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Unraveling the Classic Proportions Through the Anthropometric Analysis of

the Architectural Heritage. The Case of the Pantheon

Conference Paper · October 2015

DOI: 10.1109/DigitalHeritage.2015.7419451

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 Unraveling the Classic Proportions Through the
Anthropometric Analysis of the Architectural
Heritage
The Case of the Pantheon
Francisco J. Roldán-Medina
UGR
Granada, Spain
froldan@ugr.es
Abstract— Previous results of this research allow to raise the
Hypothesis that a simple metric law is sufficient to justify the
different dimensions of the various parts composing ancient
architectural constructions, from its general layout to every
single detail. This Hypothesis is based on the observation that any
modulation in historic buildings match with the sides and
diagonals of human-sized square pattern, and its duodecimal
divisions. However, it´s not possible to match exclusively to the
side-square scale, because the Side-Diagonal Dual Scale is
necessary, and is sufficient. The analysis of scientific surveys with
digital precision led to find the serendipity beyond the current
state of the art demonstrating the compliance with this law in
architectural works of very different historical periods. This
research deals with the study of the Pantheon through the survey
of the Bern Digital Pantheon Project. It is highlighted that from
the obtained results, in addition to the compliance of the
Principle of Proportionality proposed, the Pantheon presents
similar modular patterns to those detected in other examples.
Knowledge of this common System of Proportions used in the
past could represent a scientific breakthrough or new paradigm
in the study and preservation of architectural heritage.
Index Terms— Geometry, Modular Construction, Metrology,
Dimensional Coordination, Measuring Device, Side-Diagonal
Dual Scale.
I. INTRODUCTION
The interest in quantifying the proportions of the past
constructions comes from the beginning of time, and increased
with the aim of commensuration in the Renaissance. Both
Francois Blondel (1618-1686) and Giuseppe Ercolani (1672-
1759) raised logical schemes and laws to numerically express
examples of classical architecture, including the Pantheon.
Since then, and within the theoretical field, there have been
many different proposals and hypotheses that have tried to
justify the measures or proportions of these works. In addition
to the rational grids from the so called Numerical School, there
have been geometric proposals as the Golden Ratio (divine),
Silver Ratio (sacred), the Cordoba Ratio, triangles of different
types, numerical series derived from classical proportions,
musical harmonies, regulating lines, optical corrections, ...[1].
978-1-5090-0048-7/15/$31.00 ©2015 IEEE
In any case there are large gaps regarding the question of
measurement in the past [2]. All written sources and extensive
historiography of Theories of Proportion are, to some extent
contradictory and impractical [3], therefore we considered that
it would be best to return to the original source in question (the
historical buildings) to study its dimension by applying the
gained scientific advances.
II. METHODOLOGY: THE PRINCIPLE OF
PROPORTIONALITY
Considering the background, the use of high quality
surveys for metric analysis, with the precision that allows the
current digital technology, on architectural work, appears as the
best scientific approach to address the issue in the XXI century.
The detailed study of a single building -the Cuarto Real de
Santo Domingo de Granada (Spain)-, based on the
photogrammetric survey carried out by Antonio Almagro and
Antonio Orihuela [4], enabled a deduction of a curious and
practical modular principle justifying all dimensions (Fig. 1).
This Modular System uses a range of measures with
duodecimal base (anthropometric units known as fathom, yard,
cubit, foot, palm ...), as well as another proportional series
based on the diagonal of the square[5]. Therefore the ratio
between the two series is the square root of two (√2 ≈ 1.4).
Thus, resulting in a square as unique geometric pattern, that
can be properly compose all Ad Quadratum classic designs of
this Moorish building, based on the geometry of the octagon
(e.g. coffered ceiling). In addition, it can generate other types
of modular frames formed by squares, rectangles √2, silver
rectangles, and their triangle shapes, to which all other
elements (e.g. alicer) are adapted with acute fitness [6].
To jointly use two proportional scales according to the side
and diagonal of the square constitutes a highly efficient
modular system (Fig. 2). It takes advantage of numerous
mathematical and geometric resources, while providing nearly
unlimited design possibilities.
These two scales are used independently to generate grids
in static design, or can be used in combination to produce bi-
scalar dynamic frames.
Fig. 1. Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo. Granada (Spain). a) Almizate (coffered ceiling). b) Alicer
Fig. 2. Modular System of Side-Diagonal Dual Scale
 In addition to the fractional approximations of √2, known
and exploited since ancient times, to correlate the two scales
(7/5, 10/7, 17/12, ...), the dynamic combination allows one to
obtain very good approximations of fractions not present in the
duodecimal system (1/5, 1/7, ...) and other irrational values
used in architecture as √3, √5, the number of gold or π. Errors
will always be less than if it use any fractional approximation.
Most importantly, the use of a simple square completely
eliminates the need for any arithmetical calculus [7].
