3A
1834
�on and economy. The plan included crea�ng
new gardens and public squares, introducing
street furniture which included public facili�es,
and construc�ng new sewers and water ducts.
1848
In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected
president, later self-elec�ng himself as emperor,
had a par�cular interest in improving 1853
the city of Paris. Improvement schemes for Legisla�on was passed to improve public health that would
the City were concidered, started from the center provide inspec�ons and improvements in unhealthy
of the city center and outward. dwellings. While many schemes were in discussion for the
In 1853 George
improvement of the city’s condi�on.
During this �me, the popula�on was Haussmann was elected to design a plan for
s�ll growing to over a million. as well Paris in order to modernize the city, and
as the unemployment rate which relieve it of its conges�on.
brought about a revolu�on.
Fig 5A Fig 9A
In 1848 another cholera
outbreak occurred, killing
19,000 people, sparking a
public interest in hygiene
and sanita�on. Haussmann proceeded by improving on the
plan Napoleon had devised. Nepoleon
par�cular interest in the street scape in the
city of London. Some of the influences
happening in London were happening in
Paris. Similarly, in the twenty first century,
Sanise�es that were later introduced in paris
Claude Phiber Berthelot that would later be implemented in New York.
Comte de Rambuteau first
introduced the public Fig 4A
urinal to Paris in 1834,
known as the pissoirs or
vespasienne which Haussmann commissioned
significantlyreduced a collec�on of street
urina�on on streets and furniture, which included
buildings. This establishes thousands of urinals. The
some of the fundamental
groundwork that George Pissoir or Vespassien were
Haussmann later takes on connected to sewer lines
later in century. that ran under the city.
1834 Fig 6A
1981
JCDecaux is a French company that special-
ize in street furniture and other adver�se-
ment on bus-stops and bike rental systems.
Founded in 1964, it supplies over 300 other
countries, including New York.
In 1981 the Sanise�es were first implement-
ed in Paris, the city council decided to
implement 400 around the city, but they
The top down approach in Paris ameliorated the issues of weren’t free to access.
public toilet provision as the infrastructure was provided
through Haussman’s plan. The spider web pa�ern of the They are barrier free. They are made of
boulevards designed by Haussmann are replicated in concrete steel and aluminum and can be
underground in Paris, providing sewers and drains. The recycled, and also save 30% on water waste,
1990
Vespassien and the Pissoir provided the infrastructure that and incorporate a skylight that lets natural
would be replaced with the modern day public toilet in Paris. light in.
In the 1990, the Transgender popula�on in as
The Sanise�es work in 15 minute intervals, the LGBT community began to advocate for
meaning they shut down a�er 15 minutes, public services including the public toilet. The
preven�ng pros�tu�on and drug trade. relate to discrimina�on against gender and
When the door shuts of the Sanise�e, the iden�ty. This issue is par�cularly conten�ous
toilet is disinfected and cleaned automa�cal- groups argue that redesigning public toilets to a
ly, and green lights on the exterior indicates the transgender popula�on can be a security co
Fig 8A that the it is ready for the next user.
Fig 9A
Up un�l the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir remained
sca�ered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t
begin phasing out un�l the 1960s. There only remains
one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by
1990 the Heritage Department of Paris Roads.
In the 1860s the Vespassien
and Pissoir had become
known as Chalet De Necessite
which were more enclosed
Haussmann commissioned kiosks providing services to
a collec�on of street include women as well.
furniture, which included
thousands of urinals. The
Pissoir or Vespassien were
connected to sewer lines
Fig 7A
1860s
that ran under the city.
1990 2018
In the 1990, the Transgender popula�on in associa�on with
In the twenty first
the LGBT community began to advocate for their right to
century, many digital
public services including the public toilet. The main issues
applica�ons have been
relate to discrimina�on against gender and ques�oning
established, by either
iden�ty. This issue is par�cularly conten�ous as opposing
government or other
groups argue that redesigning public toilets to accommodate
