MICHAEL OCHOADA SINOCRUZ

1
 Global Air Quality
Ozone Depletion is the thinning of the zone layer, which was originally observed
as an ozone hole over Antarctica
❑ The presence of Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) in the atmosphere is the primary
explanation of the ozone depletion
▪ Freon and Styrofoam
▪ The greater use of home insulation during 1970s (energy crisis) and rise of
fast-food industry are contributing factor to intensified use of CFCs
▪ The CFCs are not destroyed in the lower atmosphere and therefore able to
drift up into the stratosphere
▪ CFCs released today affect the ozone layer for decades to come

22
 Global Air Quality
Ozone Depletion
❑ Halons (hydroflourocarbons) are another major source of ozone depleters.
Halons are used in the production of fire extinguisher
▪ Their usage is not as widespread as CFCs, but halons have higher
flourocarbon contents

❑ In 1978, the US started to ban the use of CFCs in aerosol spray, which other
countries followed

❑ Most stratospheric ozone depletion is caused when chlorine or bromine reacts

with ozone. Most of the chlorine entering the stratosphere is from man-made
sources (84%), such as CFCs and HCFCs with the remaining 16% from natural
sources, such as the ocean and volcanoes. About half of bromine entering the
stratosphere is from man-made sources, mostly Halons.
33
 Global Air Quality

Potential harm to human health

and the environment, including:

▪ increased incidence of skin

cancer and cataracts
▪ immune system damage
▪ damage to terrestrial and
aquatic plant life
▪ increased formation of
ground-level ozone (smog)

Source: Getty Images

44
 Global Air Quality

What is the connection of Ozone Depletion and Climate Change?

❑ While acting to destroy ozone, CFCs and HCFCs also act to trap heat in
the lower atmosphere, causing the earth to warm and climate and
weather to change.

❑ HFCs, which originally were developed to replace CFCs and HCFCs,

also absorb and trap infrared radiation or heat in the lower atmosphere of
the earth.

❑ HFCs, CFCs and HFCs are a subset of a larger group of climate

changing gases called greenhouse gases (GHGs). Taken together GHGs
are expected to warm the planet.
55
 Global Air Quality
Negative Externality in the Market for Styrofoam Cups

66
 Global Air Quality
International Agreement to Control Ozone Depletion

❑ Montreal Protocol

▪ In 1987, 24 countries including the European Community signed the

Protocol on substances that deplete the Ozone Layer

▪ Among the signatories were the major producers of CFCs

▪ The agreement called for a 50 percent reduction in CFC

consumption and production, a target that should be achieved
gradually by 2000

77
 Global Air Quality

International Agreement to Control Ozone Depletion

❑ Amendment to the Protocol

▪ In 1990, 59 countries executed the London Amendment to the Protocol

▪ The new agreement outlined a full phase-out plan for CFCs and halons
and added controls for other ozone-depleting substances

▪ The agreement does include special provisions for developing countries,

allowing them an additional 10 to 12 years to phase out ozone depleters

88
 Global Air Quality
Amendments to the Protocol
The Copenhagen Amendment (1992) significantly accelerated the phaseout of ozone-depleting
substances (ODS) and incorporated the HCFC phaseout for developed countries, beginning in 2004.
Under this agreement, CFCs, halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl chloroform were targeted for
complete phaseout in 1996 in developed countries. In addition, methyl bromide consumption of
methyl bromide was capped at 1991 levels.

The Montreal Amendment (1997) included the phaseout of HCFCs in developing countries, as well
as the phaseout of methyl bromide in developed and developing countries in 2005 and 2015,
respectively.

The Beijing Amendment (1999) included tightened controls on the production and trade of HCFCs.
Bromochloromethane was also added to the list of controlled substances with phaseout targeted for
2004.

The Kigali Amendment (2016) extended controls to phase down the production and consumption of
(HFCs because these substances were adopted by industries in moving away from ozone-depleting
substances and they are potent greenhouse gases damaging to the earth’s climate.

99
 Global Air Quality
International Agreement to Control Ozone Depletion
❑ Multilateral Fund

▪ It was established in 1990 with an initial fund of US$160 million to help

developing countries transition toward the requisite CFC replacement
technologies
• Due to high cost involved of converting production technology

▪ In 2008, 49 industrialized countries contributed US$4.4 billion to this fund

10
10
 Global Air Quality
Other Measures to Control Ozone-Depleting Substances
❑ Excise Tax

▪ An escalating tax on the production of ozone-depleting substances

o It is a product charge on the ODS, which can internalize this externality
by elevating the producer’s marginal product cost

o The excise tax should be set equal to the MEC

11
11
 Global Air Quality
Excise Tax on ODS Substances

12
12
 Global Air Quality
Other Measures to Control Ozone-Depleting Substances
❑ Market Allowance for Ozone-Depleting Chemicals
▪ Allows the firms to produce or import if they hold an appropriate number of
allowance
❖ Each allowance will allow a one-time release of one kilogram of CFC based on
its Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP)

