Module 2 Unit 1-3 Merged

MODULE 2 IN
CLINICAL BACTERIOLOGY
MLS 223

SCHOOL OF NATURAL SCIENCES
Department of Medical Laboratory Science

Prepared by:
Kathyren C. Estimada, RMT, MSMT
Arlene A. Mangiduyos, RMT

By the end of the module, you should be able to:

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
PropertY of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or 1
transmitting in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document,
without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY
1. describe the structure and function of the various components of a bacterial

cell and how they are differentiated from eukaryotic cell.
2. compare the various shapes and arrangements of bacterial cells.
3.describe the process of bacterial growth.
4. describe the various nutritional and environmental requirements for bacterial

growth; and to classify bacteria on the basis of their growth requirements.
5. discuss the concepts of bacterial genetics and compare mechanisms of

genetic exchange and recombination in bacteria.
MODULE 2
INTRODUCTION TO BACTERIOLOGY
Unit 1:
Bacterial Morphology and Cytology
Unit Learning Outcomes:
1. Describe the structure and function of the various components of a composite

bacteria cell.
2. Compare and contrast the overall structure of bacteria (prokaryotes) from the
eukaryotes.
3. Compare the various shapes and arrangements of bacterial cells.
Engage
Bacteria are unicellular prokaryotic organisms that carry out all cellular functions as
individual units. These biological functions are performed by mechanisms that are
strikingly similar to those of individual cells that compose bodies of multicellular
eukaryotes, such as plants and animals. From the previous unit modules, can you recall
key features that distinguish bacteria from eukaryotes?
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Explore
The general shape of individual bacterium is usually discernible with light microscope.
Bacteria are differentiated into major categories based on such microscopic
observations.
At one time, it was thought that bacteria were simply “bags of enzymes” with no
inherent cellular architecture. Unlike the larger features of eukaryotic cells, the bacterial
structures are difficult or impossible to distinguish using light microscopy. The
development of electron microscopes in the 1950s revealed distinct anatomical
features of bacteria.
The anatomical structures of bacteria in relation to their function, adaptation and
behavior in natural environments will be discussed in this module unit. Some of the
common structures found in an idealized bacterial cell will be examined, as no single
species contains all the structures.
Explain
BACTERIAL MORPHOLOGY
Bacteria are characterized and grouped reflecting on morphological properties such
as cell size, cell shape and the manner in which similar cells are arranged, and staining
characteristics.
A. SIZE. Bacteria vary in size. Most bacteria range from 0.2 to 2.0 µm in diameter and
from 2 to 8 µm in length.
B. SHAPES AND ARRANGEMENTS. Most bacteria have a defined shape that falls into
one of the three (3) basic shapes: (1) cocci, (2), bacilli, and (3) spiral bacteria. If the
cells remain attached after division, certain cell groupings result. It depends on the
plane of division and the number of divisions through which the cells remain
attached. The bacterial shape and cell grouping are determined by heredity. These
characteristics give some clue as to the identity of a bacterium.
1. Cocci (sing. coccus; meaning berries) are usually spherical-shaped but

can be oval, elongated, or flattened on one side. They generally appear
in groups formed by incomplete separation of cells during division.
a. Diplococci are cocci that remain in

pairs after division of a bacterial cell
in one plane.
b. Streptococci are cocci in chain-like

patterns following division in one
plane.
c. Tetrads are cocci in groups of four

resulting from division of bacterial cell
in two planes.
d. Sarcinae are cocci in cube-like

groups of eight produced when
bacterial cell divides in three planes.
e. Staphylococci (staphyle, bunch of Cocci.

grapes) are cocci in grapelike Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C.
L., Weber, D., & Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology:
clusters that form when bacterial cell An introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle
divides in multiple planes. River: Pearson.
2. Bacilli (sing. bacillus; meaning little staffs) are rod-shaped. Some bacilli are
characteristically long and slender. Others are oval and look so much like
cocci that they are called coccobacilli. Bacilli divide only across their
short axis, so there are fewer groupings of
bacilli than of cocci.
a. Single rods as in most bacilli.
b. Diplobacilli appear in pairs after

division.
c. Streptobacilli occur in chains.
d. Cuneiforms are bacilli that are

arranged in angular patterns that
look like Chinese letter" or in "X, Y, V,
and L" configuration. These result
from the snapping of the bacterial Bacilli.
cell, i.e., they bend at the point of Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C.
L., Weber, D., & Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology:
division. (e.g., Corynebacterium An introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle
diphtheriae) River: Pearson.
e. Palisades are bacilli in "picket

fence" or cigar packet
arrangement. This is due to the
slipping (sliding) of the bacterial
cells during division so they become (a) Cuneiforms. (b) Palisades.
side-by-side each other.
Notes of interest.
• "Bacillus" has two meanings in microbiology. As was just used,
bacillus refers to a bacterial shape. When capitalized and italicized
(or underlined), it refers to a specific genus. For example, the
bacterium Bacillus anthracis is the causative agent of anthrax.
3. Spirals are bacteria have one or more twists;

they are never straight.
a. Vibrios are rods that are curved into

a form resembling a comma.
b. Spirilla (sing. spirillum) have a helical

(i.e., coiling) shape, like a corkscrew,
and fairly rigid bodies.
c. Spirochetes are helical and flexible. Spiral bacteria.

Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case,
C. L., Weber, D., &Source: Talaro, K. P., &
Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in
Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology: An introduction
Notes of interest.
• Genetically, most bacteria are monomorphic (mono, one; morph, form) that
is, they maintain a single shape. However, a number of environmental
conditions can alter that shape. If the shape is altered, identification
becomes difficult.
• Other bacteria are genetically pleomorphic (pleo, many; morph, form),
which means they can have many shapes, not just one, such as the
Corynebacterium species.
BACTERIAL CYTOLOGY
Structurally, the bacterial cell has three (3) architectural

regions:
(1) cell envelope
(2) appendages
(3) cytoplasmic region
A typical bacterial cell.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018).
Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.).
A. CELL ENVELOPE
The cell envelope is a descriptive term for the structure

that encloses the cytoplasm of the cell. It is described as a
stratified structure as it consists of several layers — the cell
membrane, cell wall, and the glycocalyx. All cells have The bacterial cell envelope.
cell membrane. Almost all bacteria have a cell wall. Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018).
Outside the cell wall, in some bacteria, is the glycocalyx. Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.).
McGraw Hill.
As the outer wrapping of the cell, it is essentially a
protective unit.
1. CELL MEMBRANE, also called the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic

membrane, is a thin, delicate membrane surrounding the cytoplasm and
separating it from the environment.
a. Structure of the cell membrane:
i. Phospholipid molecules comprise about 40% of the cell

