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Chapter 15 Controlofacdrives
Chapter 15 Controlofacdrives
Drives
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 15.1 A 3-phase, star connected, 50 Hz, 4-pole induction motor has
the following parameters in ohms per phase referred to the stator:
R 1 = R 2 = 0.034 and X 1 = X 2 = 0.18
The motor is controlled by the variable frequency control with a constant (V /f ).
Determine the following for an operating frequency of 15 Hz:
(a) The breakdown torque as a ratio of its value at the rated frequency for motor-
ing and braking.
(b) The starting torque and rotor current in terms of their values at the rated
frequency.
15
Solution: From Eq. (15.34) of the book, K = = 0.3
50
(a) From Eq. (15.52) of the book, the ratio of breakdown torques for K = 0.3 and K = 1, is
2
Tmax ( K = 0.3) 0.034 ± (0.034 ) + (0.36)2
= 2
Tmax ( K = 1) 0.034 Ê 0.034 ˆ
± Á + (0.36)2
0.3 Ë 0.3 ˜¯
Tmax ( K = 0.3)
For motoring, = 0.806
Tmax ( K = 1)
Tmax ( K = 0.3)
For braking, = 1.24.
Tmax ( K = 1)
(b) Substitution of s = 1 in Eq. (15.51) of the book gives an expression for the starting
torque T 2. Thus,
È ˘
Í 2 ˙
3 Í Vrated ( R2 / K ) ˙
Ts = (i)
w s Í Ê R1 + R2 ˆ 2 2
˙
ÍÁ ˜ + ( X1 + X 2 ) ˙
ÍÎ Ë K ¯ ˙˚
From Eq. (136), of the book the ratio of starting torques for K = 0.3 and K = 1 is,
(0.034 0.3)
Ts ( K = 0.3) (0.068 0.3) 2 + (0.36) 2
= = 2.472
Ts ( K = 1) 0.034
2 2
(0.068) + (0.36)
The starting rotor current is given by
Vrated
I2 = (ii)
2
Ê R1 + R2 ˆ 2
ÁË ˜ + ( X1 + X 2 )
K ¯
È Ê 0.034 ˆ ˘
2
Í Vrated Á ˜ ˙
2
3 Í Ë 0.04 ¯ ˙ 3Vrated
T rated = Í 2 ˙ = (0.933) (i)
ws Ê ws
Í 0.034 + 0.034 ˆ + (0.18 + 0.18)2 ˙
ÍÎ ÁË 0.04 ˜¯ ˙˚
and for 25 Hz from Eq. (15.51) of the book,
È Ê 0.034 ˆ ˘
2
Í Vrated Á ˜ ˙
3 Í Ë 0.5 S ¯ ˙
T rated = Í 2 ˙ (ii)
w s Ê 0.034 0.034 ˆ
Í + + (0.36) 2˙
ÍÎ ÁË 0.5 0.5 S ˜¯ ˙˚
Equating Eqs (i) and (ii) gives,
(0.034 0.5 S )
= 0.933
2
Ê 0.034 0.034 ˆ 2
ÁË 0.5 + 0.5 S ˜¯ + (0.36)
or
(0.034 0.5 S )
= 0.933
2 2
Ê 0.034 ˆ Ê 0.034 0.034 ˆ Ê 0.34 ˆ 2
ÁË 0.5 ˜¯ + 2 ÁË 0.5 ¥ 0.5 S ˜¯ + ÁË 0.5 S ˜¯ + (0.36)
or S 2 0.4742 S + 0.0344 = 0
Zm j 32 Ê 32 ˆ
\ I2 = I1 = 66.4 = Á ˜ (66.4) = 62.49 A
Zm + Z2 j 32 + 7.6 + j 1.14 Ë 34 ¯
\ E = I2 |Z 2| = 62.49 (7.69) = 480.55 V
3 2 R2 3 2 0.38
\ Rated torque = I2 = ¥ (62.49 ) ¥ = 566.81 N-m
ws S 157.08 0.05
25
(a) At 25 Hz, K== 0.5
50
Substituting the known values in Eq. (15.41) of the book yields
2
566.81 3 È (480.55) ¥ (0.38 0.5 S ) ˘
= Í ˙ = S = 0.0535
2 157.08 ÍÎ (0.38) (0.5 S )2 + (1.14)2 ˚˙
2
R2 0.38
Z2 = + jKX2 = + j 0.5 ¥ 1.14 = 7.102 + j0.57 = 7.125 –4.59°
S 0.0535
Now, taking E as a reference vector,
E 240.28
I2 = = = 33.72 – 4.59° A
Z 2 7.125–4.59∞
E 240.28
\ Im = = = 15.02–90°A
jKX m j 0.5 ¥ 32
\ I1 = I 2 + I m = 33.72 – 4.59° + 15.02 – 90°A
Hence, I 1 = 38 A
(b) Slip speed in rpm at the rated torque and frequency
N ss = sNs = 0.05 ¥ 1500 = 75 rpm.
