Topic 1 : Introduction to Research
resource management, production operation management,
What is Research?
- Research - is simply the process of finding solution to a
problem after a thorough study and analysis of the
situational factors.
- Managers constantly engage themselves in studying and
analyzing issues and hence are involved in some form of
research activity before making decisions.
Business Research
- Business Research – can be described as a systematic
and organized effort to investigate a specific problem
encountered in the work setting, that need a solution.
- A step by-step process that consists of:
Problem identification

 Gather information
 Analyzing data
 Determine factors associated with the problem
 Solve problem by taking corrective measures.
- Research information is neither intuitive nor haphazardly
gathered.
- Literally, research (re-search) -“search again”
- Business research must be objective
- Detached and impersonal rather than biased
- It facilitates the managerial decision process for all
aspects of a business.
Definition of Research
An organized, systematic, data-based, critical, objective,
scientific inquiry or investigation into a specific problem
undertaken with the purpose of finding solutions.
(Uma Sekaran)
Business research is defined as the systematic and objective
process of generating information for aid in making business
decisions.
(Zikmund)
Important Research
- Managers with knowledge of research have an advantage
over those without it.
- To predict the futures of product performance.
- To control catastrophic outcomes.
- Research methods will enable managers understand,
predict and control their environment.
- Managers who uses common sense alone to analyze and
make a decision compared to manager who uses a
scientific method (systematic inquiry). The latter has
conducted his work systematically, diligently, critically,
objectively and logically.
Areas in Business Research
- Accounting – budget control system, practices and
procedures, inventory control methods, accelerated
depreciation, transfer pricings, cash recovery rates and
taxation etc.
- Finance – operation of financial institutions, optimum
financial ratios, mergers and acquisitions etc.
- Management – employee attitudes and behavior, human
information systems etc.
- Marketing - product image, advertising, sales promotion,
distribution, packaging, pricing, new product
development etc
Two(2) different Types of Research.
1. Applied Research.
- undertaken by managers to solve a current problem.
- E.g.: Why certain product not selling well?
2. Basic Research
- undertaken to generate a body of knowledge, to
understand how certain problems that occur can be
solved and solutions can be replicated/adapted by others.
- E.g.: Investigation on factors that contribute low
participation of workers in total quality management.
Applied Research
- Conducted when a decision must be made about a
specific real-life problem
- Examples:
 Should McDonalds add Italian pasta dinners to its menu?
 Business research told McDonald’s it should not?
 Should Procter & Gamble add a high-priced home teeth
bleaching kit to its product line?
 Research showed Fresh and White toothpaste would sell
well at a retail price of RM4.40
 Advertisers conduct research to find about the impact of
their promotional campaign.
 Political parties may conduct research to find out public
opinion about their policies and the likelihood voters will
support them in future elections.
Basic Research
- Attempts to expand the limits of knowledge.
- Not directly involved in the solution to a pragmatic
(practical) problem.
- Examples:
 Is executive success correlated with high need for
achievement?
 Are members of highly cohesive work groups more
satisfied than members of less cohesive work groups?
 Do consumers experience cognitive dissonance in
low-involvement situations?
Applied and Basic Research
- The main distinction between applied and basic research
is that the former is specifically aimed at solving current
problem, whereas the latter has the broader objectives of
generating knowledge and understanding of phenomena
and problems that occur in various organizational
settings.
- Both types of research follows the same steps of
systematic and scientific inquiry (investigation) to arrive
at solutions to problems
- Applied research may have a shorter time frame than
basic research in its completion. This is due to its
importance and/or urgency in acquiring the results of the
research.
Scientific Research (Investigation)
Eight (8) characteristic of scientific research:
1. Purposive – definite aim
2. Rigor – Careful and scrupulousness
3. Testability – can be proven quantitatively/quantitatively
4. Replicability – same result when repeat research.
5. Precision and Confidence – close to reality and
correctness
6. Objectivity – result based on facts of actual data.
7. Generalizability – applicability to other settings.
8. Parsimony – simplicity in explaining phenomena.
Building Blocks of Sciences in Research
- Answers to issues can be found either by process of
deduction or induction.
- Deduction – we arrive a reasoned conclusion by logical
generalization of a known fact.
 E.g. – Dean’s list student are smart and hardworking
student. If Samad gets a dean’s list then we can conclude
that he is a smart and hardworking student.
 E.g. - Result of analysis of data collected showed that
problems of turnover can be reduced to three important
factors: flexible working hours, recognition of superior
work performance and job enrichment.
- Induction – we observe certain phenomena and on this
basis arrive at conclusions. Logically establish a general
proposition based on observed facts.
 E.g. – We see that men’s occupation in Terengganu are
mostly fisherman. We therefore conclude that students
parent from Terengganu people are fisherman.
 E.g. - Observing people residing at distance beyond 50
km from office are absent more frequently than those
residing closer to office, and infers that distance is a
factor in absenteeism.
Hypothetical-Deductive Method
1. Observation
- First stage of process.
- Sensing certain changes occurring, new behavior,
attitudes and feeling surfacing in one’s environment.
 Eg: sales dropping, frequent production problems,
incorrect accounting results, low yielding investment,
poor participation of workers, absenteeism, increase
accident or near-miss incidents.
2. Preliminary Information Gathering
- Seeking information in depth to probe the source or
factors surrounding of the problem thus increasing
his/her level of awareness about the situation. Collecting
diverse view and observing reaction of people on issue at
hand.
- Can be done by:
 Talking to people, workers, client, etc.
 Conducting unstructured interviews.
 Library research.
3. Theory Formulation
- An attempt to integrate all information in logical manner
so that factors responsible for the problem can be
conceptualized and tested.
- Critical variables are examined as to their contribution or
influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how
it can be solved.
- A network of association were developed and varibles
were connected to provide a picture of the problem/issue
being observed.
- A theory is formulated each time a problem is
investigated, disregarding previous research findings.
 Reason is because different studies have identified
different variables and some hypotheses are substantiated
but some are not.
 Situations and setting are different from one to another.
4. Hypothesizing
- A process of generating educated conjectures.
 E.g.: Customer satisfaction can be greatly increased if
our salesperson greet them at the store entrance.
 E.g.: Male are better managers than women in financial
institutions.
- Hypothesis testing is also called deductive research.
- Data pertaining to each variables in the hypothesis
formulated were identified.
5. Further Scientific Data Collection
- Data with respect to each variables in the hypothesis
(theoretical framework) need to be obtained.
 E.g.: Data on current customer satisfaction level and
further data on salesperson hospitality (greetings) during
normal operation hours.
 E.g.: Data on current Male and Female managers
performance in financial institutions.
- These data form the basis for further data analysis.
6. Data Analysis
- Here, data gathered are statistically analyzed to see if the
hypotheses generated were adequately supported.
 E.g.: Conducting correlational studies to see the
relationship between greetings and satisfaction (i.e two
factors).
 E.g.: Conducting a t-test to see the difference between
male and female managers performance.
- Two types of data analysis:
 Qualitative analysis – information gathered in narrative
form through interviews and observations. Data can then
be categorized.
 Quantitative analysis – information gathered in value
form of measurement such as numbers, ratios,
percentage, mean, sum etc.
7. Deduction 1.5 Research Design
- The process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the
meaning of the results of the data analysis. Involves a series of rational decision-making choices on
 E.g.: It was found that sales assistants greetings is issues relating to:
positively correlated with customer satisfaction. 1. Purpose of the study (exploratory, descriptive,
Therefore we can deduce that customer satisfaction can hypothesis testing)
be increased by sales assistants constantly greeting 2. The study setting (location)
customer at the store entrance. 3. Type of investigation
 E.g.: It was found that there is no difference between 4. Extent of researcher interference (studying or
male and female managerial performance. Therefore we manipulation)
can conclude that men are no better than female in their 5. Time horizon
managerial ability in financial institutions. 6. Unit of analysis (individuals, groups, organizations)

Purpose of the Study - Exploratory

- Undertaken when not much is known about the situation
at hand, or no information is available on how similar
problems or research issues have been solved in the past.
- Requires extensive preliminary work to gain familiarity
with the situation, understand what is happening before
developing model and designing other rigorous
investigations.
- Undertaken to better understand the nature of the
problem because few studies have been made in this
area.
- Extensive interviews and observations (qualitative data)
were carried out to collect data thus providing enough
evidence to develop theories and hypotheses for
subsequent testing.

Purpose of the Study - Descriptive

- Undertaken to ascertain and to describe the characteristic
of the variables of interest in a situation.
- To learn and to describe the characteristic of a group of
employee (age, job status), organizations (practices,
culture), etc.
- Goal is to offer a profile or to describe relevant aspects
of phenomena of interest.
- Help researcher to:
 Understand the characteristic of a group in given
situation.
 Think systematically about aspects in given situation.
 Offer ideas for further probe and research
 Help make certain simple decisions
- Data are presented in forms such as bar charts,
frequencies, mean, mode, median, standard deviation,
etc.

