Elt 116 Module 1st Sem

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.
National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato
COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

____________________________________________________
LEARNING MODULE FOR ELT 116: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT

OF GRAMMAR
_____________________________________________________
ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.
Page - 1 - of 77
PRELIMINARY
COURSE OUTLINE
COURSE CODE : ELT 116

TITLE : Teaching and Assessment of Grammar
TARGET POPULATION : All Second Year BSED-English Students
INSTRUCTOR : Aubrey Bryant D. Fuentes
Overview:
This course engages learners in understanding the distinctions between and among
four types of grammar: functional, descriptive, prescriptive, and pedagogic. Aside from
the emphasis on how teaching and assessment vary considering the pedagogical
aspect of grammar. The course also provides opportunities to discover the role of
grammar in achieving communicative competence.
Objectives:
At the end of the program, the students should be able to:
a) gain understanding in different types of pedagogical grammar;
b) discuss how grammar develops in theory and practice;
c) demonstrate skills in different teaching methods and testing techniques in
grammar; and
d) create various instructional plans and testing materials for effective teaching and
assessment of grammar.
The following are the topics to be discussed

Week 1 VISION, MISSION AND CORE VALUES OF SEAIT
PEDAGOGICAL GRAMMAR
Week 2 TEACHING GRAMMAR SCENARIOS
Week 3 SIX RULES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR BY THORNBURY

Page - 2 - of 77
Week 4 GUIDELINES: ALTERNATIVE WAYS TO TEACH
GRAMMAR
Week 5 APPROACHES TO GRAMMAR TEACHING
Instruction to the Learners

Each chapter in this module contains a major lesson involving the theories and
principles of teaching and assessing grammar. The units are characterized by
continuity, and are arranged in such a manner that the present unit is related to the next
unit. For this reason, you are advised to read this module. After each unit, there are
activities given. Submission will be a week after the tasks are given.
WEEK 1
VISION, MISSION AND CORE VALUES OF SEAIT
VISION MISSION CORE VALUES
Service
A premier institution that To produce competent,
Excellence
provides quality education and community-oriented and
Accountability
globally empowered globally competitive individuals
Innovation
individuals. through holistic education.
Teamwork
SEAIT HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
The South East Asian Institute of Technology, Inc. located at National Highway,
Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato, was founded by Engr. Reynaldo S. Tamayo,
Jr. and co-founded by Rochelle P. Tamayo, his wife, in 2006. Mr. and Mrs. Reynaldo S.
Tamayo, Jr. were Department of Science and Technology (DOST) scholars in Bachelor
of Information Technology at Cebu Institute of Technology. They wish to help the youth
in Tupi to earn their college degree so they can become productive citizens of the
country. Strongly driven by deep commitment to contribute to nation-building by
creating a landmark of social development through education in Tupi, the couple
planned to realize this particular dream with the all-out support of the entire Tamayo
family. With the Tamayo family as the couple’s stronghold, they thought of opening a
higher education institution in 2006. However, they decided to open first a technical-
vocational school in the said year.
The school was named SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC. or
SEAIT. The name was anchored in the vision offering quality education to impact not
only in the region but also in the South East Asian countries. At first, the school offered
Computer Programming NC-IV and Computer Hardware Servicing NC II. With

Page - 3 - of 77
respective certificates from the TESDA XII, SEAIT offered Computer Programming NC-
IV and Computer Hardware Servicing NC-I in 2006. After a year, Hotel and Restaurant
Management was added to its program offerings.
The couple manage to upgrade SEAIT in 2008. They added BSIT with very affordable
tuition and other fees per semester. As the year past, SEAIT continue to grow and
offered more courses until today. It also provided assistance and scholarship grants
from Tulong-Dunong and CHED to help the youth in the municipality value affordable
and quality education. And in 2016, the Universal Financial Assistance for Tertiary
Education (UNIFAST) became an “amazing come on among higher education
institutions, including SEAIT, in the region.
As an educational institution, SEAIT has existed for 15 years. It has graduated 12

batches in college. It is known for its Information Technology niche as this is the field of
specialization of the founder and co-founder. It is also known for its Civil Engineering
program as this is the field of specialization of the parents of the founder and the current
president.
ACADEMIC POLICIES
A. Academic Rights: Every students has the right to receive competent instruction and
relevant quality education.
B. General Enrolment Procedures: All prospective students with their necessary
credentials must enrol during the prescribed registration period. To facilitate
registration, students should read guidelines posted online via SEAIT official page or
on the bulletin board and be guided by the registration procedures.
C. Class Attendance: Every student is required prompt and regular attendance.
Tardiness and absences are recorded from the first day of classes. There is a
corresponding sanction with a multiple absences or tardiness.
D. Examination and Grading System: There are 3 major examination administered
every semester, namely Prelim, Midterm, and Final Examination. The registrar
determines the schedule of the major examination. Grading System: 40% Quizzes;
20% Class Standing; 40% Examination.
E. Graduating with Latin Honors: The office of the Registrar in close coordination
with the Office of the Vice President for Academics shall determine and recommend
to the administrator a student who completes his baccalaureate degree with honors
provided with standard qualifications.

Page - 4 - of 77
F. Student Fees: Includes the registration and other fees.
G. Scholarship Programs: The school recognizes excellence in academic
achievement. This is manifested in its scholarship programs given to deserving
students. Other scholarships funded by the Government and private benefactors are
acknowledged provided that a Memorandum of Agreement has been duly processed
and approved by the School President.
NON-ACADEMIC POLICIES
A. Code of Discipline for Students: The rules and regulations of the institution are
intended to maintain the order necessary for an academic environment and to
ensure an atmosphere conducive to the formation of values for men and women and
for others.
B. School Identification Card (SID): SID cards will be issued and validated by the
SAO upon enrolment. Student is required to wear his SID card at all times while he
is within the school premises.
C. Uniforms/Dress Code: The school uniform must be worn with respect and dignity.
Only students wearing the prescribed uniform will be allowed to enter the school
premises and the classroom.
D. Prescribed haircut for Criminology students: Female- 2/3 (hairnet shall be used
to those who don’t want to cut their hair; Male- 2/0
CLASS POLICIES
1. Awareness of intended audience

Example: classes are meant for students currently enrolled in the course and you
must not enter or share a class meeting with someone unauthorized
2. General etiquette
Example: mute microphones when not speaking, raise hand virtually to ask question,
turn off camera if you're stepping away
3. Discussion
Example: you can disagree with others but should do so respectfully and
constructively
4. Privacy
Example: students should consult with the instructor to receive permission to record
the class

Page - 5 - of 77
5. Communicate instances of disruptive behaviors to the proper instructor, faculty
member, or escalate the complaint when necessary.
WEEK 1
PEDAGOGICAL GRAMMAR
What is Grammar?
Grammar is a negotiated system of rules that governs the relationship of parts within
a system of systems.
Grammar reflects many characteristics of language, which is highly personal,
emotional and powerful in addition to being rule-governed, culturally contextualized and
sometimes very dull.
Grammar, in other words, is both straightforward and very complex; a natural part of
language systems and a highly technical academic subject.
Language user’s subconscious internal system.
Linguists’ attempt to codify or describe that system
Phonology Sounds of language
Morphology Structure and form of words
Syntax Arrangement of words into larger units
Semantics Meanings of language
Pragmatics
Functions of language & its use in context

Page - 6 - of 77
Grammar is the business of taking a language to pieces, to see how it works. (David
Crystal).
Grammar is the system of a language. People sometimes describe grammar as the
"rules" of a language; but in fact no language has rules. If we use the word "rules", we
suggest that somebody created the rules first and then spoke the language, like a new
game. But languages did not start like that. Languages started by people making
sounds which evolved into words, phrases and sentences. No commonly-spoken
language is fixed. All languages change over time. What we call "grammar" is simply a
reflection of a language at a particular time.
Grammar is the mental system of rules and categories that allows humans to form
and interpret the words and sentences of their language.
Grammar adds meanings that are not easily inferable from the immediate context.
The kinds of meanings realized by grammar are principally:
Representational that is, grammar enables us to use language to describe the world in terms of
how, when and where things happen.
Example: The sun set at 7.30. The children are playing in the garden.
Interpersonal that is, grammar facilitates the way we interact with other people when, for
example, we need to get things done using language.
Example: There is a difference between: Tickets! Tickets, please. Can you
show me your tickets? May I see your tickets? Would you mind if I had a look at
your tickets?
Why Should We Teach Grammar?

There are many arguments for putting grammar in the foreground in second
language teaching. Here are seven of them:
1. The sentence-machine argument
Part of the process of language learning must be what is sometimes called item-
learning — that is the memorization of individual items such as words and phrases.
However, there is a limit to the number of items a person can both retain and
retrieve. Even travelers’ phrase books have limited usefulness — good for a three-
week holiday, but there comes a point where we need to learn some patterns or
rules to enable us to generate new sentences. That is to say, grammar. Grammar,
after all, is a description of the regularities in a language, and knowledge of these

Page - 7 - of 77
regularities provides the learner with the means to generate a potentially enormous
number of original sentences. The number of possible new sentences is constrained
only by the vocabulary at the learner's command and his or her creativity. Grammar
is a kind of 'sentence-making machine'. It follows that the teaching of grammar offers
the learner the means for potentially limitless linguistic creativity.
2. The fine-tuning argument
The purpose of grammar seems to be to allow for greater subtlety of meaning than a
merely lexical system can cater for. While it is possible to get a lot of communicative
mileage out of simply stringing words and phrases together, there comes a point
where 'Me Tarzan, you Jane'-type language fails to deliver, both in terms of
intelligibility and in terms of appropriacy. This is particularly the case for written
language, which generally needs to be more explicit than spoken language. For
example, the following errors are likely to confuse the reader: Last Monday night I
was boring in my house. After speaking a lot time with him I thought that he attracted
me. We took a wrong plane and when I saw it was very later because the plane took
up. Five years ago I would want to go to India but in that time anybody of my friends
didn't want to go. The teaching of grammar, it is argued, serves as a corrective
against the kind of ambiguity represented in these examples.
3. The fossilization argument
It is possible for highly motivated learners with a particular aptitude for languages to
achieve amazing levels of proficiency without any formal study. But more often 'pick
it up as you go along' learners reach a language plateau beyond which it is very
difficult to progress. To put it technically, their linguistic competence fossilizes.
Research suggests that learners who receive no instruction seem to be at risk of
fossilizing sooner than those who do receive instruction.
4. The advance-organizer argument
Grammar instruction might also have a delayed effect. The researcher Richard
Schmidt kept a diary of his experience learning Portuguese in Brazil. Initially he had
enrolled in formal language classes where there was a heavy emphasis on
grammar. When he subsequently left these classes to travel in Brazil his Portuguese
made good progress, a fact he attributed to the use he was making of it. However,

Page - 8 - of 77
as he interacted naturally with Brazilians he was aware that certain features of the
talk — certain grammatical items — seemed to catch his attention. He noticed them.
It so happened that these items were also items he had studied in his classes.
What's more, being more noticeable, these items seemed to stick. Schmidt
concluded that noticing is a prerequisite for acquisition. The grammar teaching he
had received previously, while insufficient in itself to turn him into a fluent
Portuguese speaker, had primed him to notice what might otherwise have gone
unnoticed, and hence had indirectly influenced his learning. It had acted as a kind of
advance organizer for his later acquisition of the language.
5. The discrete item argument
Language seen from 'outside', can seem to be a gigantic, shapeless mass,

presenting an insuperable challenge for the learner. Because grammar consists of
an apparently finite set of rules, it can help to reduce the apparent enormity of the
language learning task for both teachers and students. By tidying language up and
organizing it into neat categories (sometimes called discrete items), grammarians
make language digestible. (A discrete item is any unit of the grammar system that is
sufficiently narrowly defined to form the focus of a lesson or an exercise: e.g. the
present continuous, the definite article, possessive pronouns).
6. The rule-of-law argument
It follows from the discrete-item argument that, since grammar is a system of

learnable rules, it lends itself to a view of teaching and learning known as
transmission. A transmission view sees the role of education as the transfer of a
body of knowledge (typically in the form of facts and rules) from those that have the
knowledge to those that do not. Such a view is typically associated with the kind of
institutionalized learning where rules, order, and discipline are highly valued. The
need for rules, order and discipline is particularly acute in large classes of unruly and
unmotivated teenagers - a situation that many teachers of English are confronted
with daily. In this sort of situation grammar offers the teacher a structured system
that can be taught and tested in methodical steps.
7. The learner expectations argument