Since the speedtorque curve is a straight line, slip speed at half the rated torque,
N ss2 = 0.5 ¥ 75 = 37.5 rpm.
25
At 25 Hz, N= ¥ 1500 = 750 rpm.
50
Since the slip speed remains constant for a given torque,
Motor speed, N = N s N ss2 = 750 37.5 rpm = 712.5 rpm.
Now, for a constant flux, the (V /f ) ratio must be constant.
Hence, at 25 Hz,
N ss2 37.5
E = 0.5 ¥ 480.55 = 240.28 V. \ S = = = 0.05
Ns 750
R2
Z2 =
+ jk X2 = 7.6 + j0.57 = 7.62 –4.29° W
s
Now, taking E as a reference vector,
E 240.28
I2 = = = 31.53 – 4.29° A.
Z 2 7.62–4.29
E 240.28
Im = = = 15.02 – 90° A.
jKX m j16
\ I1 = I 2 + I m = 31.53 – 4.29° + 15.02 – 90° = 35.92 – 28.93°.
Hence I1 = 35.92 A
(c) Now, at the rated braking torque, the slip speed will be the negative of the slip
speed at rated motoring torque.
\ Therefore slip speed, N ss3 = 75 rpm.
Synchronous speed π N + N ss3 = 1200 75 = 1125 rpm.
Ê 1125 ˆ 37.5
Frequency = Á ¥ 50 = 37.5 Hz. \ K= = 0.75.
Ë 1500 ˜¯ 50
Ê 37.5 ˆ - 75
At 37.5 Hz, E =Á ¥ 480.55 = 360.41 V, S = = 0.067.
Ë 50 ˜¯ 1125
R2
Z2 = + jkX2 = 5.67 + j 0.855 = 5.73 –171.42° W
s
E 360.41
Now, taking E as a reference vector, I 2 = = = 62.9 – 171.42° A
Z 2 5.73–171.42∞
I m remains the same as the foregoing.
I1 = 62.9 – 171.42° + 15.02 – 90° = 62.2 j24.4 = 66.81 – 158.58°.
\ V = E + Z1 ◊ I1 = 360.41 + (0.66 + j0.75 ¥ 1.14) ¥ 66.81 –158.58°
or V = 340.22 j69.28 = 347.2 – 11.51°
Since the phase-angle between V and I1 is more than 90°, therefore, power flows
from the motor to the source.
Example 15.4 The motor in Example (15.3) is fed by a variable frequency
current source. The motor is made to operate at the rated flux at all operating points.
Determine the following:
(a) Slip speed for I1 80 A
(b) The frequency and stator current for operation at 750 rpm for the following
torque values:
(i) 520 N-m
(ii) 566.81 N-m.
(c) Also, obtain the solution of b(ii) assuming speedtorque curves to be straight
lines in the region of interest.
Solution: From Example (15.3), for 50 Hz operation, N s = 1500 rpm. ws = 157.08
rad/s. Rated torque = 566.81 N-m. Slip speed at rated torque = 75 rpm. E at rated
conditions = 480.55 V
E 480.55
(a) Im = = = 15.02 A
Xm 32
Substituting the known values in Eq. (15.66) of the book gives:
È Ê 0.38 ˆ 2 ˘
ÍÁ ˜ + (1.14) 2 ˙
Ë s ¯
(15.02)2 = Í ˙ ¥ (80) 2 \ S = 0.061
Í Ê 0.38 ˆ 2 ˙
ÍÁ ˜ + (33.14)2 ˙
ÎÍ Ë s ¯ ˚˙
Slip speed in rpm = S N s = 0.061 ¥ 1500 = 91.5 rpm.