private par�es, of
the transgender popula�on can be a security concern.
maps denota�ng
public facili�es around
Fig 11A
the city.
By 2018,Paris has more
than 400 public toilets,
called Sanise�es, located
Up un�l the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir remained
on the public footpaths
sca�ered throughout the city of Paris and didn’t The 2005 Disability Policy in around Paris.
begin phasing out un�l the 1960s. There only remains France was introduced.
one Vespasienne in Paris today that is managed by Many Sanise�es became
the Heritage Department of Paris Roads. barrier free.
2005
Fig 10A
25
Analysis
Paris
In nineteenth century Paris living conditions
were deteriorating while conversely facing
population growth the nineteenth century was
a turning point for the city of Paris. Unprece-
dented Population growth caused congestion
and diseases to fill the streets, continuing to
steadily increase.
Fig 1A
[P] The city was overcrowded. Sewage water
was being dumped right into the Siene River
contaminating the water while there was a
shortage of drinking water.
[H] By 1817, the streets were narrow and often
did not get any sunlight. Congestion was high,
by 1817, 17000 carts had been circulating the
streets of Paris, and the streets were unsani-
tary.
[P] Although there was a ban on public uri-
nation/defecation put in place dating back to
1700s, this didn’t prevent people from going in
the streets.
[D]Barrels of Easement were provided in street
corners in an effort to reduce public urination
and defecation.
26
While privacy in the social realm doesn’t really
developed until the eighteenth century, wom-
en often sought out privacy from the group of
persons they were with and referred to urina-
tion/defecation as picking a flower. The per-
sons accompanying the women would typically
form in a circle while the person in the middle
went on doing their business. This contribut-
ed to the stench in the narrow and congested
streets.
Fig 2A
[H] The population growth had gone up from
547,756 people in 1801 to 759,000 in 1830s,
and 1,053,262 by 1851, and had a reputation
of being one of the dirtiest cities in France.
[P] Throughout the 19th century, particularly in
the 1830s, many embellishment schemes were
presented to city councils in an effort to reduce
congestion and diseases in the city. Paris was
facing its first Cholera outbreak epidemic.
Fig 8A
Analysis
Paris
By the mid-1830s, over 8000 meters of sewers
had been added.
[D] Claude Phiber Berthelot Comte de Rambu-
teau first introduced the public urinal to Paris
in 1834, known as the Pissoir or Vespasienne
which significantly reduced urination on streets
and buildings. This establishes some of the fun-
damental groundwork that George Haussmann
later takes on later in century.
Fig 3A
[H] In 1848, Louis-Napoleon was elected pres-
ident, later self-electing himself as emperor,
had a particular interest in improving the city
of Paris. Improvement schemes for the City
were considered, started from the center of
the city center and outward.
[H] During this time, the population was still
growing to over a million. As well as the un-
employment rate which brought about a rev-
olution.
[H] Simultaneously in 1848 another chol-
era outbreak occurred, killing 19,000 people,
sparking a public interest in hygiene and san-
itation.
Fig 4A
[P] Legislation was passed to improve pub-
lic health that would provide inspections and
improvements in unhealthy dwellings. While
many schemes were in discussion for the im-
provement of the city’s condition. In 1853
George Haussmann was elected to design a
plan for Paris in order to modernize the city,
and relieve it of its congestion.
[H] Haussmann proceeded by improving on the
plan Napoleon had devised. Napoleon partic-
ular interest in the street scape in the city of
London. Some of the influences happening in
London were happening in Paris. Similarly, in
the twenty first century, Sanisettes that were
later introduced in Paris that would later be im-
plemented in New York.
27
Analysis
Paris
[P] Haussmann’s work would be part of a pub- [D] Haussmann commissioned a collection of
lic works program aimed at modernizing the street furniture, which included thousands of
city and meeting the demands of the growing urinals. The Pissoir or Vespassien were con-
population and economy. The plan included nected to sewer lines that ran under the city.
creating new gardens and public squares, in-
troducing street furniture which included pub-
lic facilities, and constructing new sewers and
water ducts.

