Scanned with CamScanner(a) Length of the wire 1 = (b) Diameter of the wire d mm, m. (©) Radius of the wire (r) 2 (@) Specific Resistance = ex 2 oe RESULT 1. The value of unknown resistance x = _____ ohm. 2. The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = ohm m. se Oe Ser 1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight. 2. Move the jockey gently on the wire and do not keep the jockey and the wire in contact for a long time. 3. Null point should be brought between 45 cm and 55 cm. 4. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax . 5. Hold the jockey perpendicular to the wire of metre bridge. | Scanned with CamScanner| iinemsn: 2 SOURCES OF ERROR 1. Rheostat may have high resistance. 2. Thick connecting wires may not be available. 3. The resistance of wire is very low. 4. The connections may not be tight. Scanned with CamScannerOBJECTIVE : To determine the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference vers ‘current, APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : An ammeter, voltmeter (0-3V), theostat, one way key, a gi wire of unknown resistance, a dry cell/ battery and connecting wires. e Scanned with CamScanner1 is directly proportional to the lectric current I flowing through a conductor etc. remain the same, i.e. ‘THEORY : According to Ohm's law, 1 conditions like temperature, ‘potential difference V across its ends, provided the physical Val Or V=RI stance depends on the nature of Where R is constant and called the resistance of the conductor. The value of resi nnterial of the conductor, its dimensions and the physical conditions. It is however, independent of the value of V& L. A graph is then plotted between V (along Y s the resistance R of the wire, We find the values of the voltage V for different values of the current axis) and I (along X-axis), This graph is a straight line, the slope of which gives u ra-Ay AL ‘The resistance per cm of the wire is then given by — Resistance R in ohms Resistance per = Resistance Rin ohms ohm em! R om () = a Tied) om ot volmeer (©) Fig. 2.1 (a) Fig. 2.2 (b) Cirewt di Scanned with CamScannerOBSERVATIONS 1. Length 2, Range Length of the resistance wire | Range of the given ammeter Range of the given voltmeter @ Scanned with CamScanner cm.3. Least Count Least count of ammeter A Least count of voltmeter = aESey, 4. ZeroError Zero error in ammeter, ¢, A Zero error in voltmeter, e v 5. Zero ion: conecion stalin 0 : ae “Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Readings : b Mean value of resistance, C4ECULATIONS ke any two points A and B well apart on the graph. From A and B draw two lines AC and BC{ parallel to voltage current axis respectively. Measure AC and BC on their respective scales, Then AC = V BC =A 7 AC The R = slope = 00 = len slope = Bc Qa 17 Resins por om fhe wie p_ =f em! — LT a Resistance per cm of the wire is Qem'. a PRECAUTIONS ee ‘The connections should be neat, clean and tight. 4. Clean the ends of the wires with sand paper before making the connections. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range. “The current should be passed only fora short interval of time while taking a set of readings. ‘The key should be inserted only while taking observations 10 avoid heating of resistance. ‘A low resistance rheostat should be used. (CES OF ERROR a The ends of the wires may not be clean. tant due to excessive heating or due to passage of curre irabiouisa sie? ‘V/I may not be cons mnt for a long time. 3. The wires are not of uniform thickness. 4. All the plugs in the resistance box may not be tight. 5, Development of contact resistance due to improper connections Scanned with CamScanner‘Ex eriment — 6 ke OBJECTIVE : To determine the resistance of a moving coil galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit. i Scanned with CamScanneroo /AMATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : A galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery, two resisiance boxe, of high resistance, one way key, screw gauge and connecting wires. A galvanometer i used to detect and measure current. A galvanometer works on the principle that coil placed in a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque. A galvanometer is said t0 be sensitive i ‘deflection for a small current. A galvanometer has a moderate resistance (1002) and has a very smal ‘capacity (1 mA). , sensitivity is expressed as deflection per unit current, a Deflection __Q Sensitivity, 1, caren aL should have low resistance, ‘of Merit : The figure of merit k is defined as the current required to