❑ The Regulatory Impact Analysis of the US on damages associated such as

health effects through exposure to ultraviolet radiation and non-health effects
was at US$6.4 trillion by 2075.
▪ The cost associated with the phase-out plan was at US$27 billion by 2075

13
13
 Global Air Quality

Price Adjustment of CFC and CFC Substitute

14
14
 Global Air Quality

Incentives and Disincentives to Develop CFC Substitutes

❑ Firms would perceive a profit advantage in developing ozone-friendly

substitute since prices are high at the outset

❑ The few firms holding the market allowances possessed some market power
and price controls

▪ There will be no motivation to find alternatives to ozone-depleting

substances

15
15
 Global Air Quality
Climate Change is a major alteration in a climate measure such as temperature,
wind and precipitation that is prolonged

Global Warming is an increased temperature of the earth’s surface caused by

accumulating GHGs that absorb the sun’s radiation

International Response to Climate

❑ UNFCCC – 1992 Rio Summit or Earth Summit under UNCED

▪ Ratified by 50 countries – US was the 1st developed country and 4th overall
to ratify the treaty

16
16
 Global Air Quality
Climate Change
is a change in the statistical
distribution of weather over
periods of time that range from
decades to millions of years
can be a change in the average
weather or a change in the
distribution of weather events
may be limited to a specific
region or may occur across the
whole Earth.

17
17
 Global Air Quality

Global Warming
is due to the
abnormal
increase in
GHG in the
atmosphere
that traps heat

18
18
Global Air Quality

Greenhouse Gases
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Methane (CH4)
Nitrous oxide (N2O)
Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6)

19
19
 Global Air Quality
International Response to Climate Change
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 1992)
Conference of Parties (COP)
▪ the decision-making body of the Convention
▪ all States that are Parties (197 signatories) to the Convention are represented
▪ review the implementation of the Convention and any other legal instruments that the COP
adopts
▪ promote the effective implementation of the Convention
Kyoto Protocol (KP) (1997, 192 Parties)
▪ Developed country parties have the obligation to reduce GHG emissions thru
• Emissions Trading
• Joint Implementation
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
▪ DOHA Amendment (2014, 144 Parties)
Paris Agreement (PA) (2015, 191 Parties)
▪ All parties have responsibility

20
20
 Global Air Quality
International Response to Climate Change

❑ Kyoto Protocol in Dec. 1997

▪ It would become effective once 55 countries, accounting for 55 percent of the
global emissions in 1990, ratified the protocol as long as those who ratified
included developed countries

▪ In Feb 2005, the protocol was entered into force w/o the US and called for 38
developed countries (including the European Community) to cut their GHG
emissions by 5.2 percent below 1990 levels by 2012 (2008-2012). The protocol
was ratified by 192 parties (191 states and one regional economic integration).
▪ The US did not ratify the protocol until developing countries made a commitment.
o In 2001, The US formally rejected the Protocol
o The US was responsible for 36% CO2 emission in 1990

21
21
 Global Air Quality

Key Elements of the

Kyoto Protocol

22
22
 Global Air Quality
International Response to Climate Change

Greenhouse Gases:
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) Crude Oil
• Methane (CH4)
• Nitrous oxide (N2O) Oil Products
• Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)
• Perfluorocarbons (PFCs)
Natural Gas
• Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) Coal

Mitigation + Adaptation = Sustainable Development

The goal of the Paris Agreement is to limit the average

global temperature increase to way below 2OC (1.5OC)
and attain net zero emissions by 2050
23
23
 Global Air Quality
International Response to Climate Change

❑ Paris Agreement in Dec. 2015

▪ Guided by the Convention’s objective and principle of equity and common
but differentiated responsibilities

▪ Emphasized the relationship of climate change actions, responses and impacts have
with sustainable development and poverty eradication

▪ Affirmed the importance of education, training, public awareness, public

participation, public access to information and cooperation at all levels

▪ Recognized the importance of the engagements of all levels of government and

various actors

▪ Recognized sustainable lifestyles and sustainable patterns of consumption and

production play an important role in addressing climate change

24
24
 Global Air Quality
Key Articles of the Paris Agreement

"well below" 2°C and "pursue efforts"

Article 2 Long-term Goal
to limit the temperature rise to 1.5°C

Nationally Determined ambitious and progressive efforts to

Article 3
Contribution achieve the objective

Articles 4 and 6 reducing emissions fast to achieve

Mitigation
the temperature goal
Article 7 strengthening ability to deal with
Adaptation
climate impacts
Article 8 strengthening ability to recover from
Loss and Damage
climate impacts

25
25
 Global Air Quality
Key Articles of the Paris Agreement

finance to build clean and resilient

Article 9 Support
futures

Technology Development
Article 10 strengthen cooperative action
and Transfer

enhance the capacity and ability to

Articles 11 and 12 Capacity Building
take effective climate action

Framework/rules to encourage
Article 13 Transparency
countries to do what they say

Article 14 Global Stocktake accounting for global climate action

26
26
 Global Air Quality
Global CO2 Emissions, 1990-2021 (Source: IEA)

27
27
 Global Air Quality

CO2 Emissions in 2010 and 2020, Million

Metric Tons
(Source: Statista)
▪ .