These dynamic combinations also enable the approximation
of overall dimensions determined by different modular
procedures. The differences or irrational remainder (residues)
accumulate symmetrically at the end, generally forming an
unadorned framework. Therefore, throughout the main plot of
a work can integrate other geometrically incompatible frames,
provided that the same module and the dual system of units are
used [8].
Once analyzed with the same methodology, surprisingly it
has been verified that the same Principle of Proportionality of
Nasrid Palace appears in numerous other architectural works
going back to the early history. Astonishingly, all of the results
point to a possible universal validity of this Principle of
Proportionality [9].
By comparing the obtained results in the different
architectural works analyzed, it has been possible to deduce
other common rules and standards in the modulation of
buildings that could have been used since ancient times. Most
significant is the Principle of Hierarchy, which is suggested by
the results of the conducted research. This implicates a
concrete disposition of the modules of the diagonal series in the
general floor design of the building.
Based on the Principle of Proportionality, the proportions
between the distinct parts of the work can be deduced, until
completing the overall dimensions of the modular frame. By
adjusting this theoretical frame to the real greater
measurement, you obtain the modular unit of the construction.
With this value and the Side-Diagonal Dual Scale, the sizes of
the secondary elements of the original construction must also
be justified, using digital analysis and/or through direct
measurements with a double graduation ruler, built to scale.
To the present, metric rules, that were used to construct
magnificent buildings in the past, have not been exactly
elucidated. However, it is generally accepted that our ability to
preserve the architectural heritage in the future depends a great
deal on our capacity to understand how the buildings were
constructed. And this means knowing exactly what metric rules
were used.
III. RESULTS
Presented below is a selection of all numerical and
graphical results obtained in the anthropometric analysis of the
Pantheon.
Graphically, the module (fathom) is represented by a full
square, while halves and quarters (yards and cubits) are
represented by triangles (half squares). Numerically, frequent
dynamic modulations require pairs of integer values for proper
numeric expression, so the binomial notation (sides + diagonal)
is used.
A. The module of the Pantheon
The analysis of the Bern Digital Pantheon Project survey
[10] leads to recompose the modular frame of the Roman
temple based on a square module of side 171.89 cm (243.09
cm diagonal), and their halves and quarters (Fig. 4c).
B. The dynamic compositions of the portico
The porticos of historical buildings often present dynamic
modulations. The hollow-solid pattern in proportion side-
diagonal is repeated in the elevation of the frescoes of the
Painted Temple at Tell-Uqair, in the temple of Seti I at
Abydos, or the Parthenon at Athens (Fig. 3).
Also in the case of the portico of the Pantheon a dynamic
combination of modules is used (Fig. 4). Thus the separations
among column bases always match to one diagonal module
(√2), except in the center hole where the separation coincides
with (2+√2)/2. The side of each base is (1+√2)/2 (207.49 cm),
thus the wheelbase of columns is (1+3√2)/2 (450.58 m) except
in the central hole that is (3+2√2)/2.
The 8 columns of the portico in this way reach a front of
(10+21√2)/2, giving 3411.89 cm. The exedras diameter is
2+√2, the pilasters have 1 width, and the vaulted access to the
doorsill of the temple has 3 more. The depth of the portico is
(1+9√2)/2 (2039.30 cm). The platform that surrounds this
element is √2 wide.
Dynamic composition also occurs in the elevation of the
portico. The analysis reveals that the height of the column shaft
is 4+2√2 (1173.74 cm), and those of capitel coincide with
1unit. At the top, the remaining heights are determined by
regular scale of the side.
The thickness of the entablature, pediment and interior
arches is √2/2 (121.54 cm).
The heights of the walls of the drum are 17½, divided by
imposts of 7 and 12½ height.
C. The inner sphere
The study shows that the diameter of the spherical space
inside the Pantheon is set to 18 diagonal modules (18√2),
giving 4375.61 cm.
This finding adjusts to the custom of sizing of the temple
axis by means of diagonal modules, where the most sacred
places (altars, tabernacles) are found. This fact has already
been observed in other temples such as the Painted Temple
(Fig. 3.a).
The oculus reaches a height of 25 above the inner floor and
the center of the sphere 12½.
The thickness of the wall of the drum is justified as 5-√2
(616.36 cm), interesting dynamic combination that yields an
outer diameter of 10+16√2 (5608.33 cm).
Fig. 3. a) Painted Temple at Tell-Uqair. b) Temple of Seti I at Abydos. c) Parthenon at Athens
Fig. 4. Pantheon. a) Section. b) Floor plan. c) Units
Fig. 5. Dome of Pantheon
D. The coffered dome
The distribution of the chapels inside the Pantheon
responds to a geometric binary division of a circle into 32
equal parts, 8 per quadrant. In cross-section (Fig. 5) it is
detected that the central opening of the dome corresponds
substantially to 2 units coming out of these divisions, and the
solid part to another 2 divisions. In the lightened area 5 coffers
are distributed in the other 5 divisions, which practically
coincide with the centers of the lower 4 coffers.