Fig 6A

Fig 5A
28
Analysis
Paris
[H] The top down approach in Paris ameliorat-
ed the issues of public toilet provision as the
infrastructure was provided through Hauss-
mann’s plan. The spider web pattern of the
boulevards designed by Haussmann are repli-
cated in underground in Paris, providing sew-
ers and drains. The Vespassien and the Pissoir
provided the infrastructure that would be re-
placed with the modern day public toilet in
Paris.

Fig 9A

[D] In the 1860s the Vespassien and Pissoir had

become known as Chalet De Necessite which
were more enclosed structures providing ser-
vices to include women as well.

Fig 7A
29
Analysis
Paris
[D] JCDecaux is a French company that special-
ize in street furniture and other advertisement
on bus-stops and bike rental systems. Founded
in 1964, it supplies over 300 other countries,
including New York.
In 1981 the Sanisettes were first implemented
in Paris, the city council decided to implement
400 around the city, but they weren’t free to
access.
[P] In the 1990, the Transgender population in
association with the LGBT community began
to advocate for their right to public services
including the public toilet. The main issues
relate to discrimination against gender and
questioning identity. This issue is particular-
ly contentious as opposing groups argue that
redesigning public toilets to accommodate the
Transgender population can be a security con-
cern.

They are barrier free. They are made of con- [P] The 2005 Disability Policy in France was
crete steel and aluminum and can be recycled, introduced. Many Sanisettes became barrier
and also save 30% on water waste, and incor- free.
porate a skylight that lets natural light in.

The Sanisettes work in 15 minute intervals,

meaning they shut down after 15 minutes, pre-
venting prostitution and drug trade. When the
door shuts of the Sanisette, the toilet is disin-
fected and cleaned automatically, and green
lights on the exterior indicates that it is ready
for the next user.

Fig 12A

[P] Up until the 1930s, over 1200 Pissoir re-

mained scattered throughout the city of Paris
and didn’t begin phasing out until the 1960s.
There only remains one Vespasienne in Paris
today that is managed by the Heritage Depart-
ment of Paris Roads.
30
Analysis
Paris
[D] In the twenty first century, many digital
applications have been established, by either
government or other private parties, of maps
denotation public facilities around the city.

[H] By 2018, Paris has more than 400 public

toilets, called Sanisettes, located on the public
footpaths around Paris.

Fig 10A

31
 Analysis
New York, Nineteenth - Twenty-First Century
1800

New York
New York was a commercial hub that was
growing at an accelera�ng rate. In 1810 1819 1840s
popula�on had increased from 96,000, to Once the holes were In 1819, the Common Council In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was
3,437,202 in 1900. While urban areas filled, they were then prohibited the dumping of wastes limited to the wealthier, otherwise
popula�on was growing, there remained a emp�ed by Nightsoil into the sewage systems. Sewer people shared a toilet in a
or Soilemenor systems at this point intended to common yard or hall. It isn’t un�l
lack of fundamental infrastructure including Nightsoil Men. drain or carry out storm water rather 1910 that nearly all buildings were
sewage drainage and garbage pick-up. Early than waste. constructed with indoor toilets.
Dutch se�lers had issues with “standing
pools of filth in courts and alleys” as drainage
was an issue, this cause strong stenches to fill
the air among many other things. New York
lacked infrastructure, and crea�ng sewer By 1825 th
system in developed areas in the city was In 1832 cholera had grown
challenging. Sewage was also perceived as outbreak claimed Water was b
The night soil cart men removed the waste by 3500 vic�ms, contaminate
dangerous as it omi�ed gases and was not
shoveling them into carts and disposing them in shortage of fresh
welcomed indoor. The lack of infrastructure various loca�ons, including empty lots on the outskirts water, increase of New York ha
and proper sewage caused many waterborne of the city or into surrounding waterways. O�en night poverty, condi�ons of the dir�es
diseases. Fig 1B soil was carted off to farms to be used as fer�lizer, or of the poor world. In 184
In the early nineteenth of 800,000
century, outhouses were dumped into the Hudson and East River. The dumping worsened and
caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toilets did not became more excrements w
used as toilets, as indoor during whic
plumbing had not yet been become the norm un�l the late nineteenth century. Up visible. Un�l the
un�l 1873, carts filled with raw human waste, collected twen�eth century, been tw
established. The Outhouse outbreaks,
was a temporary structure by the night-soil from homes and buildings, adding to diseases were
the stenches, and the conges�on of the city that lacked thought to be spread and a more
built over a hole in the 1849, and a
ground. The hole would infrastructure. through sewer lines.
Yellow Feve
eventually get covered threat.
with a fresh layer of soil,
and the outhouse would
be relocated. In congested
1832 Fig 3B

urban areas where space

was limited, the outhouses
were permanent
structures and the waste in
the hole would be
removed.
Fig 2B