China and the United States are the largest

polluters in the world by far, having released
10.6 and 4.7 billion metric tons of carbon
dioxide emissions in 2020, respectively.

Despite being the second-largest polluter, U.S.

emissions have declined 16 percent since 2010.
In comparison, China’s carbon dioxide emissions
have increased by almost 25 percent.

28
28
 Global Air Quality

Source: Climate Change Commission

29
29
Global Air Quality

30
30
 Global Air Quality
Global Emissions by Scenario, 2000-2050 (Source: IEA)

31
31
 Global Air Quality
Strategies to Address Climate Change
▪ Climate engineering or, alternatively, geoengineering, approaches can be divided into
two very different categories:

o carbon dioxide removal such as direct air capture or ocean fertilization to reduce the
concentrations of greenhouse gases
o solar-radiation management such as injecting stratospheric aerosols aim to cool the
planet by reflecting a fraction of the incoming sunlight away from earth.

▪ Adaptation strategies involve efforts to modify natural or human systems in order to

minimize harm from climate change impacts.

▪ Mitigation attempts to moderate the temperature rise by using strategies designed to

reduce emissions or to increase the planet’s natural capacity to absorb greenhouse
gases.

32
32
Global Air Quality

33
33
 Global Air Quality
International Response to Climate

❑ Market Based-Instruments
▪ Cap-and-Trade System of GHG Allowances
o Carbon credits could be earned from carbon-absorbing forestry practices
o Implementation of emissions-reducing projects in other countries

▪ Cap-and-Trade System of GHG Allowances

o Gasoline Tax – per unit tax on each gallon
o BTU Tax – per unit tax based on energy or heat content
o Carbon Tax – per unit tax based on carbon content

34
34
 Global Air Quality
Modeling the Negative Externality of GHG Emission

35
35
36
36
 Global Air Quality
❑ Implication of Growth on the Environment
✓ Per capita income levels have to grow by at least 2% per year to reduce poverty
and close the gap between the rich and the poor

✓ Associated environmental impact per unit of income must decline at a rate of

between 3.5% and 4% per year to avoid further pollution and natural resources
depletion

Environmental = Income x Environmental impact x population

Impact per capita per unit of income

37
37
 Global Air Quality
Environmental Kuznets Curve

38
38
 Global Air Quality

❑ Global Framework on Sustainable Development

▪ UN Conference on Environment and Development

o Rio Summit 1992 - Agenda 21

o UNFCCC
o Kyoto Protocol 1997

▪ World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD)

o Johannesburg 2002

▪ UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015

39
39
 Global Air Quality
❑ Free Trade Versus Protectionism
▪ Benefits from International Trade
o Greater consumer choice
o Higher worldwide output
o Efficiency gains from specialization
o International political stability from forming trading partnerships
o More competition and lower prices in global market
▪ Protectionism
o Threaten national security
o Unfair competition
o Lose of jobs
o Limit growth of infant industries
o Environmental Issues

40
40
 Global Air Quality
International Externality of Transboundary Pollution

41
41
 Global Air Quality
❑ International Trade and Environmental Objectives
▪ Differences in environmental regulations between trading partners

▪ Quality and desirability of imports produced in countries with lax regulations

▪ Trade advocates argued that the economic gains from trade will help poorer
countries afford the costly cleanup of environmental pollution

▪ International Trade Agreement

❖ GATT in 1947
❖ WTO of 1995
❖ Commitment on environment

42
42
 Global Air Quality
❑ International Trade and Environmental Objectives
▪ International Trade Agreement
• GATT in 1947

• WTO of 1995

o Commitment on environment under Uruguay and Doha Round

o Establishment of a Committee on Trade and Environment (CTE)

43
43
44
44
 Global Air Quality
Industrial Ecology

The entire life cycle of a product, including materials and energy flows,
should be considered in efforts to improve the environment

▪ Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) examines the environmental impact of a

product or process by evaluating all its stages from raw materials
extraction to disposal

▪ ISO 14000 for environmental management addresses life cycle

assessment

45
45
 Global Air Quality
Materials Balance Model

46
46
 Global Air Quality

Conventional Linear Materials Flow

47
47
 Global Air Quality
Pollution Prevention Hierarchy

48
48
MICHAEL OCHOADA SINOCRUZ
Email: msinocruz@sanbeda.edu.ph
msinocruz@doe.gov.ph
mike_sinocruz@yahoo.com

Mobile #: +63 9053130181

49