membranes and form a bilayer, with the polar, hydrophilic
glycerol “head” oriented towards the outside and attached to
two non-polar hydrophobic fatty acid “tails” towards the inner
core.
ii. Proteins, about 60% of the cell membranes, are dispersed within
the phospholipid bilayer. They may be associated with one side
or another, or may span the bilayer as channels from outside to
inside of the cell. Proteins that make up the bacterial cell
membrane may be structural or enzymatic which carry out
most of the membrane functions.
The arrangement of the lipids and proteins to form a membrane is

called the fluid mosaic model. The molecules are permanently built
into the bilayer or transiently as they can move laterally along the
surface. The model suggests that the cell membrane is the most
dynamic structure of the cell, constantly changing character
because the phospholipid flows and the proteins migrate freely
about.
The fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. The phospholipids form a bilayer in which the hydrophobic
tails form the central core and the hydrophilic heads form the surfaces that face both the interior of the cell and
the outside environment. In this fluid bilayer, proteins float like icebergs. Some extend through the bilayer;
others are anchored to the inner or outer surface.
Source: Black, J. G. (2008). Microbiology: Principles and Explorations, 7th Edition (7th ed.). Hoboken, New Jersey:
John Wiley & Sons.
The bacterial cell membrane is structurally similar to the cell

membranes of eukaryotes, except that it does not normally contain
sterols. An exception are those cell wall-less bacteria under the
genus Mycoplasma whose cell membranes are considered unique
since it contains sterols that protect the cells form osmotic lysis.
b. Functions of the cell membrane:
i. Selective permeability. The most important function of the

plasma membrane is to serve as a selective barrier through
which materials enter and exit the cell. Cell membranes have
selective permeability (sometimes called semipermeability).
Semipermeability is the property of the cell membrane that
allow certain molecules to move through the membrane while
restricting others. Water molecules and uncharged molecules
with molecular weights of about 100 Daltons pass through the
cell membrane freely. The free movement of water through the
cell membrane from a region of lower solute concentration to
a region of higher solute concentration is also known as
osmosis. The uptake or loss of water depends on the its
concentration relative to that in the cytoplasm and on the
available space inside the cell.
Osmosis. The movement of water

from an area of higher water
concentration (the right side) to
an area of lower water
concentration (the left side)
through a semipermeable
membrane.
Source: Black, J. G. (2008).
Microbiology: Principles and
Explorations, 7th Edition (7th ed.).
Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley &
Sons.
In an isotonic medium, where the concentration of solutes is the

same inside and outside of the cell, water leaves and enters the
cell at the same rate. There is no net gain or loss of water, so the
cell will retain its original shape. In hypotonic medium, where
the solute concentration outside of the cell is lower than in the
inside of the cell, water enters the cell. A bacterium can
accumulate water only until its internal volume increases to the
limitation imposed by the non-expandable cell wall. In cells
without rigid cell wall, the pressure becomes very high that the
cell ruptures. The escape of cytoplasm from the cell is referred
to as plasmoptysis. In hypertonic medium, on the other hand,
where the solute concentration is higher outside of the cell,
water leaves the cell. In bacterial cells, this causes the cell
membrane and cytoplasm to shrink away from the cell wall, a
condition known as plasmolysis.
Source: Black, J. G. (2008). Microbiology: Principles and Explorations, 7th Edition (7th ed.).
Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
ii. Site of Transport System. The passage of solutes through the cell
membrane is mediated by the membrane proteins referred to
variously as carrier proteins or permeases; hence, it follows that
transport systems are carrier-mediated and show specificity for
the solute transported.
Movement Solute
Transport against Energy modified
systems among Comments
concentration expenditure during
bacteria gradient transport
The least common type of
Facilitated transport system in bacteria
Diffusion - - - (e.g., glycerol uniporter in E.
coli)
Used for transport of most
solutes like amino acids, ions,
and sugars
cytoplasm Used for accumulation of many

A Active Transport + + - ions, amino acids, or sugars
into the bacterium,
Transports at a rate faster that

diffusion alone.
Used primarily for transport of

sugars, e.g., glucose
specifically enters the channel
from outside, but in order to
enter the cytoplasm, it must be
Group
Translocation
+ + + sequentially converted into
pyruvic acid, which is the key
metabolic intermediate, then
bacteria process the pyruvic
B acid using a variety of
fermentation pathways.
iii. Site of energy generation. The cell membrane is the site of

oxidative phosphorylation in bacteria coupled with ATP
synthesis, analogous to the function of mitochondria in
eukaryotic cells.
iv. Site for biosynthesis. The cell membrane allows for production of
components that make up the bacterial cell wall and
appendages, including amino acids and carbohydrates.
A. Facilitated diffusion.
B. Active transport.
v. Specialized enzyme system. The cell membrane contains
C. Group translocation. enzymes involved in many metabolic processes such as cell
Source: Tille, P. M. (2017). wall synthesis, membrane synthesis, DNA replication, and many
Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic
Microbiology (14th ed.). St. others.
vi. Chemotaxis. One of the tactic behaviors (their ability to move/

swim in response to environmental stimuli) of bacteria is
facilitated by their cell membrane. The bacterial cell
membrane contains sensing proteins that can determine the
quality and quantity of certain chemicals in the environment
and swim towards them (if they are
useful nutrients, so called positive
chemotaxis) or away from them (if
they are harmful substances, called
negative chemotaxis). Other types of
tactic responses in bacteria:
phototaxis, aerotaxis, and
magnetotaxis. The occurrence of
tactic behavior provides the
evidence for the ecological
advantage (survival) in bacteria.
vii. Participates in reproduction which in bacteria, is cell division by binary
fission. Mesosomes, which are cytoplasmic invaginations of the cell
membrane in the form of stacks or vesicles, increase the surface area
of the cell membrane for specific enzymatic functions. During cell
division, mesosome coordinates DNA replication and segregation with
septum formation. It attaches the DNA where it is replicated; and
draws the 2 DNA molecules in opposite direction while the septum is
formed between the 2 chromosomal compartments. When septum
formation is complete, the cell splits into 2 progeny cells.
Mesosomes significantly increase the membrane surface area without

increasing the cell size, allowing the cell greater activity for respiration
and active transport.
viii. Site of antibiotic action. The cell membrane is particularly susceptible

to some antibiotics and chemical agents such as polymyxin and
detergents as well as alcohol. Polymyxin, a type of antibiotic pokes
holes in the lipid bilayer whereas alcohol and some detergents
dissolve the bilayer. This results to leaking out of the cytoplasmic
contents and eventually, death of the bacterial cell by lysis.
2. CELL WALL is rigid layer surrounding the cell membrane in most bacteria.
a. Structure of the cell wall:
The cell wall is a complex structure composed of several

