C1 : INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL  Social System

BEHAVIOUR - The social system provides external environment within

which the organization operates.
Introduction
Understanding organizational behaviour allows managers to Evolution of organizational behavior
better manage employee-manager relations, improve job
satisfaction, and stimulate innovation and creativity, thus - Scientific Management Approach
creating a dynamic working climate. - Bureaucratic Approach
- Hawthorne Studies
Definition
- According to Gary Johns, "Organizations are social Basic Organizational Behavior Models
inventions for accomplishing goals through group - Collegial
efforts".
- System
- Organizational behaviour is concerned with people's
- Autocratic
thoughts, feelings, emotions and actions in setting up a
work task. - Custodial
- Supportive
Goals of Organizational Behaviour
 Describe
- The first goal is to describe systematically how people Fundamental concept of organizational behavior
behave under a variety of conditions. Achieving this  Nature of people
goals allow managers to communicate about human - Individual differences
behavior at work using a common language. - A whole person
 Understand
- Motivated Behavior
- A second goal is to understand why people behave as
they do. Managers would soon become frustrated if they - Human Dignity
could only talk about the behavior of their employees
without understanding the reasons behind these actions.  Nature of organizations
 Predict - Social System
- The managers would be able to predict which employees - Mutual Interest
might be dedicated and productive and which ones might
cause problem. Thus, the managers could take  Holistic organizational behaviour
appropriate preventive actions. - Holistic organizational behaviour interprets
 Control people–organization relationships in terms of the whole
- Since managers are held responsible for performance person, whole group, whole organization and whole
outcomes, they are vitally interested in being able to social system.
make an impact on employee behavior, skill
development, team effort and productivity. Managers Approach to organizational behavior
need to be able to improve result trough the actions they - System approach
and their employees take, and organizational behavior
- Interdisciplinary approach
can aid them in their pursuit of this goal.
- Human resources approach
Importance of Organizational Behaviour - Contingency approach
- Developing interpersonal skills - Productivity approach
- Personal development and understanding others through
organizational behaviour Organizational behavior, globalization and diversification
- Achieving organizational and individual effectiveness - Social conditions
from inter-organization relationships - Political conditions
- Sharpening and refining our decisions and actions - Economic conditions
- Organizational culture differences
Forces of Organizational Behaviour
 People - Workforce diversification
- People make up the internal social system in the Contemporary Development Facing Organizations
organization. They consist of individuals and groups.
 Structure - Technological change
- Structure defines the formal relationship and use of - Globalization
people in the organization. - Emerging employment relationship
 Technology - Increased workforce diversity
- The technology imparts the physical and economic
conditions within which people work.
C2 : SOCIAL SYSTEM AND CULTURE OF AN
ORGANIZATION
Nature of a social system
A complex set of human relationships interacting in many
ways (Newstrom and Davis, 2002).
Social system concepts
 Social Equilibrium
- A situation in which all interdependent subsystems in an
organization are in a dynamic working balance.
 Functional and Dysfunctional Effects of Change
- Situations where changes result in favourable or
unfavourable outcomes for the organization.
 Psychological and Economic Contracts
- It is an automatic and unconscious contract/ agreement
made between the employer and employee on what to
give and what to expect from each other.
 Impact of Roles
- A prescribed or expected behaviour associated with a
particular position or status in a group or organization.
 Role Conflicts
- A situation in which an individual is confronted with
divergent role expectations.
Types of Role Conflicts
 Intra-sender Role Conflict
- Occurs when a person is expected to perform roles
which are inconsistent to one another.
 Inter-sender Role Conflict
- Happens when someone expects a role holder to
perform a role that is in congruent with a role
expected by another person.
 Inter-role Conflict
- The roles expected of a person are in conflict with
the other roles that a person holds.
 Person-role Conflict
- A role that contradicts or violates the role holder’s
attitudes, values, beliefs and behaviour.
 Role Overload
- Roles that are unmanageable, where there is not
enough time for a person to perform the expected
roles.
 Role Ambiguity
- Role holder lacks sufficient information in
performing the role.
 Status
- Status is the social rank of a person in a group
(Newstrom and Davis, 2002).
- The position of an individual in relation to another or
others, especially with regard to social or professional
standing.
 Status Symbols
- The visible, external things attached to a person or
workplace and serve as evidence of social rank
(Newstrom and Davis, 2002).
Organizational culture
A system of shared meaning held by members that
distinguishes the organization from other organizations
(Robbins and Judge, 2009).
Do Organizational Cultures Change?
Two ways of cultural change:
(1) Cultural Revolution
A situation whereby cultural changes happen drastically and
dramatically, resulting in culture shocks and also leads to high
stress levels for employees.
(2) Cultural Evolution
A cultural change that happens slowly and gradually, leading
to low levels of stress among employees because employees
are more prepared for the change.
Two Types of Organizational Culture:
 Dominant Culture
Dominant cultures are the core values that are shared by
everyone in an organization.
 Subcultures
Subcultures are developed by groups within a larger culture to
reflect common problems, situations or consequences that are
faced by members in a department. It however will include the
core values of the organization.
Creating organizational culture
Step 1 : Formulate strategy value
Step 2 : Develop cultural values
Step 3 : Create vision
Step 4 : Initiate implementation strategy
Step 5 : Reinforce cultural behavior
Factors shaping organizational culture
- Characteristics pf people within the organizational
- Nature of employment relationship