produce a deflection of one division in th. figure of merit (k) of a galvanometer is given by See k= R460 where E = emf of the cell, © = Galvanometer deflection (in divisions). R = Resistance of the circuit. G = Resistance of galvanometer. ‘The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer is Ig= nk, where m is the total number of divisions or the either side of zero of the galvanometer scale. ‘The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half deflection method 2S RS Gus) where R = Resistance introduced by high resistance box to produce deflection @. Resistance introduced by low resistance box to get half deflection 6/2. s pe CEDURE, woe (a) of galvanometer by half deflection method kK E the po ee 1. the circuit diagram as shown in figure and the fons accordingly. 7 2. See that 3. igh resis ive. ‘istance box R hg 4. Adj ion is/fnaximum, even in =) eae Fig. 6.1 Resistance of galvanometer ng the value of R, adjust the value of S, such that deflection in thx 8. Repeat steps 4 10 7 three ti ing out different values of R and adjusting S every time. (b). Figure of Merit : 5 ae ; its emf by a voltmeter by §, ———4]!|- ——— lue of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 divisions) When the circuit is closed. aoe Fig. 6.2 Figure of merit Scanned with CamScannerMean G = __ 9 ‘Table for k emf of the cells E ~ q ie 2. 3. 4 r 5. 1 Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n = ___ Ain Fe? LCULATION Calculation for G Cs 6. using foil, G = (85) amd ke mean of aus of pean rt using formula k = ——E__ and take mean of values of k The full scale deflection current = nk ‘ “ROO LT 1. The resistance G of galvanometer by half deflection methods is —__ 2, The full scale deflection current in galvanometer is Ig = ___ A. 3. The figure of merit (k) of the galvanometer is _______amp/div. CAUTIONS . All the connections should by neat, clean and tight. 2. Initially a high resistance from the resistance box should be introguced or else a small resistance can darsge th ‘galvanometer. 2 that the plugs of resistance box are tight, OF ERROR “The plugs of resistance box may not be clean. @ a Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerPAMLITLLL — Pp Scanned with CamScanner mere : To convert the given galvanometer (of known resistance and figure of merit) into an ammeter ay, Verify the same peers AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : A galvanometer, an ammeter of given range, a voltmeter, a bai of two cells, two resistance boxes, two one way keys, a rheostat, screw gauge, metre scale, connecting wires ») piece of sand paper _Aiivory + The resistance of galvanometer can be found out, using the formula :Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerCAUTION! {. All the connections should be neat, clean and tight, 2. The resistance box should be a high resistance one. 3. The emf of the cell or battery should be constant. 4. The diameter of the wire to be used for shunt resistance, should be measured accurately. 5. _Length of shunt wire used should be neither too small nor too large: ‘The ammeter used for verification should preferably be of the same range, as the range of conversion SOURCES OF ERROR 1, The screws of the instruments may be loose. 2. The emf of battery may not be constant. 3. The plug of resistance box may not be clean. 4. The galvanometer divisions may not have equal size Wau... 2 Scanned with CamScanneropTics Bieriment-1p OBJECTIVE : To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find its focal length APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : Optical bench, three uprights with provision for lateral movemer mirror holder, two pins, a knitting needle and a half metre scale THEORY : When a beam of light parallel to the principal axis falls on a concave mirror, it reflects the be which passes through the focus. The nature and the size of image depends on where the object is placed in front of concave mirror. For calculating the focal length of the mirror, using formula, -L- = 1-4 f- we have f =v where, f = focal length of concave mirror. 1u = distance of the object needle from the pole of the mirror. y= distance of the image needle from the pole of the mirror. [Note : According 10 sign convention u and v have negative values. Hence, f comes negative]. PROCEDURE feat Mix Scanned with CamScannerWeng 2 the bg ont v / The focal length of the given concave mirror = _em. PRECAUTIONS 1, The pole of the mirror and the tips of the needles should be at the same height. {The upright should be placed vertical on the optical bench. \,, 3: Index correction should be applied. ; 4, Tip to tip parallax should be removed between image needle I and object needle O. Fi a eye should be at least 30 cm away from the image needle, «pats or on 1. The optical bench may not be horizontal. “2, The needles are not at the same height. 