Purpose of the Study – Hypothesis Testing

- To test the nature of certain relationships, or establish
differences among groups or the independence of two or
more factors in a situation, or to predict some outcomes.
- To establish cause and effect relationship among
variables of interest.
- Can be done on both qualitative as well as on
quantitative data.
- Methodological rigor (severeness) increases as we move
from an exploratory study to a hypothesis-testing study,
as well as costs incurred.
Types of Investigation: Causal vs. Correlational
- A researcher/manager should determine which study is
appropriate by viewing problems or issues at hand.
- To know whether a study is a causal or a correlational
depends on the type of research questions asked and how
the problem is defined.
- Causal Study – researcher wants to delineate (specify)
the cause of one or more problem.
 E.g. – Does smoking cause cancer? Variable x causes
variable y.
- Correlational Study – researcher interested delineating
the important variables associated with the problem.
 E.g. – Are smoking and cancer related? Or Are smoking,
drinking, and chewing tobacco associated with cancer? If
so which one contributes most to variance in the
dependent variable?
Extent of Researcher Interference
- Extent of researcher’s interference with the study has a
direct impact on the type of investigation (causal or
correlational).
- Correlational study – conducted when minimal
interference with normal flow of work.
- Causal – conducted when researcher tries to manipulate
(deliberately change) certain variables to see its effect on
dependent variable of interest.
- Read example in textbook pg.128-129
 6.12 for minimal interference
 6.13 for moderate interference
 6.14 for excessive interference
Study Setting: Contrived and Non-Contrived
- Correlational studies are normally done in non-contrived
(natural) settings whereas most rigorous causal studies
are conducted in contrived (designed) environment.
- Field studies - correlational studies done in organizations.
(minimal researcher interference)
 E.g. analyzing secondary data relationship, distributing
questionnaire, interviewing, observing without
interfering with normal activity.
- Field experiments – cause and effect studies done in
same natural environment. (moderate researcher
interference)
 E.g. increasing pay and analyze the effect of employee
performance in normal work condition.
- Lab experiments – cause and effect studies done beyond
the possibility of the least doubt in an artificial, contrived
environment in which all extraneous (foreign) factors are
strictly controlled. (maximum researcher interference)
 E.g. Putting subjects in 3 group with 3 different setting,
and giving each of them different stimuli, to test their
reaction or behavioral change.
- Read example in textbook pg.130-131.
Unit of Analysis
- Unit of Analysis is the level of aggregation of the data
collected during subsequent data analysis stage.
- Our research question determines the unit of analysis.
 Individual u.a – Data gathered from each individual and
treating each employee’s response as an individual data
source
E.g. Prob. Stat – What is the motivational level of our
employees?
 Dyad u.a – data gathered from two person in a group and
treating each group’s response as separate data source.
E.g. Prob. Stat – how to raise supervisor-subordinate
relationship at work?
 Group u.a - data gathered from different group and
treating each group’s response as separate data source.
E.g. Prob. Stat – is there a difference among children of
different age group in their attitude towards learning?
- Individuals do not have the same characteristic as groups
(e.g. structure, cohesiveness) and group do not have the
same characteristics as individual (e.g. IQ, stamina)
- It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis when we
formulate the research question because data collection
methods, sample size, and variable used may depend on
the unit of analysis used.
Time Horizon
- Cross-Sectional Studies – a study where data are
gathered just once, over a period or days/weeks/months
in order to answer a research questions.
 E.g. data taken for a period between April - June last
year to study it behavior during slowdown phase.
 E.g. a one time survey done to determine the effect of
certain advertising campaign by some companies.
- Longitudinal Studies – studying people or phenomena at
more than one point in time in order to answer a research
question.
 E.g. data taken before and after a change in top
management to study its effect on employee loyalty
towards organization.
 E.g. data taken between April – June from year 2005 –
2009 to study its trend during mid year stock evaluation.
Topic 2 : Problem Identification – Broad Problem Area
Preliminary Data Collection
Three (3) categories of information required by researchers
are:
1. Background information of the organization (Secondary
data)).
- Obtained from published records, company’s website
2. Managerial philosophy, company policies, procedure,
rule and other structural aspects. (Secondary data)
- Obtained from company’s records and documents.
3. Perception, attitude, and behavioral responses of
organizational members and client systems. (Primary
data)
4. Observation, interview, administering questionnaire at
actual site/event.
(1) Background information on the organization
Researchers need to collect information pertaining to:
1. The origin and history of the company/organization,
growth rate, ownership etc.
2. Size in term of employees, assets or both.
3. Charter – purpose and ideology
4. Location – regional, national or other.
5. Resources – human and others.
6. Interdependent relationship with other institutions and
external environment.
7. Financial position during previous 5 – 10 years and
relevant financial data.
(2) Information on Structural Factors and Management
Philosophy
- Information on company policies, management
philosophy etc can be obtained by asking directly from
the management.
- Information on structural factor are as follows:
 Roles and position in the organization and the number of
employees at each job level.
 Extent of specialization
 Communication channels
 Control systems
 Coordination and span of control.
 Reward systems.
 Workflow system etc
Problem Definition
- A process of narrowing down the problem from its
original broad base to defining the issue more clearly
(unambiguously identified).
- A problem does not necessarily mean that something is
seriously wrong with a current situation that need
immediate rectification. A problem could simply indicate
an interest in an issue where finding the right answer
might help to improve existing situation.
- It is a situation where a gap exist between the actual and
the desired ideal status.
 Eg: we want zero defect in production, high sales
turnover, and high employee morale, high quality of life,
highly qualified engineers, etc.
- Problem definition could encompass both existing
problem in current setting, as well as the quest for
idealistic states in organizations.
- Managers must not mistakenly observe symptom as a
problem. Finding ‘right’ answers to the ‘wrong’ problem
definition is wasteful. Symptoms are consequence (effect)
to a problem (central issue).
 Eg: productivity and motivation.
Problem Definition or Problem Statement
- Often referred to: a clear, precise and succinct (summary)
statement of the question or issue to be investigated with
the goal of finding an answer or solution.
- Problem statement could relate to:
1. Existing business problem that managers require
solution.
2. No current problem but situation requires improvement.
3. Area requiring clearer concept clarity for better theory
building.
4. Situation researcher want to answer a research question
empirically because of interest.