- Design of organizational structure
- Organizational ethnic
Sustaining organizational culture
There are six guiding principles in sustaining culture:
1. Aligning vision and action
2. Making incremental changes within a comprehensive
transformation strategy
3. Fostering distributed leadership
4. Promoting staff engagement
5. Creating collaborative relationships
6. Continuously assessing and learning from change
C3 : PERSONALITY  Machiavellian ism
- Research has revealed that individuals who score high on
Introduction Mach are good at manipulating others and try to win by
- A individual’s personality constitutes the most important any means.
and most noticeable parts of an individual's - They do not need to be persuaded to work but instead are
psychosomatic life. able to successfully persuade others.
- Our personalities determine how we act and react as well  Self-esteem
as how we interact with and respond to the world. - Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect
a person’s overall emotional evaluation of his/her own
Definition of personality worth.
- Personality refers to individual differences in character, - It is a judgement of oneself as well as an attitude toward
patterns of thinking, feeling and behaviour. the self.
- Personality is also known as the combination of  Risk Taking
emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral response patterns - The tendency to engage in behaviour that have the
of an individual. potential to be damaging or dangerous, yet at the same
- It is the sum of ways in which an individual reacts and time provide the opportunity for some kind of outcome
interacts with each other. that can be perceived as positive.
 Type A–Type B Personality
Determinants of personality - Type A personality is associated with time urgency,
- Brain aggressiveness, hostility and competitiveness.
- Physical factors - Type B personality, in contrast, is the one low on these
- Social factors traits.
- Cultural factors - Generally, most people fall somewhere between these
two types with some leaning more towards one type than
- Cultural and relgious the other.
Personality traits Achieving a personality fit
 Myer-Briggs Type Indicator Personality-Job Fit Theory
- The Myers-Briggs Personality Type Indicator is a Holland’s theory is centred on the notion that most people fit
self-inventory test designed to identify a person's into one of six personality types:
personality type, strengths and preferences. (1) Realistic (Doer)–Prefers physical activities that require
- The test is made up of four different scales: skill, strength and coordination. Traits include being
genuine, stable, conforming and practical.
- Extroversion (E)–Introversion (I)
Examples of professions include electricians, architects,
- Sensing (S)–Intuition (N) farmers and engineers.
- Thinking (T)–Feeling (F) (2) Investigative (Thinker)–Prefers working with theory and
- Judging (J)–Perceiving (P) information, thinking, organizing and understanding.
 Big Five Model Traits include being analytical, curious and independent.
Examples of professions include researchers, lawyers,
- The Big Five personality traits are five broad domains or mathematicians and professors.
dimensions of personality that are used to describe (3) Artistic (Creator)–Prefers creative, original and
human personality. unsystematic activities that allow creative expression.
- Big five Personality Traits : Traits include being imaginative, disorderly, idealistic,
- Openness emotional and impractical.
Examples of professions include artists, musicians,
- Conscientiousness
fashion designers and creative writers.
- Extroversion (4) Social (Helper)–Prefers activities that involve helping,
- Agreeableness healing or developing others. Traits include being
- Neuroticism cooperative, friendly, sociable and understanding.
Examples of professions include counsellor, doctors,
Attributes of personality social workers and teachers.
 Locus of Control (5) Enterprising (Persuader)–Prefers competitive
environments, leadership, influence, selling and
- Research has found the following trends: status. Traits include being ambitious, domineering,
- Males tend to be more internal than females energetic and self-confident.
- As people get older they tend to become more internal Examples of professions include real estate agents,
entrepreneurs, politicians, marketing and sales.
- People higher up in organizational structures tend to be
(6) Conventional (Organizer)–Prefers precise, rule-regulated,
more internal
orderly and unambiguous activities. Traits include being
External Locus of Control - Individual believes that his/her
conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative and
behaviour is guided by fate, luck, or other external
inflexible.
circumstances.
Examples of professions include accountants, librarians,
Internal Locus of Control - Individual believes that his/her
clerks, receptionists and editors.
behaviour is guided by his/her personal decisions and efforts.
C4 : PERCEPTION AND LEARNING Managing perceptual distortions
Have a high level of awareness
Understanding the process of perception Seek information from various sources
- Perception is a process of classifying, interpreting and Be empathetic
giving meaning to what is happening and what we see Help to rectify incorrect perceptions
around us. Avoid common perceptual distortions
Information Perceptual process Response
- Inputs- - Attention - Give Kelly’s attribution theory
stimuli meaning - Explains why people tend to make judgement and assign
→ - Organizational → to the reasons to other people’s behaviour.
- Interpretation target/ - People tend to observe other people and later tend to give
- Retrieval situation reasons and assume the cause of the behaviour.
- They do so to determine whether the behaviour is
Factors influencing perception internally caused or externally caused.
Perceiver
- There are three factors which determine whether it is
- Attitudes - The individual who makes the internally or externally caused. The factors are
- Motivates perception. distinctiveness, consensus and consistency.
- Interest - Each individual is different
therefore interpretation is different. Self-fulfilling prophecy : The pygmalion effect
- Experiences
- Among the characteristics which - The tendency for someone’s expectation to cause that
- Expectations would influence individual person to behave in a manner consistent with the
perception: expectation.
 their past experiences
 their motivation level and Learning
motivation drivers - Learning is a behaviour which happens all the time.
attitudes and interests
- It is a relatively permanent change in behaviour that