3. Parallax are not removed. 4, Index corrections are not properly applied. ‘5. The calibration of optical bench may not be uniform. avis! 6+ The upright may not be vertical. ne eee ipal Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScanner‘9, Find the index correction between the mit OBSERVATIONS eM and, == Table for Focal Length of Convex Mirror PeAcULATIONS Mean focal length of convex mirror recorded from observation table. BESULT The Socal length of the given convex mirror is "AUTIONS, 1, The uprights should be vertical (use spirit level to make the optical bench horizontal). 2, The tip of the needle, centre of the mirror and centre of the lens should be at the same height. 3. Keep your eye at least 30 cm away from the image needle to view the image clearly. 4. Tip to tip parallax should be removed. 5. Index correction should be applied to R, the radius of curvature of the mirror. 6. The convex mirror should be placed close to the convex lens. a place the object needle closer than the rough focal length of the lens. This will produce a virtual image. om. {CES OF ERROR 1. There may be some error due to spherical aberration between lens and mirror. 2. The parallex removed may not be perfect. 3. Focal length of lens may not be small. 4. The uprights may not be vertical. etree ocala ne eee Scanned with CamScannerae 1 To find the focal length of a convex lens by ploting graphs between u and v or DARYEER UE, APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : An optical bench, tree uprights, a convex lens, a Tes ROME, tw .. a knitting needle and a metre scale. LY : When a ray of light, parallel to the principle axis is incident on a Jens, after refraction, it passes through, {hve focus or appears to pass through the focus. In the case of a convex lens, the nature and size of the image depends oo the position of the object. ‘The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is — where f = focal length of convex lens u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens y = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens re According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, f comes positive. image of a distant object (say a tree) on a wall or'@ imate focal length of a lens. 2, Clamp the lens with holder mark on the optical bench. Keep upright 3. Adjust the Jens such that its surface is Vi Pe . Find the distance between the lens and the Scanned with CamScannerPosition of 1 1 Ww |v S.No. | Lens | Object Pin 1) (exn-t)| (ome Bien) |" -0 (am (em=')\(em™)) (em) 1 2: Bf 4 oe TIONS v Graph : Select a suitable scale and plot the graph between w and v Draw u on-ve x-axis and v on +ve y-axis. The graph is shown in figure. ‘Mean f e - Fig. 3.1 Graph between u and v y Scanned with CamScannertreme ene snneanngs gare se satin # 200 | Ee ili | ULT : The focal length of given convex lens using 1. Calculated value off = em 2. Fromu-v graph, f m= cm 3. From 1-1 graph, f = m= cm papcacrions ~~ Tips of the object and image needle should lie at the same height as the centre of the lens. 2. Parallax should be removed by keeping tip to tip at least 30 cm from the eye. 3. The uprights should be vertical. 4. Proper index correction for u and v should be applied. 5 be placed at such a distance thatthe image formed by needle is real and inverted SOURCES OF ERROR Parallax removal may not be perfect. 2. The upright may not be vertical. 3. The optical bench may not be horizontal. 4. The scale chosen on the graph may not be accurate. Scanned with CamScannerScanned with CamScannerFig. 5.1 Ray incident on the prism PROCEDURE Fix a white sheet on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins. Draw a line XX’ with pencil (Iengthw so that it divides the sheet into two parts. Place the prism on the paper and mark its bound face of the prism. Draw a line PQ making an 5. Draw a graph between i and D and find the ‘of mipimum deviation D,, from the graph. (VATIONS Scanned with CamScannera graph between angle of incidence < i and angle of deviation Z D by taking Z i along X-axis and 2D along . The graph is shown in ‘ a aed ees figure. From this graph, find the value of angle of minimum deviation D,, corresponding ak fmt) Fig. 5.3 Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation Let — of angle of minimum deviation, D,, degree D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D) first deer ‘minimum value (D,.) and then again starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence. 2. Refractive index of the material of the prism. a Fons of minimum deviation, D, = ____— degree. "AUTIONS 1. The distance between two pins should not be less than 10 mm. 2. Angle of incidence should lie between 35° and 60° 3. Sharp pencil should be used to draw ray diagram. 