(3) Perception, Attitudes, and Behavioral Responses

Attitudinal factors comprise of people’s belief about and
reaction to:
1. Nature of work.
2. Wok flow inter dependencies.
3. Superiors in the organization.
4. Participation in decision making.
5. Client systems.
6. Co-workers.
7. Rewards provided by the organization.
8. Opportunities for advancement.
9. Organization’s attitudes toward employees’ family
responsibilities.
10. Company’s involvement with community.
11. Company’s tolerance of employees’ taking time off from
job.
Topic 3 : Literature Survey
Problem identification
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
1. Develop relevant and comprehensive bibliographies for
any organizational research topic.
2. Write a literature review on any given topic,
documenting the references in the prescribe manner.
Literature Survey
- The documentation of a comprehensive review of the
published and unpublished work from secondary sources
of data in the areas of specific interest to the researcher.
- Sources of literature are from: books, journals,
newspapers, magazines, conference proceedings,
doctoral dissertation, master’s theses, government
publications, financial, marketing reports etc.
- Literature survey must be started even before
information from unstructured and structured interviews
is being gathered.
- Literature surveys helps researchers focus further
interviews more meaningfully on certain aspects found
to be important in the published studies.
Reason for literature survey
- To ensure no important variable found repeatedly in past
researches bearing upon the problem being ignored.
- To prevent researcher from spending considerable time
and effort to discover something that has already been
researched. (reinventing the wheel)
- Facilitates creative integration of information gathered
from structured and unstructured interviews with what is
found in previous studies.
- To provide foundation for developing a comprehensive
theoretical framework from which hypotheses can be
developed for testing.
A good literature survey ensures that :
- Important variables that are likely to influence the
problem situation are not left out of the study.
- A clearer image as to what variable would be most
important to consider (parsimony), why it’s important
and how it should be investigated.
- Problem statement can be made with precision and
clarity.
- Te-stability and replicability of the findings are
improved.
- Avoid “reinventing the wheel”. Less risk of duplicating
research.
- Problem investigated is perceived by the scientific
community as relevant and significant.
- Becomes a basis for the discussion of the findings with
the previous research.
Conducting Literature Survey
- Literature review need to be done on variables identified
during the interview process.
- Steps taken consists of:
1. Identifying relevant sources - various publish &
unpublished materials.
2. Gathering/extracting relevant information via library or
online sources
3. Writing up the literature review.
Identify relevant sources
- Global business information, published articles in
newspapers and periodicals, and conference proceeding
are all now available on computerized databases,
CD-ROM and on the internet.
- Three(3) form of databases helps literature reviews:
1. Bibliographic databases – display only bibliographic
citation
Name of author, the title of the article (or book), source
of publication, year, volume and page number.
2. The abstract databases – which in addition provide an
abstract or summary of the articles.
3. The full-text databases, which provide full text article.
Extracting relevant information
- While reading articles, detailed information on the
problem that was researched, the design details of the
study (such as sample size and data collection methods),
and the ultimate findings can be systemically noted in
some convenient format, which facilitate the writing up
of the literature with minimum disruption and maximum
efficiency.
- Discover other factors closely related to the problem.
- Articles considered relevant to the current study can be
listed as references.
Writing up literature review
- Also called literature survey.
- A process of documentation of the relevant studies by
citing (mentioning) the author and year of the study.
- Present clear and logical facts and elaboration on the
research work done thus far.
- Bringing together all relevant information in a cogent
(powerful) and logical manner.
- Cite references using quotation.
- A distinction must be made between bibliography and
references.
 Bibliography – listing of the work that is relevant to the
main topic of interest arranged in the alphabetical order
of the last name of the authors.
 Reference list – is a subset of the bibliography, which
include details of all the citation used in the literature
survey and elsewhere in the paper, arranged again, in the
alphabetical order of the last name of the authors.
 3 modes of referencing – APA Format, Chicago Manual
of Style, and Turabian Style. Refer your textbook page
80 – 84 for discussions.
Tips how an article should be read
1. Read the abstract or summary first. This tells whether the
article is worth reading in its entirety.
2. Read the bibliographic data.
3. Take note on the article concentrating on the following
points:
a) Problem statement. State it clearly
b) Hypothesis or Objective. List them exactly as stated in
the article.
c) Procedures. List the research methodology used (survey,
experiment, case study, etc), the number of subjects and
how they are selected, the kind of instrument used
(questionnaire, observation, etc)
d) Findings. List major findings. Indicate whether the
objectives of the study were obtained or the hypothesis
were supported.
e) Conclusions. Describe the author’s conclusions. Note
your disagreement with the author, and the reason of
such disagreement. Note the strength and weaknesses of
the study that make the results particularly applicable or
limited with regard to your research question.
Topic 4 : Development of Theoretical Framework
Stating The Research Question
 Research questions are derived from the problem
statement.
 E.g. a company made the following statement to define a
training problem:
1. How familiar are employees with the various software
application for personal computer?
2. What attitude do employees have towards these software
packages?
3. Is there any difference in the computer knowledge
between male and female users?
4. Is there any difference in the computer usage between
user in various departments?
Theoretical Framework
 A conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes
logical sense of the relationships among several factors
(variables) that have been identified as important to the
problem.
 It discusses the interrelationships among the variables
that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the
situation being investigated.
 Help researcher postulate/hypothesize and test certain
relationship to improve understanding of situation.
 The entire research rests on the basis of the theoretical
framework.
 Developing a good theoretical framework is central to
examining the problem under investigation.
The Relationship Between Literature Review (LR) and
Theoretical Framework (TF)
 Literature Review
- Identifies the variables that might be important as
determined by previous research finding.
- This, in addition to other logical connections that can be
conceptualized, forms the basis for the theoretical model.
 Theoretical Framework
- Elaborates the relationship among variables.
- It explains the theory underlying the relations.
- It describe the and direction of the relationship.
- A good TF identifies and label the important variables in
the situation that are relevant to the problem defined.
- Elaboration of variables in the TF addresses the issues of
why or how we expect certain relationship to exist and
the nature and direction of the relationship among the
variables of interest
Variables
 A variable is anything that can take on differing or
varying values. The values can differ at various times for
the same object/person, or at the same time for different
object/person.
 Examples:
- Production units: One worker can varying unit of output
per minute.
- Absenteeism: The number of absent worker can vary
each day.
- Motivation: Level of workers’ motivation varies among
them.
Types of Variables
Four (4) main types:
1. Dependent variable (Criterion)
 Variable of primary interest to the researcher.
 Researcher wants to understand and describe or explain
it’s variability or predict the dependent variable.
 The researcher will be interested in quantifying and
measuring the dependent variable, as well as the other
variables that influence it.
 Refer to textbook (pg. 88) for example and exercise.

2. Independent variable (Predictor)

 Variable(s) that influence the dependent variable either
positively or negatively.
 Dependent (y) will present only if Independent (x) also
present.
- Positive way: increase x => increase y
- Negative way: increase x => decrease y
 Refer to textbook (pg. 89-91) for discussion
3. Moderating variable
 A 3rd variable that has a strong contingent effect on the
independent variable-dependent variable relationship.
 The presence of this variable modifies the original
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
 The relationship between the dependent variable and the
independent variable is dependent on the other
(moderating) variable
 Refer to textbook (pg. 91-92) for discussion
Difference between Independent, Moderating, and
4. Intervening variable
 This variable appear between the time the independent
variable starts operating to influence the dependent
variable and the time their impact is felt on it.
 Act as a function of the independent variable(s)
operating in any situation, and help to conceptualize and
explain the influence of the independent variable(s) on
the dependent variable.
 The independent variables (intelligence, prep. hrs)
influence the dependent variable (exam result), the
intervening variable (learning skill) appear as a function
of intelligence and prep hrs interaction facilitated by the
moderating variable.
 Lecturer’s expertise moderates the relationship between
IVs and learning skills.
 Learning skill will not appear from the IVs unless
lecturers are able to synergize his classroom diversity in
teaching and learning for his students.
 The IV helps to explain the variance in the DV, the
intervening variable surfaces at t2 as a function of the
IVs, which help to conceptualize the relationship
between the IVs and DV; and the MV has a contingent
effect on the relationship between IVs and DV.
The intervening variable does not add to the variance


already explained by the IVs. The MV has an interaction

Dependent Variable
effect with the IV in explaining the variance.
 It is sometimes difficult to identify which variable
belong to which category.
 The decision to label them dependent, independent, or
moderating variable depends on how they affect one
another.
Component of Theoretical Framework
1. The variables considered relevant to the study must be
clearly identified and label in the discussions.
2. Discussion must state how 2 or more variables are
related to one another, especially important relationship.
3. Discuss if the direction of the relationship would be
positive or negative based on previous research.
4. Give clear explanation on why we expect a relationship
to exist. Argument drawn from previous research
findings.
5. Present schematic diagram of the theoretical framework
so people can see and easily understand the theorized
relationship
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF THE THEORETICAL
FRAMEWORK
Some examples of Hypotheses
Ho : There is no relationship between Gender and College
HA : There is a relationship between Gender and College
Ho : There is no difference in perception towards distribution
system between type of customer
HA : There is a difference in perception towards distribution
system between type of customer (Non-Directional
Hypothesis)
OR
HA :Vendor rated higher than agent on their perception
towards distribution system (Directional Hypothesis)

Hypothesis Development
 Definition of Hypothesis – a logically conjectured
(theorized) relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a testable statement.
 Formulating testable statement is called hypotheses
development.
 Statement in a form of If - then.
- E.g. Student who read more frequently will score a better
grade: If student read more frequently, then they will
score a better grade.
 Directional and Non-directional Hypotheses
- Directional : Men are better financial analyst than
women.
- Non-directional: Men financial analysis are different (or
same) the women financial analyst.