 unique individual personality, and

expectations occurs as a result of experience.
- There are three theories which explain a learning
Target or Object process:
Classical conditioning
- Novelty - Object or target are the items which


Operant conditioning
we intend to make a perception on.

- Motives Social learning
Characteristics of the target or the


-

Sounds object affect the perception.
- Proximity Impact to organization
 Example: motion, sound,
- Size/ background, proximity as well as - Managers must understand and must be able to manage
Background the similarity of the targets. perception process.
- Decision-making based on perception would result in
Situation biased and unfair decisions and this would lead to
- Time - The situation would be the context dissatisfaction among employees.
- Work in which we see the object or - Failure to avoid the dissatisfaction would lead to less
environment experience the event. productivity which would later hinder the profitability
of the organization.
- Social
environment

Perceptual distortions
- Perceptual Distortions–Shortcuts
- Shortcuts hinder us from making and giving the correct
meaning to the situation.
- Shortcuts need to be avoided.
- It is very dangerous to an organization’s productivity and
effectiveness.
Selective Perceptions
Halo Effects
Similar-to-Me Effects (Projections)
First Impression Errors
Stereotypes
Contrast Effects
C5 : MOTIVATION 5. McClelland’s Theory of Needs

Nature and importance of motivation

- Motivation is a set of forces that causes people to
behave in certain ways.
- Leads to achievement of organizational goals.
- Builds friendly relationship.
- Improves employees’ level of efficiency.
- Attracts people to join an organization and remain in it.
- Maintains and develops an organization’s human
resources. 6. Locke’s Goal-setting Theory
- Intentions to work towards a goal are a major source of
Relationship between motivation and performance motivation.
- This relationship can be illustrated in the equation below: - Five criteria, known as SMART must be considered in
P=MxA setting the goal.
where,  Specific
P = performance  Measurable
M = motivation  Action-oriented
A = ability  Realistic and relevant
 Time-based
Classical theories of motivation (10)
7. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory
1. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory - The process of shaping behaviour by controlling the
Self-actualization Needs Higher orders needs consequences of the behaviour.
Esteem Needs
- Tools used to control the behaviour of employees are:
Social Needs
 Positive Reinforcement
Safety Needs Lower order neeeds
 Negative Reinforcement
Physiological Needs  Extinction
 Punishment
2. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Having little ambition 8. Adams’s Equity Theory
Theory X Disliking work
- Focuses on an individual’s perceived perceptions of the
Managers see workers as… Avoiding responsibility
fairness of their work outcomes relative to their work
Self-directed input.
Theory Y Enjoying work - Three probabilities of outcome may arise:
Managers see workers as… Accepting responsibility  Under-rewarded (Inequity)
 Equity
3. Herzberg’s Two-factor Theory  Over-rewarded (Inequity)
Motivation and Job Satisfaction
9. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of Motivation
- Salary - Recognition - Focuses on three relationships:
- Company policies - Achievement  Effort-performance relationship (Expectancy)
- Fringe benefits - Growth  Performance-reward relationship (Instrumentality)
- Working conditions - Responsibility  Reward-personal goals relationship (Valence)
- Interpersonal relations - Advancement
- Job security - Work it self 10. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
- Supervision - Human behaviour is caused by personal, behavioural and
↓ ↓ environmental influences.
Hygiene Factors Motivation Factors
- People learn by observing others.
Cognitive Factors
The Dissatisfiers The Satisfiers
Influences on thoughts and actions
4. Alderfer’s ERG Theory
- The E, R and G stand for three basic need categories: Environment Factors Behavioral Factors
ERG Theory - Existence Cultures and strategies, Less motivated, pressure
- Relatedness and communication of less power, and
- Growth policies influence on thoughts and
actions
C6 : ATTITUDES & JOB SATISFACTION Determine of Job Satisfaction
- The nature of the job
Attitudes
Attitudes are a person’s feelings about objects, events or other - Employee involvement
people. - Salary and benefits
- The feelings can be either positive or negative. - Opportunities for promotions
- Can be learned through a period of time or they may - Supervisors and managers
change. - Co-workers and offices mates
- Attitude is an expression of some degree of - Gender and race
favourableness or unfavourableness towards a
- Combination of all factors
particular situation or object at hand.
Effects of Job Satisfaction employees
Components of Attitudes
There are three basic components of attitudes: - Knowledge and intellectual capital are kept within the
organizational
- Cognitive (Mata Akal/Fikiran)
- Higher job commitment among employees
- Affective (Mata Hati/Perasaan)
- Better employee engagement
- Behavioral (Mata Lisan/Perbuatan)
- Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB)
Job satisfaction - Reduced turnover
- Job satisfaction is a positive feeling of the job, based on - Time spent selecting and training new employees is
the evaluation of the person itself. lessened
- Job satisfaction has been linked to productivity, - Satisfied employees handle pressure at work better
motivation, absenteeism or tardiness, accidents, compared to dissatisfied employees
mental/physical health, and general life satisfaction. - Enhanced relationship with co-workers
- The feeling of job satisfaction happens when a person - Reduced stress levels and incidences of injury
holds a high degree of satisfaction in what he/she does.
- This degree of satisfaction is derived after appraisal or Expressing job dissatisfaction at work
evaluating the job characteristics, work environment and - Being aggressive in communication and interaction
the atmosphere of the working environment.
- Portraying self-centred behavior
- The degree of satisfaction would automatically have an
impact and effect on daily activities and the work - Disrespecting office mates and co-workers
outcome. - Avoiding social activities within the office and
organization
Measurement employee’s job satisfaction levels - Criticizing in an unproductive manner
Two popular methods to measure job satisfaction
- Being absent from work or truanting
1. Single global rating
- Leaving the organization
- A response to one question only.
- Job satisfaction can be verified by asking simple Providing meaning and job at work
questions, such as “Choose one of the following
- Ensure jobs match employee personality
statements which best describe how well you like your
job: I hate it; I love it; I dislike it; I am indifferent to it; I - Provide guidance and training
like it; I am enthusiastic about it; I love it”. - Promote a healthy work culture
2. Summation of job facets - Allow work autonomy
- It identifies key elements in the job and ask for the - Encourage two-way communication
employee’s feelings.
- Provide career development and job security
- Employers can also guide job satisfaction levels by
examining employee’s satisfaction based on different
aspects of their jobs. For example, by asking them “How
do you feel about your career advancement prospects in
this positions?’’
C7 : LEADERSHIP
Introduction
Leadership entails developing a vision for the unit or
organization or group led, managing their resources under
their direction, providing effective leadership that enhances
productivity and maintaining important relationships
internally and externally.
Contingency Approach
 Fiedler Contingency Model
According to Fiedler, if an organization attempts to achieve
group effectiveness through leadership, then there is a need to:
- assess the leader according to an underlying trait
- assess the situation faced by the leader, and
- construct a proper match between the two.

