Oxford dictionary

Motivation: the reason or reasons one has for acting or behaving in a particular way.
"escape can be a strong motivation for travel"

Attitude : a settled way of thinking or feeling about someone or something, typically one that is
reflected in a person's behavior.

"she took a tough attitude toward other people's indulgences"

Book: Introducing- Second Language Acquisition

SECOND EDITION by MURIEL SAVILLE-TROIKE

The psychology of Second Language Acquisition

Differences in learners

Motivation Another factor which is frequently cited to explain why some L2 learners are more successful
than others is individual motivation. Motivation largely determines the level of effort which learners
expend at various stages in their L2 development, often a key to ultimate level of proficiency. Motivation
is variously defined, but it is usually conceived as a construct which includes at least the following
components (see Oxford and Ehrman 1993 ; Dörnyei 2001 ):

• Significant goal or need

• Desire to attain the goal

• Perception that learning L2 is relevant to fulfilling the goal or meeting the need

• Belief in the likely success or failure of learning L2

• Value of potential outcomes/rewards

The most widely recognized types of motivation are integrative and instrumental.

Integrative motivation is based on interest in learning L2 because of a desire to learn about or

associate with the people who use it (e.g. for romantic reasons), or because of an intention to
participate or integrate in the L2-using speech community; in any case, emotional or affective factors are
dominant.

Instrumental motivation involves perception of purely practical value in learning the L2, such as
increasing occupational or business opportunities, enhancing prestige and power, accessing scientific
and technical information, or just passing a course in school.

Neither of these orientations has an inherent advantage over the other in terms
of L2 achievement. The relative effect of one or the other is dependent on complex personal
and social factors: e.g. L2 learning by a member of the dominant group in a society may benefit more
from integrative motivation, and L2 learning by a subordinate group member may be more influenced
by instrumental motivation. Although the concept of speech community ( Chapter 5 ) has expanded
globally to include the virtual community of internet users, usually in L2 English, the same general
distinction between integrative and instrumental motivation can be applied. Other reported motivations
include altruistic reasons, general communicative needs, desire to travel, and intellectual curiosity
(Skehan 1989 ; Oxford and Ehrman 1993 ).
 Most of the research on this topic has been conducted using data collected with questionnaires that ask
individuals to report on their reasons for learning another language. The reliability of such information
has been questioned, but the consistently high correlation between reported strength of motivation and
level of L2 achievement make it seem quite likely that the connection is indeed significant. Whether any
cause–effect relationship is a “chicken-and-egg” matter is more uncertain. Does high motivation cause
high L2 achievement, or is the satisfaction which results from successful L2 learning responsible for
increasing motivation? In the process of language learning (which usually requires several years), there
is probably a reciprocal effect.

More recent developments in SLA theory (Schumann 1997 , 2001 ) suggest that motivation for second
language learning, along with L2 representation and processing, is controlled by neurological
mechanisms. Specific areas within our brain conduct a “stimulus appraisal,” which assesses the
motivational relevance of events and other stimuli and determines how we respond, including what our
attitudes and ultimately degree of effort will be.

The potential power of motivation can be seen in rare cases where even older learners may overcome
the “odds” of not acquiring native-like pronunciation – if sounding “native” is perceived to be important
enough

parsimonious : unwilling to spend money or use resources; stingy or frugal.

"even the parsimonious Joe paid for drinks all round"

Integrative : serving or intending to unify separate things.

"an integrative approach to learning"

Instrumental : a thing used in pursuing an aim or policy; a means.

"drama as an instrument of learning"

Another area of BOOK : Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning by Stephen D
Krashen

CAHPTER 2: Attitude and Aptitude in Second Language Acquisition and Learning

second language research and practice that the acquisition-learning hypothesis helps to interpret is
work in second language aptitude and attitude, providing a parsimonious explanation for what had
appeared to be a strange finding: both language aptitude (as measured by standard tests) and attitude
(affective variables) appear to be related to second language achievement, but are not
related to each other. It is possible to have high aptitude and low attitude, low aptitude and high
attitude, or both high, or both low. In this section, we survey research in these two areas, focusing
specifically on the hypothesis that much of what is termed aptitude is directly related to conscious
learning, while attitudinal factors my be more closely linked to acquisition.