Null and Alternate Hypotheses

Null Hypothesis (Ho)– a statement of no relationship
between variables.
 Statement of equality (no difference…., no
relationship…)
 Refers to the population
 Implied statement
Alternate Hypothesis (H1) or (HA)– a definite statement of
the relationship between two variables.
 Also known as the Research Hypothesis.
 Statement of inequality (a difference…, a
relationship….)
 Explicit statement
 Always refers to the sample
 Takes two form:
- Directional : e.g. ‘more than, less than (direction
specified)
- Non-directional: e.g. different from (direction not
specified)
Topic 5 : Research Design
The research Design
Involves a series of rational decision-making choices on
issues relating to:
1. Purpose of the study (exploratory, descriptive,
hypothesis testing)
2. The study setting (location)
3. Type of investigation
4. Extent of researcher interference (studying or
manipulation)
5. Time horizon
6. Unit of analysis (individuals, groups, organizations)
Purpose of the Study - Exploratory
- Undertaken when not much is known about the situation
at hand, or no information is available on how similar
problems or research issues have been solved in the past.
- Requires extensive preliminary work to gain familiarity
with the situation, understand what is happening before
developing model and designing other rigorous
investigations.
- Undertaken to better understand the nature of the
problem because few studies have been made in this
area.
- Extensive interviews and observations (qualitative data)
were carried out to collect data thus providing enough
evidence to develop theories and hypotheses for
subsequent testing.
Purpose of the Study - Descriptive
- Undertaken to ascertain and to describe the characteristic
of the variables of interest in a situation.
- To learn and to describe the characteristic of a group of
employee (age, job status), organizations (practices,
culture), etc.
- Goal is to offer a profile or to describe relevant aspects
of phenomena of interest.
- Help researcher to:
- Understand the characteristic of a group in given
situation.
- Think systematically about aspects in given situation.
- Offer ideas for further probe and research
- Help make certain simple decisions
- Data are presented in forms such as bar charts,
frequencies, mean, mode, median, standard deviation,
etc.
Purpose of the Study – Hypothesis Testing
- To test the nature of certain relationships, or establish
differences among groups or the independence of two or
more factors in a situation, or to predict some outcomes.
- To establish cause and effect relationship among
variables of interest.
- Can be done on both qualitative as well as on
quantitative data.
- Methodological rigor (severe ness) increases as we move
from an exploratory study to a hypothesis-testing study,
as well as costs incurred.
Types of Investigation: Causal vs. Correlational
- A researcher/manager should determine which study is
appropriate by viewing problems or issues at hand.
- To know whether a study is a causal or a correlational
depends on the type of research questions asked and how
the problem is defined.
- Causal Study – researcher wants to delineate (specify)
the cause of one or more problem.
 E.g. – Does smoking cause cancer? Variable x
causes variable y.
- Correlational Study – researcher interested delineating
the important variables associated with the problem.
 E.g. – Are smoking and cancer related? Or Are
smoking, drinking, and chewing tobacco associated
with cancer? If so which one contributes most to
variance in the dependent variable?
Extent of Researcher Interference
- Extent of researcher’s interference with the study has a
direct impact on the type of investigation (causal or
correlational).
- Correlational study – conducted when minimal
interference with normal flow of work.
- Causal – conducted when researcher tries to manipulate
(deliberately change) certain variables to see its effect on
dependent variable of interest.
- Read example in textbook pg.128-129
6.12 for minimal interference
6.13 for moderate interference
6.14 for excessive interference
Study Setting: Contrived and Non-Contrived
- Correlational studies are normally done in non-contrived
(natural) settings whereas most rigorous causal studies
are conducted in contrived (designed) environment.
- Field studies - correlational studies done in organizations.
(minimal researcher interference)
 E.g. analyzing secondary data relationship,
distributing questionnaire, interviewing, observing
without interfering with normal activity.
- Field experiments – cause and effect studies done in
same natural environment. (moderate researcher
interference)
 E.g. increasing pay and analyze the effect of
employee performance in normal work condition.
- Lab experiments – cause and effect studies done beyond
the possibility of the least doubt in an artificial, contrived
environment in which all extraneous (foreign) factors are
strictly controlled. (maximum researcher interference)
  E.g. Putting subjects in 3 group with 3 different
setting, and giving each of them different stimuli, to
test their reaction or behavioral change.
- Read example in textbook pg.130-131.
Unit of Analysis
- Unit of Analysis is the level of aggregation of the data
collected during subsequent data analysis stage.
- Our research question determines the unit of analysis.
 Individual u.a – Data gathered from each individual
and treating each employee’s response as an
individual data source
 E.g. Prob. Stat – What is the motivational level of
our employees?
 Dyad u.a – data gathered from two person in a
group and treating each group’s response as
separate data source.
 E.g. Prob. Stat – how to raise
supervisor-subordinate relationship at work?
 Group u.a - data gathered from different group and
treating each group’s response as separate data
source.
 E.g. Prob. Stat – is there a difference among
children of different age group in their attitude
towards learning?
- Individuals do not have the same characteristic as groups
(e.g. structure, cohesiveness) and group do not have the
same characteristics as individual (e.g. IQ, stamina)
- It is necessary to decide on the unit of analysis when we
formulate the research question because data collection
methods, sample size, and variable used may depend on
the unit of analysis used.
Time horizon
- Cross-Sectional Studies – a study where data are
gathered just once, over a period or days/weeks/months
in order to answer a research questions.
 E.g. data taken for a period between April - June
last year to study it behavior during slowdown
phase.
 E.g. a one time survey done to determine the effect
of certain advertising campaign by some
companies.
- Longitudinal Studies – studying people or phenomena at
more than one point in time in order to answer a research
question.
 E.g. data taken before and after a change in top
management to study its effect on employee loyalty
towards organization.
 E.g. data taken between April – June from year
2005 – 2009 to study its trend during mid year
stock evaluation.
Topic 7 : Research sampling
Population, Element, Population Frame, Sample and
Subject
- Population – refers to the group of people, events, or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
 E.g. computer firms in Silicon valley, all blue-collar
workers in the mining industry in the country etc.
- Elements – a single member of the population.
 E.g. each blue-collar worker in the mining industry.
- Population Frame – a listing of all the elements in the
population from which the sample is drawn.
 E.g. payroll list, student list, list of computer firms
etc.
- Sample – a subset of the population, i.e. some but not all
element from the population being studied.
 E.g. 200 person from 1000 blue-collar worker in a
firm.
- Subject – a single member of the sample.
 E.g. each person in the sample of 200 blue-collar
worker.
Sampling
- Sampling is a process of selecting a sufficient number of
elements from the population, so that a study of the
sample and an understanding of its properties or
characteristics would make us possible to generalize the
population’s elements.
- The characteristic of the population such as µ
(population mean), σ (population standard deviation),
and σ2 (population variances) are referred to as its
parameters.
- All conclusions drawn about the sample under study are
generalized to the population.
- Sample statistic X (sample mean), S (standard deviation),
and S2 (variation in the sample) are used as estimates of
the population parameter.
Reasons for sampling
- Practically impossible to collect data, or test, or examine
from every element of the population being studied.
- Less time (quicker), less cost (cheaper than studying
whole population), and human resource limitations.
- Studying samples rather than the population likely to
produce more reliable results.
- Reducing fatigue, less error in collecting data especially
when a large number of elements is involved.
Representativeness of Samples
- Rarely sample will be an exact replica of the population
form which it is drawn.
- Sample statistic (X, S, S2) ≠ Population parameter (µ, σ,
σ2 ).
- Choosing sample in a scientific way can help bringing
the sample statistic closer to the population parameter,
making the sample a representative of the population.
Sampling Methods – Probability and Non-Probability
Sampling
- Probability Sampling – elements in the population have
some known chance or probability of being selected as
sample subjects.
 Used when the representativeness of the sample is
important for wider generalization.
- Non-probability Sampling – elements do not have a
known or predetermined chance of being selected as
subjects.
 Used when time and other factor are more
important rather than generalizability.
Probability sampling
Simple Random Sampling (SRS) – every element in the
population has a known and equal chance of being selected
as a subject.
- E.g. lucky draw 1st of 1000, 2nd of 999, 3rd of
998……
- SRS has the least bias and offer the most
generalizability.
- Sometime become cumbersome, expensive and not the
most efficient design.
Complex Random Sampling – similar to SRS but offer a viable
and more efficient approach. Five most common complex
probability sampling:
1. Systematic sampling,
2. Stratified sampling,
3. Cluster sampling,
4. Area sampling, and
5. Double sampling.
Systematic Sampling
- Systematic sampling design involves drawing the nth
element in the population starting with randomly chosen
element between 1 and n.
 E.g. sampling 35 household from 260 houses. We
sample every 7th house (7, 14, 21..) until we get 35
sample size.
- The possibility of drawing incorrect conclusion from
these data is high due to systematic bias.
- Researcher must carefully plan before appropriate
systematic sampling is employed.
- Suitable for market surveys, consumer attitude,
behavioral studies etc.
Stratified Random Sampling
- A process of stratifying or grouping of elements within a
population and then proceed with random selection of
subjects from each stratum (group).
- In a population there may exist sub-groups that differ in
its parameter on a variable of interest of the researcher.
 E.g. in an organization there are top managers,
middle managers and clerks that responded
differently in training given to them.
 Help researcher identify or focus the actual group
requiring for solutions/attention.
- Stratification ensures homogeneity (similarity) within
each stratum and provides heterogeneity (differences)
between strata (group).
- Stratification is an efficient research sampling design as
it provide more information in a given sample size.
Sub-group can be analyzed.
 Stratification of the population can be made by:
geographical areas, market segment, age, gender,
department, job type, etc….
Cluster sampling
- Not very common sampling technique in organizational
research.
- Takes cluster or chunks of elements that have
heterogeneity (differences) among members within each
group that are chosen for study.
- Cluster samples offer more heterogeneity (differences)
within group and more homogeneity (similarity) among
group – the reverse of stratified random sampling.
- Expose to greater biases and the least generalizable of all
probability sampling design, because most naturally
occurring cluster in the organizational context do not
contain heterogeneous elements.
- The only advantage is lower cost and convenience in
sampling.
- It does not offer much efficiency in terms of precision
and confidence in the results.
Area sampling
- A form of cluster sampling within an area.
- Area sampling constitutes geographical clusters such as
countries, city blocks, or a particular boundaries within a
locality.
 E.g. sampling the needs of people in Dungun before
opening a fast food restaurant to gather information
on taste, attitudes or behavior.
- Less expensive than most other probability sampling and
not dependent on a population frame.
 E.g. using city/town maps to allow researcher to
sample areas/blocks in obtaining data about
residents.
Double sampling
- Undertake when further information is needed from a
subset of the group from which some information has
already been collected for the same study.
- 1st sample taken for preliminary studies then subsample
of this primary sample is used to examine matters in
more detail.
Non-probability sampling
- Elements in population do not have any probability
attached to their being chosen as sample subjects.
- Findings from the study of the sample cannot be
confidently generalized to the population.
- Can only be employed only if researcher is less
concerned with generalizability.
- Two categories of non-probability sampling:
- Convenience Sampling
- Purposive Sampling
Convenience sampling
- Collection of information from members of the
population who are conveniently available.
- E.g. distributing questionnaire at a shopping mall asking
shoppers opinion / preferences about product X over
product Y.
- Mostly used during exploratory phase of a research
project to get basic information quickly and efficiently.
Purpose sampling
- Process of obtaining sampling from specific target group
or from those who have the specific information, or may
have certain criteria set by the researcher.
- Two major types of purposive sampling:
1. Judgment Sampling
2. Quota Sampling
Judgement sampling
- Involves the choice of subjects who are most
advantageously placed or in the best position to provide
the information required.
 E.g. what it takes for student to achieve dean’s list
in their academic performance. The sample would
be those students who have achieved dean’s list in
their examination results for few semesters.
- Judgment sampling demands special effort to locate and
gain access to the individuals who have the requisite
information.
- Used when limited number or category of people have
the information we want.
- Results are not generalizable to the population being
studied.
Quota sampling
- This sampling ensures that certain groups are adequately
represented in the study via assignment of quota.
- Quota is fixed based on the total number of each group
in the population.
- A form of proportionate stratified sampling based on a
convenience basis (non-random).
- Saves time, cost and effort for researcher to conduct
research.
- Ensures that all subgroups in the population are
adequately represented in the sample.
- Results are not generalizable to the population being
studied, but can be used effectively as a preliminary
research before in-depth research being undertaken or
vice-versa.
Determining sample size
- The second aspect of sampling design is estimating the
sample size.
- It is a question of how big is the sample required that we
will be able to precisely (accurately) generalize our
findings to the population with confidence (less doubt).
- A reliable and valid sample should enable us to
generalize the findings from the sample to the population
under investigation.
 The sample statistic should be reliable estimates
and reflect the population parameters.
 In reality it is impossible to have a sample x closely
reflecting the population µ.
- Therefore to obtain confidence we need to set an interval
estimates within where the µ will lie, with probabilities
attached to it.
Precision
- Precision refers to how close our estimate is to the true
population characteristic.
- Usually, we would estimate the population parameter to
fall within a range, based on sample estimate.
- Precision is a function of the range of variability in the
sampling distribution of the sample mean.
- Different samples taken from a single population will
provide different mean of each sample, but are normally
distributed and have a dispersion attached to it.
- The smaller this dispersion (variability), the greater the
probability that the sample mean (x) will be closer to the
population mean (µ).
- This variability is called the standard error, denoted by
Sx
- The standard error is calculated by the formula:
- S - is the standard deviation
- n - is the sample size
- Sx - is the standard error or extent of precision
offered by the sample.
- The standard error (Sx) varies inversely with the square
root of the sample size (√n). The larger the n the lesser
the standard error. Therefore if we want to reduce the
standard error we need to increase the sample size.
- Note that the smaller the variation in the population, the
smaller is the standard error which implies that the
sample size need not be large i.e. low variability in the
population requires a smaller sample size.
- To summarize, the closer we want our sample results to
the population characteristic, the greater will be the
precision we would aim at. The greater the precision we
require, the larger is the sample size that we must collect.
- The level of confidence can range from 0 to 100%.
- A 95% confidence is the conveniently accepted level for
most business research.
- This is expressed by denoting significance level as p
< .05
Sample Data, precision and confidence in esmation
- When we use sample data to draw inferences about the
population, we hope to be fairly “on target” (precision
and confidence) and have some idea on the extent of
possible error.
- Because a point estimation provides no measure of
possible error, we do an interval estimation to ensure a
relatively accurate estimation of the population
parameter.
- E.g. sample of 64 customers taken via systematic
sampling. x=105, S=10, x is the sample mean to estimate
µ, we could construct a confidence interval around x to
estimate range which µ will fall.
- The standard error Sx and the level of confidence will be
used to determine the width of the interval using the
following formula: µ=X + KSx where K is the t
statistic for level of confidence required
- The width of the interval has increased and now we are
less precise in the estimation of the population, but we
are now a lot more confident about our estimation.
- If we want to maintain our original precision while
increasing confidence, or maintain confidence while
increasing precision, or to increase both, we need to have
a larger sample size.
The sample size , n, is a function of:
- The variability in the population
- Precision or accuracy needed
- Confidence level desired
- Type sampling plan – SRS vs. Stratified RS