Management : The art of getting thing through people
PLOC : Planning, Leading, Organizing, Controlling
Leaders and Leadership
- A leader is a person that holds a dominant or
superior position within his/her field, and is able
to exercise a high degree of control or influence over
others.
- Leadership can be defined as a process by which one
individual influences others toward the attainment of
group or organizational goals.
Early theories of leadership
Trait Theory
Trait theories assume that leaders inherit certain qualities and
traits that make them better suited to leadership.
 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Theory
- According to this model, the leader has to match the
leadership style according to the readiness of
subordinates which moves in stages and has a cycle.
- Therefore, this theory is also known as the life-cycle
theory of leadership.
 House’s Path-goal Theory
According to House’s path-goal theory, a leader’s
effectiveness depends on several employees and
environmental contingent factors and certain leadership styles.
Environmental
contingency factors
- Task structure
- Formal authority
system
- Work group

Leader behavioral Outcomes

- Directive - Performance
- Supportive - Satisfaction
- Participative
- Achievment-
oriented

Subordinate
contingency factors
- Locus of control
- Experiences
- Perceived ability
Image 1 : Core traits of leadership
Contemporary approach
Behavioral Theories :
 Leader-member Exchange Theory
The theory states that all relationships between leaders and
Ohio State Studies
subordinates go through three stages:


Ohio State University identified two distinct leader’s

behaviour which are Consideration (people-oriented
behavioral leaders) and Initiating Structure (task-oriented
leaders).

 Michigan State Studies

The studies resulted in two general leadership behaviour or
orientations: employee orientation and production orientation.

 Managerial Grid
The Managerial Grid is based on two behavioral
dimensions:
- Concern for people: This is the degree to which a leader
considers the needs of team members, their interests, and
areas of personal development when deciding how best
to accomplish a task.
- Concern for production: This is the degree to which a
leader emphasizes concrete objectives, organizational
efficiency and high productivity when deciding how best
to accomplish a task.
 Theory Z
Theory Z management tends to promote stable employment,
high productivity, and high employee morale and satisfaction.
 Charismatic Leadership Theory
- Charismatic leaders have a clear vision of where they
want to go and how to get there, and they are fantastic at
articulating that vision to others.
- They are sensitive to their surroundings and to the needs
of their followers and potential followers.
Transformational vs Transactional Leadership C8 : POWER AND POLITICS
 Transformational Leadership
Transformational leadership may be found at all levels of the Factor of power
organization:  Influence
- Teams - The person with power influences other people.
- Departments  Dependency
- Divisions, and - The more people depend on you, the more power you
have over them. The level of dependency is based on the
- The organization as a whole. alternative available and the level of importance a person
Such leaders are visionary, inspiring, daring, risk-takers and has.
thoughtful thinkers.
Differences between power and leadership
Transactional Leadership
Power Leadership


- Transactional leadership involves motivating and Used a means for achieving Focuses on goal achievement.
directing followers primarily through appealing to their goals.
own self-interest. Requires follower dependency. Requires goal compatibility
- The power of transactional leaders comes from their with followers.
formal authority and responsibility in the organization. Used to gain lateral and upward Focuses influence downloads.
influence.
Trust and ethnics in leadership
- Trust is a belief or hope that another will neither through Bases of power
words, actions or decisions act opportunistically. - Power is a crucial ingredient to effective leadership.
- Ethics create a sense of right and wrong in organizations - There are two sources of power:
and often when the law fails, it is ethics that may stop
organizations from harming the society or environment.

Creating effective leaders

- Earn respect by giving respect.
- Ensure everyone knows exactly what their roles are. Group of power
- Human beings crave appreciation. i. Formal Power
- Set followers’ expectations high. - Formal power is based on an individual’s position in an
organization.
- Develop successes from failures.
- Four categories of formal power:
- Challenge followers daily to achieve more.
- Lead followers by example. 1. Coercive Power
- Great leaders are masters of communication. - Happens when a person who has control over a situation
- Create a fun and enjoyable but extremely serious, imposes penalties on his/her followers.
workplace. - Examples of penalty or fear are:
- Great leaders have the reputation of people with high  Verbal abuse
integrity.  Loss of promotion
 Possibilities that name is dropped from dealing in
mega important projects
 Possibilities of job losses
 Delayed for promotion

2. Reward Power
- Happens when a leader has the ability and power to
reward or share positive values with his/her followers.
- Benefits or rewards can be given through financial or
non-financial rewards.
 Financial rewards: Pay rises and bonuses
 Non-financial rewards:
- Recognition for a job well done (a box of
chocolates or gift vouchers)
- Opportunity to work in the organization’s mega
projects
- Trust in relationship

3. Legitimate Power
- Is a combination of both coercive and reward powers.
- It is derived from the position the person holds.
- The person who holds legitimate power is a person who C9 : SUPERVISION
seats in a formal position of authority to control and use
organizational resources. What Is Supervision?
The activity carried out by supervisors to oversee the
4. Information Power productivity and progress of employees, who report directly to
them.
- Information power is when a person has access to key
information in the organization. Viewpoints on the capacity of a supervisor
- Under information power, the person is in power as:
 He/She controls the flow of information to others.  The key person  The man in the middle
 He/She has the ability to manage and control An important person in Pressured and ‘sandwiched’
environmental uncertainties ensuring smooth between two opposing forces
- Uncertainties can be managed through prevention, communication between top – the top management and the
forecast and absorption management and the workers.
workers.
ii. Personal Power
- Personal power is when a person exercises power
derived from their unique individual characteristics.