substances. It strength is primarily due to the peptidoglycan (also
known as murein or mucopeptide), a substance that is found only
among bacteria.
Polymyxin B causes disruption

of bacterial cell membrane
resulting to cell lysis.
Source: Willey, J. M., Sherwood,
L., Woolverton, C. J., Prescott, L.
M., & Willey, J. M. (2011).
Prescott's Microbiology (7th ed.).
New York: McGraw-Hill.
The peptidoglycan is composed of carbohydrate (CHO) backbone

and peptide chains. The carbohydrate backbone is a polymer of
disaccharides — alternating units of N-acetylmuramic acid (NAM)
and N-acetylglucosamine (NAG). The peptide chain is composed
of 4 amino acids (hence, tetrapeptide) attached to the NAM.
The structure of peptidoglycan backbone.
A single layer of peptidoglycan is a network of adjacent sugar
chains bound together through the peptide chains, thus making a
cross-linked structure that covers the entire cell.
‣ GRAM-POSITIVE CELL WALL
A detailed structure of gram-positive cell wall.

Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw
Hill.
i. Peptidoglycan
The gram-positive cell
wall consists of several
layers of
peptidoglycan (20-80
nm thick) — which
comprise 60 - 100% of
the cell wall. Within Representation of the peptidoglycan
each l a y e r s , cross-linked structure in gram-positive
bacteria.
backbones are
extensively cross-linked
through the tetrapeptide chains by amino acid
bridges (Interpeptide bridge; pentaglycine).
The thickness and extensive cross-linking within

each layer contributes to the cell wall strength.
ii. Teichoic acid (TA)

TA are polymers of ribitol phosphate and glycerol
phosphate. Cell wall teichoic acid maybe of two
types — membrane teichoic acid and wall
teichoic acid. Membrane TA may be anchored to
the cell membrane lipids, hence are called
lipoteichoic acid (LTA). Wall TA on the other hand
covalently links to the NAM of the cell wall. TA are
the major surface antigens of the gram-positive
cell wall. Antigens stimulate the host immune
system to make antibodies.
‣ GRAM-NEGATIVE CELL WALL
A detailed structure of gram-negative cell wall.

Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw
Hill.
i. Peptidoglycan
The gram-negative cell
wall has a single layer
of peptidoglycan
which is about 10 nm
thick only, or that is,
10-20% of the cell wall.
The tetrapeptide chain
may be linked to one
another by interpeptide Representation of the peptidoglycan
bond between the cross-linked structure in gram-negative
bacteria.
amino acids of of
adjacent backbones.
This structure of gram-negative cell walls make

them more fragile than its gram-positive
counterpart.
ii. Outer membrane

The peptidoglycan is surrounded by a
membranous structure called the outer
membrane (OM), which is the major permeability
barrier to hydrophobic molecules in the gram-
negative bacteria. The OM is a phospholipid-
protein bilayer similar to the cell membrane,
except that it contains specialized
polysaccharides and proteins.
The inner leaflet of the OM consists of

phospholipids and proteins.
- Braun lipoproteins, anchor the OM with
the underlying peptidoglycan, thus
stabilizing the cell wall.
- Porin proteins completely span the outer

membrane and form pores of fixed
diameter, and act as transmembrane
channels to allow the passage of small
hydrophilic molecules, such as sugars.
The OM protects gram-negative
bacteria from the effects of
antipeptidoglycan chemicals such as
lysozyme or the antibiotic penicillin.
The outer leaflet of the OM contains

phospholipids but mainly lipopolysaccharides.
Lipopolysaccharides (LPS), LPS consists of lipid A
covalently linked to a polysaccharide.
- Lipid A is commonly referred to as

endotoxin because it is an integral part
(endo, within) of the cell wall, but when
the gram-negative bacterium is
destroyed within the human body, it is
released from the cell wall and elicits
toxic reactions in the host. These
reactions include generalized symptoms
of disease such as fever (i.e.,
pyrogenic), shock (hypotension),
disseminated intravascular coagulation
(DIC) and hemorrhage.
- The polysaccharides that extend

outward from the lipid A are the
outermost molecules of the cell wall. This
outer polysaccharide (also known as
somatic antigen or O antigen) is
composed of repeating sugar units, vary
from species to species. It constitutes
the major sur face antigen that
accounts for multiple antigenic types
(serotypes or serovars) among gram-
negative bacteria. Antibodies directed
against one gram-negative bacterium
usually do not protect against another
bacterium.
iii. Periplasm is the space between the OM and the inner

cell membrane (cell membrane). It stores enzymes for
biosynthesis such transglycosylases, carboxypeptidases,
and transpeptidases for peptidoglycan assembly;
degradative enzymes (e.g., phosphatases, proteases);
detoxifying enzymes (e.g., beta-lactamase –
penicillinase). Binding proteins such as for amino acids,
sugars, vitamins or ions can also be found here.
b. Functions of the cell wall:
i. Gives rigidity and shape to the cell. The shape of the cell is
imposed by the shape of the cell wall. It is largely due to the
rigidity of the peptidoglycan layer. The cell wall acts as an
exoskeleton that protect the fragile cell membrane and the
interior of the cell from adverse changes in the outside
environment.
ii. Protection from osmotic lysis. The cell wall reinforces the cell
against the high intracellular water (osmotic) pressure pushing
against the cell membrane thereby preventing plasmoptysis.
iii. Determines the difference in Gram’s stain reaction of bacteria.

The difference in the composition of the cell wall among
various bacterial species determine the type of stain or dye
retained in them. This facilitates differentiation of bacteria into
two major groups — the gram-positive and gram-negative
bacteria.
Discovered by Hans Christian Gram in
1884, Gram staining has been a first-
line lab test in bacterial identification.
The technique consists of a timed,
sequential application of crystal violet
(primary dye), Gram's iodine
(mordant), alcohol (decolorizer), and
safranin (counterstain).
Because the peptidoglycan in gram-

positive bacteria is thicker, the
entrapment of crystal violet is extensive,
become relatively inaccessible and
resistant to decolorization by
alcohol.Gram-positive bacteria appear
violet (blue or purple).
In gram-negative bacteria, the alcohol

dissolves the lipids in the outer
membrane and easily decolorizes the
crystal violet from the thin
peptidoglycan. Gram-negative bacteria Gram staining technique and theory
are pink to red after counterstaining with Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology
safranin. (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
iv. Contributes to pathogenicity. Lipid A of the LPS may elicit