However, the horizontal projection of the dome reveals that
the vertical nerves in the lightened area respond to a
distribution of the circle divided into 28 equal parts, 7 per
quadrant. Therefore they could use the approximation 28/9 to
the value of π (error -0.97%), and with a diameter of 18√2, the
circumference is divided into 56√2 (14√2 per quadrant),
corresponding to the base of each coffers with 2 of these
divisions.
The vertical nerves have a variable section. The horizontal
projection shows that while one side of each nerve has radial
alignment, the other side does not converge with the centre of
the composition. This is just one of various visual effects that
are employed, and can be explained when each nerve has a
thickness of (1+√2)/4 in the lower end (103.74 cm), and at its
upper end measures (2+√2)/8 from the radial side (73.36 cm).
These two alignments, one radial and one divergent, also
determine the parallel stagger of the coffers, with a thickness of
√2/8 each (30.39 cm).
IV. CONCLUSIONS
The Hypothesis is that a simple metric law (based on the
Principle of Proportionality between the side and the diagonal
of a square of anthropometric scale) is sufficient to justify the
different dimensions of architectural constructions of the past
(from the general planning up to every single detail). The
system of anthropometric analysis that allow the Hypothesis
has been applied to the research of very different historical
buildings, and so far, the obtained results do not allow to reject
this Hypothesis. To the contrary, they point out the possibility
of a universal validity of the Principle of Proportionality.
The formulated system is consistent with the knowledge
available in ancient times by using low integer numbers and
common anthropometric sizes. It uses simple tools and graphic
resources that are well documented historically. This
constitutes a simple, practical and efficient system of modular
coordination, which permits the justification of the different
sizes of each work based on a reference measure.
Despite the fact that no written source has been preserved
giving explicit reference to this law, and nor previous notion in
the state of the art of the research on architectural heritage, all
buildings analysed from different eras and cultures, as in the
case the Pantheon, indeed conform to this simple Principle of
Proportionality.
The observed universality in the use of a Side-Diagonal
Dual Scale seems surprising at first. Nevertheless, due to its
simplicity and practical effectiveness, it could be key to
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unravel the system of proportions that allowed designing and
building architectural works of great complexity in the past.
From this research approach, the usefulness of the proposed
system to identify the exact measurement units which were
used to design and the construction of buildings in the past has
been experimentally demonstrated. As usual, it occurs when an
answer is found, other questions arise that must be answered in
future attempts:
- Was the use of the Side-Diagonal Dual Scale really so
generalized in the past?
- And if so, when did this architectural rule stop being used,
and therefore forgotten?
To continue the research, mobilizing human and knowledge
resources enough to get funding, by preparing successful
proposals to H2020 calls, are needed. This contribution
towards this goal is aimed at this Digital Heritage meeting in
Granada. All of you who may be interested here and beyond
are invited to collaborate.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Thanks to all my colleagues who are not mentioned here
those have been my sponsors indeed for directing me in the
right direction towards. And explicit thanks to the consortium
ACTIS (Actions for Cooperation, Technology and Innovation
Support) of the EEN (Enterprise Europe Network) for
providing support to search international partners interested to
participate in Horizon 2020 Proposals.
http://www.infoactis.es/.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Lawlor, Sacred geometry: philosophy and practice. New
York: Thames and Hudson, 1989.
[2] W. Kula, Las medidas y los hombres. Siglo XXI, 1980.
[3] R. Wittkower, La arquitectura en la edad del Humanismo.
Buenos Aires: Nueva Visión, 1968.
[4] A. Almagro Gorbea and A. Orihuela Uzal, “Propuesta de
intervención en el Cuarto Real de Santo Domingo (Granada)”,
in Loggia: Arquitectura y restauración 4, 1997, pp.22-29.
[5] F. Roldán, La escuadra sagrada. Madrid: Bubok Publishing,
2011.
[6] F. Roldán, “Modulación, tipología de tramas y ajuste a los
límites en la metrología arquitectónica clásica”, in EGA: Revista
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[7] F. Roldán, "Combinación de módulos en la metrología clásica.
Combining classical metrology models", in VAR: Virtual
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[8] F. Roldán, “Method of Modulation and Sizing of Historic
Architecture”, in Nexus Network Journal, 14(3), 2012, pp.539-
553.
[9] F.J. Roldán Medina, Principios de metrología en la arquitectura
del pasado. Granada: UGR, 2014.
[10] G. Graßhoff, M. Heinzelmann, N. Theocharis, and M. Wäfler,
Digital Repository of the Bern Digital Pantheon Project. 2009,
http://www.digitalpantheon.ch/repository. Last accessed
30.05.2014