Expert Power
- A person who obtains special skills and knowledge, or is
an expert in certain areas.
- Having special skills, knowledge and expertise allows
him/her to be in control.
 The marginal man
Referent Power
- A supervisor is left out of the principal activities and is
- The ability of a leader to influence a follower because of not accepted as part of the management.
the follower’s loyalty, respect, friendship, admiration,
- Also not accepted as a worker and is ignored.
affection, or a desire to gain approval.
- This situation happens when followers tend to like and
respect their leader.

Dependency, the key to power

- The key to power is the extent of dependency to power
between the person who wields it and the person who is
influenced by it.  The behavioral specialist
- Power dependency is influenced by three factors: An expert in understanding the behaviour of employees and
 Importance of a resource what the workers are saying through their behaviour.
 Scarcity of a resource
 Availability of substitutes

Politics, the power in action

- Organizational politics generate political behaviour.
- Political behaviour is defined as an activity which is not
required as part of one’s formal role.
- Political behaviour happens when people who lack
power wish to be involved or wish to influence a  Another worker
decision(s).
- No different from a normal worker.
- There are two ways to it, either via legitimate or
illegitimate means. - Do not have any power to make decisions.
- The position given to them is “just a title”, without
Employees’ Response and the Effects of Organizational having any special privileges or authority.
Politics
- Employees’ will respond differently as it would depend
on how each employee acts, either positively or
negatively, to the situation.
- Positive effects: Pushes the employee to work harder
- Negative effects: Employees tend to pay less attention to
their work or task, and spoil the ambience of a
harmonious working environment, demotivate
employees who work solely following the rules and lost
of trust.
 Supervisors and their keystone role C10 : GROUPS & WORK TEAMS
- A keystone role depicts a supervisor as a person who
represents both sides in an organization – the top Introduction
management and the workers. - Much of the activity within organizations occurs within
- The parties are connected by the supervisor in the middle groups – from informal groups of employees to formal
of the structure to make the arc stronger. autonomous work groups.
- Group activities can be critical to the success of the
organization.

Definition of groups and teams

- A work group is a collection of people working in the
same area or who are placed together to complete a task.
- A team is defined as a small number of people with
complementary skills who are committed to a common
purpose, a set of performance goals, and an approach for
which they hold themselves mutually accountable.

Benefits for joining groups

- Security - Group membership reduces the insecurity of
“standing alone” as people would feel stronger and have
fewer self-doubts when they are in groups. They tend to
Mentoring have a higher resistance to threats as well.
- A process that focuses on providing guidance, direction - Status - Inclusion in a group is viewed as important by
and career advice. outsiders because it provides members with status and
recognition.
- An effective way of helping people to progress in their
careers. - Self-esteem - Group membership provides group
members with feelings of self-worth, in addition to
Functions of Mentoring conveying status to outsiders
- Career functions - Affiliation - Group membership fulfil social needs,
where people in groups enjoy regular interaction and
- Psychosocial functions
sometimes this can be the primary sources for fulfilling
the need for companionship.
Benefits of mentoring
For Mentee For Mentor For Organization - Power and control - With group membership comes the
Career Personal Development of opportunity for leadership roles.Besides a goal that
advancement fulfillment managers cannot be archived individually often becomes possible
Personal support Assistance on Increased commitment in groups, as power comes in numbers.
projects to the organization - Goal achievement - Groups have the capability to
Learning and Financial rewards Cost effectiveness achieve more than individual acting alone. Some tasks
development require more than person to do them. Thus members of
Increased Increased Increased groups needs to pool their talents, knowledge or power to
confident confidence organizational complete the tasks.
communication
Assistance and Revitalized Reduced turnover Types of groups and teams
feedback interest in work
Formal and informal groups
Disadvantage of mentoring Formal group Informal group
For Mentee For Mentor For Organization - It is designed by top - This group association
Neglect of core Lack of time Confidentially and management to achieve is not specified in the
jobs trust issues may arise organizational goals blueprint of the formal
Negative Lack of Creation of a climate - It concentrates more on organization.
experiences perceived of dependency the performance of jobs. - It is a natural outcomes
benefits at the workplace, which
Unrealistic Lack of skills Limited resources - People are placed in
hierarchy and their not designed and
experiences needed for planned.
mentoring role status determined
accordingly. - The organization is
Role conflict Pressure to take Limited costs
- The coordination of coordinated by group
between boss and on and succeed at
members are controlled norms, not by the norms
mentor mentoring role
through process and of the formal
procedures. organization.
Manager Led And Self-managing Teams C 11 : DESCISION MAKING
- Functional teams
Nature of decision making
- Cross-functional teams  Programmed decisions
- Self-directed work teams - Decisions are repetitive and routine which have been
- Virtual teams outlined by rules, policies and procedures.
- Task forces  Non-programmed decisions
- The problem-solving team - Decisions that require a lot of thinking and critical
evaluation of the alternatives where guidelines or
Characteristics of groups procedures are not available.
- Size - Rely heavily on judgement, intuition and creativity.
- Norms
Factors influencing decisions in organization
- Roles  Individual Differences
- Cohesiveness - Personality
- Attitudes
Stages of group development
 Organizational Constraints
- Performance evaluation
- Reward systems
- Rules and regulations