certain toxic symptoms of diseases caused by gram-negative
bacteria.
v. Site of antigenic determinants. Surface antigens, TA in gram-

positive bacteria and somatic or O antigen (outer
polysaccharides) in gram-negative bacteria, stimulate the host
immune response to make antibodies . These antibodies usually
react only with the same type of antigens that stimulated their
production. Thus, reaction with specific antibody is used for
species identification.
vi. Barrier from the action of certain antibiotics. Cell wall provides
protection from some antibiotics and destructive chemicals
among gram-negative bacteria. The peptidoglycan is the
target site of action of antibiotics which include penicillin,
vancomycin, bacitracin, novobiocin, cycloserine,
cephalosphorins and beta-lactams, and other destructive
chemicals such as lysozyme (a lytic enzyme naturally present in
human tears, saliva, sweat, and other body fluids), detergents,
heavy metals, bile salts, and certain dyes.
Notes of interest.
Atypical Cell Wall. Two (2) groups of bacteria do not have cell walls or have
very little cell wall material.
(1) Mycoplasma species are naturally-occuring wall-less bacteria and
contain sterols in their cell membrane.
(2) L-forms are wall-less variants of normal cells which arise normally form
a mutation in the wall-forming genes or they can be induced artificially by
treatment with physical agents (e.g., UV light) or chemical agents (e.g.,
lysozyme, penicillin or cephalosporins). The L-forms are of two types:
a. Protoplast - a gram-positive wall-less cell
b. Spheroplast - a gram-negative wall-less cell with an intact over
membrane
The conversion of walled bacterial cells to L forms in (a) gram-positiva bacteria, and (b)
gram-negative bacteria.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
3. GLYCOCALYX (also sugar coat: glyco - sugar and calyx - coat) is a

gelatinous layer external to the cell wall found in some bacteria, either as
a capsule or slime layer.
a. Structure of the glycocalyx:
(1) Capsule is a thick, organized structure that is firmly attached to

the cell wall and is clearly differentiated from the environment.
It is not readily removed.
The chemical composition of the

capsule is genetically
determined. Most capsules are
polysaccharide, such as that in
Klebsiella pneumoniae, Neisseria
meningitidis, Haemophilus
influenzae, and Streptococcus
pyogenes (hyaluronic acid
capsule). Bacillus anthracis
secretes a capsule consisting
solely of polypeptide
(polyglutamic acid.
(2) Slime layer is an unorganized,

and loosely attached to the cell
wall, and diffuse into the
medium. It is easily washed off.
Usually, the slime layer usually
contains a mass of tangled
fibers of a polysaccharide Bacterial cells sectioned to show the types of
called dextran. glycocalyces..
A B
A. Staining reveals the microscopic appearance of a large, well-developed capsule.

B. Scanning electron micrograph of Staphylococcus aureus attached to a catheter.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
b. Functions of the glycocalyx:
i. Protection from dehydration. The glycocalyx serves as a buffer

between the cell and the external environment. Because of its
high water content, the glycocalyx can protect cells from
desiccation.
ii. Retards phagocytosis. Encapsulated bacterial cells generally

have greater pathogenicity because capsules protect the
bacterial against white blood cells called phagocytes.
Scientists believe the repulsion between bacterial cell and
phagocyte is due to strong negative charges on the capsule
and phagocyte surface.
iii. Attachment to surfaces. The glycocalyx is responsible for

allowing some bacteria to attach to surfaces. Bacteria must
attach to cells in order to establish infection, which is crucial in
the development of disease. The glycocalyx of some bacteria
favors attachment of the cell to non-living materials such as
plastic catheters, intrauterine devices, and metal pace makers.
iv. Site of antigenic determinant. Serologic typing of bacterial

capsules by identification of the K antigen (German kapsel,
capsule) is useful in the laboratory identification and
differentiation of several encapsulated pathogens.
v. Antibiotic barrier. The glycocalyx represents impenetrable

barrier to most common sites of antibiotic action — cell
membrane and cell wall.
vi. Component of vaccines. Capsular polysaccharides of certain

bacterial pathogens are attached (conjugated) to other parts
of other bacterial species in order to stimulate a strong immune
response that is protective to an individual.
B. CELL APPENDAGES
1. FLAGELLUM (pl. flagella) is a long, thin, thread-like or whip-like, filamentous

appendage that arise at the level of the cytoplasmic membrane and extend
through the cell wall into the surrounding medium.
a. Structure of the flagellum:
It consist of two protein building blocks called flagellin. The

flagellum has three (3) basic parts:
i. Filament - the outermost whip-like structure
ii. Basal body - is embedded in the cell membrane and serves to
anchor the flagellum to the cell membrane. It acts as a motor in
turning the filament like a propeller.
iii. Hook - acts like a universal joint between the filament and
basal body.
The flagellum is attached to the cell wall and membrane by two pairs of protein rings
in the basal body.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw
Hill.
The number and arrangement of flagella possessed by a

certain species of bacterium are characteristic of that
species and can, thus, be used for classification and
identification purposes. There are four basic types of flagellar
arrangement on bacteria:
Peritrichous — flagella all over the surface

Lophotrichous — a tuft of flagella at one end
Amphitrichous — one or more flagella at each end
Monotrichous — one flagellum located at one end
Flagellar arrangement.
Source: Burton, G. R., & Engelkirk, P. G. (n.d.). Microbiology for Health Sciences (7th ed.).
Philadelpia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins.
Bacteria without flagella are also called atrichous.
b. Functions of the flagellum:
i. Confers motility. It allows the bacterium to move towards a

favorable environment/stimulus, or away from an adverse one
— this activity is known as taxis. Such stimuli may include
chemicals (chemotaxis) and light (phototaxis). Bacteria can
alter the speed and direction of the rotation of the flagella and
produce various patterns of movement.
clockwise
counter clockwise
When the bacterium moves in one direction

for a length of time, the movement is called a
“run” or “swim” and is achieved when the
flagella rotate counterclockwise. Runs are
interrupted by random, abrupt change in
direction, called “tumbles” when the flagella
rotate clockwise.
Source: Black, J. G. (2008). Microbiology:

Principles and Explorations, 7th Edition (7th ed.).
Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
ii. Site of antigenic determinant. The flagella

H" is short for the German
antigens are termed H antigens, which hauch meaning "breath" ,
describing the spreading
are heat-labile and proteins (flagellin) in pattern of the colonies of motile
nature. It is useful for distinguishing among bacteria on the agar medium in
serotypes (or serovars), within a species, the same way that
condensation from breath
of flagellated bacterial pathogen such as spread on a cold glass.
Salmonella.
Somatic or O antigen: O
stands for German ohne hauch;
ohne meaning "without".
Swarming of Proteus species,

showing concentric rings of
growth on agar,
Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B.
R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair,
W. (2020). Microbiology: An
introduction (12th ed.). Upper
Saddle River: Pearson.
2. PILI and FIMBRIAE
Pili (s. pilus; pilus - hair) are elongate, rigid tubular structures that extend
from the cell.
a. Structure of the pili:
Pili consist of a special protein known as pilin. They are

straighter and shorter than flagella and can be observed
only by electron microscopy. The pili are about 9-10 nm in
diameter and there are only 1-10 per cell.
b. Functions of the pili:
i. The common pili allows for

attachment of the cell to surfaces conjugation pili
(e.g., objects, host cells or tissues)

thereby acting as a determinant of
pathogenicity.
ii. The sex pili facilitates conjugation.