Page - 9 - of 77
Regardless of the theoretical and ideological arguments for or against grammar
teaching, many learners come to language classes with fairly fixed expectations as
to what they will do there. These expectations may derive from previous classroom
experience of language learning. They may also derive from experience of
classrooms in general where (traditionally, at least) teaching is of the transmission
kind mentioned above. On the other hand, their expectations that teaching will be
grammar-focused may stem from frustration experienced at trying to pick up a
second language in a non-classroom setting, such as through self-study, or through
immersion in the target language culture. Such students may have enrolled in
language classes specifically to ensure that the learning experience is made more
efficient and systematic. The teacher who ignores this expectation by encouraging
learners simply to experience language is likely to frustrate and alienate them.
TWO ATTITUDES TOWARDS GRAMMAR

Prescriptive/Pedagogical Descriptive/Functional
 Grammar is an unchanging set of normative
rules, to be mastered  Language is constantly changing, fluid, organic

 Emphasis should be on correctness Describes reality from authentic data /corporal

 Idealized ‘perfection’ About acceptability among communities

 Originated from ‘dead’ languages like Latin From living language, up-to-date
and Greek
 Determined by learned scholars

Page - 10 - of 77
Pedagogical Grammar
Pedagogical Grammar primarily deals with syntax and

morphology: sentence-level and word-level rules and order.
It includes grammatical analysis and instruction designed for
second-language students. It often presents language in a
simplified and inauthentic manner in order to facilitate
teaching.
It is grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students.
The term PG is commonly used to refer to (1) pedagogical process--the explicit
treatment of elements of the target language systems as part of language teaching
methodology; (2) pedagogical content-- reference sources that present information
about the target language system; and (3) some combinations of process and content.
How well these aspects of PG align with other forms of grammar is an open question.
Grammar teaching has traditionally focused on Form
Grammar teaching should balance attention to Form, Meaning and Use In
one word: Context
Characteristics of Pedagogical Grammar

a) Focuses on correctness instead of comprehensibility or appropriateness
b) Grammar rules… but every rule has exceptions!
c) Sentence-level analysis
d) Contrastive analysis leaves students with the feeling of being wrong without knowing what is right
Prescriptive language is highly valued
e) Knowledge-based instead of skills based
f) Often inauthentic in an effort to conform language to teaching topic
Grammar Knowledge vs Grammar Skill:
As Knowledge As a Skill

Grammar is a fixed set of rules to be • Grammar describes patterns of language
 learned that assist communication (making your
Learned deductively (rules and formulas to meaning clear and accurate)
 be memorized) • Learned inductively (patterns discovered
Mastery depends on the ability to recall and and practiced from experience)
apply rules correctly • Mastery depends on using language
actively (thinking, practicing, and deciding
meaning) in tasks and contextualized
communicative activities

11 - of 77
PRELIMINARY
WEEK 2
TEACHING GRAMMAR SCENARIOS
1. Teacher/Learner Collaborates
Matchmaking techniques will be developed which will link learners and teachers
with similar styles and approaches to language learning. Looking at the Teacher and
Learner roles sketched below, one can anticipate development of a system in which
the preferential ways in which teachers teach and learners learn can be matched in
instructional settings, perhaps via on-line computer networks or other technological
resources.
TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER ROLES
Method Teacher Roles Learner Roles

Context Setter Error Imitator
Situational Language Teaching
Corrector Memorizer
Language Modeler Pattern Practicer
Audio-lingualism
Drill Leader Accuracy Enthusiast
Communicative Language Needs Analyst Improvisor
Teaching Task Designer Negotiator
Commander Order Taker
Total Physical Response
Action Monitor Performer
Counselor Collaborator Whole
Community Language Learning
Paraphraser Person
Actor Guesser Immerser
The Natural Approach
Props User
Auto-hypnotist Authority Relaxer
Suggestopedia
Figure True-Believer
2. Curriculum Developmentalism
Language teaching has not profited much from more general views of
educational design. The curriculum perspective comes from general education and
views successful instruction as an interweaving of Knowledge, Instructional,
Learner, and administrative considerations. From this perspective, methodology is
viewed as only one of several instructional considerations that are necessarily
thought out and realized in conjunction with all other curricular considerations.
3. Multiple Intelligence
The notion here is adapted from the Multiple Intelligences view of human talents
proposed by Howard Gardner (1983). This model is one of a variety of learning style

Page - 12 - of 77
models that have been proposed in general education with follow-up inquiry by
language educators. The chart below shows Gardner's proposed eight native
intelligences and indicates classroom language-rich task types that play to each of
these particular intelligences. The challenge here is to identify these intelligences in
individual learners and then to determine appropriate and realistic instructional tasks
in response.
INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES
Intelligence Type Educational Activities

Linguistic lectures, worksheets, word games, journals, debates
Logical puzzles, estimations, problem solving
Spatial charts, diagrams, graphic organizers, drawing, films
Bodily hands-on, mime, craft, demonstrations
Musical singing, poetry, Jazz Chants, mood music
Interpersonal group work, peer tutoring, class projects
Intrapersonal reflection, interest centers, personal values tasks Naturalist
field trips, show and tell, plant and animal projects
4. O-zone Whole Language

Renewed interest in some type of "Focus on Form" has provided a major
impetus for recent second language acquisition (SLA) research. "Focus on Form"
proposals, variously labeled as consciousness-raising, noticing, attending, and
enhancing input, are founded on the assumption that students will learn only what
they are aware of. Whole Language proponents have claimed that one way to
increase learner awareness of how language works is through a course of study that
incorporates broader engagement with language, including literary study, process
writing, authentic content, and learner collaboration.
5. Full-Frontal Communicativity
We know that the linguistic part of human communication represents only a
small fraction of total meaning. At least one applied linguist has gone so far as to
claim that, "We communicate so much information non-verbally in conversations that
often the verbal aspect of the conversation is negligible." Despite these cautions,
language teaching has chosen to restrict its attention to the linguistic component of
human communication, even when the approach is labeled Communicative. The
methodological proposal is to provide instructional focus on the non-linguistic
aspects of communication, including rhythm, speed, pitch, intonation, tone, and

Page - 13 - of 77
hesitation phenomena in speech and gesture, facial expression, posture, and
distance in non-verbal messaging.

Page - 14 - of 77
WEEK 3
SIX RULES OF TEACHING GRAMMAR BY THORNBURY
1. The Rule of Context
Teach grammar in context. If you must take an item out of context to focus on it,
decontextualize it as soon as possible.
Always associate grammar form with the meaning of the speaker or author.
2. The Rule of Use
Teach grammar with the objective of improving the learners’ understanding and
production of real language – never as an end in itself.
Always provide opportunities for students to put the grammar to some
communicative use: practice, practice, practice!
3. The Rule of Economy
In order to obey Rule 2 (The Rule of Use), be economical. Minimize presentation

and direct explanation time in order to provide maximum practice time.
By practicing, students think, communicate, experience learning and remember
language.
4. The Rule of Relevance
Do not waste time on grammar items or rules that students already know or will
soon forget (e.g., every kind of question tag in one lesson or more than one or two
contrastive examples).
Allow Chinese to facilitate learning objectives, not to simplify or replace English.
5. The Rule of Nurture
The most difficult rule: teaching does not cause learning. The right environment,
conditions and opportunity for learning do.
Language learning is not an “ah ha! Eureka!” kind of learning. It is orienteering:
finding one’s way through a jungle step by step, accumulating knowledge and skills
through a long, slow, deliberate process.
Page - 15 - of 77
6. The Rule of Appropriateness
Consider all these rules according to the level, needs, interests, expectations and
learning styles of the students. These same rules may lead one teacher to focus on
explicit grammar teaching more and another to explicitly focus on grammar…not at all.
WEEK 4
GUIDELINES: ALTERNATIVE WAYS TO TEACH GRAMMAR

Page - 16 - of 77
Grammar lessons should require students to think about and understand the
relationship between grammar form and language meaning.
Principles of Awareness-Raising Grammar
a) Also known as Consciousness-Raising (CR)

b) ‘Hints’ and ‘demonstrations’ can be more effective than careful, detailed
explanations
c) What students find out for themselves is remembered longer than what is
simply told
d) Discovery engages students in deeper processing, engagement and
negotiating meanings
e) Form supports meaning simultaneously
f) Requires students to raise awareness of grammar without making
grammar the single focus
Six Stages of implementing Awareness-raising (AR) grammar tasks
1) Orientation to the target grammar item and the task

2) Reading a text with multiple examples of the target grammar item
embedded
3) Identification of examples in context
4) Complete information-gap activity
5) Develop, test and practice grammatical hypotheses
6) Teacher clarifies and consolidates grammar focus

Page - 17 - of 77
T – Text -b ased Instruction
Principles of Text-based Grammar Instruction
a) Grammar teaching should always be contextualized (literally meaning

‘with a text’)
b) Language never happens out of context; you’ll never find a fish out of
water, unless it’s dead.
c) There are layers of context that the teacher should make accessible
through activities: the situation, the culture and the co-text.
d) Grammar and language skills can be introduced independently in
preparation activities.
e) The language arts/text-based approach allows integration of other,
skills-based approaches
f) Highly compatible with genre-based and text-type teaching
g) More opportunity for authentic and adapted-authentic texts
Dictogloss Method
1) Warm-up activities (Schema building on the cultural context, social

situation, text type)
2) Grammar, other linguistic and co-text context activities
3) Listening to the text
4) Reconstructing the text (individually, then in groups)
5) Checking the text
6) Follow-up activities
T – Task-based Grammar Teaching
Grammar lessons should require students to do something authentic, practical or

interesting with the learned grammar, using it in a context and experiencing language
with a purpose beyond classroom exercises or homework.

Page - 18 - of 77
1) One of the objectives of a task-based curriculum is interactive proficiency
2) The means of achieving this is through experiencing guided interaction via
purposeful tasks
3) Therefore, the means and the end become inseparable; the process of
learning is part of the product of learning.
8 Principles of Task-Based Teaching
Principle 1: Ensure an appropriate level of task difficulty

Principle 2: Establish clear goals for each task-based lesson
Principle 3: Develop an appropriate orientation to performing the task in the
students
Principle 4: Ensure that students adopt an active role in task-based lessons
Principle 5: Encourage students to take risks
Principle 6: Ensure that students are primarily focused on meaning when they
perform a task
Principle 7: Provide opportunities for focusing on form
Principle 8: Require students to evaluate their performance and progress
Principles of AR-T-T Grammar Teaching Approaches

Noticing or Awareness Meaning-making
Conscious focus on relationship of form and

Grammar choices are communicative
meaning
Context Authentic (or Semi-Authentic)

Communication in English is not only an academic
Language and communication happen in a
exercise. What relevance do learning activities have
specific place and time to real people
outside of the classroom?
Dynamic Integrated
Includes top-down and bottom up; negotiation of ARTT grammar teaching is integrated with other
meaning language skills

Page - 19 - of 77
WEEK 5
APPROACHES TO GRAMMAR TEACHING
First of all, here are two important definitions:

Deductive Approach Inductive Approach
- starts with the presentation of rule - starts with some examples from
and is followed by examples in which a rule is inferred
which the rule is applied
- the grammar rule is presented - without having met the rule, the
and the learner engages with it learner studies examples and from
through the study and these examples derives an
manipulation of examples understanding of the rule
- rule-driven - rule-discovery
An example of deductive learning might be that, on arriving in a country you have

never been to before, you are told that as a rule people rub noses when greeting one
another, and so you do exactly that. An example of inductive learning would be, on
arriving in this same country, you observe several instances of people rubbing noses on
meeting so you conclude that this is the custom, and proceed to do likewise. In place of
the terms deductive and inductive, it may be easier to use the terms rule-driven learning
and discovery learning respectively.
In an inductive approach, on the other hand, without having met the rule, the learner
studies examples from these examples derives an understanding of the rule. Both
approaches can, of course, lead on to further practice of the rule until applying it
becomes automatic. The inductive route would seem, on the face of it, to be the way
one’s first language is acquired; simply through exposure to a massive amount of input
the regularities and patterns of the language become evident, independent of conscious
study and explicit rule formulation.
Deductive Approach
A deductive approach is more teacher-centered learning where the points of English

grammar are explicitly stated to the students and then tested. Once the grammar is
introduced and explained, students usually complete grammar exercises to become
familiar with the pattern. This is a method that has been commonly used in English
classrooms.