1840s 1890
New York was growing at an accelera�ng
rate. Water supply iduring 1800 came from a well at In the Mid-1800s sewers beg
Reade and Centre Streets that pumped into a reservoir being implemented in the c
and was distributed to communi�es through wooden By 1890s New York a
mains. By 1830 the popula�on of the city had increased Brooklyn had 844 miles
and the well water supply became insufficient and the
water was becoming polluted. The supply was then 1849 1866 1870s 1880 sewers built, ending the era
the Night Soil.
supplemented by cisterns and water was drawn from
Excrements were thrown into the The Metropolitan In 1865 state legislature passed an act that In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula�ons to 1880-Wooden storage tanks
other wells in the upper side of Manha�an. The demand
streets, o�en ending up in leaky Health Act of 1866 introduced general sewage systems that oversee all new plumbing installa�ons, insuring were introduced that sat on
for water supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided
cesspools and contamina�ng brought changes to considered the natural water histories districts proper ven�la�on, adequate material for pipes, and roo�ops and were pumped by
to build an aqueduct known today as the Old Croton
local water wells that fueled the the city, in an effort when adding draining lines. Improvements making them accessible for repair. Sewer lines were hand, they held up to 10,000
Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold 90 million
cholera epidemic in 1849 killing to tackle issues of con�nued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York associated with sewer gases in the early 1880s, they gallons of water and symbolize
gallons per day. New reservoirs were constructed again
5,000 people. By the mid-19th hygiene and commissions Manha�an Odorless Excava�ng were considered dangerous and associated with a milestone in sanita�on and
in 1873 and 1878, and a new aqueduct was placed in
century New York is filled with sanita�on. Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil to carrying diseases into the home including typhoid, public health.
service in 1890.
disease outbreaks including alleviate the human waste problem. typhus, scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup,
smallpox, yellow fever, measles, further preven�ng toilets from being constructed
Fig 4B-1842 indoors.
and malaria.

By 1825 the popula�on

had grown to 166,000. In 1847, the first In the late In an 1881 publica�on
Water was beginning to be general sewage In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith By 1869, in 10 years 1870s city laid In 1880 plumbing “Sewer-Gases and its
contaminated. systems began to founded the Ci�zens Associa�on of New York there had been an pipes under the fixture began to go Dangers” George Preston
be constructed. to address issues of public health, they addi�onal 22,000 streets allowing ver�cally as buildings Brown warns the dangers of
New York had become one sponsored a survey in 184 revealing the miles of rail tracks
for indoor got taller, they were sewage gas associated with
1847 inequity in sanitary condi�ons throughout added, bringing the usually stacked, and
of the dir�est ci�es in the number up to 52,000. water supply. sewers. Up un�ll this point,
world. In 1844 an es�mate the city, and they launched a campaign to ge�ng water beyond the general consensus on
improve access to health benefits for the
1869
of 800,000 cubic feet of the 6th floor became a sewage lines was the associa-
excrements was produced, public. water pressure issue. �on with diseases.
during which there had
been two Cholera
outbreaks, one in 1832
1863 1881
and a more severe one in
1849, and again in 1866.
Yellow Fever was also a
threat.
B

1904
1890 In 1904
underground
the first
subway 1993
In the Mid-1800s sewers began sta�on opened. In the
being implemented in the city. twen�eth century the In 1993, homeless
By 1890s New York and
Brooklyn had 844 miles of
public toilet started to
become incorporated into
1934 1980 people brought a
class-ac�on lawsuit
sewers built, ending the era of the transporta�on In the middle of the twen�eth against the city for
the Night Soil. buildings including the century however public toilets lack of public toilets
subway sta�ons and bus In 1990, city council
speaker Peter F. plummeted due to crime, and and won. They
1880-Wooden storage tanks sta�ons. This also may associa�on with the Aids needed access to
were introduced that sat on mark the beginning of the Vallone brought
back to city hall transmission epidemic. In public toilets.
roo�ops and were pumped by appearance of the public 1980s, the spread of Aids raised
hand, they held up to 10,000 toilet in the twen�eth pictures of the
public toilets in hygiene concerns in the social
gallons of water and symbolize century New York. realm, and toilet seats were
a milestone in sanita�on and Athens, demanding
ac�on. associated with contamina�on
public health. demising the use of public
toilets.
Fig 8B
Fig 5B

In an 1881 publica�on
ng “Sewer-Gases and its 1990s lack of public
go Dangers” George Preston toilets became a
ngs In 1901 the Tenement
Brown warns the dangers of Act was in place sta�ng serious issue for
ere sewage gas associated with homeless people.
nd that “In every tenement
sewers. Up un�ll this point, house here a�er By 1940 there had been 1990s Around the
nd the general consensus on 1,676 public toilets, �me there were disc
1990s
ea erected there shall be a
sewage lines was the associa- separate water-closet in including ones in na�on accusa�ons
. �on with diseases. transporta�on sta�ons.
a separate compart- the disabled commu
ment within each By 2008, there had The public toilets
1881 apartment.” been 1100 public toilet
in parks, and 468 in
violated the Amer
with Disabili�es A
subway sta�ons that civic rights law
1901 were not always open
for public.
prohibits discrimin
based on disability.