Conjugation is the transfer of genetic
material (DNA) from a donor Sex/conjugation pili links two
bacterium to a recipient bacterium. cells together during
conjugation to allow transfer of
This causes a change in the plasmid.
recipient’s genetic constitution that R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair,
confers new characteristic and W. (2020). Microbiology: An
enables it to carry a new function. Saddle River: Pearson.
Conjugation between F+
(bacterium carrying F plasmid)
and F- (bacterium lacking F
plasmid ).
FIMBRIAE (sing. fimbria; fimbria - fiber) are similar
to the pili but smaller and more numerous. The
fimbriae are short (15-20 µm in length) and thin
(3-10 nm in diameter). Bacterial fimbriae are
chiefly composed of protein fimbrillin and act as
scaffolding on the surface of cells onto which
specific adhesive molecules are attached. The
fimbriae may occur at the poles of the bacterial Fimbriae seen in an E. coli that
is starting to divide.
cell or may be evenly distributed over the entire Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B.
surface of the cell such that there are several R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair,
W. (2020). Microbiology: An
hundreds per cell. Bacteria that possess fimbriae introduction (12th ed.). Upper
have the tendency to adhere to each other and
to surfaces (e.g. objects, epithelial cells of a host).
3. A X I A L F I L A M E N T ( a l s o k n o w n a s
endoflagellum) consists of bundles of fibrils
that arise and extend from one or both poles
of the cell but fold back so that it is spirally
wound/wrapped along the cell body. It is
enclosed in the space between the cell wall
(peptidoglycan layer) and the cell membrane
(outer membrane). The axial filament is A pictomicrograph of a spirochete
primarily responsible for the motility of showing an axial filament.
Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R.,
spirochetes, a group of gram-negative, coiled Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair, W. (2020).
Microbiology: An introduction (12th ed.).
bacteria. Rotation of the axial filament propels Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
the cell in spiral motion similar to that of a
corkscrew.
C. CYTOPLASMIC REGION
The cytoplasm refers to the internal matrix of the cell contained inside the
cell membrane. The chemical characteristics of the the cytoplasm of the
prokaryotes is similar to those of the eukaryotes which is about 80% water,
contains primarily CHONs, CHOs, lipids, inorganic ions and many low
molecular weight compounds. The two differs in that the prokaryotic
cytoplasm:
(1) lacks membrane-bound organelles (No endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi

complex, mitochondria, lysosomes).
(2) lacks microfilaments and microtubules which, together, form the
cytoskeleton that provides support and shape and assist in transporting
substances through the eukaryotic cell.
(3) does NOT exhibit cytoplasmic streaming (the movement of the
cytoplasm from one part of the cell to another), which helps to
distribute nutrients and to move the cells over a surface.
1. NUCLEOID is the region of the chromosome in a

bacterial cell.
a. Structure of the nucleoid:
The bacterial chromosome consists of a The bacterial chromosome and

long, single, circular, double stranded plasmid.
DNA (dsDNA), without histones and not Microbiology: Principles and
bounded by a membrane. Explorations, 7th Edition (7th ed.).
Sons.
b. Function of the nucleoid:
The nucleoid primarily functions as a genetic storehouse of

the bacterium — it carries genetic information for bacterial
functions.
The bacterial nuclear region. A
colorized TEM of a thin section of
Escherichia coli with the DNA shown
in red.
Microbiology: Principles and
Explorations, 7th Edition (7th ed.).
Sons.
2. PLASMID is a DNA molecule in bacteria that is physically separate from

the chromosomal DNA within the cell.
a. Structure of the plasmid:
Plasmid is a small circular, double-stranded DNA molecule

that occurs in the "free" state, and is capable of replicating
autonomously within a suitable host, thus is considered a
replicon. Plasmid can also occur in the "integrated" state,
where it is incorporated into the bacterial chromosome.
b. Functions of the plasmid:
They carry genes for additional genetic traits that are are not
essential for cell viability. They may confer some degree of
advantage that benefit survival of the bacterium.
i. F plasmids (fertility plasmids,) which contain genes which

codes for expression of sex pili. Bacteria that possess this
type of plasmid are capable of conjugation.
ii. R plasmids (resistance), which contain genes that provide

resistance against antibiotics or poisons. Historically known
as R-factors, before the nature of plasmids was
understood.
iii. Bcteriocinogenic plasmids, which contain genes that

code for secretion of bacteriocins --- proteins that can kill
other bacteria. Example: colicins (Escherichia coli),
pyocins (Pseudomonas aeruginosa).
iv. Degradative plasmids, which enable the digestion of

unusual substances (e.g. toluene and salicylic acid).
v. Virulence plasmids, which turn the bacterium into

a pathogen.
3. RIBOSOMES are small, spherical structure distributed throughout the

cytoplasm, and occupy most of the cytoplasmic volume.
a. Structure of the ribosome:
Ribosomes consists of 40% proteins and 60%

ribosomal RNA (rRNA). Bacterial ribosomes The letter S refers to Svedberg
units, which indicate the
are smaller than eukaryote ribosomes. They relative rate of sedimentation
are 70S ribosomes, and consists of 2 sub-units during ultra-high-speed
— small 30S subunit containing one molecule centrifugation. Heavier (larger)
particles sediment faster and
of rRNA and a larger 50S subunit containing are assigned higher values.
two molecules of rRNA.
The prokaryotic ribosome.
(a) A small 305 subunit and
(b) a large 50S subunit make
up (c) the complete 70S
prokaryotic ribosome.
R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., &
Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology: An
b. Functions of the ribosome:
i. Sites of protein synthesis. Proteins are constructed in the

ribosomes,
ii. Site of antibiotic action. In addition to size, chemical

differences between bacterial and eukaryotic ribosomes ,
make them selective targets for antibiotic action.
Antibiotics such as streptomycin and gentamicin attach
to the 30S subunit and interfere with protein synthesis.
Other antibiotics, such as erythromycin and
chloramphenicol, interfere with protein synthesis by
attaching to the 50S subunit.
4. INCLUSIONS (also, inclusion granules or inclusion bodies) are reserve

deposits of nutrient materials within the cytoplasm of bacteria. Cells
may accumulate certain nutrients when they are plentiful and use
them when the environment is deficient. Some inclusions arc common
to a wide variety of bacteria, whereas others are limited to a small
number of species and therefore serve as a basis for identification.
i. Organic inclusions are reserves of

carbon and serve as energy sources,
- Polysaccharide inclusions such as
glycogen and starch (polyglucose)
- Poly-β-hydroxybuterate (PBH)
represents storage form of lipid and
fatty acid.
ii. Inorganic inclusions