Page - 20 - of 77
Example
A teacher writes examples of simple present and simple past sentences on the
board. The teacher then proceeds to explain the differences between present and
past in English. Once the lecture is complete, worksheets are handed out and
students are asked to convert simple sentences from present to past.
Benefits
Although a little less effective than inductive teaching when used in in English
classrooms, benefits to the deductive approach are:
 Time in the classroom is spent only on the language principle.
 Most material can be easily taught this way.
 It encourages faster learning of material
Inductive Approach
The inductive teaching approach in English classrooms is a sort of discovery

learning that focuses on the student. For example, an instructor might use or show a
few examples of a grammar point in English and then ask students what they notice. In
many cases, the grammar point might be introduced by simply engaging the students in
a directed conversation to slowly introduce it. The teacher guides the students to
noticing the grammar pattern, and finally explicitly exposes them to it.
Example
A teacher writes on the board a few examples of simple present and simple past
sentences. The teacher then asks the students what differences they notice in the
sentences. The students discuss the differences and maybe even try converting
some simple sentences from present to past on their own. Finally, the teacher
explains the rule for converting sentences from past to present.

Page - 21 - of 77
Benefits
Although inductive teaching takes longer than deductive, many educators agree it is
a very efficient method in the long run. Benefits include:
 Student interaction and participation.
 Students rely on their critical thinking to figure out the language.
 Students gain deeper understanding of the language.
There are clear differences to the inductive approach and deductive approach in in
English classrooms. Inductive tends to be more efficient in the long run, but deductive is
less time consuming. Much depends on the teacher and the students. You might try and
compare both of these approaches at certain points in your teaching to see which is
more effective for your students.
WEEK 7
SAMPLE LESSONS FOR DEDUCTIVE APPROACH
Lesson 1 Using a rule explanation to teach question formation (Pre-intermediate)
In the presentation, the teacher uses an illustrated explanation to highlight a feature

of English syntax (word order). The same kind of presentation could be used, with a little
adaptation, for teaching other syntactic structures such as the passive, reported speech,
embedded questions (Do you know where the bank is?) or cleft sentences (What I like
about London is…).
Step 1
The teacher writes on the board the sentence:
The president phoned the Queen.
She asks students to identify the verb in the sentence (phoned). She then asks
them to identify the subject of the sentence (the president); and, finally, the object

Page - 22 - of 77
(the Queen). She reminds students that English word order typically follows a
subject-verb-object pattern (SVO).
Step 2
The teacher then erases the president and substitutes someone.
Someone phoned the Queen.
She elicits, or – in the event of not being able to elicit it – she provides the
question: Who phoned the Queen?
She writes this question and the answer on the board. She numbers the
exchange 1:

1 Who phoned the Queen?
- The President
She then returns to the original sentence:

The president phoned the Queen.
She rubs out the Queen, substituting someone.

- The President
The president phoned someone.
She elicits (or models) the question and its answer and writes them on the
board:

- The President
The president phoned someone.
2 who did the president phone?

- The Queen

Page - 23 - of 77
She then asks the students to study the two questions and to think about the
difference between the subject questions 1 and object question 2.
2 Who did the president phone?
Step 3
The teacher explains the difference, pointing out that to form questions about the
subject of the sentence requires no change in word order:
S V O the
Someone phoned Queen. the
Who phoned Queen?
Whereas to form questions about parts of the sentence after the verb (in this
case the object) does require a change in the standard word order. (This change in
word order is called inversion. Inversion is a feature of English questions forms, as
in Are you married? In the case of our example, the inversion is achieved by
unpacking the verb phoned into its components did + phone and then enlisting the
auxiliary did to perform the inversion.) The whole process looks like this:
S V O
The presid ent phoned the Queen.
The president phoned the Queen?
O V S V
Who did the President phone?
Step 4
The teacher then places four pictures of famous people (or, in the absence of
pictures, their names) and connects them with arrows. For example:

Page - 24 - of 77
Michael Jackson The Pope
Madonna
Martina Hingis
She explains that the arrows represent phone calls. She asks a variety of
questions. For example:
Who phoned Madonna?
Who did Madonna phone?
Who did the Pope phone?
She asks the students to continue this activity in pairs. She then invites them to
make new ‘phone networks’ by changing the names of the people in the diagram,
and to continue the question-and-answer activity.
For fun, she completes this activity by asking students: Why did Madonna phone the
Pope, do you think? etc.
Step 5
The teacher writes on the board:
Who phoned you yesterday / this morning / last weekend?

Who did you phone yesterday / this morning / last weekend?
She asks the students to ask and answer questions in pairs. As the students are
doing this, she successively erases the questions from the board in order to wean them
off a dependence on the written form.
She then asks individual students to report what they have found out to the whole
class.
Alternative or additional questions might be:
Who e-mailed you

Page - 25 - of 77
Who did you e-mail
yesterday
Who visited you last week
?
Who did you visit last weekend
last Christmas
Who wrote to you
Who did you write to
Lesson 2 Teaching used to using translation (Elementary)
In this lesson, the teacher has chosen to use translation to present used to do (as in I
used to go to the movies more than I do now) to a group of Spanish-speakers. To follow
this example, it may help to know that the Spanish verb soler (present suele, past solia)
means something like to be accustomed to.
Step 1
The teacher writes:
I used to ski when I was young, but I stopped because it was too expensive.
He elicits a translation, and then erase key words, leaving:
I used to ____ when I was ______, but I stopped because __________________.
He asks students to write sentences of their own using this model, to compare
them in groups of three, and to ask and answer questions about the topics they
have chosen.
Lesson 3 Teaching articles using grammar worksheets (Upper intermediate)
Still within the framework of a rule-driven approach, the following procedure attempts to
center the teaching-learning process more on the students, with a view to (a) giving

Page - 26 - of 77
them more responsibility for their learning, and (b) providing more opportunities for real
communication, even if the topic of conversation is grammar. The teacher has decided
to deal with the English article system by dividing the class into groups and giving each
group a different set of rules relating to article use.
Step 1
The teacher divides the class into three groups (or six or nine groups, depending on
the class size), with three or four students in each group. She hands out an exercise
sheet which requires students to complete the gaps in a text. Each gap represents a
use of either the indefinite article (a, an) the definite article (the), or what is called
the
‘zero’ article, that is, when no article is required before a noun, as in I like ice cream.
Here is the beginning of the handout:
Articles
Complete the text by choosing the best word to complete the gap: a, an, the, or
nothing. Sometimes more than one answer may be possible. If you are not sure about
an answer, leave it: your classmates may be able to help you later.
Digestion
1
____ food we eat must be changed by 2____ body before it can be absorbed by
3
____ blood and used to nourish 4____ cells of 5____ body. 6____ food is changed into
7
____ nourishment by 8____ digestive system. 9____ begins in 10____ mouth where
11
____ food is chewed into 12____ small pieces and mixed with 13____ saliva before
being …
She asks the groups to work on this exercise, and gives them five minutes to do
this. She then hands out three grammar summaries: A, B and C. Each grammar
summary gives different information about the article system in English. Summary A
covers some rules about when to use the definite article, summary B has rules
about the indefinite article, and summary C has rules about the zero article.
Each group 1 gets summary A, each group 2 gets summary B, and each group
3 gets summary C. Note that the groups do not see the grammar summaries of the
two groups. The teacher then asks the students to study their grammar summary
and to use it to help them complete the exercise, again working as a group.

Page - 27 - of 77
Step 2
Once the students have had a chance to use the grammar summaries to help them
do the exercise, the teacher re-groups them in such a way that the new groups
comprise members of each of the original groups. One way of the organizing this is
to number the students in each group:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 and
then to ask three number 1s to form a group, three number 2s another group,
etc:
1 1 1 2 2 2 3 3 3
In their new groups, the students are instructed to compare their answers to
exercise, and to share any information from their grammar summaries that might
help the other members in their group to complete the exercise. They are
encouraged to explain their grammar information, rather than simply show their
classmates the grammar sheets.
Step 3
The teacher then checks the exercise in open class, asking learners to justify their
answers by reference to the rules on their worksheets.
Lesson 4 Teaching word order using a self-study grammar (Intermediate)
Many students have access to self-study grammars – that is, grammar reference books
which also include exercises and a key. These grammars are potential sources of
learner-directed grammar learning, both in the classroom (as should be apparent from
Samples Lesson 3) and out of the classroom. In this sample lesson, the teacher exploits
the self- and peer-instruction potential of grammar practice books to target a feature of
syntax.
Step 1
The teacher has identified a common problem in the class – the tendency to put
adverbials between subject and object, as in I like very much techno music. (The
adverbial in this case is very much.) So he directs learners to Unit 108 in English
Grammar in Use by Raymond Murphy (see next page). The teacher tells them to
study the grammar rules for homework, to do the exercise on the facing page (see
108.1 on the next page), and to check it by reference to the answers in the back of
the book. They are also asked to design – as a homework task – their own exercise

Page - 28 - of 77
along similar lines, by writing twelve original sentences, some of which are correct
and some of which are incorrect but all of which are sentences about themselves or
about other students in the class. For example:
I take every day the bus to school.
Nicole doesn’t like Chinese food very much.
The teacher reminds the learners that the sentences should be designed to test
their classmates’ grasp of the word order rules they are to study.
UNIT
EXERCISES
108.1 Is the word order right or wrong? Correct the ones that are wrong.
108
1 Everybody enjoyed the party very much. RIGHT
2
Tom walks every morning to work. WRONG: to work every morning
3
Jim doesn’t like very much football.
4
I drink three or four cups of coffee every morning.
5
I ate quickly my dinner and went out.
6
Are you going to invite to the party a lot of people?
7
I phoned Tom immediately after hearing the news.
8
Did you go late to bed last night?
9
Sue was here five minutes ago. Where is she now?
10 Did you learn a lot of things at school today?
Step 2
In the next lesson, the teacher puts the students in pairs, and they each exchange
the exercises they have prepared. Each does the exercise they have been given.
That is, they read their partner’s sentences and decide which are grammatically
correct. They also correct the ones that are incorrect. They then return them to their
partner for checking. The teacher is available for consultation and will attempt to
resolve any problems that arise – where, for example, there are two possible correct
answers.

Page - 29 - of 77
Step 3
The teacher then rounds off this part of the lesson by eliciting the word order rules
from the class.
WEEK 8
SAMPLE LESSONS FOR INDUCTIVE APPROACH
Lesson 1 Teaching imperatives through actions (Beginners)
The following presentation, while sharing similarities with the 'I-am-walking’

procedures of the Direct Method, in fact borrows more from the Total Physical
Response (TPR) method. TPR is based on the principle that learners learn best when
they are wholly engaged (both physically and mentally) in the language learning
process. Step 1
The teacher asks two students to come to the front of the class, where there are
three chairs placed in a row. The teacher sits in the middle chair and the two
students sit either side. To the two students he says stand up and at the same time
stands up himself, indicating with a gesture that the students should do the same.
The teacher then says Walk, and walk across the room, indicating to the students
to do the same. Further instructions follow: Stop ... turn around ... walk ... stop ...
turn around … sit down. Each time the teacher acts out the instruction and the
students follow. When, by this means, they have returned to their seats, the
teacher signals to the student on his left to remain seated. The sequence is then
repeated, this time only the student on the right performs the actions, following the
instructions from the teacher, who, along with the other student, remains seated.
When the student has successfully performed the instructions, it is the turn of the
second student. This time the order of the instructions is slightly varied. The
teacher next calls on one or two more students from the class to perform the set of
instructions.
Step 2
The teacher teaches the names of various features of the classroom, such as
board, door, table, window, chair, floor, light, simply by pointing to each one and
saying its name a few times while students listen. With one student he then

Page - 30 - of 77
demonstrates, following a similar procedure as in Step 1, the instructions: point
to ..., walk to ..., touch ..., open ..., and close ..., using as objects the classroom
features previously taught. For example, walk to the door, open the door, close the
door, turn around, walk to the board, point to the window, touch the floor ... The
student performs the actions while the rest of the class watch. Further, students act
out similar sets of instructions given by the teacher, who gradually increases the
number and density of instructions, so that students are soon having to listen to a
complex set of instructions before they actually start to perform them.
Step 3
With one student the teacher then demonstrates the meaning of Don't ... by telling
the student: Stand up. Don't walk. Don't turn around. Sit down …, indicating when it
is appropriate to perform the action and when not. Step 2 is then repeated, but with
the inclusion of the negative imperative don’t...
Step 4
The teacher writes the following table on the board. He reads sentences from it
aloud, asking students to repeat them, before writing them down in their books.
(Don’t) Stand up. (Don’t) Walk to the board.