Decision making process (6 step)

1. Identifying opportunities and diagnosing problems
2. Generating alternatives
3. Evaluating alternatives
4. Making decisions
5. Implementing the decision
6. Evaluating and monitoring results

Managing the performance of an effective team Group decision making

Adverse Group Behaviour
 Social Loafing
- Social loafing describes the tendency of individuals to
put forth less effort when they are part of a group.
 Diffusion Of Responsibility
- As the number of people in the group increases, people
tend to feel deindividuation. This term defines both the
dissociation from individual achievement and the
decrease of personal accountability, resulting in lower
efforts for individuals in collaborative environments.
 Escalation Of Commitment
- Escalation of commitment occurs when people invest
resources into a course of action that is failing.
Resources can be time, money, energy, etc. that they
continue to invest in an investment to avoid appearing
inconsistent.
 Group think
- Group members try to minimize conflict and reach a
consensus decision without critical evaluation of
alternative ideas or viewpoints, and by isolating
themselves from outside influences.
 A situation where two or more people are involved in
making decisions in organizations.
 How Groups Make Decision
Six ways groups make decision:
- Decision by lack of response
- Decision by formal authority
- Decision by majority rule
- Decision by minority
- Decision by consensus
- Decision by unanimous consent
 Group Decision-making Techniques
Brainstorming
- A technique that encourages group members to generate
as many ideas as possible.
- Group members are allowed to express any ideas, even
wild and ridiculous ideas.
- No restrictions.
Nominal Group Technique
- Group members are not allowed to throw out ideas
freely.
- All ideas are written down individually.
- Later presented in a round robin-manner.
- Ideas are discussed and evaluated.
- The decision is based on the highest votes.
Delphi Technique C12 - UNDERSTANDING INTERPERSONAL
- Uses experts to solve a problem. RELATIONS
- A group leader distributes survey questions or Introduction
questionnaires to the experts for the solution and
opinion. - Interpersonal relationship is basically social associations,
connections, or affiliations between two or more people.
- Leader then collects and summarizes the solutions and
opinions, evaluates them until the best solution can be - Interpersonal relationships can develop in various
found. instances - between immediate family members and
relatives, between a child and his parents, between
- A unique technique because members do not meet people who work together in organizations or those
face-to-face. working in teams.
Electronic meetings Johari window model
- Electronic devices or information technology such as - Positive interpersonal relationship starts with trust as a
intranet, internet, video conferencing and social platform to share information and knowledge with other
networking sites are used to discuss a problem without parties.
having to meet face-to-face.
- Understanding and using Johari Window Model model
- Able to generate a lot of ideas from widely-dispersed also allow us to better understand ourselves as it reduces
participants. the tendency for making wrong perceptions in our daily
dealings.
Advantages and Disadvantages of group decision making
Advantages Disadvantages
Greater total knowledge Takes more (longer) time
Different perspective Dominated by a few people
Higher member satisfaction Diminished team spirit
Better understanding of the Opinions can be swayed
decision
Commitment growth for teams Group think

Ethnics in decision making

In making ethical decisions, managers should ponder three
questions:
- Is it legal? (Am I violating the law or the organization’s
policy?)
- Is it balanced? (Is my decision fair to everyone in the
short term and long term?)
- How long will the decision make me feel about myself?
(Is it making me proud of my action(s)?)
The Four Quadrants
- Open arena
- Blind spot
- Hidden area
- Unknown area

Large open arena

In order to ensure smooth interpersonal relationship and
smooth communication, parties involved in the
communication need to share all information.
Feedback C13 : COMMUNICATION
Feedback is about giving information in a way which
encourages the recipient to accept it, reflect on it, learn from it, Definition of communication
and hopefully make changes for the better. - Communication is a process of conveying information
through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or data.
Tips for delivering constructive feedback
- This exchange between two or more people can take
- Communicate caringly place via speech, visuals, signals, writing, or behaviour.
- Balance feedback with praise - It is a mutual exchange of understanding and it plays a
- Allow for a two way conversation significant role in sharing information among all.
- Provide specifics suggestions
Functions of communication in organization
- Ask Permission
- Motivation
- Be specific
- Information
- Be timely
- Control
- Pick the right place
- Interaction
Tips For Receiving Constructive Feedback
The communication process
The communication process involves seven elements which
are:
- Sender
- Encoding of Idea
- Channel / Medium Used
- Message received
- Receiver Decodes
- Response / Feedback
Effects of Giving Constructive Feedback - Noise
- Clear direction to complete a job
Direction of communication
- Employees will try new things
- Communication flows vertically and also laterally.
- Motivated employees will go the extra mile to complete
- However, vertical communication is further subdivided
a job
into two:
- People care - Knowledge expansion  Downward communication
- Happens when a manager or a person of a higher
Disclosure
position instructs, delegates and shares information
- Disclosing or disclosure happens when a person gives a with employees and others who are at a level lower
piece of information willingly. than the sender.
- When you disclose, you are intentionally releasing - Downward communication can be well accepted by
information which is to be kept a secret or information the employees provided employees are given a
which are to be kept as confidential. clear idea or reason why the instructions are being
made.
Advantages of Disclosure  Upward communication
- A person knows him or herself better - Upward communication is a communication flow
- Builds confidence and trust in self which happens when an employee of a lower level
- Build stronger bond with teammates sends messages to the managers or supervisors who
are of a higher position.
Disadvantages of Disclosure - Types of information shared are:
- Information which is being shared at times may not be - Performance reports
well received - Suggestions for improvements
- Information which is being disclosed and shared - Problems and challenges
especially the negative information, may be used against
- Grievances and disputes
the person.