Confidence
- Confidence denotes how certain are we that our
estimates will really hold true for the population.
- In the previous example we have more confidence on the
How to Determine The Sample Size
40 – 60 range than the 45 – 55 range.
Example : A manager wants to be 95% confident the expected
- The narrower the range the lower the confidence. There monthly withdrawals in a bank will be within a confident
is a trade-off between precision and confidence. interval of +RM500. S = RM3,500. What is the sample size he
- Confidence reflects the level of certainty with which we need?
can state that our estimates of the population parameters,
based on our sample statistics, will hold true.

Importance of Sampling Design and Sample Size
- Sampling design and size are both important to establish
the representativeness for generalizibility.
- Large sample size is useless if wrong sampling design is
employed.
- Good sampling design will not support the research if
sample size is inadequate (does not offer precision and
confidence).
- Roscoe (1975) proposes the rule of thumb for
determining sample size:
1. Sample sizes larger than 30 and less than 500 are
appropriate for most research.
2. Sub-samples (male/female, etc ) a minimum sample size
of 30 for each category is necessary.
3. In multivariate research, the sample size should be
several times (>10 times) as larger as the number of
variables in the study.
4. For simple experimental research with tight experimental
controls, successful research is possible with only 10 –
20 samples
Topic 8 : Measurement of variable
How variable are measured
- Objects that can be physically measured by some
calibrated instruments pose no measure problem.
 E.g. – Length, width, height of a rectangular table
using a measuring tape or a ruler.
- Demographic characteristic can also be measured by
simple asking question such as:
 E.g. – length of job service, duration of task, job
title, marital status, and gender etc..
- What about measuring subjective elements such as
feelings, behavior, perceptions, attitudes etc?
 To measure these we must reduce the abstract
notions, or concepts such as motivations,
satisfactions etc into observable behavior and
characteristics
 E.g. thirst – we cannot see thirst but we can assess
by the number of glasses a person drinks at one
time.
 Reduction of abstract concept into measurable
tangible way is called ‘operationalizing’ the
concepts
Operational Definition: Dimension and Elements
- Operationalizing, or operationally defining a concept to
make it measurable is done by looking at the behavioral
dimensions, facets (aspects) or properties indicated by
the concept.
- It is a statement of the specific dimension and elements
through which a concept will become measurable.
- These concepts are then transformed into observable and
measurable elements so as to develop an index of
measurement of the concept.
- Refer to Example 8.1 and 8.3 in your textbook for further
examination and discussions.
Scales - Measure of central tendency: arithmetic mean or
- After operationalizing the concepts into dimensions and geometric mean, measuring dispersion using standard
elements, the next task is to measure them in some deviation or variance, or coefficient of variation.
manner.
- A scale is a tool or mechanism by which individuals are
distinguished as to how they differ form one another on
the variables of interest to our study.
- Four basic types of scales:
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval and
4. Ratio