(b) (i) As the flux is constant for a given torque, the slip speed will also be constant
for all frequencies. Hence, the slip speed can be obtained from the rated frequency
operation.
2
È Erated
3 ◊ R2 / s ˘
Now, T= Í 2 2˙
ws ÎÍ ( R2 / s ) + X 2 ˚˙
3 È (480.55)2 ¥ 0.38/ s ˘
520 = Í ˙ S = 0.045
157 ◊ 08 ÎÍ (0.38) 2 + (1.14) 2 ˚˙
Slip speed, N ss1 = 0.045 ¥ 1500 = 67.5 rpm.
Now, for operation at 750 rpm,
synchronous speed, N s = N + N ss1 = 750 + 67.5 = 817.5 rpm.
Ê 817.5 ˆ 27.25
Frequency = Á ¥ 50 = 27.25 Hz K = = 0.545
Ë 1500 ˜¯ 50
N ss1 67.5
S= = = 0.0825, K s = 0.545 ¥ 0.0825 = 0.045
Ns 817.5
Now, substitute all the determined values in Eq. (15.68) of the book.
1/ 2
È (0.38) 2 /(0.045) 2 + (32 + 1.14) 2 ˘
\ I1 = 15.02 Í 2 2 2 ˙ or I1 = 60.28 A.
Î (0.38) /(0.045) + (1.14) ˚
(ii) The given torque value is the rated braking torque. Therefore, the slip-speed
will be the same as for the rated motor torque but of the opposite sign.
\ N ss2 = 75 rpm., N s = N + N ss2 = 750 75 = 675 rpm.
675 22.5
Frequency = ¥ 50 = 22.5 Hz., K = = 0.45
1500 50
N ss2
- 75
\ S= = = 0.11, k s = 0.05
Ns 675
Now, substitute all the determined values in Eq. (15.68) of the book,
1/ 2
È ( 0.38) 2 /( - 0.05) 2 + (32 + 1.14) 2 ˘
\ I 1 = 15.02 Í 2 2 2 ˙ = I1 = 66.45 A
Î (0.38) /( - 0.05) + (1.14) ˚
(c) As, speedtorque curve for different frequencies are straight lines at a constant
flux, therefore, slip speed,
520
N ss3 = ¥ 75 = 68.81 rpm.
566.81
Hence, synchronous speed, N s = N + N ss3 = 750 + 68.81 = 818.81 rpm
Ê 818.81ˆ N ss3 68.81
Frequency = Á ¥ 50 = 27.29 Hz, S = = = 0.084
Ë 1500 ˜¯ N s 818.81
27.29
K= = 0.545 \ S k = 0.045
50
Now, substituting all the determined values in Eq. (15.68) of the book yields
1/ 2
È (0.38) 2 /(0.045) 2 + (32 + 1.14) 2 ˘
I 1 = 15.02 Í 2 2 2 ˙ = 60.28 A
Î (0.38) /(0.045) + (1.14) ˚
1200 ¥ 2 220
(ii) f= = 40 Hz. \ V = ¥ 40 = 176 V.
60 50
1500 ¥ 2
(iii) f= = 50 Hz. \ V = 220 V.
60
1800 ¥ 2 220
(iv) f= = 60 Hz \ V = ¥ 60 = 264 V.
60 50
Example 15.6 A three-phase, 400 V, delta connected induction motor has the
following parameters at 50 Hz.
R 1 = 0.5 W, R 2 = 1.5 W,
X 1 = X 2 = 2.5 W, X m = 130 W.
This motor is fed from a square-waved inverter. The voltage waveform is such that
its fundamental is equal to the rated voltage of the motor. Determine, input current
waveform corresponding to a rotor frequency of 2 Hz when the supply frequency is 50
Hz and 10 Hz and the voltage applied is proportional to frequency. What waveform do
you expect at 10 Hz if the voltage is varied to keep air gap flux constant?
Solution: (i) Voltage proportional to frequency
At 50 Hz, V = 400 V, slip S = 2/50 = 0.04.
1.5
Secondary impedance at this slip = + j 2.5 = (37.5 + j 2.5) W.