1940 Fig 9B
In 1934, Robert
Moses, a New York
Public official opened
145 public toilets in a
one year as part of a
city wide plan.
Fig 6B
1934

2018

2001
By 2001, New
3 York had
shortage of public
a
In the 1990, the Transgender facili�es. In 2002,
, homeless popula�on in associa�on with
brought a mayor Michael R.
the LGBT community began to Bloomberg added
�on lawsuit advocate for their right to
the city for
ublic toilets
public services including the
public toilet. The main issues
public toilets third
item on the list of
priori�es
2010 The private sector has
won. They relate to discrimina�on against In a 2010 survey
access to found 129 public responded to the lack of
gender and ques�oning ameni�es. AirPnP allows
oilets. iden�ty. This issue is par�cular- toilets, of which 60
were unavailable, people to put their toilets
ly conten�ous as opposing up for rent. Other compa-
groups argue that redesigning and for security
reasons usually, nies are pu�ng up public
public toilets to accommodate toilets in places to improve
the transgender popula�on can transporta�on
sta�ons keep their business.
be a security concern. 2018 the city has planted 1
Fig 10B Fig 7B-2001 toilets locked. of bike lines and plans to
Fig 13B
only a few have been impl

In the twenty first

century, many digital
In 2015 the NYPD applica�ons have been
issued 17,044
cita�ons for public established, by either
In 1992, the Energy urina�on each year. government or other
Policy Act was signed private par�es, of
1990s Around the same
�me there were discrimi-
by the president
manda�ng new JCDecaux a French company based in
France but supplies interna�onally
2015 maps denota�ng
public facili�es around
na�on accusa�ons from toilets to flush a the city.
maximum of 1.6 owns street furniture franchises is
the disabled community. introduced to New York. In 2006
The public toilets now gallons per flush.
commissioned JCDecaux to add 20 Fig 12B
violated the Americans public toilets. They are ac�vated by a quarter,
with Disabili�es Act. A providing fi�een minutes of service, and would
civic rights law that disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied a�er use. The
prohibits discrimina�on public toilets considered as part of “coordinated
based on disability. street furniture”. The plan was to include
300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus
shelters.
Fig 9B

Fig 11B
2006
2018

2018 the city has planted 1 million trees, added 300 miles
of bike lines and plans to add 20 public toilets, of which
only a few have been implemented.

In the twenty first

century, many digital
applica�ons have been
established, by either
government or other
private par�es, of
maps denota�ng
public facili�es around
the city.

32
Analysis
New York
[H]New York was a commercial hub that was [D] In the early nineteenth century, outhouses
growing at an accelerating rate. In 1810 popu- were used as toilets, as indoor plumbing had
lation had increased from 96,000, to 3,437,202 not yet been established. The Outhouse was
in 1900. While urban areas population was a temporary structure built over a hole in the
growing, there remained a lack of fundamen- ground. The hole would eventually get covered
tal infrastructure including sewage drainage with a fresh layer of soil, and the outhouse
and garbage pick-up. Early Dutch settlers had would be relocated. In congested urban areas
issues with “standing pools of filth in courts where space was limited, the outhouses were
and alleys” as drainage was an issue, this cause permanent structures and the waste in the
strong stenches to fill the air among many oth- hole would be removed.
er things. New York lacked infrastructure, and
creating sewer system in developed areas in
the city was challenging. Sewage was also per-
ceived as dangerous as it omitted gases and
was not welcomed indoor. The lack of infra-
structure and proper sewage caused many wa-
terborne diseases.

Fig 2B

[P] Once the holes were filled, they were then

emptied by Nightsoil or Soilmen or Nightsoil
Men.