Nominal scales
- A measurement that allows researcher to assign certain
categories or groups which are mutually exclusive (i.e.
no 3rd category which respondent would normally fall Topic 9 : Measurement scales
 E.g. Gender: (1) Male/ (2)Female.
 E.g. Race: (1) Malay (2) Chinese (3) Indian Rating scales
- Normally displayed in frequencies and measured in Rating scales often used in organizational research:
percentages. - Dichotomous scale
- Category scale
Ordinal scale
- Likert scale
- Categories of variable in such a way to denote
differences among the various categories, it also - Numerical scales
rank-orders the categories in some meaningful way. - Semantic differential scale
 E.g. ranking preference from best to worst or first - Itemized rating scale
to last by assigning numbers 1,2,3…to each level.
- Fixed or constant rating scale
- Ordinal scale provides more information than nominal
scale by distinguishing categories by rank-ordering them. - Stapel rating scale
- However it does not give any indication about the - Graphic rating scale
magnitude of the differences among the ranks…i.e. - Consensus scale
difference between ranking 1-2 is not the same as
difference between rank 3-4. Dichotomous scale
- Is used to elicit a Yes or No answer.
Interval scale
- A nominal scale is used to elicit a response.
- Interval scale allows certain arithmetical operation to be
performed on data collected from respondents. - E.g. Do you own a car?
Yes ____ No _____
- It let us measure the distance between any two points on


a scale.
Category Scale
- Consists of categories of a variable (nominal) arranged in
order (ordinal) and measures the magnitude of the - Uses multiple items to elicit a single response.
differences among individual. - Also nominal scale is used to elicit a response.
- It provide an indication about the magnitude of the - E.g. What is your race?
differences among the scale. i.e. difference between  Malay ____
point 1-2 is the same as difference between point 3-4.  Chinese ____
- A more powerful scale than the nominal, and ordinal  Indian ____
scale and can measure central tendency (mean), the  African ____
dispersion (range), standard deviation and variance.  European ____
 Others ____
Ratio scale
Likert scale
- Ratio scale not only measures the magnitude of the
difference between point on a scale but also taps the - Designed to examine how strongly subject agree or
proportions in the differences. disagree with a statement on a 5-point scale.
- Most powerful of the four scales because it has a unique - This is an interval scale and the differences between any
zero origin and combine all the properties of the other two points on the scale remain the same.
three scales. - Conducted over a summated of several items measuring
 E.g. a person weighing 200 kg is twice as heavy as a particular concept or
one who weigh 100 kg. (Note multiplying or response
dividing both this number by any number given
number will still preserve the ratio 2:1)
 E.g. age, income, height, distance etc
Semantic Differential Scale
- Several bipolar attributes are identified at the extremes of
the scale and a respondent are asked to indicate their
attitude.
- Bipolar adjectives used: Good-Bad, Strong-Weak,
Hot-Cold etc.

Responsive ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Unresponsive
Beautiful ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Ugly
Courageous ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ Timid
Numerical scale
Similar to semantic differential scale, with a difference that
number on a 5-point or 7-point scale are provided, with
bipolar adjectives at both ends.
Graphic Rating Scale
- A graphical representation helps the respondents to
indicate on this scale their answer to a particular question
by placing a mark at the appropriate point on the line.
- This is an ordinal scale.

Itemized rating scale

- A 5-point or 7-point scale with anchors (High/Low,
Satisfied/Unsatisfied), as needed, is provided for each
item and the respondent states the appropriate number on Ranking scales
the side of each item, or circle the relevant number
against each item. - Ranking scales may not give definitive clues to some of
the answers sought.
- The responses to the item are then summated.
- E.g. In choosing which product line preferred by
- Balanced rating scale with a neutral point customer: 35% product 1, 25% product 2, 20% product 3
and 4. manager cannot say customer prefer product line 1
when 65 % did not choose this product!
- Alternative methods used in ranking scales : paired
- Unbalanced rating scale without a neutral point
comparisons, forced choice, and comparative scale.