0.04
Mutual reactance = 130 W.
Total impedance of the motor,
j 130 (37.5 + j 2.5)
Z t = 0.5 + j 2.5 + = 3.625 + j5.736.
37.5 + j 132.5
400
Fundamental RMS current = = 60.61 57.71° A
3.625 + j 5.736
Instantaneous value of fundamental current
Ê 1.5 Ê
Secondary impedance = Á + j17.5 Á ohms
Ë 0.863 Ë
j 910(1.738 + j 17.5)
Total impedance = 0.5 + j 17.5 +
1.738 + j 927.5
= 2.206 + j 34.67 = 34.74 – 186.35° W
57.143
RMS value of seventh harmonic = – 86.35° = 1.645 A
34.74
Instantaneous value of current = 2.326 sin (7 w t 86.35°) A
Thus the total armature current,
= 85.72 sin (w t 57.71°) + 3.223 sin (5 w t 85.99° )
+ 2.326 sin (7 w t 86.35°) A.
(ii) Current waveform at 10 Hz:
Fundamental voltage at 10 Hz = 80 V. Slip = 2/10 = 0.2
15
.
Secondary impedance = + j 0.5 = (7.5 + j 0.5) W
0.2
X m = 130/5 = 26 W
j 26(7.5 + j 0.5)
\ Total impedance, Z t = 0.5 + j 0.5 + W
7.5 + j 26.5
j 182(1.693 + j 3.5)
Total impedance, Z t = 0.5 + j3.5 +
1.693 + j 185.5
= 2.171 + j 6.934 = 7.266 – 72.62°.
Instantaneous value of seventh harmonic
2 ¥ 11.4286
= sin (7 w t 72.62)
7.266
= 2.22 sin (7 w t 72.62)
The total armature current
= 15.02 sin (w t 67.82°) + 4.3 sin (5 w t 70.343)
+ 2.22 sin (7 w t 72.62°)
If the voltage is varied to keep air gap flux constant, we get the same current
waveforms both at 50 Hz and 10 Hz for a rotor frequency of 2 Hz.
Example 15.7 A three-phase, 400V, 50 Hz, 4-pole, 1450 rpm, star-connected
squirrel-cage induction motor has the following parameters per phase referred to the
stator:
R 1 = 0.11 W, R 2 = 0.09 W, X 1 = 0.4 W,
X 2 = 0.6 W, and X m = 12 W.
The motor is controlled by a six-step inverter. The d.c. input to the inverter is
provided by a six-pulse, fully-controlled rectifier.
(a) What should be the rectifier firing angle for getting the rated fundamental
voltage across the motor if the rectifier is fed by an a.c. source of 400 V, 50 Hz.
3 6 E1 p 2
\ E1 = 2 Em cos a , \ cos a = (iii)
p Em 3 6
p 2 ¥ 400
cos a = , \ a = 18.25°
3 6 ¥ 400 2
(b) (i) As discussed in previous sections that for a given torque the motor operates at
a fixed slip speed for all frequencies when the flux is maintained constant.
\ Slip speed in rpm at the rated torque,
120 ¥ 50
N ss = N s N = 1450 = 50 rpm.
4
Hence, synchronous speed at 560 rpm
N s = N + N ss = 560 + 50 = 610 rpm.
Ê 610 ˆ
The inverter frequency = ÁË ˜ ¥ 50 = 20.33 Hz
1500 ¯
(ii) The back emf at the rated operation
Erated = I2 [(R 2 /S )2 + X 22]1/2
E1 / 3
where I2 =
( R1 + R2 / S ) 2 + ( X1 + X 2) 2
1500 - 1450
Also, S= = 0.033
1500
400 / 3
\ I2 = = 76.98 A
2
Ê 0.09 ˆ 2
ÁË 0.11 + ˜ + (0.4 + 0.6)
0.033 ¯
1/ 2
ÈÊ 0.09 ˆ 2 2
˘
Erated = 76.98 ÍÁ ˜¯ + (0.6) ˙ = 214.99 V
Ë
Î 0.033 ˚
3 Ê 0.09 ˆ
\ T= (76.98)2 ÁË ˜ = 308.66 N-m.