Sit down. Point to the light.
Walk. Open the door.
Stop. Close the window.
Turn around. Touch the floor.
Lesson 2 Teaching the present simple using realia (Beginners)
Realia is the technical term for any real objects that are introduced into the
classroom for teaching purposes. Thus, a word family such as the names of different
fruits could be taught by using pictures of fruit, or they could be taught using realia -
real fruit. In this presentation, the teacher uses realia to elicit examples of the present
simple in a beginners' class.
Step 1
The teacher shows the class a collection of objects that she says she found in a
bag left in the teachers' room. They include such things as a bus pass; a
programme for the current jazz festival; an empty glasses case; the guarantee for a
well-known brand of watches; a novel in French; a swimming cap; a guitar pick; etc.

Page - 31 - of 77
(Note that none of the objects has the owner's name.) She divides the class into
pairs and hands each pair an object, telling them they should try to work out some
characteristics of the owner of that object, so that the teacher can work out who the
bag belongs to and return it. The learners study their object and then pass it on to
the pair on their left until they have had a chance to look at them all.
Step 2
The teacher asks the class: Do you think it’s a man or a woman? Depending on
their response the owner is thereafter referred to as he or she or he/she. She then
elicits sentences from the learners based on their deductions. Vocabulary is
provided as necessary and the sentences are ‘shaped’ by the teacher and written
on to the board so as to display the target form clearly, which is the present simple
form of the relevant verbs:
He likes jazz.
He takes the bus.
He wears a Swatch. He wears glasses.
He plays the guitar.
Step 3
The teacher directs attention to the form of the verbs, highlighting the final –s. She
also checks that students are clear as to the time reference implied by this use of
the present simple, by asking: Is this past, present, or future? To the answer
Present, she responds: Right now, or every day? to elicit Every day. She then rubs
out the verbs, and asks learners to complete the list from memory, working in pairs.
This task is then checked.
Step 4
The teacher then asks the students individually to write a similar list of sentences
about a person in the class. The teacher monitors the sentence-writing stage,
providing vocabulary where needed, and suggesting improvements. Individual
students then read out their sentences, other students guess who is being
described.
Lesson 3 Teaching should have done using a generative situation (Intermediate)

Page - 32 - of 77
The situational approach that follows was designed to overcome some of the
shortcomings mentioned above of relying solely on demonstration, namely, that only a
limited number of structures lend themselves to this approach. By offering the learner a
context, it also avoids the problems involved in either excessive explanation or
translation.
Step 1
By means of a picture on the board (a drawing, photo, or picture cut from a
magazine) the teacher introduces a character she calls Andy. She draws a rough
map of Australia, placing next to it a picture of a four-wheel drive vehicle. She elicits
ideas as to how these pictures are connected, establishing the situation that Andy
has decided to drive across the Australian desert from the east to the west. She
elicits the sort of preparations a person would need to make for such a journey.
Students suggest, for example, that Andy would need a map, a spare wheel, lots of
water, a travelling companion, food, a first aid kit, and so on. The teacher selects
some of these ideas, and writes them in a column on the board, and one or two
ideas of her own:
To do this kind of journey, you should:
Take a map
Take water
Not travel alone
Advise the police
Not travel in the wet season
Step 2
The teacher then explains that Andy made no preparations. He didn’t take a map,
he didn’t take water, he travelled alone etc. she asks the students to imagine what
happened. Using their ideas as well as her own, she constructs the following story:
Andy sets off, got lost, got very thirsty, set off in search of help (leaving his vehicle
behind), and got tapped by sudden flood waters, etc. the police set out in search of
him but couldn’t find him because he had abandoned his vehicle and left no note.
The teacher checks these facts by asking one or two students to recount them.

Page - 33 - of 77
Step 3
The teacher asks the class: Well, what do you think of Andy?, eliciting answers like
He was stupid. Teacher: Why? At this point, students may venture sentences, like
He must take a map. Having thus established the idea of disapproval of past
actions, the teacher models the sentence: He should have taken a map, repeating
it two or three times. The students repeat the sentence in unison and then
individually. The teachers reminds the students of the concept of disapproval by
asking: Did he take a map? (No). Was that a good idea? (no) So …? The students
respond: He should have taken a map.
She then repeats this process using the example of travelling alone, eliciting,
modeling, drilling, and concept-checking the sentence: He shouldn’t have travelled
alone.
Further prompting elicits example sentences, such as:
He should’ve taken water.
He shouldn’t have left his car.
At strategic points, the teacher recaps the sentences that have been
generated, using the words on the board as prompts. So far, nothing has been
written on the board.
Step 4
The teacher then clears the board and writes up the following table:
He should have taken water

shouldn’t have travelled alone
She asks students, working in pairs, to add further sentences about the
situation to the table. Individual students read sentences aloud from the table, and
the teacher reminds them of the pronunciation of should have i.e. /ʃƱdƏv/
Step 5
The teacher then asks students to imagine the dialogue when the police finally find
Andy. She writes the following exchange on the board:

Page - 34 - of 77
Police: You should’ve taken a map.
Andy: I know I should. I didn’t think.
Students, working in pairs, continue writing the dialogue along the same lines,
and then practice it aloud, taking it in turns to be the police officer and Andy.
Lesson 4 Teaching the difference between past simple and present perfect through
minimal sentence pairs (Pre-intermediate)
In this example, the teacher is contrasting two easily confused verb structures. The
class are familiar with both these structures but have met them only separately rather
than in combination.
Step 1
The teacher writes the following three sets of sentences on the board:
1a b I’ve seen all of Jim Jarmusch’s films.

2a b I saw his latest film last month.
3ab
Since 1990, she’s worked for three different newspapers. She
worked for The Observer in 1996.
Have you ever been to Peru?

When were you in Peru?
He asks the class first to identify the two verb structures in each of the sets,
and establishes that each sentence a is an example of the present perfect, while
each sentence b is an example of the past simple. If students are in any doubt
about this, he quickly recaps the rules of form for each of these structures.

Page - 35 - of 77
Step 2
He then asks the learners to consider the differences in meaning in each case (1-
3), and to see if they can come up with a general rule for the difference between
the present perfect and the past simple. He allows them to discuss this in pairs. In
checking this task, he elicits the fact that the present perfect is used to talk about
experience but without specifying when it happened. The past simple, on the other
hand, is used to talk about a specific experience, often a specified past time. To
clarify this point, he draws the following timelines on the board and asks students to
match them to the examples a and b.
NOW
NOW
Step 3
He divides the class into pairs and sets them the following exercise which requires
them to choose between two forms:
a Complete this job interview between and Interviewer

(I) and a Candidate (C). Put the verbs in brackets in
the Present Perfect or Past Simple.
I: So, tell me little about the things you … (do).
C: Well, I … (study) French and German at university.
Then, I … (teach) in secondary school for a few years.
I: … you (enjoy) teaching?
C: No, not really. I … (not like) the discipline problems.
So, I … (start) working for a large drug company.
I: … you (work) abroad at all?
C: Yes, well about three years ago I … ( get) a job in
France, selling advertising space for a science magazine.
I: … you (go) anywhere else?
C: Yes, I … (work) in Germany in 1990.
I: Oh really? What … (do) there?
WEEK 9
TEACHING GRAMMAR THROUGH TEXTS, STORIES, SONGS, RHYMES, &
POEMS

Page - 36 - of 77
1) Through Texts
If learners are to achieve a functional command of a second language, they will

need to be able to understand and produce not just isolated sentences, but whole texts
in that language. Language is context-sensitive; which is to say that an utterance
becomes fully intelligible only when it is placed in its context.
Course book texts tend to be specially tailored for ease of understanding and so as
to display specific features of grammar. This often gives them a slightly unreal air, as in
this example:
(Contrasting Present Progressive – “Going to” Future)
This is Mr. West. He has a bag in

his left hand. Where is he
standing? He is standing at
the door of his house. What
is Mr. West going to do? He
is going to put his hand into
his pocket. He is going to
take a key out of his
pocket. He is going to put the key into the lock. (from
Hornby, A.S. Oxford Progressive English Course, Oxford
University Press, 1954)
Authentic texts or classroom texts?

Advocates of authentic texts argue that not only are such specially written EFL texts
uninteresting - and therefore motivating - but they misrepresent the way the language is
used in real-life contexts. On the other hand, the problems associated with authentic
texts cannot be wished away, either, as any teacher who has attempted to use a dense
newspaper article with low level students will have discovered. The linguistic load of
unfamiliar vocabulary and syntactic complexity can make such texts impenetrable, and
ultimately very demotivating.

Page - 37 - of 77
A compromise position is to take authentic texts, and to simplify them in ways which
retain their genuine flavor. This is the approach generally adopted by course book
writers nowadays. Another alternative is to write classroom texts, but to make them
more engaging than the example quoted above. In fact, with only the slightest change,
the text about Mr. West could be made somewhat more attention-grabbing:
This is Mr. West. He has a bag in his left hand. Where is he

standing? He is standing at the door of his house. What is Mr. West going to do?
He is going to put his hand into his pocket. He is going to take a gun out of his
pocket. He is going to point the gun at...
The implications of this context-sensitive view of language on grammar teaching

are that:
• Grammar is best taught and practiced in context.
• This means using whole texts as contexts for grammar teaching.
Advantages of using texts: Disadvantages of using texts:
• They provide co-textual information, • The difficulty of the text, especially an

allowing learners to deduce the meaning authentic one, may mean that some of the
of unfamiliar grammatical items from the above advantages are lost.
co-text. • The alternative - to use simplified texts -
• If the texts are authentic they can show may give a misleading impression as to
how the item is used in real how the language item is naturally used,
communication. again defeating the purpose of using texts.
• As well as grammar input, texts provide • Not all texts will be of equal interest to
vocabulary input, skills practice, and students.
exposure to features of text • Students who want quick answers to simple
organization. questions may consider the use of texts to
• Their use in the classroom is good be the 'scenic route' to language
preparation for independent study. awareness, and would prefer a quicker,
• If the texts come from the students more direct route instead.
themselves, they may be more engaging
and their language features therefore
more memorable.
No single method of grammar presentation is going to be appropriate for all grammar

items, nor for all learners, nor for all learning contexts. A lot will also depend on the kind
of practice opportunities that the teacher provides.