Pired comparison

Forced choice
Fixed or constant sum scale - Paired comparison scale is used when, among a small
- Here, respondents are required to distribute a given number of objects, respondents are asked to choose
number of points across various items. between two objects at a time.
- Very much like an ordinal scale - Paired sample comparison is good method if the number
of stimuli is small.
- E.g. In choosing a car, indicate the importance you attach
to each of the following five aspects by allotting points - Forced choice enables respondents to rank objects
for each to total 100 in all. relative to one another.
Safety ___ - Easier for respondents, if the number of choice to be
Power ___ ranked is limited in number. E.g. Rank 1 most preferred,
Brand name ___ 5 for least preferred.
Design ___ - Utusan Melayu ___
Color ___
- New Straits Times ___
Total points 100
- Berita Harian ___
Stapel scale - Harian Metro ___
- This scale simultaneously measures both the direction - Malay Mail ___
and intensity of the attitude toward the items under
study. Comparative scale
- The characteristic of interest to the study is placed at the - Comparative scale provides a benchmark or a point of
center with a numerical scale ranging, say +3 to -3, on reference to assess attitudes toward the current object,
either side of the item. event, or situation under study.
- Does not have a zero point and is an interval scale. - E.g. In a volatile financial environment, compared to
- E.g. Assessing leadership in organizations stocks, how wise or useful is it to invest in Treasury
bond? Please circle the appropriate response.
Goodness of measures
- It is important or make sure that the instrument the we
develop to measure a particular concept is accurately
measuring the variable, and that in fact, we are actually
measuring the concept we really want measure.
- Scale develop could often be imperfect, and errors are
prone to occur in the measurement of attitudinal
variables.
- We need to assess the “goodness” of measures we
develop so we can be reasonably sure that the instrument
we use in our research is valid (logical) and reliable
(dependable).
- To ensure measures developed are reasonably good we
need to begin with item analysis first, and subsequently
establishing the reliability and validity of these measures.
Item analysis
- Item analysis is done to see if the items in the
instruments belong there or not.
 Each item is examined for its ability to discriminate
(separate) between those subjects whose total
scores are high, and those with low scores.
- Reliability tests how consistently a measuring instrument
measures whatever concept it is measuring.
 Concern with stability and consistency of
measurement.
- Validity tests how well an instrument that is developed
measures the particular concept it is intended to measure.
 Concern with whether we measure the right
concept.
Reliability
- Reliability of a measure indicate the extent to which it is
without a bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent
measures across time and across the various item in the
instrument.
- Reliability of a measure is an indication of the stability
and consistency with which the instrument measures the
concept and helps to assess the “goodness” of a measure.
Stability of measures
- The ability of a measure to remain the same over time –
despite uncontrollable testing condition or the state of the
respondents themselves – is indicative of its stability and
vulnerability to change in the situation.
- Two test of stability:
1. Test-Retest Reliability
2. Parallel-Form Reliability
Test-Retest Reliability
- The reliability coefficient obtained with a repetition of
the same measure on a second occasion.
- A set of similar survey questionnaire were distributed
now, and then the second time (several weeks to 6
months apart) on to the same group of respondents, to
assess its correlation scores.
- If the coefficient is high, thus the better the test-retest
reliability, and consequently, the stability of the
measures across time.
Parrallel Form Reliability
- Occurs when responses on two comparable sets of
measures tapping the same construct are highly
correlated.
- Both forms have similar items and the same response
format, the only changes being the wordings and the
order or sequence of the questions.
- If the forms are highly correlated (say .8 and above) we
may fairly certain that the measure are reasonable
reliable.
Consistency of measures
- The internal consistency of measures is indicative of the
homogeneity of the items in the measure that tap the
construct.
 Items should “hang together as a set” and be
capable of independently measuring the same
concept so that the respondents attach the same
overall meaning to each of the items.
- Two test of reliability:
1. Interitem Consistency Reliability
2. Split-Half Reliability
Interitem reliability
- A test of the consistency of respondents’ answers to all
the items in a measure.
- The most popular test of interitem consistency reliability
is the:
1. Cronbach’s coefficient alpha (Cronbach’s alpha), which
is used for multipoint-scaled items, and
2. Kuder-Richardson formulas, used for dichotomous
items.
- The higher the coefficient, the better the measuring
instrument.
Split Half reliability
- Split-half reliability reflects the correlations between two
halves of an instrument.
- The estimates would vary depending on how the items in
the measure are split into two halves
Validity
- Reliability is necessary but not sufficient condition of the
test of goodness of a measure.
- Validity ensures the ability of a scale to measure the
intended concept.
- When we ask a set of questions (i.e., develop a
measuring instrument) with the hope that we are tapping
the concept, how can we be reasonably certain that we
are measuring the concept we intended to measure and
something else?
- Several types of validity tests:
1. Content Validity
2. Criterion-Related Validity
3. Construct Validity
Content validity
- Content validity ensures that the measures includes an
adequate and representative set of items that tap the
concept.
  The more the scale items represent the domain or
universe of the concept being measured, the greater
the content validity.
- A panel of judges (i.e. experts, professionals) can attest
(testify) to the content validity of the instruments.
Criterion - related validity
- Criterion-related validity is established when the
measure differentiate (distinguish) individuals on a
criterion it is expected to predict.
- This is done by establishing concurrent validity or
predictive validity.
 Concurrent validity - is established when the scale
discriminating individuals who are known to be
different; that is, they should score differently on
the instrument.
 Predictive validity - indicates the ability of the
measuring instrument to differentiate among
individuals with reference to a future criterion.
- See example 9.12 in textbook.
Constrict validity
- Construct validity testifies (shows) to how well the
results obtained from the use of the measure fit the
theories around which the test is designed.
- This is assessed through convergent and discriminant
validity.
 Convergent validity – is established when the
scores obtained with two different instrument
measuring the same concept are highly correlated.
 Discriminant validity – is established when, based
on theory, two variable are predicted to be
uncorrelated, and the scores obtained by measuring
them are indeed empirically found to be so.
Testing Goodness of Measures: Forms of Reliability and
Validity
Topic 10 : Questionnaire
Questionnaire
- Definition: A questionnaire is a preformulated written
sets of questions to which respondents record their
answers, usually within rather closely defined
alternatives.
When to use a questionnaire:
- When researcher knows precisely what information is
needed.
- When large numbers of people are to be reached in
different geographical region.
- When groups of people can be assembled in conference
room to whom questionnaire can be administered, and
collected immediately.
Advantage of questionnaires
- Helps researcher obtain data fairly easy.
- Information from questionnaires is easily coded.
- Benefits the scientific community if the measures are
well validated and are reliable.
- Often is a catharsis for respondents.
Administering Questionnaire
Questionnaire can be administered:
- Personally face-to-face individually or in group.
- Mailed to respondents
- Electronically distributed
Personally Administered Questionnaire
Questionnaire can be personally distributed when:
- The survey is confined to a local area,
- The organization is willing and able to assemble groups
of employees to respond to the questionnaires at the
work place.
Advantage:
- Completed questionnaire can be collected quickly form
respondents,
- Any doubts on any questions in the questionnaire can be
clarified on the spot.
- Researcher can introduce the research topic and motivate
respondent to offer frank response.
- Less expensive and save time when conducted in large
group of respondent at the same time.
- Does not require much skill to administer the
questionnaire compared to interviews.
Mail Questionnaire
Advantage:
- Main advantage is a wide geographical area can be
covered in the survey.
- Respondents can complete the questionnaire at their
convenience, at their homes, and at their own pace.
Disadvantage:
- Low return rate of questionnaires.
- Any doubts cannot be clarified.
- Very low return rate make it difficult to establish
representative ness of the sample because those
responding to the survey may not at all represent the
population they are supposed to.
Ways to improve response rate:
- Send follow-up letters.
- Enclosing some token or monetary incentives with the
questionnaire.
- Provide the respondent with self-address, stamped return
envelope.
- Keep the questionnaire as brief as possible.
- Notify respondent in advance, introductory letter using a
reputed research organization
Principle of wording refers to:
- The appropriateness of the content of the questions,
- How questions are worded and the level of sophistication
of the language,
- The type and form of questions asked,
- The sequencing of the questions and,
- The personal data sought from the respondents.
Content and purpose of the questions
- The nature of the variable tapped – subjective feelings or
objective fact will determine what kind of questions will
be asked.
 Subjective nature (feelings) - such as satisfaction,
involvement where respondent’s beliefs, perception
and attitudes are to be measured, the questions
should tap the dimension and elements of the
concept
 E.g. 5 point Likert scale for 4 – 6 item
(questions)
 Objective measure – such as age, and education
level of respondents are tapped, a single direct
question preferably one that has ordinal scaled set
of categories would be appropriate
 E.g. 1- PMR, 2 – SPM, 3-STPM, 4-Diploma,
5-Bachelor, 6-Masters
Language and wordings of the questionnaire
- Language should approximate (suitable) to the
respondents level.
- Use words that the respondent truly and generally
understand.
 Choice of words should depend on their education
level, usage of terms and idioms in the culture, and
the frames of reference of the respondent.
- Do not use word that will let respondent misinterpret
them into some other meaning.
- Hence, the language used and the wordings should be
appropriate to tap respondents’ attitude, perceptions, and
feelings.
Type and forms of questions
- Type of question refers to whether the question will be
open-ended or closed ended.
- Form refers to positively or negatively worded questions.
Open-Ended vs. Closed Questions
Open ended question allows respondents to answer them in
any way they choose.
- E.g. What are the things that you like about your
supervisor?
- E.g. Comment on the performance of this portfolio
investment.
- Closed ended question ask respondent to make choices
among a set of alternatives given by the researcher .
- Any item in a questionnaire using nominal, ordinal, or
Likert or ratio scale are considered closed ended.
- E.g. Which age group do you belong to.
1) 21 to 30
2) 31 to 40
3) 41 – 50
4) 51 – 60
5) above 61
- E.g. Female are more hardworking than male student.
1-Strongly Agree, 2-Agree, 3-Undecided, 4-Disagree,
5-Strongly Disagree
Positively and Negatively Worded Questions
- A good questionnaire should include both positively
and negatively worded questions
- Phrasing questions positively and negatively will
minimize respondent’s tendency from mechanically
circle the points towards one end of the scale.
- E.g. - Measuring Achievement
1. I normally accomplishes completing many task on time
given to me by my lecturer. (positive)
2. I have occasionally failed to complete my assignments
on time. (negative)
Double-Barreled Questions
- Double-barreled question - A question that lends itself to
different possible response to its subparts which will
confuse the respondent and eventually obtain ambiguous
responses.
 E.g. Do you think that coupling is bad and that that
student must avoid this kind of behavior?
 Do you think that coupling is bad (1st question) and
that that student must avoid (2nd question) this
kind of behavior?
- Avoid double barreled question. Break up this question
into two so that each question focuses one subject, per
question.
Ambiguous Questions
- Avoid using ambiguous sentences as it will create biases
(misinterpretation) which will result in inaccurate answer
by the respondent.
 E.g. “To what extent would you say you are happy?”
– the respondent may think differently from the
researchers intention about happiness.
 E.g. “To what extent would you say you are happy
in your daily life? – this is better as it identify the
scope of happiness felt by the respondent.
Recall-Dependent Questions
- Avoid question that demand respondent to recall his past
experience that are hazy in their memory.
- E.g. During your primary schooldays, do you involved
yourself in a verbal fight with your classmates? (hazy
memory)
- E.g. 30 years ago when your started working, what were
your first department and for how long? (this data can be
obtained form the company’s record)
Leading Question
- Avoid phrasing question the lead the respondent to give
responses that the researcher would like or want them to
give.
- E.g. Many student felt that PTPTN loan were insufficient
to help ease their financial obligation in university,
therefore these amount must be increased. – (respondent
would be thrilled to answer ‘yes’)
- E.g. To what extent that your agree that PTPTN loan to
university student should be raised? – (this allows
respondent experiencing insufficient loan amount to
answer ‘Strongly Agree’ and those having no problem
answer ‘Strongly Disagree’).
Classification Data (Personal Information)
- Personal Information – age, educational level, marital
status, income etc.
- Avoid asking the name of the respondent unless
extremely necessary. This is to ensure anonymity of
respondent.
- Researcher has a choice either to place these personal
information in the beginning or at the end of the
questionnaire.
- Question seeking details of income or other highly
sensitive information are best placed at the very end of
the questionnaire.
- Use range of choices rather than asking a direct
figure/fact to prevent respondent avoidance from
answering truthfully.

Loaded Questions
- Avoid phrasing question in an emotionally charged
manner.
- E.g. To what extent do you think that management is
likely to be vindictive if the Union decides to go on
strike?

Social Desirability
- Avoid wording question that elicit socially desirable
responses.
- E.g. Do you think that HIV infected person should be
separated from the society?
- E.g. To what extent do think that HIV infected person be
given fair treatment anywhere?

Length of Questions
- Ask simple questions than a too long ones.
- Rule of thumb, a question or a statement in the
questionnaire should not exceed 20 words, or exceed one
full line in print.

Sequencing pf Questions
- The funnel approach.
- Sequence from general to specific question.
 Ask organizational questions and then to
departmental and job related questions.
- From relatively easy to progressively more difficult
questions.
 Ask routine question and then gradually proceed to
more analytical and problem solving questions.
- Do not place contiguously (side by side) a positively
worded and a negatively worded question tapping the
same element or dimension or concept.
 E.g. Learning is the most difficult thing to do.
 E.g. Learning is not the most difficult thing to do.
- Reword them differently and place them distant apart in
the questionnaire.
 Topic 11 : Data Collection: Fieldwork
Unstructured interviews
Data Collection: Fieldwork - Interviewer enter the interview setting with an a
unplanned sequence of questions to be asked of the
Sources of Data respondent.
- Data can be obtained from primary or secondary sources. - Used to identify broad problem area (explore and probe)
- Primary data – refers to information obtained firsthand by interviewing all levels of employee (respondent).
by the researcher on the variables of interest for the - Objective is to bring some preliminary issues to the
specific purpose of the study. surface so that the researcher can determine what
- E.g. individuals, focus groups, panel of respondents, variables need further in-depth investigation.
internet questionnaire. - The type and nature of the question asked might vary
- Secondary data – refers to information gathered from according to the job level and type of work done by
sources already processed by other means or existing in them.
records and reports.  Broad and open-ended question were asked to get initial
- E.g. company records or archives, government views about the situation and narrowed down after
publication, industry analysis offered by the media, web getting good responses or commitment by the
sites, Internet etc. respondent.
- Researcher must politely encourage /motivate respondent
Data collection method to answer questions.
- Data can be collected in a variety of ways, in different - Researcher listens carefully and take note or detect
settings, field or lab and from different sources. important messages respondent might convey.
- The choice of data collection methods depend on the
facilities available, the degree of accuracy required, the Structured Interviews
expertise of the researcher, the time span of the study, - Interviews conducted when it is known at the outset
and other associated costs (start) what information is needed.
- Three (3) main data collection in survey research: - Largely used in qualitative research.
Interviews: (Structured and Has the advantage of - Questions developed were obtained from information
Unstructured) flexibility in terms of collected during unstructured interviews.
- Face to face adapting, adopting and
- Question are likely to focus on factor that have surfaced
changing questions as the
- Telephone researcher proceed with the
during unstructured interview which are relevant to the
- Computer assisted problem.
interview.
- Electronic media - The interviewer has a list of predetermined questions to
Questionnaires: Has the advantage of be asked of the respondents either personally, through
obtaining data more telephone, or internet PC.
- Personally administered
efficiently in term of the - Based on respondent’s answers, an experienced
- Sent by mail researcher time, energy and researcher may ask other relevant questions not on the
- Electronically administered costs. interview protocol to identify or reinforce new factors
Observation; Has the advantage of and get deeper understanding of the research variables.
- Individual and events with accuracy of data.
or without videotaping
/audio recording.