157.08 0.033 ¯
Equation (iv) becomes
È Ê 0.09 ˆ ˘
(214.99) 2 Á
308.66 3 Í Ë KS ˜¯ ˙
\ = Í 2
˙
2 157.08 Í Ê 0.09 ˆ 2 ˙
Í ËÁ KS ¯˜ + (0.6) ˙
Î ˚
2
Ê 0.09 ˆ 0.514
or ÁË ˜ + (0.6)2 =
KS ¯ KS
2
Ê 1 ˆ Ê 1 ˆ
or ÁË ˜ - 63.46 ÁË ˜ + 44.44 = 0
KS ¯ KS ¯
1
which gives = 62.75 (v)
KS
wr 460 0.31
Now, K= = =
w s (1 - S ) 1500(1 - S ) (1 - S )
Substituting from Eq. (v), for K, gives
1 0.31
\ =
62.75 S (1 - S )
which gives S = 0.048
\ From Eq. (v), k = 0.332
Thus, frequency = 0.332 ¥ 50 = 16.6 Hz.
Substituting the known value in Eq. (15.38) of the book yields
214.99
I2 = = 37.86 A
(0.09) (62.75) 2 + (0.6) 2
2
1000 980
Rated slip = = 0.02
1000
0.12
Rotor impedance, Z2 = + j 0.4 = 6 + j 0.4 = 6.01 – 3.81° W
0.02
Z2 Zm (6 + j 0.4) ( j 10.3)
Machine impedance = Z1 + = 0.20 + j 0.18 +
Z2 Zm 6 + j 10.7
= 4.43 + j2.94 = 5.32 – 33.57° W
400 3
I1 = = 43.41 – 33.57 ° A
5.32 – 33.57∞
Zm 10.3 – 90∞
I2 = I1 = ¥ 43.41 – 33.57∞ = 36.44 – 4.29° A
Zm + Z2 12.27 – 60.72∞
Zm 6.01 – 3.81∞
Im = I1 = (43.41 – 33 57∞) = 21.26 – 90.48°
Zm + t2 12.27 – 60.72∞
3 2 3 Ê 0.12 ˆ
Torque = . I 2 ( R2 S ) = (36.44)2 Á = 228.24 N-m.
ws 104.72 Ë 0.02 ˜¯
(a) For the three-phase current source inverter (six-step), the fundamental RMS
current is given by
6
I1 = Id (i)
p
p Id p
\ Id =
= ¥ 43.41 = 55.68 A
6 6
Also, RMS stator current is given by the relation,
Irms = ( )
2 3 Id = ( )
2 3 (55.68) = 45.46 A (ii)
(b) We know that when the motor is controlled at a constant flux for a given torque,
the slip speed has a constant value.
Therefore, slip speed at the rated torque and frequency is N ss = S N s = 0.02 ¥ 1000 =
20 rpm.
Therefore, at the motor speed of 500 rpm,
synchronous speed, N s = 500 + 20 = 520 rpm.
Inverter frequency = (520/1000)50 = 26 Hz
Also, when the motor is controlled at a constant flux, for a given torque, the stator
current remains constant at all speeds. Since the stator current is constant, the d.c. link
current also remains constant at 55.68 A.
(c) The slip-speed is constant at all frequencies as the flux is constant for a given
torque.
The slip speed for 25 Hz operation at half the rated torque can be determined from
50 Hz operation. For 50 Hz operation,
Erated = Im X m = 21.26 ¥ 10.3 = 218.98 V
2
È Erated
3 R2 S ˘
Now, T= Í 2 2˙
ws Î ( R2 S ) + X 2 ˚
2
Ê 0.12 ˆ 2 1.44
or ÁË ˜ + (0.4) =
S ¯ S
\ 0.0144 x 2 1.44 x + 0.16 = 0, where x = 1/S.
\ x = 100, which gives S = 0.01.
Slip speed, N ss = S N s = 0.01 ¥ 1000 = 10 rpm
25
Now, consider the operation at 25 Hz, K = = 0.5
50
\ Synchronous speed, N s = 0.5 ¥ 1000 = 500 rpm.