[H] The night soil cart men removed the waste

by shoveling them into carts and disposing
them in various locations, including empty lots
on the outskirts of the city or into surround-
ing waterways. Often night soil was carted off
to farms to be used as fertilizer, or dumped
into the Hudson and East River. The dumping
caused intolerable stenches, and indoor toi-
lets did not become the norm until the late
nineteenth century. Up until 1873, carts filled
with raw human waste, collected by the night-
soil from homes and buildings, adding to the
Fig 1B stenches, and the congestion of the city that
lacked infrastructure.
33
Analysis
New York
[P] In 1819, the Common Council prohibited
the dumping of wastes into the sewage sys-
tems. Sewer systems at this point intended
to drain or carry out storm water rather than
waste.
[H] In 1832 cholera outbreak claimed 3500 vic-
tims, shortage of fresh water, increase of pov-
erty, conditions of the poor worsened and be-
came more visible. Until the twentieth century,
diseases were thought to be spread through
sewer lines.
[P] In the 1840s, indoor plumbing was limit-
ed to the wealthier, otherwise people shared
a toilet in a common yard or hall. It isn’t until
1910 that nearly all buildings were constructed
with indoor toilets.
[H] By 1825 the population had grown to
166,000. Water was beginning to be contami-
nated.
[H] New York had become one of the dirti-
est cities in the world. In 1844 an estimate
of 800,000 cubic feet of excrements was pro-
duced, during which there had been two Chol-
era outbreaks, one in 1832 and a more severe
one in 1849, and again in 1866. Yellow Fever
was also a threat.
Fig 3B
[H]New York was growing at an accelerating
rate. Water supply during the 1800s came
from a well at Reade and Centre Streets that
pumped into a reservoir and was distributed
to communities through wooden mains. By
1830 the population of the city had increased
and the well water supply became insufficient
and the water was becoming polluted. The
supply was then supplemented by cisterns and
water was drawn from other wells in the up-
per side of Manhattan. The demand for water
supply was increasing, in 1842 the city decided
to build an aqueduct known today as the Old
Croton Aqueduct that had the capacity to hold
90 million gallons per day. New reservoirs were
constructed again in 1873 and 1878, and a new
aqueduct was placed in service in 1890.
Fig 3.1
[P] In 1847, the first general sewage systems
began to be constructed.
[H] Excrements were thrown into the streets,
often ending up in leaky cesspools and con-
taminating local water wells that fueled the
cholera epidemic in 1849 killing 5,000 people.
By the mid-19th century New York is filled with
disease outbreaks including smallpox, yellow
fever, measles, and malaria.
34
Analysis
New York
[P] In 1863, a group led by Dr. Stephen Smith
founded the Citizens Association of New York
to address issues of public health, they spon-
sored a survey in 184 revealing the inequity in
sanitary conditions throughout the city, and
they launched a campaign to improve access
to health benefits for the public.
[H] The Metropolitan Health Act of 1866
brought changes to the city, in an effort to tack-
le issues of hygiene and sanitation.
[H] By 1869, in 10 years there had been an
additional 22,000 miles of rail tracks added,
bringing the number up to 52,000.
[P] In 1865 state legislature passed an act that
introduced general sewage systems that con-
sidered the natural water histories districts
when adding draining lines. Improvements
continued into the 1870s. In 1872, New York
commissions Manhattan Odorless Excavating
Company pioneered to clean up the nigh soil
to alleviate the human waste problem.
[H] In the late 1870s city laid pipes under the
streets allowing for indoor water supply.
[H] In 1880 plumbing fixture began to go ver-
tically as buildings got taller, they were usual-
ly stacked, and getting water beyond the 6th
floor became a water pressure issue.
[H] Also in 1880s, Wooden storage tanks were
introduced that sat on rooftops and were
pumped by hand, they held up to 10,000 gal-
lons of water and symbolize a milestone in san-
itation and public health.
[H] In an 1881 publication “Sewer-Gases and
its Dangers” George Preston Brown warns the
dangers of sewage gas associated with sewers.
Up until this point, the general consensus on
sewage lines was the association with diseases.
[H] In the Mid-1800s sewers began being im-
plemented in the city. By 1890s New York and
Brooklyn had 844 miles of sewers built, ending
the era of the Night Soil.
[H] In 1901 the Tenement Act was in place stat-
ing that “In every tenement house here after
erected there shall be a separate water-closet
in a separate compartment within each apart-
ment.”