Bias in Interviews
- Information gathered during interviews should be as free
as possible of bias (errors, inaccuracies in the data).
- Bias can come from interviewer, interviewee, or the
situation.
 From Interviewer:
- When no trust or rapport not establish with the
interviewee
- When responses either misinterpreted or distorted.
- When interviewer unintentionally encourage/discourage
certain types of response through gestures and facial
expressions.
 From Interviewee:
- Didn’t give true opinion but provide information they
think what the interviewer like to hear.
- Didn’t understand the question and feel difficult/hesitant
to seek clarification.
- Personal likes and dislikes (dress or interviewer,
manners etc)
- Answer in socially acceptable manner, rather than true
sentiments
 From Situation:
- Nonparticipants – unwillingness or inability of the
interviewee to participate in the study.
- Trust levels and rapport established – no sincerity,
unsuitable location/place of interview.
- Insufficient / unavailability of time
- Inconsistency of question/wording among respondent to
respondent.
Ways to Minimize Bias
- Establish credibility and rapport, and motivating
individuals to respond.
- Question technique - Funneling approach
- Ask unbiased questions – leading, loaded, expression
etc.
- Clarifying issues – restate or rephrase important
information given by respondent
- Help respondent to think through the issues. – ask
question in simpler way, rephrase, respond, remind, or
give examples as guidance.
- Take notes – make written notes while interviewing and
immediately after the interview. Record interview on
tape if the respondent allows, however this can cause
bias in response.
Topic 12 : Data Processing and Analysis
Preliminary Step Before Data Analysis
To ensure that we get reasonably good and quality data, four
(4) preliminary steps need to taken before data analysis:
1. Getting data ready for analysis.
2. Getting a feel for the data.
3. Testing the goodness of the data.
4. Testing the hypotheses.
Getting Data Ready for Analysis
Editing Data
- Data need to be edited after they were collected through,
questionnaires, interview and observation (primary
source) or through secondary sources.
- Editing should be done preferable the very same day the
data are collected so that the respondents can be
contacted for further information or clarifications to
avoid confusion.
- Incoming mail responses should be checked for
incompleteness and inconsistencies.
- By scanning through certain question the researcher can
help to complete some related unanswered question.
Handling Blank Responses
- Not all respondents answer every item in the
questionnaire, probably, because respondent fail to
understand the question, did not know the answer, not
willing to answer, or simply indifferent to the need to
respond to the entire questionnaire.
- If 25% and above blank responses, advisable to exclude
this questionnaire and report the number of questionnaire
being rejected due to excessive missing data in the final
report submitted to sponsor.
- If few (2-3 items) out of 30 items not answered in an
interval-scaled item with a mid-point would be:
1. Assign mid-point to that particular item missing (most
common), or
2. Allow computer to ignore the blank responses during
data analysis (most common), or
3. Assign to the item the mean value of the responses of all
those who have responded to that particular item, or
4. Give the item the mean of the responses of this particular
respondent to all other questions measuring this variable,
or
5. Give a random number within the range for that scale.
Coding, Categorization and Entering Data
- Please proceed to SPSS in class data analysis workshop.
- Have your laptop in ready mode with SPSS software
installed.
- Make sure you bring along your filled questionnaire
form with data collected for your survey project.
Data analysis
Objectives:
Getting a feel for the data.
- To get preliminary ideas of how good scales are.
- How well the coding and entering data have been done,
etc. Detecting coding or data entering error.
Testing the goodness of the data,
- Submitting data for factor analysis
- Conducting reliability measures using Cronbach’s alpha
or split half.
Testing hypotheses developed for the research.
- Conducting statistical test such as Correlation, t-test,
ANNOVA, Chi-Square, Regression.
What is SPSS
SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) is a
computerized statistical software package used widely in the
natural and social sciences. It is a user-friendly tool to help
you organize and analyze your data.
Purpose of Using SPSS
- To compute and analyze statistical data collected through
 surveys and assessment and
 other primary/secondary sources.
- Examples such as published company data, order forms,
work order, reservations, bills, invoice etc.
Types of variables and measurement
Categorical Variables –
- Nominal : - e.g. Gender (Male, Female), Race (Malay,
Chinese, Indians),
- Ordinal :- e.g. Student level : 1st yr , 2nd yr, 3rd yr,
Size : small, medium, large. Behavioral: Strongly Agree,
Agree Fair, Disagree, Strongly Disagree
Numerical Variables (Scale) –
- Count (whole number) :- e.g. Number of subjects student
takes per semester: 5 to 7 classes but not 5.5 classes.
- Continuous (Interval/scale/ratio) - e.g. height, age,
weight, temperature, lengths, mileage, speed, years of
education…… contains decimal points. E.g. : 30.45 oC,
12.5 km, 14 ½ yrs
Data/Variables
Types of Data Measurement
- Please refer to the questionnaire developed by you.
- Identify the measurement in each question of the
questionnaire.
 Nominal
 Ordinal
 Interval
 Scale / ratio
Term used in SPSS
- Data – pieces of organized information about elements
in a population. E.g.: color, height, weight, name etc.
- Data Set – contains information on people. E.g.:
telephone surveys, questions concerning attitudes,
behavior and belief, demographic information etc.
- Case – the individual record being studied e.g. a
person’s height, weight, job, opinion, attitude, responses
etc.
- Variables – contain information about each case and
structured in a way that makes one case comparable to
another.
- Coding – the process of transforming data from original
form into a format that SPSS can read.
- Eg:
- Gender : 1 – Male, 2 – Female or
- Opinion : 1 – Disagree, 2 – Fair, 3 - Agree
Layout of SPSS
- SPSS Data Editor window – this screen looks and
operates like spreadsheet programs.
- Menu Bar – contains organized paths to the most
commonly requested procedures such as opening files,
performing statistical operations, and constructing
graphs.
- Tool bar – works like the menu and it includes a number
of handy devices the refine the analyses.
- Data View – screen for user to input data codes from
identified sources.
- Variable View – screen for user to construct variables
(data formats and measurement)
Data Coding
- Data Coding in (Variable View)
- Now its your turn to construct the code for every
question in the questionnaire into the SPSS software.
- Once finished….. click save….
Data Cleaning
Select (3 - RFC Data Clean. sav) file >> Double click to
launch the file.
- Reason: Error in keying in data e.g. wrong coding, no
entry, no response (blank entry).
- To perform data cleaning go to (Data View)
Analyze
Descriptive Statistics
Frequencies...>> (select all variables ‘Ctrl A’ on the left
side and place in the variable box on the right).
Click OK
- Look for strange data codes and abnormalities in every
frequency tables
- Record separately all error codes found question by
question

Searching and Correcting Error Data Entry

- Click to select the top column variable to be searched
- To find data for cleansing
Edit
Find>>> (type the error code that need to be corrected)
- Review questionnaire id number and make
corrections….replace the wrong codes with the correct
ones.
- For this exercise use code number ‘4’ to replace all error
codes.
- 15 min.
- Once finished click >> save
- Run frequency analysis again to verify entries.
- Exit

Cronbach’s Alpha Reliability Testing

- Reliability coefficient that indicates how well the items
in a set are positively correlated to one another

Reliability Test
- Reason: To identify the stability and consistency of
variables (questions) and its measurement used in the
questionnaire.
- Applicable for Ordinal and Scale/Interval/Ratio data of
identical measurement only.
- To perform data recoding go to (Variable/Data View)
Analyze
Scale
Reliability Analysis...>> (scroll all variables with
identical measurement on the left side and place in the
Items: box on the right).
….follow lecturer’s guide ………. Click OK
- Try testing other variables
- 10 mins