- Sulfur deposits of in photosynthetic
An example of an inclusion in a bacterial
bacteria cell. Substances such as
- Polyphosphates in certain bacterial polyhydroxybuterate can be store in an
insoluble, concentrated form that
pathogens. They are referred to as provides an ample, long-term supply of
volutin granules, or metachromatic that nutrient.
granules (meta, change; chroma, Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.).
McGraw Hill.
color) because they take up a color
different from the color of the dye
used. They stain a contrasting color,
red & purple, in the presence of methylene blue dye.
Metachromatic granules in Corynebacterium diphtheriae are
called Babes-Ernst granules.
5. ENDOSPORES are spherical or ovoidal, metabolically dormant structure
formed within a vegetative bacterial cell (sporangium), thus named
endospore. Spore-forming bacteria produce endospores when
essential nutrients in the their environment become depleted.
a. Structure of the endospore:
i. Core also known as the spore protoplast, is the innermost

membrane or wall of the
endospore. It contains the
entire bacterial
chromosome, some
ribosomes, other soluble
cytoplasmic materials as
Exosporium
energy source.
ii. Cortex is the thickest layer

of the spore envelope. It A cross section of a single endospore, revealing
also contains numerous layers.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations
peptidoglycan but with in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
fewer cross-linkages than
are found in cell wall
peptidoglycan.
iii. Spore coat is composed of a keratin-like protein

containing many intramolecular disulfide bonds. This layer
is hydrophobic and impermeable which confers to spores
relative resistance to antibacterial chemical agents.
iv. Exosporium is the outermost layer of the endospore. It is

thin and delicate and composed of proteins, lipids, and
carbohydrates.
b. Function of the endospore:
Protection of the cell against adverse environmental conditions.

Endospores are the most resistant of all life forms, capable of
withstanding extremes in heat, drying, freezing, radiation, and
chemicals that would readily kill vegetative cells. Their survival
under such conditions is due to several factors.
i. The heat resistance of endospores is linked to their high content

of calcium and dipicolinic acid.. The deposition of calcium
dipicolinate removes water, and the dehydrated state makes
them less susceptible to the effects of heat because thermal
inactivation of cells (proteins and DNA) requires water in the
protoplasm.
ii. The thick impervious cortex and spore coat also protect against
radiation and chemicals.
iii. The endospore is metabolically inactive, therefore, does not

assimilate materials from the environment.
Spore-forming bacteria have a two-phase life cycle: a

vegetative cell and an endospore.
The general life cycle of a spore-

forming bacterium.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B.
(2018). Foundations in Microbiology
(10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
The depletion of nutrients is a stimulus for vegetative cell to

begin spore for mation --- known as sporulation or
sporogenesis. The process of sporulation within a vegetative
cell takes several hours and proceeds as follows:
(1) A newly replicated bacterial chromosome and a small

portion of cytoplasm are isolated by an ingrowth of the
plasma membrane called a spore septum.
(2) The spore septum becomes a double-layered membrane

that surrounds the chromosome and cytoplasm. This
structure, entirely enclosed within the original cell, is called
a forespore.
(3) Thick layers of peptidoglycan are laid down between the

two membrane layers.
(4) A thick spore coat of protein forms around the outside

membrane.
(5) The original cell is degraded, and the endospore is
released.
Endospores can remain dormant for thousands of years. An

endospore returns to its vegetative state by a process called
germination. Germination is triggered by physical or chemical
damage to the endospore's coat. The endospore's enzymes
then break down the extra layers surrounding the endospore,
water enters, and metabolism resumes. Note however, that
because one vegetative cell forms a single endospore,
which, after germination, remains one cell, sporulation in
bacteria is not a means of reproduction. In contrast, fungi
produce many different types of spores for both survival and
reproduction.
Just like other structures found in certain bacterial cells,

endospore or bacterial spore formation is genetically
predetermined. Hence, the size, shape and position or
location of the endospore in the vegetative cell may also be
an aid in the identification of endospore-forming bacteria.
Schematic diagram showing

different types and
arrangement of endospores.
Sources: Retrieved from http://
www.brainkart.com/article/
General-Properties-of-
Clostridia_18077/. 20 January
2021
Endospores are only formed by members of a few genera of

bacteria, The majority of spore-formers are rod-shaped
bacteria, members of the genera Clostridium and Bacillus.
The pathogenic spore-formers include the agents of tetanus
(Clostridium tetani), gas gangrene (Clostridium perfringens),
botulism (Clostridium botulinum), and anthrax (Bacillus
anthracis).
Elaborate
Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are chemically similar, in the sense that they both
contain nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. They use the same
kinds of chemical reactions to metabolize food, build proteins, and store energy.
Eukaryotes differ from prokaryotes based on the following distinguishing
characteristics:
1. Their DNA is found in the cell's nucleus, which is separated from the
cytoplasm by a nuclear membrane, and the DNA is found in multiple
chromosomes.
2. Their DNA is consistently associated with chromosomal proteins called

histones and with non-histones.
3. They have a number of membrane-enclosed organelles, including

mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes, and
sometimes chloroplasts.
4. Their cell walls, when present, are chemically simple does not contain
peptidoglycan.
5. Their ribosomes are 80S ribosomes and consist of 60S and 40S sub-units.
MLS 223_Evaluate 2.1.
Matching type. Match the descriptions of component parts of a bacterial cell in

the column A with the structure in column B.
A B
1. The location of the bacterial chromosome. A. Cell wall
2. Consists of peptidoglycan, NAM, NAG, and amino B. Cell membrane
acids.
3. Resting structures formed by some bacteria. C. Glycocalyx
4. Includes capsule and slime layer. D. Flagella
5. Confer motility to the bacterial cell. E. Nucleoid
F. Pili
G. Endospore
References:
Carroll, K. C. (2016). Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg's medical microbiology (27th

ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., Bender, K. S., Buckley, D. H., & Stahl, D. A. (2015).
Brock Biology of Microorganisms(14th ed.). Glenview, Illinois: Pearson
Education.
Melnick, J. L., Jawetz, E., Adelberg, E. A., & Riedel, S. (2020). Jawetz, Melnick y
Adelberg Microbiología médica. México: McGraw-Hill.
Pommerville, J. C. (2018). Alcamo's Fundamentals of Microbiology (11th ed.).

Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Procop, G. W., Church, D. L., Hall, G. S., Janda, W. M., Koneman, E. W.,
Schreckenberger, P. C., & Woods, G. L. (2017). Color Atlas and Textbook of
Diagnostic Microbiology (7th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.
Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw
Hill.
Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology:
An introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.
Willey, J. M., Sherwood, L., Woolverton, C. J., Prescott, L. M., & Willey, J. M. (2011).
Prescott's microbiology. New York: McGraw-Hill.
MODULE 2
Unit 2:
Bacterial Growth and Nutrition
Unit Learning Outcome:

1. Describe the process of bacterial growth and dynamics of a bacterial
growth curve.
2. Describe the various nutritional and environmental requirements for
bacterial growth; and to classify bacteria on the basis of their growth.
Engage
Unlike in plants and animals, microbial growth pertains to the number of cells, not the
size of the cells. Bacteria that are "growing" are increasing in number, accumulating into
colonies (groups of cells large enough to be seen without a microscope) of hundreds of
thousands of cells or populations of billions of cells. Although individual cells
approximately double in size during their lifetime, this change is not very significant
compared with the size increases observed during the lifetime of plants and animals.
Explore
Bacteria increase in number by an asexual means of reproduction — binary fission. In

binary fission, two cells (also referred to to as daughter cells) arise from a single cell (or
parent cell). As simple as it might sound, binary fission occurs in a precise, orderly
manner:
1. An initial increase in the cellular structure and components leads to an
increase in cell mass.
2. Chromosomes are replicated and are segregated thereafter.
3. A septum forms and divides the cell in to two progeny cells.
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or 1
A. B.
A. Binary fission.
Source: Willey, J. M., Sherwood, L.,
Woolverton, C. J., Prescott, L. M., & Willey, J.
M. (2011). Prescott's Microbiology (7th ed.).
B. Bacterial population growth. The

number of Escherichia coli cells
progresses from 1 cell to 2 million cells in
a mere 7 hours.
Source: Pommerville, J. C. (2018). Alcamo's
Fundamentals of Microbiology (11th ed.).
Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
In binary fission, a single cell divides and gives rise to 2 cells in the first generation, 4 cells
in the second generation, 8 cells in the third generation, 16 cells in the fourth
generation, and so on. Under favorable conditions, bacterial population doubles at
regular intervals. The time required for the bacterial cell to divide, thus doubling their
population is referred to as generation time (or doubling time). It can be expressed
mathematically as the time per generation. Hence:
GT = t/n
where: GT - generation time

t - time it takes for completion of 1 generation
n - number of generations
Bacterial growth is in geometric progression A.

with a constantly increasing slope.
Mathematically, it may be expressed as a
power of 2, where the exponent (n) tells the
no. of generations. Starting with a single cell, if
each product of reproduction goes on to
divide in a binary fission, the population
doubles with each new division cycle or
generation. This process can be represented
by logarithms (2 raised to an exponent) or
simple numbers. This growth pattern is termed
as exponential.
Generation time varies considerably among

organisms and is affected by environmental
conditions, such as temperature. Most B.
bacteria have a generation time of 1 to 3 A. Visual representation of increase in bacterial number over five
hours; others require more than 24 hours per generations.
B. Conversion of the number of cetls in a poputationl into the
generation. logarithmic expression of this number.
Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair, W.
(2020). Microbiology: An introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River:
Pearson.
Explain
BACTERIAL GROWTH CURVE

The bacterial growth curve is a graph that represents the number (expressed as
logarithm) of viable cells in a bacterial population over a period of time.
There are four (4) distinct phases of growth when bacteria are cultivated in liquid
medium in a closed system or batch culture—that is, they are incubated in a closed
culture vessel with a single batch of medium. Because no fresh medium is provided
during incubation, nutrient concentrations decline and concentrations of wastes
increase.
The growth curve for a bacterial population.

Source: Pommerville, J. C. (2018). Alcamo's Fundamentals of Microbiology (11th ed.). Burlington: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Phases of bacterial growth
1. Lag phase
This happens immediately when bacteria are introduced into fresh culture
medium. This time, bacteria are adapting to their new environment, and
undergoing a period of intense metabolic activity involving, in particular,
synthesis of enzymes and various molecules. However, there is little or no cell
division so it appears relatively a "flat" period in the graph.
The lag phase varies considerably in length with the condition of the bacteria
and the nature of the medium. This phase may be longer if the bacteria are
from an old culture, or are introduced into a chemically different medium. On
the other hand, when a young, vigorously growing exponential phase culture
is transferred to fresh medium of the same composition, the lag phase will be
short or absent.
2. Log (or exponential) phase

In the log phase, bacteria are most active metabolically. The cells begin to
divide and enter a period of logarithmic growth because cell division
proceed at maximal rates. The bacterial population is in the state of
balanced growth, i.e., the number of cells increase proportionally over the
same period of time. Because the generation time is constant, logarithmic
plot of growth during the log phase is a straight line.
The log phase will continue as long as the bacteria have adequate nutrients
and the environment is favorable. Bacterial population in this phase is
preferred for laboratory testing, e.g., motility, staining (except for spore stain),
biochemical or antimicrobial susceptibility test, or for industrial purposes
where, for example, a product needs to be produced efficiently.
3. Stationary phase
This is the period of equilibrium --- the total number of viable microorganisms
remains constant. This may result from a balance between cell division and
cell death, or the population may simply cease to divide but remain
metabolically active. At this point, growth curve becomes horizontal and at
its greatest population density, thus also known as the plateau phase.
The exhaustion of nutrients, accumulation of waste products, and harmful

changes in pH may all play in why bacterial growth stops.
4. Decline (or death) phase

At this point, cell division stops completely and the number of deaths exceed
the number of new cells formed, and the bacterial population is decreasing
in a logarithmic rate.
REQUIREMENTS FOR BACTERIAL GROWTH