- Lateral Communication
Lateral communication is an exchange of information which
flows among employees of the same level.
Interpersonal communication
 Oral communication
- Includes speeches, formal one-to-one and group
discussions, rumours as well as the grapevine.
- Advantages - saves time, it creates group synergy,
encourages teamwork and allows instant feedback and
response.
 Written communication
- Any form of interaction which uses the written word.
The types of written communication used are memos,
reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals
and emails.
Non-verbal communication

C14 : CONFLICT & NEGOTIATION
Definition of organizational conflict
- Relational disputes between two or more parties, in
which those involved perceive a threat to their interests
coming from those on the other side of the disagreement.
- A clash of interests, values, actions, views or directions.
Three major sources of conflict:
- Differentiation
- Tasks Relationships
- Scarcity of Resources

- Transmission of messages without words.

- Examples: Body gestures, facial expression, the use of Effects of conflicts
space, handshakes, dress code or dressing styles  Positive effects of conflicts
- Diffusion of more serious conflicts.
Organizational communication
- Stimulation of a search for new facts or resolutions.
- A network of information which flows through the
organization with the intention to achieve organizational - Increase in group cohesion and performance.
goals, vision and mission. - Assessment of power or ability.
- Besides the upward and downward communication  Negative effects of conflicts
channels, the grapevine, video conferencing and - Affects health.
electronic communication are being used heavily as - Weakening output.
communication modes.
- Hurts staff retention.
Barriers to effective communication - Formation of competing affiliations.
- Selective perception
The conflict process (5 stage)
- Filtering of information  Stage 1 : Latent Conflict
- Language differences - A stage where no actual conflict arises.
- Information overload  Stage 2 : Perceived Conflict
- Emotions - Individuals or groups become aware that their goals are
- Poor Listening skills being thwarted by another party.
 Stage 3 : Felt Conflict
- Distractions
- The parties in conflict develop negative feelings about
Improving communication skills each other, have an “us-versus-them” attitude, and
blames the other group for the problem.
- Be a good listener  Stage 4 : Manifest Conflict
- Understand and master non-verbal communication - One party decides how to react to or deal with the party
- Be aware of individual different that is seen as the source of the conflict.
- Have a high level of emotional awareness - Both parties try to hurt each other and thwart each
other’s goals.
Issue in communication  Stage 5 : Conflict Aftermath
- Personal issue - The consequences of conflict.
- Lack of feedback - Affects the way both parties perceive and respond to
- Unfamiliar workplace communication culture future episodes.

Ways to manage conflict

Reaction to conflict
- Fighting
- Negotiating
- Problem-solving
- Designing
Conflict Resolution Behavioral C15 : STRESS & EMOTION
 Competition
- A win-or-lose style of handling conflicts. Nature of stress
- Asserting one's one viewpoint at the potential expense of - The pressures people feel in life.
another. - A dynamic condition in which an individual is
 Collaboration confronted with an opportunity, a demand, or a resource
- Finding some solution that can satisfy the conflicting related to what the individual desires, and for which the
parties. outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important.
Causes and Sources of Stress:
- Disagreement is addressed openly and alternatives are


discussed to arrive at the best solution. - Environmental factors

 Compromise - Organizational factors
- Based on the belief that a middle route should be found - Individual factors
to resolve the conflict situation.  Consequences of Stress:
- Concerned for personal goals and relationships. - Physiological symptoms
 Avoidance - Psychological symptoms
- Avoiding direct confrontation. - Behavioral symptoms
- Parties in conflict get time to cool down.  Individual Differences:
 Accommodation - Perception
- One party accepts that it is wrong and has a lot to lose - Job experience
and little to gain.
- Personality:
Strategies for managing conflict  Type A
 Type B
- Encouraging appropriate conflict-handling styles
- Improving organizational practices Relationship between stress levels and job performance
- Having special roles and structure
- Using confrontation techniques

Negotiation
A process in which groups with conflicting interests meet
together to make offers, counteroffers, and concessions to
each other in an effort to resolve their differences.

Negotiation strategies
- Distributive negotiation
- Integrative negotiation

Negotiation process
Stage 1 : Preparation and planning
Stage 2 : Definition of ground rules
Stage 3 : Clarification and justification
Stage 4 : Bargaining and problem solving
Stage 5 : Closure and implementation
- Low levels of stress - low performance
- Due to the boredom in performing the tasks as they are
not demanding and challenging.
- High level of stress - low performance
- Too much stress places unattainable demands on a
person.
- Moderate levels of stress - high performance
- Resources and energy within an employee are adequate
enough to perform the tasks.
 Managing stress
Individual Approaches Organizational Approaches
- Implementing - Personnel selection and job
proper time placement
management - Training
techniques
- Realistic goal setting
- Increasing physical
exercise - Redesign jobs and increase
employee involvement
- Providing relaxation
training - Improve communication
- Expanding social - Employee sabbaticals
networks - Corporate wellness program
- Stress auditing
- Lifestyle modification
programme
C16 : ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE
Introduction
- Change is inevitable in any organization.
- Some change can be initiated by the organization itself,
otherwise the organization must learn how to respond
and adapt quickly and effectively to the requirements of
completely new circumstances.
Concepts of change
- Organizational change is the movement of an
organization from its existing situation to a more
effective condition.
- There are two forms of change in an organization:
Planned change: A change resulting from a deliberate


decision to alter the organization.