Page - 38 - of 77
2) Through Stories
Everyone loves a story. Stories can be used for both eliciting and illustrating
grammar points. The former employs inductive reasoning, while the latter requires
deductive thought, and it is useful to include both approaches in lesson planning. In
addition, a well-told story is the perfect context for a structure-discourse match, but the
technique can also be used effectively for a structure-social factor match. Storytelling is
one of these extremely versatile techniques, and once you get the hang of it, it can be a
convenient and natural grammar teaching tool. You may even find that it is the
technique that holds students' attention best, as well as the one they enjoy most.
Grammar points can be contextualized in stories that are absorbing and just plain
fun if they are selected with the interest of the class in mind, are told with a high degree
of energy, and involve the students. Students can help create stories and impersonate
characters in them. Students will certainly appreciate and respond to your efforts to
include them in the storytelling process, but they will also enjoy learning about you
through your stories. Stories should last from one to five minutes, and the more
exaggerated and bizarre they are, the more likely students will remember the teaching
points they illustrate.
Storytelling is traditional in almost all cultures. We can tap into that tradition for a
very portable resource and a convenient and flexible technique for teaching any phase
of a grammar lesson. A story provides a realistic context for presenting grammar points
and holds and focuses students’ attention in a way that no other technique can.
Although some teachers are better at telling stories than others, almost any of us can
tell stories with energy and interest. Students naturally like to listen to stories, and most
are remembered long after the lesson is over.
3) Through Songs and Rhymes
Since the meaning is an important device in teaching grammar, it is important to

contextualize any grammar point. Songs are one of the most enchanting and culturally
rich resources that can easily be used in language classrooms. Songs offer a change
from routine classroom activities. They are precious resources to develop student’s
abilities in listening, speaking, reading, and writing. They can also be used to teach a
variety of language items such as sentence patterns, vocabulary, pronunciation, rhythm,
adjectives, and adverbs. Learning English through songs also provides a non-

Page - 39 - of 77
threatening atmosphere for students, who usually are tense when speaking English in a
formal classroom setting.
Songs also give new insights into the target culture. They are the means through
which cultural themes are presented effectively. Since they provide authentic texts, they
are motivating. Prosodic features of the language such as stress, rhythm, intonation are
presented through songs, thus through using them the language which is cut up into a
series of structural points becomes a whole again.
There are many advantages of using songs in the classroom. Through using
contemporary popular songs, which are already familiar to teenagers, the teacher can
meet the challenges of the teenage needs in the classroom. Since songs are highly
memorable and motivating, in many forms they may constitute a powerful subculture
with their own rituals. Furthermore, through using traditional folk songs the base of the
learner’s knowledge of the target culture can be broadened.
In consequence, if selected properly and adopted carefully, a teacher should benefit
from songs in all phases of teaching grammar. Songs may both be used for the
presentation or the practice phase of the grammar lesson. They may encourage
extensive and intensive listening, and inspire creativity and use of imagination in a
relaxed classroom atmosphere. While selecting a song the teacher should take the age,
interests of the learners and the language being used in the song into consideration. To
enhance learner commitment, it is also beneficial to allow learners to take part in the
selection of the songs.
Teaching Procedure
There are various ways of using songs in the classroom. The level of the students,
the interests and the age of the learners, the grammar point to be studied, and the song
itself have determinant roles on the procedure. Apart from them, it mainly depends on
the creativity of the teacher. At the primary level of singing the song, the prosodic
features of the language is emphasized. At the higher levels, where the practice of
grammar points is at the foreground, songs can be used with several techniques. Some
examples of these techniques are:
• Gap fills or close texts
• Focus questions
• True-false statements
• Put these lines into the correct sequence
• Dictation
• Add a final verse

Page - 40 - of 77
• Circle the antonyms/synonyms of the given words
• Discuss
A teacher's selection of a technique or a set of techniques should be based on his or

her objectives for the classroom. After deciding the grammar point to be studied, and the
song and the techniques to be used, the teacher should prepare an effective lesson
plan. Since songs are listening activities, it is advisable to present them as a listening
lesson, but of course it is necessary to integrate all the skills in the process in order to
achieve successful teaching.
When regarding a lesson plan, as a pre-listening activity, the theme, the title, or the
history of the song can be discussed. By directing the students toward specific areas,
problem vocabulary items can be picked up in advance. Before listening to the song, it is
also beneficial to let the students know which grammar points should be studied. At this
stage, pictures may also be used to introduce the theme of the song. In the listening
stage, some of the techniques listed above can be used, but among them gap filling is
the most widely used technique. Through such gaps, the vocabulary, grammar, or
pronunciation are highlighted. This stage can be developed by the teacher according to
the needs of the students and the grammar point to be studied.
In the follow-up, integrated skills can be used to complete the overall course
structure. Since many songs are on themes for which it is easy to find related reading
texts, it may lead the learner to read a text about the singer or the theme. Besides,
many songs give a chance for a written reaction of some kind. Opinion questions may
lead the learner to write about his own thoughts or reflections. Some songs deal with a
theme that can be re-exploited through role plays. Acting may add enthusiasm to the
learning process. Finally, some songs deal with themes, which can lead to guided
discussion. By leading the students into a discussion, the grammar point could be
practiced orally and, in a way, naturally.
Exploitation of songs for grammatical structures can be illustrated through several
examples. For present tense 'Let It Be' by the Beatles, for past tense 'Yesterday' by the
Beatles, for present progressive 'Sailing' by Rod Stewart, for present perfect 'Nothing
Compares to You' by Sinead Occonor, for past perfect 'Last Night I Had...' by Simon and
Garfunkel, for modals 'Blowing in the Wind' by Bob Dylan, and for conditionals 'El
Condor Pasa' by Simon and Garfunkel can be used. However, it should be kept in mind
that songs, which provide frequent repetitions, or tell a story, or provide comments
about life, or introduce cultural themes are the effective ones, since they provide
authentic and meaningful material.

Page - 41 - of 77
4) Through Poems
Poems, like songs, contextualize a grammar lesson effectively. Since poetry is often
spoken, repeated, dealt with, and considered, it acts as an effective tool for practicing a
specific grammatical structure. Through repeating and considering the poem, the
grammatical structures become more deeply internalized. Thus, poetry not only provides
a rewarding resource for structured practice of grammar, but also a proper basis for
review. If a poem that exemplifies a particular structure is also a good poem, it engages
the eye, the ear and the tongue simultaneously while also stimulating and moving us;
this polymorphic effect makes poetry easier to memorize than other things for many
students.
Like songs, poems exaggerate the rhythmic nature of the language. Thus it is an
important aspect to be taught, since English is a syllable timed language with stressed
syllables being spoken at roughly equal time pauses, even in everyday speech. Similar
to songs, poems have an enormous linguistic value as they provide authenticity and
cultural views. A poem's capacity to comfort the reader or the listener also increases its
effectiveness as a teaching resource. Once a poem or song has been learned, they stay
in the minds of the students for the rest of their lives, with all the rhythms, grammatical
features and vocabulary.
There are three main barriers for literature including poetry. They are linguistic,
cultural, and intellectual barriers. Linguistic difficulties are the problems caused by the
syntax or the lexicon of the poem. Cultural difficulties include imagery, tone, and
allusion. At the intellectual level, the students should be intellectual and mature enough
to understand the theme of the poem. These difficulties could be easily removed if the
teacher provides a poem which is syntactically and thematically appropriate to the level,
age and the interests of the students. Thus, by minimizing the potential problems, poetry
can provide a rich, enjoyable and authentic context for foreign language learners.
In the selection of a poem, the teacher should first consider the grammatical
structure to be presented, practiced, or reviewed, then the level and the age of the
students, next the theme and the length of the poem and its appropriateness to the
classroom objectives. It is advisable to select a poem from 20th century poets. As older
poems often provide a more difficult lexicon and syntax, and as they reflect some old-

Page - 42 - of 77
fashioned ideas, it is more convenient to use contemporary poems than older ones.
Poems, which reflect cultural themes, universal features, humanistic values, or
emotional aspects, will be more relevant to the foreign language learners. Finally,
through taking the classroom objectives into consideration, a teacher should effectively
benefit from poems as teaching aids.
Teaching Procedure
At the teaching stage of a poem, it is not advisable to talk about the meaning of the
poem in advance. Since they offer a reading and listening activity, poems could be
presented through a reading plan. At the pre-reading stage, students might be motivated
through some enthusiastic talks about poetry or the poet. Some necessary vocabulary
can also be handled at this stage. At the reading stage, in order to create images and
stress the prosodic features, the teacher may want the students to close their eyes while
he/she is reading the poem. After the poem has been read at least twice, it is better to
elicit the primary responses of the students about the poem. Next, after distributing the
poem to students, students may be asked to read it either loudly or silently. In order to
practice the determined grammar point, students may be asked to paraphrase the
poem. Through transforming the verse into prose students get acquainted with the
structure.
After easing the grammar and understanding the vocabulary, students get an idea
about the theme of the poem. Reading the paraphrased poem reinforces the
grammatical structure under consideration. Asking questions about context may follow
the reading. Through asking Wh- questions, providing additional information about the
culture, and asking students to share their experience with the subject matter, the
cultural content of the poem becomes more real and vivid. Words, pictures, and shared
experiences can eliminate the gap that is created by different cultures, as no one can
deny that poems cannot always evoke the same sounds, sights, smells, and
associations for both native speakers and foreign language learners. After discussing
the surface content of the poem, students may again asked to close their eyes and
visualize the poem while listening to it.
As a follow-up activity a discussion may be held. After reviewing the plot of the
poem and providing adequate artful questions, the students will eventually discover the
deeper meaning of the poem. As being a facilitator, a teacher should always avoid
telling the meaning. After each student grasps his or her own meaning, it is proper to
discuss the depth of the poem. In this procedure, the teacher's aim is to support the
students in their attempts to understand the poem and make it relevant to their lives.
Once they have understood it and perceived its relevance, they will have no objection to

Page - 43 - of 77
practicing the poem or even memorizing it, for it will have become special for them. At
the follow-up stage, providing the determined structure, students may also be asked to
write a poem about anything they want. In such a procedure the four skills are effectively
integrated to practice or present any grammar point.
Since every class is different, teachers should creativity determine the teaching
procedure. It is not advisable to apply one procedure too strictly. A teacher should adopt
the activities according to the needs of the learners. However, it might not be very
useful to use poems for young students or for beginners. Instead of poems, using
nursery rhymes or songs would be more helpful since they provide more joyful and
easier contexts. From pre-intermediate to advanced levels, it is really beneficial to use
either songs or poems. Several poems can be adopted from contemporary poem books.
The poems of the W.H. Auden, Robert Frost, Stanley Kunitz, Delmore Schwartz, W.D.
Snodgrass, Theodore Roethke, Gary Snyder, Richard Wilbur, and Robert Lowell, etc.
are suggested for the language teachers who want to use poems in their grammar
lessons.

Page - 44 - of 77
WEEK 10
ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUCTIONAL / LESSON PLAN
A lesson plan is . . .
A model of organized learning events A projection of real lesson filled with

within a set period of time or session. concrete processes, assignments, and
learning tools.
A blueprint on which to construct a A tool that moves from theory to practice by

learning process made up of clearly carrying out a methodological approach
stated goals and objectives. (based on latest research).
STAGES IN LESSON PLANNING

1. Preparation
- Who is to be taught?
- By knowing the learners, the desired outcome can be determined and the
teacher can identify the purpose of the lesson.
2. Development
- What is to be taught?
- This stage covers the substance of the lesson such as subject matter,
instructional goals, specific learning objectives, concepts and skills.
- An effective activity or lesson plan begins with a specific objective.

Page - 45 - of 77
3. Implementation
- What is to be taught?
- This stage covers the substance of the lesson such as subject matter,
instructional goals, specific learning objectives, concepts and skills.
- An effective activity or lesson plan begins with a specific objective.
- Materials and technology applications
-
4. Reflection
- Will/ is my lesson plan effective?

- The teacher evaluates the strengths and weaknesses of the lesson plan
before implementing it and after it has been delivered.
Lesson Plan Formats

Semi-Detailed Lesson
Detailed Lesson Plan Brief Lesson Plan
Plan
1. The detailed lesson plan 1. Has all the components of 1. Only guide statements or
has five parts: a detailed plan but does brief explanation of the
- Objectives not include a complete activities to be performed
- Subject Matter (topic, description of pupils’ in each part are provided
references, materials) activity.
- Procedure (motivation, 2. It contains the important
activity, routines, subject matter and a
lesson proper) description of teaching-
- Evaluation learning activities.
- Assignment
2. Everything is written down
like a script of a play.
3. It contains what the
teacher does and says and

Page - 46 - of 77
what the students are
expected to say and do.
COMMON ELEMENTS OF A LESSON PLAN

1. Object ives
It may include academic and culturally relevant content standards, adaptations for
diverse populations.
2. Topic or Subject Matter
It includes the title and the scope of the topic to be discussed.
3. Materials
They are those instructional materials, equipment or multi-sensory media that we

need in teaching to attain our objective (s). They are there for us to be able to make the
abstract concrete and to arouse our pupils’/students’ interest in the lesson.
4. Procedure or Lesson Development
It consists of an outline of the development of the lesson. How will I treat the topic or
subject matter? What strategies and techniques shall I employ? What questions shall I
ask? What activities shall I give to my students? In short, with a particular lesson
objective and with materials at my disposal, how shall I proceed?
The outline of the lesson “is expressed in topics or subtopics, a series of broad or
pivotal questions or a list of activities.” (Ornstein, 1992) For logical lesson development,
the procedure begins with motivation, followed by the pivotal questions or list of
activities for elaborative learning, which it in itself the lesson, and summary as clinching
part of the lesson.
For Orlich, the five major elements of instructional procedure are: (1) focusing
event (motivation), (2) teaching procedures (use of pivotal questions, techniques), (3)
formative check (evaluation or assessment in the process of teaching, (4) student
participation, (activities) and (5) closure (summary).