Hence, motor speed = 500 10 = 490 rpm
N ss 10
\ S= = = 0.02
N s 500
K Erated 0.5 ¥ 218.98
\ I2 = 2 2
= = 18.24 A
( R2 S ) + ( K X 2 ) (0.12 2
0.02 ) + (0.5 ¥ 0.4) 2
From Eq. (15.62), of the book we have
or I1 = 28.47 A
Also, d.c. link current Id can be given by the formula
p I1 p ¥ 28.47
Id = = = 36.51 A (iii)
6 6
The RMS stator current Irms = 2 3 ¥ 36.51 = 29.81 A.
1.1044
Here, cos q = 0.1044, cos f0 = ¥ 0.8 = 0.0592
2
(c) Distortion factor is given by
cos q cos f0 cos q m cos f0 0.4178 0.8
m= . \ mm = ◊ = ¥ = 0.339.
2 cos fi 2 cos fi 2 0.7
SOLVED EXAMPLES
Example 15.10 A three-phase, 400 V, 50 Hz, 960 rpm, six-pole, star-connected,
wound-rotor induction motor has the following parameter per-phase referred to the
stator:
R 1 = 0.3 W, R 2 = 0.5 W, X 1 = X 2 = 1.6 W, X m = 35 W, stator-to-rotor turns ratio is 2.
The motor speed is controlled by the static rotor resistance control. The filter
resistance is 0.01 W. The value of external resistance is chosen such that a = 0, the
breakdown torque is obtained at standstill. Determine the following:
(a) The value of the external resistance.
(b) a for a speed of 750 rpm at 1.5 times the rated torque.
(c) The speed, for a = 0.5 and 1.5 times the rated torque.
Neglect friction and windage loss.
Solution:
120 f 120 ¥ 50
Ns = = = 1000 rpm, V = 400 3 = 230.94 V.
P 6
1000 ¥ 2p
ws = = 125.66 rad/s
50
1000 960
Full-load slip = = 0.04
1000
Without rotor resistance control,
3 È V 2 ( R2 S ) ˘
T= Í 2
˙
w s Í ( R1 + R2 S ) + ( X 1 + X 2 ) 2 ˙
Î ˚
È Ê 0.5 ˆ ˘
Í (230.94)2 Á ˙
3 Í Ë 0.04 ˜¯ ˙
Full load torque, = ˙ = 91.43 N-m
125.66 ÍÍ Ê 0.5 ˆ
2
2˙
0.3 + + (3.2)
Í ÁË 0.04 ˜¯ ˙
Î ˚
(a) From Fig. 15.28(b), of the book
Rm¢
= [(R 1 + R k¢ )2 + (X 1 + X 2)2]1/2
S
when the breakdown torque occur at standstill,
(R ¢m)2 = (R 1 + R¢k )2 + (X 1 + X 2)2
or
(R¢m)2 = R¢2k + 2 R¢k R1 + R 21 + (X 1 + X 2)2 (i)
From Eqs (15.89) and (15.90),
Ê p2 ˆ
R¢k = Á 1˜ R¢m = 0.0966 R¢m (ii)
Ë 9 ¯
Substituting from Eq. (i) and known values in Eq. (iii, Ex. 15.8) gives
(R¢m )2 9.33 ¥ 103 (R¢m)2 0.0579 R¢m 0.09 10.24 = 0
0.9906 R¢m 2 0.0579 R¢m 10.33 = 0
\ R¢m = 3.26 W and \ R¢k = 0.315 W
From Eq. (15.90) of the book,
R¢e* = R¢m R¢2 = 3.26 0.5 = 2.76 W.
2.76
R e* = = 0.69 W
aT21
From Eq. (15.81) of the book, for a = 0,
R = 2 R e* R d = 2 ¥ 0.69 0.01 = 1.37 W
(b) With rotor resistance control, from Eq. (15.95), of the book
3 È V 2 ( Rm¢ S ) ˘
T= Í 2 2
˙
w s Í ( R1 + Rk¢ + Rm¢ S ) + ( X 1 + X 2 ) ˙
Î ˚
From Eq. (i), R¢k = 0.0966 R¢m
1000 750
S= = 0.25
1000
\ Substituting all known values in above equation yields
30 ¥ 1 + 24 ¥ 1
the average torque, T av = = 27.
2
30 27
Since T a N 2, therefore, = 2
(1465) 2 N 2
Speed when T ON/T OFF = 1 is,
27
N2 = ¥ (1465)2 = 1390 rpm.