4. The arrow head should be marked for incident and emergent rays. ee 5. The pins should be fixed verticaly. 6. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations, _Soaees oF ERROR © Pin pricks may be thick. Derr tnay be thick. : Ny 3. Measurement of angle may be wrong. : 4. The prism may not be clear and clean. ii Scanned with CamScanner+ To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope. ARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : A glass slab, a travelling microscope, fine chalk (or Saw dust) 1a vertical seale. It can be moved up ¥Y : Travelling microscope is a compound microscope fitted vertically on the reading is taken by combining down, carrying a vernier scale moving along the main scale. In any position, in scale and vernier scale reading. ‘As a consequence of refraction, the depth of an object lying inside an optically denser ‘medium appears less than the real depth as shown in diagram. ‘AO = real depth and ‘AL = apparent depth We know that: Sini ight waveling fom denser © rarer medium) in ri z BUAACAB © AB: Fig. 6.1 Refraction of tight sini =AB, Sine =p Put the values in above formula OB or ot But if / and r are small OB = OA and IB = AT OA __teal 2 in Sh eB Scanned with CamScanner7 ratio RB ‘of the travelling microscope accurately. ane re ncope srew shuld be moved only in one direction to avoid backlash error. 3. The layer ofthe lycopodium powder should be very fine. “4. The powder should be spread on the top of the slab. 5. Microscope tube should be vertical. ‘6. The microscope should be carefully focussed . a Scanned with CamScannerTo draw the I-V characteristic curve of a p-n junction in forward-bias and reverse-bias AND MATERIALS REQUIRED : A one 5 volt voltmeter, 5, Sand paper A p-n junction is a semiconductor device obtained by putting in contact a p-type semiconductor with ana - The one piece device so obtained is also called a junction diode. diode can be biased in two different ways : Dbiasing : With the forward bias to the p-n junction (ie. p-region connected to +ve terminal and n-regio ‘to -ve terminal of the battery) very little current, called the forward ‘current, flows until the forward voltag, the junction barrier potential (0.3V for Ge and 0.7 V for Si). The characteristic follows an exponential law. A’ voltage is increased, to the knee of the characteristic, the barrier potential is progressively reduced to 210, allowing more and more majority charge carriers to flow across the junction. Beyond the knee of the characteristic, the potential barrier is completely eliminated, forward current increases almost linearly with the increase in forward voltage and the p-n junction starts behaving as a resistor. If the forward voltage is increased beyond a certain value, éxtremely large current will flow and the p-n junction may get destroyed due to over a Pah P-n junction diode, a 5 volt battery, a 30 volt battery, a hig One 0-30 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA, one 0-100 4A ammeter, one Way ke) Scanned with CamScanner0 02 04 06 08 10 ig. The forward volt-ampere characteristics of a germanium {(1N270) and a silicon (1N3605) diode at 25°C. bias is applied (i.e. when p-region is connected to the negative bias terminal and bias terminal) as shown in figure, the potential barrier at junction is increased, ‘becomes very high and there is no possibility of a majority carriers flowing across a Scanned with CamScanner55 CALZCLATIONS Graph (for Forward bias) : Plot a graph between forward voltage (V,) along X-axis and forward current (1) along Y- axis fig. 1. (b) Graph (for Reverse-bias) : Plot a graph between reverse voltage (V,) with reverse current (I,) taking V, along X-axis and I, along Y-axis fig. 2. ° Vi—= favo Ww fig. 1 fig. 2 ard bias and reverse bias characteristics are drawn in figure. should be neat, clean and tight. nstruments must be of proper range. ed when the circuit is used and opened when the circuit is not used. ying forward bias and reverse bias voltage beyond breakdown. / not be tight. may not be properly calibrated Scanned with CamScanner