Page - 47 - of 77
5. Evaluation
It compares a student's achievement with other students or with a set of standards.

Effective assessment is a continuous process. It's not simply something that's done at
the conclusion of a unit of study or at the end of a lesson.
6. Assignment (Optional )
For more elaborative learning and for the ultimate purpose of mastery learning,
homework or assignment is given. Assignments are “synapse strengtheners”. When
done conscientiously, they reinforce the retention of concepts, the fixing of skills, and
the internalization of values and cultivation of good habits. They likewise serve as
preparation for the next lesson.
CHARACTERISTICS OF PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES
The characteristics of performance objectives can be coined in the acronym SMART.
SPECIFIC – The learning objective should be well defined and clear. It states exactly
what will be accomplished.
MEASURED or MEASURABLE – The learning objective should provide a benchmark

or target so that the institution can determine when the target has been reached, by how
much it has been exceeded or by how much it has fallen short.
ACHIEVABLE – Can the objective be accomplished in the proposed time frame with the
available resources and support? Do the students have the prior learning necessary to
accomplish the objective?

Page - 48 - of 77
RELEVANT – An effective objective should be relevant to what the subject needs to
achieve. Otherwise, objectives could be successfully delivered but have no impact.
Therefore, the overall goals should be shared with individuals, in a language they can
understand.
TIMED or TIME-BOUNDED – A learning objective should include a specific date (or

point in the course) by which it will be completed. It is important to allow enough time to
successfully implement the steps needed to achieve the objective, but not so much as
to elicit procrastination.
WEEK 11
SAMPLE INSTRUCTIONAL / LESSON PLAN
A SEMI - DETAILED LESSON PLAN FOR ENGLISH 8

Prepared by: Aubrey Bryant D. Fuentes (BSED-ENGL IV)
I. OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
a.) identify correctly transactional and interactional language through a
barrier game;
b.) differentiate accurately transactional from interactional language through
an oral recitation;
c.) demonstrate accurately transactional and interactional language through
a role play; and
d.) discuss briefly their learning experiences through unfinished sentences.
I. SUBJECT MATTER
Topic: Transactional and Interactional Language (Grade – 8)
Reference: Transactional and Interactional Language. Changing
Perspective: Learning module for English – Grade 8 (Module 4). pp. 493-
495.
Materials: Cartolinas, bond papers, folders, marker pens, scotch tape, pencil,
scissors, glue, powerpoint presentation, smile!
Values Integration: Value wisdom, experience and deeds
Skills Developed: Speaking, listening, sharing and cooperation, and higher
order thinking skills

Page - 49 - of 77
Teaching Strategies: Barrier game, oral recitation, role play and unfinished
sentences
II. PROCEDURES
A. Preparatory Activities
1. Routines
a. Prayer
The teacher asks learners to stand-up for the prayer and greets the
students afterwards.
b. Checking of Attendance
The teacher asks learners who are absent for today and will give extra
points for those present. And remind them to be quiet during lecture time,
raise the right hand if they want to recite and turn off and set aside their
gadgets to avoid distractions during lesson.
2. Motivation
The teacher shows a picture to the learners and asks them what they see.
The teacher asks them what these things all about are.
B. Developmental Activities
1. Activity
The learners will play a barrier game. They will be paired and compare and
contrast 2 pictures while being blocked from one another by a barrier. In five
minutes, each pair should have determined as many differences as they can
observe in the picture. Since they cannot see each other’s picture because of
the barrier, one player will be the speaker and the other one is the listener.

Page - 50 - of 77
The speaker will give clear instructions for the listener to follow. The listener
may ask the speaker to clarify the instruction and should say “ready” if you
want to continue. You can ask your pair if your pictures are the same. Picture
#1 (for the speakers)
Picture #2 (for the listeners)
2. Analysis
The teacher asks the learners to state the similarities and differences of the
two pictures and let them discover which picture shows transactional
language or interactional language.
3. Abstraction
The teacher discusses the transactional and interactional language and asks
learners to give examples.
Transactional language is used to send messages with content. It has a

clear objective when asking for information, for a refund or making a
complaint.

Page - 51 - of 77
Interactional language is used to establish and maintain various sorts of
social relationship. It involves shorter turns, simpler and more predictable
language; it can have a measurable result.
4. Application
The learners will have a role play and each group picks a scenario to be
presented in an envelope that shows either transactional or interactional
language.
Things inside the envelope:

At a birthday party (interactional)
At a family reunion (interactional)
At the principal’s office (transactional)
At the bank (transactional
III. EVALUATION
Name: ____________________________________ Date:____________

Grade/Section: _____________________________ Score: ___________
Instructions: Determine each sentence if it shows transactional or interactional

language. Write T for transactional and I for interactional. Write your answer before
the number.
___1. Sheila returned a book to the librarian.

___2. Sheila is studying with her classmates.
___3. Two people pass one another in the street.
___4. A job interview for the next sales associate.
___5. An interrogation of the suspect for murder.
___6. The teacher called Lauren because of her deficiencies.
___7. A conversation with my high school friends.
___8. A live interview of Liza Soberano.
___9. Jonathan is eating his lunch with his family.
___10. You have an appointment to the guidance counselor.

Page - 52 - of 77
IV. Assignment
Make a comic strip that shows transactional and interactional language. Make
one for each. Put it on a short bond paper. Pass it next meeting.
WEEK 13
APPROACHES IN LANGUAGE TESTING
1. The Essay-Translation Approach
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF TESTS

IN THE ESSAY-TRANSLATION APPROACH
This is commonly referred to as the pre-scientific stage of language testing
No special skill or expertise in testing is required.
Tests usually consist of essay writing, translation, and grammatical analysis.
Tests have a heavy literary and cultural bias.
Public examinations resulting from the tests using this approach sometimes have an
oral component at the upper intermediate and advanced levels.
Strengths Weaknesses
a) This approach is easy to follow because a) The subjective judgment of teachers

teachers will simply use their subjective tends to be biased.
judgment.
b) As mentioned, the tests have a heavy
b) The essay-translation approach may be literary and cultural bias.
used for testing any level of examinees.
c) The model of the tester can easily be

modified based on the essentials of the
tests.
2. The Structuralist Approach
CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF TESTS IN

STRUCTURALIST APPROACH
This approach views that language learning is chiefly concerned with the
systematic acquisition of a set of habits.
The structuralist approach involves structural linguistics which

stresses the importance of constructive analysis and the need to
identify and measure the learners’ mastery of the separate elements
of the target language such as phonology, vocabulary, and grammar.

Page - 53 - of 77
Testing the skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing is separate from
another as much as possible.
a) In testing students’ capability, this a) It tends to be a complicated job for

approach may objectively and surely be teachers to prepare questionnaires using
used by testers. this approach.
b) Many forms of tests can be covered in b) This approach considers measuring non-
the test in a short time. integrated skills more than integrated
skills.
c) Using this approach in testing will help
students find their strengths and
weaknesses in every skill they study.
3. The Integrative Approach

INTEGRATIVE APPROACH
This approach involves the testing of language in context and is thus

concerned primarily with meaning and the total communicative effect of discourse.
Integrative tests are concerned with a global view of proficiency.
Integrative testing involves functional language but not the use of functional
language.
The use of cloze test, dictation, oral interview, translation, and essay writing are
included in many integrative tests.
a) The approach to meaning and the total a) Even if many think that measuring
communicative effect of discourse will be integrated skills is better, sometimes
very useful for students in testing. there is a need to consider the
importance of measuring skills based on
b) This approach can view students’ students’ needs, such as writing only,
proficiency with a global view. speaking only, etc.
c) A model cloze test used in this approach

measures the reader’s ability to decode
‘interrupted’ and ‘mutilated’ messages by
making the most acceptable substitutions
from all the contextual clues available.
d) Dictation, another type using this

approach, was regarded solely as a
means of measuring students’ skills of
listening comprehension.

Page - 54 - of 77
4. The Communicative Approach

COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Communicative tests are concerned primarily with how language is used in

communication.
Language use is often emphasized to the exclusion of language usage.
The attempt to measure different language skills in communicative

tests is based on a view of language referred to as the divisibility
hypothesis.
The test content should be relevant for a particular group of examinees and the
tasks set should relate to a real-life situation.
Communicative testing introduces the concept of qualitative modes of assessment

in preference to quantitative modes of assessment.
a) Communicative tests can measure all a) Unlike the structuralist approach, this
integrated skills of students. approach does not emphasize learning
structural grammar, yet it may be difficult
b) The tests using this approach face to achieve communicative competence
students in real life so it will be very without a considerable mastery of the
useful for them. grammar of a language.
c) Because a communicative test can b) Cultural bias can affect the reliability of
measure all language skills, it can help the tests being administered.
students in getting a score. Consider
students who have the poor ability in
using spoken language but may score
quite highly on tests of reading.
d) Detailed statements of each performance

level serve to increase the reliability of
the scoring by enabling the examiner to
make decisions according to carefully
drawn-up and well-established criteria.
WEEK 14
TECHNIQUES IN LANGUAGE TESTING
1. Direct versus Indirect Testing
Direct Testing is when it requires the candidate to perform precisely the skill
that the test wishes to measure. It has also several attractions:

Page - 55 - of 77
1. Provided the abilities that should be assessed is clear, it is relatively
straightforward to create the conditions which will elicit the behavior on which
judgment will be based.
2. In the case of the productive skill, the assessment and interpretations of
students’ performance are also quite straightforward.
3. Since practice for the test involves the practice of the skills to foster, there is
likely to be a helpful backwash effect.
Indirect Testing attempts to measure the abilities that underlie the skills in
which the test is interested.
Some tests are referred to as Semi-Direct. It is in the sense that, although not
direct, they simulate direct testing.
2. Discrete Point versus Integrative Testing
Discrete – A completely discrete point item would test one point or objective
such as testing for the meaning of a word in isolation.
Discrete point testing refers to the testing of one element at a time, item by
item.
Integrative testing requires the candidate to combine many language elements

in the completion of a task.
Discrete point tests will almost always be indirect, while integrative tests will tend
to be direct. Diagnostic tests of grammar will tend to be discrete. An integrative test
refers to an integrative item that would test more than one point or objective at a
time.
3. Norm-referenced versus Criterion-referenced Testing
Norm-Referenced – Students’ scores are interpreted relative to each other in a

normal distribution scheme (bell curve).
Criterion-Referenced – measure student ability against a predetermined

standard. It is most commonly used by teachers in language courses.

Page - 56 - of 77
It is to foster reflection on the possible uses of norm-referenced tests (NRT) and
criterion-referenced tests (CRT).
4. Objective versus Subjective Testing
If no judgment is required on the part of the scorer, the scoring is objective. If the
judgment is called for, the scoring is said to be subjective.
Objective test – there is only one right answer.

Subjective test – refers to a free composition, the scorer is not looking for
anyone's right answer, but rather for a series of factors (creativity, style, cohesion
and coherence, grammar, and mechanics).
WEEK 15
TEST CONSTRUCTION
The testing of grammar is one of the mainstays of language testing. While such
tests test the ability to either recognize or produce correct grammar and usage, they do
not test the ability to use the language to express meaning. However, it can be argued

Page - 57 - of 77
that a basic knowledge of grammar underlies the ability to use language to express
meaning, and so grammar tests do have an important part to play in language
programs.
TYPES OF TESTS
Multiple Choice Tests
Probably the most common way of testing grammatical knowledge is the

multiple-choice test. These tests have the advantage of being easy to grade and
being able to cover a lot of grammatical points quickly.
The most common type of multiple-choice grammatical item is one in which the
test maker gives the testee a sentence with a blank and four or five choices of a
word or phrase which completes the sentence correctly.
For example:
Because my mother was sick, I _________ to go home last week. a)

had
a) have
b) has
c) hadn't
To give slightly more context, this type of question sometimes makes use of a
short dialogue, with one person saying something and the other person responding.
A way of testing short answers and responses is to give the testees an

utterance and have them decide which of four or five utterances is an appropriate
response.
This can be either a test of comprehension or a test of grammar.
For example:
"I think that tuition is much too high here."

a) I do so.
b) Do I so.
c) I so do.