30
When the speed is 1200 rpm for chopper OFF, torque would be
(1200) 2
¥ 30 = 20.13 N-m
(1405) 2
Average-torque = 25 N-m
I MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED
A.C. DRIVES
Todays industry places high demands on control accuracies, flexibility, ease of
operation, repeatability of parameters for many drives applications. To meet these
requirements, use of microprocessors have become imperative. In a power-
electronic system, the microcomputer functions can in general be categorized as
follows:
Control of feedback loops
Gate firing control of phase-controlled converters
PWM or square-wave signal generation of inverters
Optimal and adaptive control
Estimation of feedback signals
General sequencing control
Protection and fault overriding control
Signals monitoring and warning
Data acquisition
Diagnostics
Miscellaneous computation and control.
The superiority of microcomputer control over the conventional hardware
based control can easily be recognized for complex drive control system. The
simplification of hardware saves control electronics cost and improves the system
reliability. The digital control has inherently improved noise immunity which is
particularly important here because of large power switching transients in the
converters. The software control algorithms can easily be altered or improved
without changing the hardware. Another important feature is that the structure
and parameters of the control system can be altered in real time making the
control adaptive to the plant characteristics. The complex computation and decision
The uniform sampling techniques are used to develop the necessary PWM
waveforms. A microprocessor system may be evolved to provide the real time
simulation besides implementing the control programs. The real time aspects of
the processor ADCs, DAC, parallel interfaces and the capability of the system to
provide control and other functions are taken to advantage. The system can be
designed with a flexibility to provide monitoring functions to change the parameters
such as sampling rates of ADCs. The functions of a microprocessor in a PWM
control are:
(a) Processing of speed signals obtained from a shaft encoder. Comparing
this with set speed in a controller and to provide an output of current
based on the speed error (speed controller program), the necessary lim-
iting may also be accomplished.
(b) The analog signal of measured signal is processed after conversion to
digital signal by ADC. This is compared with the output of speed con-
troller in current controller. The output of this controller determines the
firing instants of the inverter which gives the desired voltage waveform.
However, the speed of microprocessor may set a limit on the maximum
frequency of operation. This may be overcome by a hard wired digital
logic. Wherever the speed of a microprocessor is not sufficient to per-
form a given task, it can be accomplished using a suitable hardware.
(c) The microprocessor controller must be capable of performing control
tasks as it interacts with the system. This includes selection and
The stator and field currents are detected by current sensors, and amplified
by optically-isolated amplifiers. The output signals are multiplexed and converted
to digital form by a high speed analog-to-digital converter. The principal functions
of the microprocessor are monitoring and control of the system variables for the
purpose of obtaining desired drive features. It can also perform various auxiliary
tasks, such as protection, diagnosis and display.
voltages for the signals provided by a position sensor. Here, a simple optical
encoder is used to produce both speed and position reference signals necessary
for starting and normal operation. Figure 15.4 shows details of the encoder
construction and the output waveforms.
The encoder disk has 256 teeth on the outer perimeter and two 90° slots on
the inner perimeter. Each of the four sensors consists of light emitting diode and
a phototransistor mounted in a moulded housing. The phase reference signals
(P1, P2 and P3) are produced by three sensors positioned at 120° intervals. The
fourth sensor produces a higher frequency square wave (S 4) of frequency
proportion to the motor speed. As both rising and falling edges of this signal are
deleted, the number of pulses generated for every 360° of rotation is equal to
256. This pulse train is used in inverter firing angle control and speed sensing.
The schematic diagram of the inverter firing angle control circuit is shown in
Fig. 15.5 with the waveforms for one phase. It consists of three delay control circuits,
a thyristor address register, and a pulse distributing circuit. Linear digital ramp
technique is applied to convert the digital control input to corresponding delay angle
for the inverter triggering pulses. The 8-bit input control word contains mode
operation and delay angle informations, which are defined respectively by the first
bit and the remaining 7 bits. Depending on the mode bit, motoring or generation
operation is selected with a delay angle equal to f or (180° f). Idealized motor
voltage and current waveforms are shown in Fig. 15.5.
waveforms
At the beginning of each half-cycle of the phase-reference signal, the delay angle
information f is loaded into the counter, and the count is incremented or decremented
by the speed pulses from the encoder. When the terminal count is reached, a pulse
is generated and applied to the clock input of the D-type flip-flop. The three-output
signals , with a delay angle f or (180° f) with respect to the phase reference signals,
are combined in the decoder to produce six modulated triggering pulse trains. These
pulse trains are 120° wide with 60° of phase-angle between each other. The
maximum count for each half-cycle is 127 so that the resolution in delay angle is
about 1.4 electrical degrees. If a higher resolution is desired, a more elaborate
encoder is required to generate a higher rate speed signal.