[P] In 1880 the Board of Health passed regula-

tions to oversee all new plumbing installations,
insuring proper ventilation, adequate material
for pipes, and making them accessible for re-
pair. Sewer lines were associated with sewer
gases in the early 1880s, they were considered
dangerous and associated with carrying dis-
eases into the home including typhoid, typhus,
scarlet fever, cholera, dysentery and croup, fur-
ther preventing toilets from being constructed
indoors.

35
Analysis
New York
[D] In 1904 the first underground subway sta-
tion opened. In the twentieth century the pub-
lic toilet started to become incorporated into
the transportation buildings including the sub-
way stations and bus stations. This also may
mark the beginning of the appearance of the
public toilet in the twentieth century New York.

Fig 5B

[D] In 1934, Robert Moses, a New York Public

official opened 145 public toilets in a one year
as part of a city wide plan.

Fig 6B
36
Analysis
New York
[P] In 1990, city council speaker Peter F. Vallone [P] In the 1990s around the same time there
brought back to city hall pictures of the public were discrimination accusations from the dis-
toilets in Athens, demanding action. abled community. The public toilets now vio-
lated the Americans with Disabilities Act. A civil
[D] By 1940 there had been 1,676 public toi- rights law that prohibits discrimination based
lets, including ones in transportation stations. on disability.
By 2008, there had been 1100 public toilet in
parks, and 468 in subway stations that were
not always open for public.

[H] In the middle of the twentieth century how-

ever public toilets plummeted due to crime,
and association with the Aids transmission
epidemic. In 1980s, the spread of Aids raised
hygiene concerns in the social realm, and toi-
let seats were associated with contamination
demising the use of public toilets.

[H] 1990s lack of public toilets became a seri-

ous issue for homeless people.

[P] In 1993, homeless people brought a Fig 9B

class-action lawsuit against the city for lack of
public toilets and won. They needed access to
public toilets.
[P] In the 1990, the Transgender population in
association with the LGBT community began
to advocate for their right to public services
including the public toilet. The main issues
relate to discrimination against gender and
questioning identity. This issue is particular-
ly contentious as opposing groups argue that
redesigning public toilets to accommodate the
Transgender population can be a security con-
cern.

Fig 8B

Fig 10B
37
Analysis
New York
[P] In 1992, the Energy Policy Act was signed by
the president mandating new toilets to flush a
maximum of 1.6 gallons per flush.
[D] By 2001, New York had a shortage of public
facilities. In 2002, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg
added public toilets third item on the list of pri-
orities.
[D] The private sector has responded to the
lack of amenities. AirPnP allows people to put
their toilets up for rent. Other companies are
putting up public toilets in places to improve
business.
[D] In the twenty first century, many digital
applications have been established, by either
government or other private parties, of maps
denotation of public facilities around the city.
[H] 2018 the city has planted 1 million trees,
added 300 miles of bike lines and plans to add
20 public toilets, of which only a few have been
implemented.

Fig 7B

[D] JCDecaux a French company based in

France but supplies internationally owns street
furniture franchises is introduced to New York.
In 2006 commissioned JCDecaux to add 20
public toilets. They are activated by a quarter,
providing fifteen minutes of service, and would
disinfect itself it’s been unoccupied after use.
The public toilets considered as part of “coordi- Fig 13B
nated street furniture”. The plan was to include
300 newsstands as well as 3,450 bus shelters.

[H] In a 2010 survey found 129 public toilets,

of which 60 were unavailable, and for security
reasons usually, transportation stations keep
their toilets locked.

[P] In 2015 the NYPD issued 17,044 citations

for public urination each year.

38
Conclusion

The landscape in which the public toilet exists
today has shifted immensely from where it ini-
tially started as in the nineteenth century, and
where it stands today.
Analysis of the Timelines identified the shifting
social values of the public toilet, as well as pol-
icy cycles, identifying instances where the pub-
lic toilet has either informed or been informed
by collective social values and changes. The re-
search took on a more urban inquiry as it per-
tains to larger urban issues that directly relate
to the architectural space.
Identifying the three focusses of policy, hy-
giene, and design, revealed the minimal role
in which the architect plays in the life of the
public toilet. Reflecting on the timelines, the
role of the architect has been an ebb and flow
in the conversation about access. In order to
identify hybridized solution systems for some
of the issues would require architectural plan
solutions. Architecture needs to be drawn back
as a primary tool in working towards resolu-
tions for some of the issues of identity politics
and access.