Page - 58 - of 77
d) So do I.
Another way to test grammatical knowledge using multiple-choice items is to

give testees a sentence and ask them to choose which of four or five alternatives
has the same meaning.
"The school should have expelled him."

a) The school didn't expel him, which was wrong.
b) The school expelled him because it was necessary.
c) The school might have expelled him if it had known.
d) The school will probably expel him as soon as possible.
Again this is a test of reading comprehension as well as grammar, but to

understand the meaning of the sentence, the reader does have to understand the
grammar.
The test maker must find a balance between giving enough context and giving
too much. One way to give more context and make the language more natural is to
give the items in the form of a short reading passage rather than individual
sentences. This gives the testees more context and, if the passage is chosen
carefully, is also much more interesting than reading individual, uncontextualized
sentences. However, it may be more difficult to test a range of grammatical points,
since the grammatical points are restricted by the content of the passage.
A variation on this idea is to use a piece of prose written by a non-native English

speaker. This is particularly useful for making a grammar test for testees who are all
of the same language group since the errors made by the writer can be used as
distracters.
Error Correction
Error correction items are also useful for testing grammar. An error correction
item is one in which the testee is given a sentence with an error. Four words or

Page - 59 - of 77
phrases in the sentence are marked with letters, and the testee needs to decide
which of the words or phrases has the error.
For example:
Most of students believe that they should be getting better grades than they are.
A B C D
The teacher may also mix in some sentences that have no errors, and students
are required to indicate that there is no error. In addition, the students might be
required to correct the error. Errors from students' actual writing are a good source
of ideas for this type of exercise.
Items to Test Knowledge of Word/Sentence Order
Other types of items can be used to test testees' knowledge of word order. The
traditional way is to present the testee with four alternative word orders.
For example:
I wonder how she knows

a) how it costs much.
b) how much it costs.
c) it costs how much.
d) it how much costs.
Another possibility is to give testees the four words and ask them to put the
words in order.
For example:
I wonder how she knows _________________

/__ /__ /__ /__ /
a) how b) it c) much d) costs
This can also be done in a way that requires the writer to do some writing.
For example:

Page - 60 - of 77
I wonder how she knows ______________________ .
how / it /much / costs
Understanding of appropriate sentence order can also be tested similarly by

giving testees several sentences and asking them to put them in order. This type of
test tests knowledge of references, cohesive devices, etc.
Completion Items
Completion items are items in which the testees are asked to fill in blanks in
sentences.
Give the book to ________ woman in the blue dress.
For a grammar test, the words which fit in the blanks should be function words,
such as articles and prepositions. (Completion items intended to test reading ability
or vocabulary knowledge, in contrast, use content words.) The advantage of
completion items is that they test production, not just recognition. The disadvantage
is that they need to be marked by hand and there will be some cases where the
marker needs to make judgments about whether a response is correct. It is not
always easy to write items for there is only one possible answer. Using a piece of
continuous prose rather than disconnected sentences is one way of cutting down on
possible different interpretations of what goes into a particular blank, but it is
probably impossible to eliminate the possibility of different answers.
Also, it is possible to require a phrase instead of a word in each blank. However,

while this method presents a more realistic situation, it does become more difficult to
mark. While it is probably not realistic for large-scale testing situations, it is useful for
classroom teachers who want to help their students develop an ability to produce
appropriate grammatical forms in context.
Transformation Items

Page - 61 - of 77
Another type of grammar item makes use of transformations. In this type of item,
testees are given a sentence and the first few words of another sentence to change
the original sentence without changing the meaning.
For example:
1) Jim hasn't been home in a long time.

It's been a long time _____________________________ .
2) I don't need to go to the grocery store this week.

It isn't _____________________________ .
3) It is difficult to study when it is so noisy.

Studying _____________________________ .
There are variations on this type of item in which the word which starts the
transformed sentence is underlined, or the testee is given one word to use in the
new sentence.
For example:
I don't need to go to the grocery store this week. (necessary)
Again, this type of test is difficult to grade because the teacher has to be aware
of the variety of possible answers. Another problem is that it does not in any way
test the testees' knowledge of when each of the possible transformations would be
most appropriate. For example, the testee might be perfectly able to transform an
active sentence to a passive sentence but not know when to use passive rather than
active.
However, it is useful still sometimes a useful test of grammatical knowledge.

Page - 62 - of 77
Word Changing Items
Another type of item is one in which the testees are given a sentence and a
word which they need to fit into the sentence by changing the form of the word.
For example:
1) I have never _______ to Australia. (be)

2) I will be with you ________ . (moment)
This type of grammar test item tests students' knowledge of different word forms
and how they are used in sentences.
Sentence Combining Exercises
Sentence combining exercises can play a part in testing grammar as well as its
more traditional use as part of composition testing and training.
For example, testees might be instructed to combine the following sentences

using a relative pronoun.
I met a man.
The man went to the same high school I did.
(I met a man who went to the same high school I did.)
Summary
While the testing of grammatical knowledge is limited – it does not necessarily indicate
whether the testee can use the grammatical knowledge in a communicative situation –
it is sometimes necessary and useful. When considering the testing of grammar, the
teacher has to make decisions about such factors like ease of marking, the degree of
control, and the degree of realism.
WEEK 16
TESTING THE RECEPTIVE SKILLS

Page - 63 - of 77
The receptive skills are listening and reading because learners do not need to
produce language to do these, they receive and understand it. These skills are
sometimes known as passive skills. They can be contrasted with the productive or
active skills of speaking and writing.
A. Testing Listening
The skill of listening may be tested in two ways: through sound discrimination and
listening comprehension. (Harris, 1969)
1. Sound Discrimination
 For beginners of language learning, they can distinguish the sounds of the
language clearly to help them understand the message they hear.
 The task for the students in testing auditory discrimination is to distinguish
sounds in minimal pairs.
Examples:
I. Directions: Write YES if the two words heard in each pair have the same
vowel sounds; NO, if they have different sounds.
1. meat- met 2. still- steel

3. draw- draw 4. green- grin
II. Directions: Write the letter of the word that has a different vowel sound in
each group. If all the words sound the same, write S.
1. a. been b. bean c. bean

2. a. cop b. cop c. cap
3. a. eel b. ill c. eel
4. a. hem b. hymn c. hymn 5. a. pill b. peel c. pill
2. Listening Comprehension
 Vary according to learner’s proficiency.

Page - 64 - of 77
 Tasks may consist of responding to requests, answering questions, following
directions, repeating messages.
Examples:
I. Direction: Do the following actions:

1. Face the student behind you and shake his/her hand.
2. Stand in front and place both hands on the table.
II. Direction: Answer the following questions:

1. Why did you choose to study in this school?
2. How long have you been staying at your current address?
B. Testing Read ing
May consist of the following:

 Skimming – to identify the gist or the intent
 Scanning – to locate specific information
Activity I: Skimming to identify the gist
Directions: Encircle the letter corresponding to the correct answer.

The whole passage states that accounts about aliens on earth are:
a. entirely true
b. false
c. awaiting confirmation
Activity II: Scanning to locate specific information
Directions: Answer the following questions:
1. When and where did the Roswell Incident happen?

2. Who was the direct witness to the incident?
Activity III: Making inferences

Page - 65 - of 77
Directions: Encircle the letter corresponding to the correct answer for
each sentence.
1. It is difficult to establish the truth of the stories about aliens because

_______________________________________.
a. there is no eyewitness to confirm them

b. there is no physical evidence to prove them
c. they are just products of man's imagination
Activity IV: Guessing meanings of unfamiliar words through context
Directions: Select the most probable meaning of the underlined word

based on the context within which it is used in the sentence.
1. People have continued to report that they have seen UFOs and extra-
terrestrial creatures.
a. horribly ugly
b. out-of-this-world
c. supernatural
d. heavenly
WEEK 17
TESTING THE PRODUCTIVE SKILLS
The productive skills are speaking and writing because learners doing these need
to produce language. They are also known as active skills. They can be compared with
the receptive skills of listening and reading.
1. Testing Speaking
In assessing the spoken ability of learners, several components have to be

considered: pronunciation, grammar, word choice, fluency. Often, these are the
criteria used for evaluating a person’s oral communication skills. Content and
organization are not given as much emphasis as the first four (Harris, 1969)

Page - 66 - of 77
1. Testing Pronunciation
There are no fixed criteria for judging good or bad pronunciation.
Traditionally, the correct pronunciation is measured by the accuracy of imitating a
native speaker’s way of pronouncing words. To speak English correctly, one has
to speak either the American or British way.
With the advent of the communicative approach of teaching/learning
language, the emphasis has shifted from accuracy to clarity/comprehensibility. As
long as the pronunciation does not impede the clarity of the message or the
listener's understanding of it, the pronunciation is considered acceptable. Still, in
testing specific sound production, one has to follow certain standards.
For beginners, the following types of tests for pronunciation are common:
recognition of similar sounds, putting proper stress in words and sentences, loud
reading.
Example I: Recognition of similar sounds/stress
Directions: From a list of words in each group, read the word that has the same
vowel as the guide words.
Guide Word
1. BEAT steak great leave break
2. FOOD mood blood foot stood
3. MAP mall play said fast
4. SAW small plow wow bough
5. LET sit end lead grid
2. Testing Grammar
Grammar tests involve correct usage of verb forms and tenses, nouns and
pronouns, adjective and adverb forms, etc.
In oral communication, usage may be tested through sentence conversion
(from negative to affirmative, statement to question, etc.), answering a question,
expansion (by modification, subordination, coordination, etc.), and word
transformation in context (past to present tenses, singular to plural nouns, nouns
to pronouns, etc.)
Example I: Sentence conversion
Directions: Read the following statements aloud and change to

questions answerable by yes or no.

Page - 67 - of 77
1. My friend, Luisa, lives in Makati.
2. She and her sisters are renting a condominium along Buendia.
3. They used to go home every day to Bulacan after school or work.
4. After a few months, they realized it was impractical.
5. Now they have more time for study and leisure.
Directions: Go back to sentences 1-5, change each item into a question using the
following question words:
1. Who
2. Where
3. What
4. When
5. How
Example II: Answering question
Directions: Answer the following questions appropriately.
1. What do you like most about your school?

2. How will you describe your classmates in three words? Your teachers?
3. Why college education is important to you?
4. What are your immediate goals after college?
5. Whom do you consider your closest friend here and why?
3. Testing Word Choice

One’s choice of words reflects his/her level of proficiency in the language.
The richer the vocabulary is, the more proficient the learner is expected to be.
In oral communication, vocabulary proficiency may be tested through word
substitutions, supplying appropriate words in the missing parts of sentences,
selecting from a given list of words the most appropriate for the sentences, etc.
Example I: Word substitution
Directions: Read the sentences aloud and substitute new but appropriate words to
the underlined words.
1. Life in the city is tedious.

Page - 68 - of 77
2. You need to wake up early every day to avoid traffic congestion.
3. Going home is also a problem especially if your last class is late.
4. You have to stand in line for long before you can get a ride.
5. Even if you are lucky enough to find a seat, you still need to wait hours
inside a jeep or a bus that moves and stalls every so often amidst tangled
traffic.
Example II: Supplying appropriate words to missing parts
Directions: Complete each sentence by supplying the missing parts with appropriate
words
1. ____ along Rizal Park on an early Sunday morning can be a _____

experience.
2. Armed with your _____ lunch and an umbrella, you _____ a bus or a jeep
and along Taft Avenue.
3. You _____ walking from the giant map of the Philippines to the _____ Rizal
to the Quirino Grandstand, _____ of the inauguration of many of our
______.
4. As you walk, you _____ people _____ in different activities: some are
_____, others are simply exercising, several are just seated under the _____
while reading, sleeping, or _____ with friends.
5. There are also bystanders, mostly _____ selling their wares and
photographers _____ you with pleas to take your photos.
4. Testing Fluency/Ease and Speed of the Flow of Speech

The speaker’s fluency in terms of ease and speed of the flow of the speech
may be difficult to measure accurately because there are no standard rules as to
what speed is sufficient or insufficient.
This may, however, be gauged from the speaker’s ability to answer questions
spontaneously or speak or any topic informally with ease and fluency.
Speed alone will not constitute fluency, because some speakers tend to
speak fast, but they stammer or falter several times in their talk which hinders the
smooth flow of communication
5. Testing Comprehension
Comprehension is an essential part of communication. One’s oral
communication ability depends on his/her ability to understand the message
received to which he/she needs to respond. Comprehension can be tested by
focusing on the speaker’s ability to reply quickly to a remark or a question clearly
and completely.