Attitudinal factors that relate to second language acquisition will be those that perform one or both of
two functions. First, they will be factors that encourage intake. Others have said this before, for
example: "motivational variables... determine whether or not the student avails himself of... informal
language contexts" (Gardner, Smythe, Clement, and Gliksman, 1976, p. 200) (see also Oller's Hypothesis
6 in Oller, 1977). They are simply factors that encourage acquirers to communicate with speakers of the
target language, and thereby obtain the necessary input, or intake, for language acquisition. Second,
attitudinal factors relating to acquisition will be those that enable the performer to utilize the language
heard for acquisition. Simply hearing a second language with understanding appears to be necessary but
is not sufficient for acquisition to take place. The acquirer must not only understand the input but must
also, in a sense, be "open" to it. Dulay and Burt (1977) have captured this concept by positing the
presence of a "socio-affective filter". Performers with high or strong filters will acquire less of the
language directed at them, as less input is "allowed in" to the language-acquisition device. The presence
of such a filter, according to Dulay and Burt, may explain which of alternative models the acquirer will
internalize (e.g. why children acquire the dialect of their peers rather than that of their elders), why
acquisition prematurely ceases in some cases, and often what parts of language are acquired first. Thus,
attitudinal factors relating to language acquisition will be those that contribute to a low affective filter. 1
The following summary of attitudinal factors will attempt to relate posited predictors of second
language proficiency to these two functions.

Integrative motivation, defined as the desire to be like valued members of the community that speak
the second language, is predicted to relate to proficiency in terms of the two functions. The presence of
integrative motivation should encourage the acquirer to interact with speakers of the second language
out of sheer interest, and thereby obtain intake. A low filter for integratively motivated acquirers is also
predicted for similar reasons. In Stevick's terms (Stevick, 1976), the integratively motivated performer
will not feel a threat from the "other" group (p. 113) and will thus be more prone to engage in
"receptive learning" (acquisition), rather than "defensive learning". Instrumental motivation, defined as
the desire to achieve proficiency in a language for utilitarian, or practical reasons, may also relate to
proficiency. Its presence will encourage performers to interact with L2 speakers in order to achieve
certain ends. For the integratively motivated performer, interaction for its own sake will be valued. For
the instrumentally motivated performer, interaction always has some practical purpose. While the
presence of integrative motivation predicts a low affective filter, the presence of instrumental
motivation predicts a stronger one. With instrumental motivation, language acquisition may cease as
soon as enough is acquired to get the job done. Also, instrumentally motivated performers may acquire
just those aspects of the target language that are necessary; at an elementary level, this may be simple
routines and patterns, and at a more advanced level this predicts the non-acquisition of elements that
are communicatively less important but that are socially important, such as aspects of morphology and
accent. When the practical value of second language proficiency is high, and frequent use necessary,
instrumental motivation may be a powerful predictor of second language acquisition.

Book : gass

12.7 Motivation

A social-psychological factor frequently used to account for differential success in learning a second
language is motivation. This has an intuitive appeal. It makes sense that individuals who are motivated
will learn another language faster and to a greater degree. And, quite clearly, some degree of motivation
is involved in initial decisions to learn another language and to maintain learning. Furthermore,
numerous studies have provided statistical evidence that indicates motivation is a predictor of language-
learning success. In recent years there has been a resurgence of interest in motivation research, with
numerous reviews and book length treatments of the topic (Dörnyei, 2001a, 2001b; Gardner, 2001;
MacIntyre, 2002; Ushioda, 2003). In general, motivation appears to be the second strongest predictor of
success, trailing only aptitude (Skehan, 1989). Nevertheless, an investigation of the role of motivation in
second language learning faces a hurdle (obstacle/difficult) just beyond the starting block: the exact
nature of motivation is not so clear. Everyone agrees that it has something to do with drive, but when
various definitions are compared, it becomes clear that these definitions differ in significant ways.
Gardner, through his early work with Lambert (1972) and in later work with colleagues at the University
of Western Ontario, has become a primary figure in the field of motivation in second language learning.
“Motivation involves four aspects, a goal, effortful behaviour, a desire to attain the goal and
favourable attitudes toward the activity in question” (Gardner, 1985, p. 50).

Effort consists of a number of factors, including an inherent need to achieve, good study habits, and
the desire to please a teacher or parent.

This seems to be a mixed bag of components, as some pertain to what one has done and others to what
one would like to do. Central to this approach is the concept of integration, which refers to an
individual’s disposition toward the L2 group and the extent to which he or she desires to interact with
and even become similar to that group.

In Figure 12.4 is a representation of Gardner’s basic model, showing the roles of both aptitude and
motivation in language achievement.

Integrativeness is “a complex of attitudes involving more than just the other language community. It
is not simply a reason for studying the language” (Gardner, 2001, p. 5). As can be seen, achievement
comes from motivation, of which integrativeness is one component, and aptitude, discussed in the
previous section. There are other factors that also contribute to achievement, of SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION

Page 426

which instrumental motivation, generally referring to a utilitarian goal such as obtaining a job, is
one. But other sources of motivation are also possible, such as an inspiring teacher.

Gardner’s basic method in early research was to administer questionnaires that call for self-report
answers to questions (often based on a Likert scale), as in this example: Place a check mark anywhere
along the line below to indicate how much you like French compared to all your other courses. French is
my French is my most least preferred course preferred course : : : :