(c) Field-chopper control The machine field current is supplied by a d.c.
source through a transistor chopper which is controlled by a 010 V input
voltage. The bit command from the microprocessor is converted to corresponding
analog signal by a digital-to-analog converter. The obtained resolution for the
control voltage is 40 mV.
3. System Operation The characteristic of the drive depends on the d.c.
link current, the field current, and the inverter firing angle. These variables are
independently controlled by the microprocessor to provide the desired features
for all operation conditions. The converter system is symmetrical about the d.c.
link so that power can flow in both directions, making regeneration operation
possible.
(a) Motoring During motoring operation, the power flow is from the a.c.
supply lines to motor, and a positive torque is developed. The firing angle of the
input rectifier is between 0° and 90°, resulting in a positive d.c. link voltage. The
firing angle of the machine inverter is between 90° and 180°, and it is naturally
commutated by the motor terminal voltages. For constant stator and field
currents, the average torque is a function of the inverter firing angle, the maximum
value obtained for f = 180°. Therefore, it is desirable that the inverter delay
angle is maintained as close as possible to 180° so as to develop maximum
torque. However, some margin is required to ensure reliable commutation.
Fig. 15.6(a)
The relation between the inverter firing angle and the stator current is stored
in a look-up table in the memory. Desired torquespeed characteristic is obtained
by varying the field current in terms of the stator current. A separately excited
d.c. motor is provided if the air-gap flux is kept constant. If the field current is
made proportional to the stator current, a series d.c. motor characteristic results.
In this case, the commutation is improved as the machine voltage increases with
increased motor current. As for the delay angle, the relation between the field
current and the stator current is provided by a function generator in the form of
a look-up table stored in the memory.
(b) Regeneration During regenerative braking, the motor operates as an
alternator, supplying power to the a.c. lines. The developed torque is negative
with the effect of reducing the motor speed. Since the d.c. link current diction is
fixed, power flow reversal is achieved by reversing the d.c. link voltage. The
firing angles must be consequently changed to be in the 90°180° range for the
input rectifier, and in the 0°90° range for the machine converter. Their functions
are then reversed. As in the motoring mode, the braking torque is determined by
the inverter firing angle and the field current.
Fig. 15.6 (b) and (c) Inverter delay angle control circuit various waveforms
(c) Starting At standstill, the machine terminal voltage is not available so that
the synchronous motor is unable to start itself. Consequently, the microprocessor
is required to commutate the inverter to start and accelerate the motor until the
Fig. 15.7 Idealized relation between average torque and inverter firing angle
Inverter and field current commands are derived from the link current
command by two function generators stored in the memory in the form of look
up tables.
An interrupt signal for the current regulating routine is generated on each
zero-crossing of the three-phase a.c. input voltage. Therefore, the link current is
sampled and processed every one-sixth of the a.c. input period, that is 3.33 ms
for 50 Hz supply. The reason for this sampling rate is that the thyristor rectifier
firing angle can be modified only at discrete instants with average period equal to
one-sixth of the a.c. input period. The link current is sensed and compared to
the reference value provided by the speed regulating routine. Current error is
processed by the current controller, producing firing angle command for the
thyristor input rectifier. The proportional integral algorithm executed by the current
controller is defined by the difference equation:
a(k) = a (k 1) K p ei (k 1) + (k p + k i T Si)ei(k) (15.2)
Fig. 15.10 Speed regulating routine Fig. 15.11 Current regulating routine
where a (k) is the firing angle at k-th point, ei(k) is the current error at k-th
point, and T si is the current sampling period.
The flow charts of speed regulating routine, current regulating routine and
starting routine, are shown respectively in Figs 15.10, 15.11 and 15.12.