 Unplanned change: A change that is imposed on an
Nature of emotions and moods
organization and is often unexpected.
- Emotions - Intense feelings that are directed at someone
or something which has an object that triggers them. Forces for change
- Moods - Feelings that tend to be less intense than Internal Forces of Change
emotions and often lack a contextual stimulus.  Strategic Changes
- Change that occurs because of transformation in the
Sources of emotions and moods strategic management of a company would lead to a
- Personality - Sleep decline in the workers’ effectiveness. Due to this
- Weather - Exercise strategic change, people will view the organization as
being different and no longer feel the same about the
- Stress - Age organization.
- Social activities - Gender  Cultural Changes
- People change due to habits. People do not like to be
Emotional labour asked to do something opposite to what they have been
- An employee’s expression of organizationally desired doing previously.
emotions during interpersonal transactions at work.  Needs and Values
- Is governed by two types of display rules: - Many of today’s employees are leaning less towards
 Feeling rules financial rewards and more towards quality of life
 Expression rules alternatives.
- Emotional dissonance occurs when employees are
expected to express feelings that contradict with what External Forces of Change
they actually feel.  Workforce Diversification
- Workforce diversification is the differences of
Emotional intelligence background, education, language skills, personality,
- The ability of individuals to recognize their own preference, expectations and work roles among
emotions and that of others for the purpose of: employees.
a. Discriminating between different emotions and labelling  Technology
them appropriately - Rapid technological innovation is changing jobs and
b. Using emotional information to guide thinking and organizations. The transition from manpower to more
behaviour computer control has increasingly enhanced division of
c. Managing and/or adjusting emotions to adapt to authority.
environments or achieve a goal(s)  Competition From Globalization
- Globalization describes a process by which regional
economies, societies, and cultures have become
integrated through a global network of communication,
transportation, and trade.
 Social Trends
- In the past two decades, evolution in social trends
suggests that organizations change. Businesses like
frozen meals, fast food and more have to cater for these
changes to meet increasing demands. House-building
businesses are also affected by social trend changes.
 Economic Shocks Managing resistance to change
- Unexpected pattern of global economic changes lead - Education and Communication
many businesses to bankruptcy. Economic problems lead - Participation and Involvement
to uncertainty and if organizations are not prepared for
unplanned change, major breakdowns will occur. - Facilitation and Support
 World Politics - Negotiation and Agreement
- A nation’s political stability is an important factor to - Manipulation and Cooptation
determine the efficiency of a business. - Explicit and Implicit Coercion

The change process

 Lewin’s Three Steps Model
- Kurt Lewin’s change model emphasizes that effective
change occurs by:
 Unfreezing current situations
 Changing towards desired situations
 Refreezing changed situations to sustain desired
states

 Kotter’s Change Model

- Kotter’s first four steps focus on Lewin’s freezing stage.
Step 5 to 7 represent the movement stage and the final
step portrays the refreezing stage.

 The Change Curve

- The Change Curve was developed by Elisabeth
Kubler-Ross to explain the grieving process when
change occurs. It has been widely utilized as a method of
helping people understand their reactions to significant
change.

Costs and benefits of change

- Psychic cost and health
- Psychic cost and promotion and transfer
- Psychic costs and employee’s relocation

Resistance to change
 Logical Resistance
- It refers to reasons given based on rational and scientific
evaluation.
 Psychological Resistance
- It refers to reasons given based on emotional sentiments
and attitudes in human.
 Sociological Resistance
- It refers to reasons given based on interests of a group
and group values.
C17 : HR POLICIES & PRACTICES
Introduction
- Human resource policies and procedures assist the
organization in securing, maintaining and retaining
employees to be with the organization and work towards
the objective.
- Managing people is not an easy task as people or
employees are intangible assets who have feelings and
emotions.
Orientation, training and development programme
 Orientation
- Basic background information required to perform jobs
satisfactorily.
- To influence employee attitude.
 Training and Development
- Adding up knowledge
- Motivates an employee to change their behaviour

HR Policies and Procedure Phases of training programme

- Human resources planning
- Selection and recruitment process
- Training and Development
- Compensation and Benefits
- Safety and Health
Human Resources Planning
- Planning for human resources (HRP) – process of
acquiring employees with needed KSA’s.
- Starts with matching its plans with the company’s
mission, vision and strategy.
- Identify and understand the type of work (tasks, duties
and responsibilities) required by the organization to meet
its objectives.
- This is derived through the process of job analysis,
followed by the recruitment and selection processes.
Job analysis
- Job analysis is a study to explore and record the skills,
duties, work environment and road map of a particular
job.
- The data obtained later would be transformed to two
important documents: the job description and job
specification.
Recruitment and selection processes
- Recruitment is a process that aims to attract potential job
applicants to a job.
- Selection is a process where potential job applicants are
being scrutinized and tested before they are being
offered the position.
- Recruitment can be held either through:
 External recruitment
 Internal recruitment
- To be effective, training programme need to be
developed systematically.
- Four phases of training programme:
 Need assessment
 Programme Design
 Implementation
 Evaluation
Performance evaluation process
- The objective is to assess accurately an employee’s
individual performance.
- The result of the assessment is used as a basis for
rewards purposes, identifying training needs, career
development purposes or even termination purposes.
- If wrongly done, employees would be demotivated.
Compensation and benefits
- Considered as the motivating factor for employees.
- Either in cash or non-cash rewards.
- Would differ among employees based on KSA’s.
- Compensation and benefits offered have to be constantly
reviewed to ensure it is always at par with market
demands
Role of HR in controlling communication
- HR plays an important role in controlling informal
communication or also called as the grapevine.
- Some information may be destructive and some may be
very valuable.
- An organization needs to look at the outcome and work
on the training which nee.ds to be given and offered