Page - 69 - of 77
All these components parts of the speech process can be rated
simultaneously in an interview using an evaluation sheet. The teacher can devise
the evaluation sheet himself/herself.
It must reflect the five components being rated, each consisting of a scale of
qualities to be rated according to assigned numerical values.
It is advisable not to fill in the score sheet during the interview as it might
affect the performance of the speaker. It is better to record the scored interview
and rate the speaker using the score sheet afterward.
2. Testing Writing
Like in speaking, the teacher’s concern in testing the written skill does not pertain to
specific forms of writing such as creative or technical writing. The ability to write these
forms is later developed after the student has gained mastery of basic writing skills.
Testing writing is focused primarily on evaluating the student’s ability to express
their ideas in writing taking into consideration its five parts: content, form, grammar,
style, and mechanics (Harris, 1969).
1. Testing the Content

Contents refer to the ideas expressed in the writing. The oneness of the
general idea must be observed by the writer. All parts of the composition must
relate to one topic.
Test items focusing on content may include writing specific details on a
general topic, writing a general statement encompassing all specific details,
identifying and deleting unrelated sentences in a paragraph.
Example I: Providing specific details to general ideas
Directions: Write five specific details related to the general statements.
1. Traveling to foreign countries is rewarding.

2. The Filipino drama series reflect the country’s cultural practices.
3. Some Filipino cultural traits are negative.
4. My best friend and I are the exact opposites.
5. Life is like a stage.
Example II: Writing a general statement to express the main idea of

each group of a sentences

Page - 70 - of 77
Directions: Write a general statement to express the main idea of each group of
sentences.
A. ________________________ 1. He is often absent in

class.
2. He seldom recites.
3. He fails most of his quizzes.
4. He seldom passes an assignment or a seatwork.
5. He sometimes cuts classes.
B. ________________________
1. She’s always near when I need her.
2. She remembers the special occasions in my life.
3. She can keep sensitive matters a secret.
4. We like almost the same things.
5. She’s lavish with her praises but candid with her criticisms.
2. Testing the Form

Form refers to the organization of the content into a unified, coherent written
presentation.
Tests of this type include ordering ideas into logical order: chronological,
spatial, inductive, deductive, etc.; connecting ideas using appropriate
connectors; using topic sentences at strategic points and tying up ideas with a
clincher sentence.
Example I: Ordering Sentence in Logical Order
Directions: Arrange the following sentences in jumbled order into one coherent
paragraph. Place the letter corresponding to the first in the order in number 1, the
next in number 2, etc.
1. (a) Each leap year we add that day to the end of February.
2. (b) Because of this, every four years an extra day is added to the calendar so
we don’t fall behind in the natural cycle of things.
3. (c) The earth’s solar orbit takes 365 and a quarter days.
4. (d) in this way, the calendar is readjusted into the astronomical timetable.
Example II: Connecting Ideas Using an Appropriate Connector
Directions: Complete the following paragraph by supplying appropriate words

that will make the ideas clear and coherent.

Page - 71 - of 77
Among the wonders of Jamaica is a body of water called Luminous Lagoon.
By day, ___1___ is a nondescript bay on the country’s coast.
By ___2___, it is a marvel of nature.
If you visit ___3___ after dark, ___4___ notice ___5___ the water is filled
___6___ millions of phosphorescent organisms. ___7___ there is movement, the
___8___ and the creatures in the bay glow. When fish ___9___ past your boat,
for example, they light up ___10___ waterborne fireflies. Then, the boat glides
through the water, the wave shines brightly.
Example III: Writing a Topic Sentence and a Clincher Sentence
Directions: Write an appropriate beginning or ending to the following paragraphs to

highlight the main idea.
A. ________________________________________________________________
_. You see not only new places on the other side of the globe, but you also
get first-hand information about the customs and practices of different races. On
top of this is the opportunity to study the languages of these people. Lots of
other things also expose you to different new experiences like riding a bullet
train, eating extra ‘hot’ dishes, being transported through cable cars, etc. Indeed,
going abroad is a rewarding experience!
B. ________________________________________________________________
_. Teaching is a noble profession, especially in this country. Unlike the
nursing course, Education does not dangle to students the opportunity of
working abroad when they enroll. Those who take Education know that the job
is not lucrative because the salaries of teachers are not big. Yet, many students
want to become teachers. When asked about their reasons, some say they want to
be part of the education of the youth; others claim they love working with
children; the more enterprising ones plan to put up their schools after several
years.
3. Testing Grammar
Grammatical usage is always a part of any language test. A proficient
speaker or writer must have a good command of the grammar of the language
he/she is using.
A grammar test is a test of grammatical forms and syntactic patterns.
Grammatical forms refer to the use of correct parts of speech like the plural and
possessive forms of nouns; the case, number, and gender forms of pronouns;
tense forms of verbs; derivational and comparative forms of adjectives and
adverbs. Syntactic patterns involve the proper combinations of words and their
correct placement in sentences.
Examples: Testing Grammatical Forms

Page - 72 - of 77
Directions: Change the forms of the verbs in parentheses to past.
Soon after her family (leave) for the evening, Carol (start) to think that her
hospital room must be the loneliest place in the world. Nighttime had (fall), her
fears about her illness (be) back, and she (feel) overwhelming despair as she (lie)
there alone.
Directions: Fill in the blanks with appropriate pronoun forms.
It has been said that “one person’s junk is another’s treasure.” When David
Dudley tried to help _____ parents clear _____ house of “unnecessary items” before
moving to a smaller home, _____ found _____ very difficult. _____ was often
angered by _____ parents’ refusal to part with things _____ had not used for
decades. Finally, David’s father helped ____ understand that even the worn-out,
useless items were tied to close friends and important events. Clearing the clutter
felt like throwing away _____ very lives.
4. Testing Syntactic Patterns Example

I:
Directions: Combine the following groups of words into coherent sentences
1. and a candle in the other 2. millions of TV sets Michael Angelo painted

with a to receive digital signals
brush would stop working today
from covering his masterpiece a year ago, I read legend has it
that unless they were able
in one hand an article saying that
in progress
to prevent his shadow

Page - 73 - of 77
Directions: Rewrite the following sentences inserting the modifiers in parentheses
in their proper places
a. The boy unleashed his dog at the party.

(last Sunday, unruly, mischievous, children’s)
b. As he stood at the veranda staring at the night, he was besieged by nostalgia for
his homeland.
(starless, gripping, hotel, suddenly, long forgotten).
c. The cottage looked deserted.
(on top of a hill, old, lone, small)
5. Testing Style
Style pertains to the choice of structures and lexical items to give a particular
tone or flavor to the writing.
Choice of structures refers to various ways of expressing sentences. They
may start with the subject, the verb, or the modifiers; they may be simple,
compound or complex, etc.
Lexical items involve vocabulary usage. Style in writing requires that word
choice should consider clarity, appropriateness, and variety.
The first rule in communication is clarity of ideas. Even in literary or creative
writing, the writer’s goal is to be understood.
Next is the appropriateness of the word to the intended meaning.
Miscommunication can occur by using inexact words. Variety is the third guide. It
prevents monotony and redundancy.
Example I: Testing Variety of Structures
Directions: Re-arrange the following sentences according to the direction given.
1. The contestant was looking anxious when he entered the theatre. (Begin with
‘When’ and ‘Looking’)
2. The ushers instructed the guests to wait in the lobby. (Change to passive
voice)
3. She went home early yesterday. Classes were suspended because of a power
outage.
(Combine into a complex sentence)
.
Page - 74 - of 77
Testing Lexical Items
Directions: From the given list, select the appropriate word to substitute for the
word ‘beautiful’ in the paragraph. Use word only once.
attractive cozy, marvelous intricately

freshly arresting expensive artistic
sturdy colorful
I was speechless at the sight of our new home! Everything looked beautiful. It
was beautifully painted with a combination of beige and yellow. The grounds
were enclosed by beautiful white-picked fences. The first thing that caught my
attention as I opened the gate was the array of beautiful flowers lining the
pathway: roses, daisies, carnations, gladiolas, etc. there was a small veranda in
front with a beautiful swing on the left and a coffee table with two chairs on the
right.
As I opened the beautifully carved wooden door, the brightly lighted living
room greeted me with its beautiful chandelier hanging at the center. The walls
were all made of glass covered with beautiful white lace and flowery silk
curtains. All the other rooms in the house, from the kitchen to the bedrooms were
furnished with beautiful furniture and beautiful wall decorations. The house
looked like a showcase from a home magazine!
6. Testing Mechanics
The mechanics of writing refers to the proper use of graphic symbols such as
Punctuation, Capitalization, and Abbreviation.
Certain rules govern the use of these graphic symbols. Since they are
important in written communication, students must gain mastery in using these
symbols by following the rules.
A complete handbook on the mechanics of writing is available in the library. A
list of specific references is provided in the bi bibliography of this Module.
Example I: Testing Punctuation
Directions: Insert the parentheses provide the correct punctuation marks.
When E ( ) Stanley Jones ( ) well ( ) known missionary to India ( ) had the

opportunity to meet with Mahatma Gandhi, he asked a searching question of India ( )
s revered leader ( ) ( ) How can Christianity make a stronger impact on your country
( ) ( ) Gandhi thoughtfully replied that three things would be required ( ) First ( )
Christian must begin to live more like Jesus ( ) Second ( ) the Christian faith should
be presented without any adulteration ( ) Third ( ) Christian should emphasize love ( )
which is at the heart of the Gospel ( )

Page - 75 - of 77
Testing Abbreviation and Capitalization
Directions: Abbreviate and capitalize words where necessary.
I. The 40,000-mile-long great wall of China was built to keep out invaders
from the north. The first wall was constructed by shi huangdi, the first
emperor of china, who lived between 259 and 210 before christ. but in anno
domini 1644 the great manchus broke through the great wall and overran
china.
II. As soon as she earned her master of science degree in mathematics, my

friend liza, applied for scholarship at the Massachusetts institute of
technology where after three year of rigorous study and hard work, she
finished her doctor of philosophy degree in mathematics. Now she is a
visiting lecturer at the university of california los angeles and a consultant of
a trading company in Washington, district of colombia.

Page - 76 - of 77
Page - 77 - of 77

Elt 116 Module 1st Sem

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Elt 116 Module 1st Sem

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

SOUTH EAST ASIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, INC.

National Highway, Crossing Rubber, Tupi, South Cotabato

COLLEGE OF TEACHER EDUCATION

LEARNING MODULE FOR ELT 116: TEACHING AND ASSESSMENT

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

COURSE CODE : ELT 116

The following are the topics to be discussed

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

Instruction to the Learners

VISION MISSION CORE VALUES

SEAIT HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

As an educational institution, SEAIT has existed for 15 years. It has graduated 12

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

1. Awareness of intended audience

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

Phonology Sounds of language

Morphology Structure and form of words

Syntax Arrangement of words into larger units

Semantics Meanings of language

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

Why Should We Teach Grammar?

1. The sentence-machine argument

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

2. The fine-tuning argument

3. The fossilization argument

4. The advance-organizer argument

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

5. The discrete item argument

Language seen from 'outside', can seem to be a gigantic, shapeless mass,

6. The rule-of-law argument

It follows from the discrete-item argument that, since grammar is a system of

7. The learner expectations argument

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

TWO ATTITUDES TOWARDS GRAMMAR

 Grammar is an unchanging set of normative

rules, to be mastered  Language is constantly changing, fluid, organic

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

Pedagogical Grammar primarily deals with syntax and

Characteristics of Pedagogical Grammar

Grammar Knowledge vs Grammar Skill:

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

TEACHING METHODS AND TEACHER & LEARNER ROLES

Method Teacher Roles Learner Roles

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

INTELLIGENCE TYPES AND APPROPRIATE EDUCATIONAL ACTIVITIES

Intelligence Type Educational Activities

4. O-zone Whole Language

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

1. The Rule of Context

2. The Rule of Use

3. The Rule of Economy

In order to obey Rule 2 (The Rule of Use), be economical. Minimize presentation

4. The Rule of Relevance

5. The Rule of Nurture

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

Principles of Awareness-Raising Grammar

a) Also known as Consciousness-Raising (CR)

Six Stages of implementing Awareness-raising (AR) grammar tasks

1) Orientation to the target grammar item and the task

ELT 116: Teaching and Assessment of Grammar SOUTH EAST

Principles of Text-based Grammar Instruction

I used to when I was , but I stopped because ________________.