Quantum Sensing

1. The field of quantum sensing deals with the design and engineering of quantum sources
(e.g., entangled) and quantum measurements that are able to beat the performance of any classical
strategy in a number of technological applications. This can be done with photonic systems or solid
state systems. Quantum sensing is typically used to describe one of the following:

(a) Use of a quantum object to measure a physical quantity (classical or quantum). The
quantum object is characterized by quantized energy levels. Specific examples include
electronic, magnetic or vibrational states of superconducting or spin qubits, neutral atoms, or
trapped ions.

(b) Use of quantum coherence (i.e., wavelike spatial or temporal superposition states) to
measure a physical quantity.

(c) Use of quantum entanglement to improve the sensitivity or precision of a

measurement, beyond what is possible classically.

Quantum sensors

2. A set of four necessary attributes is listed for a quantum system to function as a quantum
sensor.
(a) The quantum system has discrete, resolvable energy that are separated by a
transition energy E = ℏω0

(b) It must be possible to initialize the quantum system into a well-known state and to
read out its state.

(c) The quantum system can be coherently manipulated, typically by time-dependent

fields.
(d) The quantum system interacts with a relevant physical quantity V(t), such as an
electric or magnetic field. The interaction is quantified by a coupling or transduction
parameter which relates changes in the transition energy E to changes in the external
parameter V.

3. In photonics and quantum optics, photonic quantum sensing leverages entanglement, single
photons and squeezed states to perform extremely precise measurements. Optical sensing makes use of
continuously variable quantum systems such as different degrees of freedom of the electromagnetic field,
vibrational modes of solids, and Bose–Einstein condensates. These quantum systems can be probed to
characterize an unknown transformation between two quantum states.

4. Quantum sensing can also be utilized in non-photonic areas such as spin qubits, trapped ions, flux
qubits, and nanoparticles. These systems can be compared by physical characteristics to which they
respond, for example, trapped ions respond to electrical fields while spin systems will respond to magnetic
fields.

5. In solid-state physics, a quantum sensor is a quantum device that responds to a stimulus. Usually
this refers to a sensor that, which has quantized energy levels, uses quantum coherence to measure a
physical quantity, or uses entanglement to improve measurements beyond what can be done with classical
sensors.
6. An overview of most important experimental implementations of quantum sensors is
tabulated below:-

TABLE I. Experimental implementations of quantum sensors.

Implementation Qubit(s) Measured quantity(ies) Typical frequency Initalization Readout Typea

Neutral atoms
Atomic vapor Atomic spin Magnetic field, rotation, dc-GHz Optical Optical II, III
time/frequency
Cold clouds Atomic spin Magnetic field, dc-GHz Optical Optical II, III
acceleration,
time/frequency
Trapped ion(s)
Long-lived Time/frequency THz Optical Optical II, III
electronic state Rotation Optical Optical II
Vibrational mode Electric field, force MHz Optical Optical II
Rydberg atoms
Rydberg states Electric field dc, GHz Optical Optical II, III
Solid-state spins (ensembles)
NMR sensors Nuclear spins Magnetic field dc Thermal Pick-up coil II
NVb center Electron spins Magnetic field, dc-GHz Optical Optical II
ensembles electric field,
temperature,
pressure, rotation
Solid-state spins (single spins)
P donor in Si Electron spin Magnetic field dc-GHz Thermal Electrical II
Semiconductor Electron spin Magnetic field, dc-GHz Electrical, Electrical, optical I, II
quantum dots electric field optical
Single NVb center Electron spin Magnetic field, dc-GHz Optical Optical II
electric field,
temperature,
pressure, rotation
Superconducting circuits
SQUIDc Supercurrent Magnetic field dc-GHz Thermal Electrical I, II
Flux qubit Circulating currents Magnetic field dc-GHz Thermal Electrical II
Charge qubit Charge eigenstates Electric field dc-GHz Thermal Electrical II
Elementary particles
Muon Muonic spin Magnetic field dc Radioactive Radioactive II
decay decay

Neutron Nuclear spin Magnetic field, dc Bragg scattering Bragg scattering II

phonon density,
gravity

Other sensors
SETd Charge eigenstates Electric field dc-MHz Thermal Electrical I
Optomechanics Phonons Force, acceleration, kHz–GHz Thermal Optical I
mass, magnetic
field, voltage

Interferometer Photons, (atoms, Displacement, ·· · II, III

molecules) refractive index

a
Sensor type refers to the three definitions of quantum sensing at Para 1.
b
NV: nitrogen vacancy.
c
SQUID: superconducting quantum interference device.
d
SET: single electron transistor
Applications

It is possible to make a quantum sensor which is sensitive to pretty much anything

that affects atoms or electrons. The table below shows where these sensors are
likely to be useful.