The primary findings in the research is that

each of the cities, London, Paris, and New York
share many commonalities regarding the archi-
tecture, but vary in terms of policy change as it
relates to social dynamics, and reflects on each
of the politics of providing public amenities.
The research also reveals political implication
through a top-down and bottom-up imple-
mentation approach, which in some instances
works in favor of promoting the public toilets,
and in other instances does not. The Public
toilet in New York is a more privatized embed-
ded condition, where the infrastructure is still
lacking today; whereas the public toilet in Paris
is at the other end, embedded in a top down
policy approach. Public toilets in London are a
hybridized network of public and private pro-
vision. Cities with similar condition can benefit
from hybridized solutions system being imple-
mented in different parts of the world.

39
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40
References
Images
Figures

Fig 1A: http://www.sitsit.net/ari/?p=39

Fig 2A: https://www.gardencourtantiques.com/shop/pair-primitive-french-oak-barrels-19th-century/

Fig 3A: https://geneall.net/fr/name/100101/claude-philibert-barthelot-comte-de-rambuteau/

Fig 4A: http://www.poetsandprinces.com/?p=327

Fig 5A: http://canacopegdl.com/keyword/historic-maps-of-paris.html

Fig 6A: http://bowshrine.com/19th-century-public-toilets-in-paris/

Fig 7A: http://bowshrine.com/19th-century-public-toilets-in-paris/

Fig 8A: https://fineartamerica.com/featured/1832-paris-cholera-epidemic-collection-abecasis.html

Fig9A:https://historicalgeographyoftheformationofcities.wordpress.com/2014/10/17/the-underground-city-modernization-of-subterranean-paris/

Fig 1B: https://www.nyhistory.org/seneca/nyc.html

Fig 2B: https://www.6sqft.com/life-in-new-york-city-before-indoor-toilets/

Fig 3B: https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/15/science/15chol.html?mtrref=www.google.ca&gwh=032A3849C489382BCCA753DF004FA594&gwt=pay

Fig 4B: https://legacy.lib.utexas.edu/maps/historic_us_cities.html

Image 5B: https://www.history.com/news/hilarious-rider-complaints-from-the-early-years-of-the-nyc-subway

Fig 6B: https://toilet-guru.com/usa20th.php

Fig 7B: http://affordablehousinginstitute.org/blogs/us/2009/12/wetware-beats-hardware-but-who-pays.html

Fig 8B: http://www.coalitionforthehomeless.org/ending-homelessness/our-impact/

Fig 9B: https://adata.org/publication/ADA-faq-booklet

Fig 10B: http://lipulse.com/2017/06/21/new-york-transgender-rights/

Fig 11B: http://www.appartamenti-newyork.com/guide/getting_public_toilets.html

Fig 1C: http://historicalbellesandbeaus.blogspot.ca/2011/08/dandies-of-regency-era-and-shop-keepers.html

Fig 2C: https://janeaustensworld.wordpress.com/2012/07/16/regency-hygiene-the-bourdaloue/

Fig 3C: http://codesproject.asu.edu/node/64

Fig 4C: https://mapidea.co/john-snow-approach-business/

Fig 5C: http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/victorianbritain/healthy/source6.htm

Fig 6C: http://www.thamespolicemuseum.org.uk/gallery.html

Fig 7C: http://www.johnsnow.org.uk/mobile-map/item-16.html

Fig 8C: https://kids.britannica.com/students/assembly/view/142041

Fig 9C: http://thevictorianist.blogspot.ca/2011/02/spending-penny-or-first-public-flushing.html

Fig 10C: http://catsmeatshop.blogspot.ca/2013/10/the-first-design-for-underground-public.html

Fig 11C: http://www.altreading.com/suffragettes-in-reading/

Fig 12C: http://randomlylondon.com/former-public-toilet-in-fitzrovia/

Fig 13C: https://vintage-ads.livejournal.com/6544738.html

Fig 14C: http://victoriasrustyknickers.tumblr.com/post/6500731198/the-simplicity-of-cleanliness-mr-jennings

Fig 15C: https://www.the-saleroom.com/en-gb/auction-catalogues/batemans-auctioneers-and-valuers/catalogue-id-2852330/lot-14426953

Fig 16C: http://www.hiddenhydrology.org/category/city/page/2/

Fig17C:http://www.materialworldblog.com/2011/05/everybody-goes-designing-age-friendly-public-toilet-solutions/

Fig 18C: http://www.un.org/en/events/toiletday/

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