Population growth in bacteria proceeds steadily when conditions in its environment are
favorable. That is, when the nutritional and physical requirements for growth of the
bacterium are provided or met.
A. Nutritional requirments
Nutrition (L. nutrire - nourishment) is a process by which chemical substances

called nutrients are acquired by the bacterium from the environments and used
in cellular activities such metabolism and growth. The cell membrane is designed
to provide all the essential nutrients in a solution, for bacterial growth. In the
laboratory, all essential nutrients required for bacterial growth are provided by
the culture medium. Nutritional requirements pertain to chemicals and elements
that are utilized for bacterial growth, thus is also referred to as the chemical
requirements. Different bacteria vary in their nutritional requirements. The
following chemical substances and elements consists the basic requirements of
bacteria:
1. The major elements include carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur,

phosphorous, potassium, magnesium, iron, and calcium. These elements are
supplied by inorganic ions, water molecules, small molecules, and
macromolecules. These elements serve as either structural or functional role in
the cells. Proteins for example is main constituent of the cellular materials,
enzymes or cofactors of enzymes. Synthesis of DNA, RNA, as well as ATP
requires nitrogen as well as phosphorous.
2. Trace elements such as magnesium, cobalt, zinc, copper and molybdenum

are metal ions required by certain cells in small amounts that is difficult to
detect or measure. They are present as contaminants of water or other cell
membrane components. Although these ions are not necessarily added to
the cell membrane as nutrients, they are important cofactors for essential
enzymatic reactions to proceed.
3. Carbon and energy. Carbon is the structural backbone of living matter; it is

needed for all the organic compounds that make up a living cell. Bacteria
derive carbon from various sources. Hence, bacteria are classified into
groups depending on their sources of carbon. (Please see previous discussion
in Module 1 Unit 3).
4. Growth factors are organic compounds essential for growth that the organism
is unable synthesize. These are substances that fulfill a specific role in
biosynthesis but not necessarily as sources for carbon and energy. The growth
factors required by bacteria are organized into three categories:
a. Purines and pyrimidines are required for synthesis of nucleic acids.
b. Amino acids are used by some bacteria for synthesis of proteins.

Certain pathogenic bacteria require specific types of growth
factors for their isolation outside a host’s body. Neisseria requires
cystine and cysteine, where as Bordetella requires methionine.
c. Vitamins are needed by some bacteria as coenzymes and

functional groups of some enzymes.
Bacteria that have special nutritional requirements, esp. growth factors (but,
may also be physical requirements) are described as fastidious. These needs
make it more difficult and sometimes impossible to grow them in the
laboratory.
B. Physical requirements.
Aside from nutrients, bacterial growth is also greatly affected by the physical
state of the environment they are in. The factors that control bacterial growth in
a major way may be divided into four:
1. Gaseous requirements. The atmospheric gases that most influence bacterial

growth are oxygen and carbon dioxide.
a. Oxygen has the greatest impact on bacterial growth. Microbes that

use molecular oxygen produce more energy from nutrients than
microbes that do not use oxygen. An organism able to grow in the
presence of atmospheric O2 is an aerobe, whereas one that can grow
in its absence is an anaerobe. With respect to oxygen requirements,
bacteria may fall into one of the following categories:
i. Obligate aerobe is completely dependent on atmospheric

O2 (20-21% concentration) for growth.
ii. Obligate or strict anaerobe does not tolerate O2 at all and

die in its presence (> 0.5% concentration)
iii. Facultative anaerobe is an aerobe but can grow in the

absence of O2.
iv. Aerotolerant anaerobe is an anaerobe but can grow in the

presence of O2..
v. Microaerophile requires reduced O2 (2-10%) concentration.
Not only is oxygen an important respiratory gas, but it is also a powerful

oxidizing agent that exists in many toxic forms known as oxygen free
radicals which include the following:
i. Singlet oxygen (1O2-) is an extremely reactive molecule

produced by both living and non-living processes.
ii. Superoxide radical or superoxide anion (O2-) are formed in

small amounts during the normal respiration of organisms
that use oxygen as a final electron acceptor, forming water.
iii. Peroxide anion (O2-) forms when an oxygen molecule

combines with another oxygen molecule.
iv. Hydroxyl radical (OH-) is formed in the cell cytoplasm by

ionizing radiation.
Several bacteria produce enzymes that allow them to detoxify harmful

forms of oxygen and not be affected by its presence. Examples of these
enzymes include:
i. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) converts the superoxide radical

into molecular oxygen (O2) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Superoxide
dismutase
2O2- + 2H+ H2O2 + O2

ii. Catalase is produced by some bacteria in response to the

formation of toxic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) during normal
aerobic respiration. It converts H2O2 into water and oxygen.
Catalase
2H2O2 2H2O + O2
iii. Peroxidase is another enzyme that breaks down hydrogen

peroxide. However, it differs from catalase in that its reaction
does not produce oxygen.
Peroxidase
H2O2 + 2H+ 2H2O
Use of thioglycollate broth to

demonstrate O2 requirements.
Thioglycollate is a chemical that
absorbs O2 gas and renders it
unavailable to the bacteria. The
surface, which is directly exposed
to atmospheric O2, will be oxic.
The O2 content of the medium
decreases with depth until the
medium becomes anoxic toward
the bottom of the tube; its
progress can be shown by the red
dye resazurin.
The presence and absence of the
enzymes superoxide dismutase
(SOD) and catalase for each type
are shown.

(2018). Foundations in
Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw
Hill.
Anaerobic GasPakⓇ jar for cultivating anaerobic bacteria on

Petri plates.
When water is mixed with the chemical packet containing sodium
bicarbonate and sodium borohydride, hydrogen and carbon dioxide
are generated. Reacting on the surface of a palladium catalyst in a
screened reaction chamber, which may also be incorporated into the
chemical packet, the hydrogen and atmospheric oxygen in the jar
combine to form water. The oxygen is thus removed. Also in the jar is
a redox indicator containing methylene blue, which is blue when
oxidized and turns colorless when oxygen is removed.
Source: Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair, W.
(2020). Microbiology: An introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River:
Pearson.
b. Carbon dioxide. Bacteria that grow best at a

higher (3% to 10%) CO2 tension than is
normally present in the atmosphere (0.1%)
are referred to as capnophile or capneic (pl.
capnophiles; German kapnos - smoke).
The Candle Jar.

This simple, yet useful, method involves lighting a candle and immediately closing
the jar, After a few moments, the flame goes out because of depleted O2. Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018).
Meanwhile the combustion process has added CO2 to the air as well. Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.).
McGraw Hill.
4. Temperature. Each bacterial species

exhibits three (3) cardinal temperatures,
which describe the temperature range
or the temperature at which it grows
best.
- Minimum temperature is the lowest
temperature at which the species will
grow.
- Optimum temperature is the
temperature at which the species
grows best. The effect of temperature on bacterial growth rate.
- Maximum temperature is the highest Source: Willey, J. M., Sherwood, L., Woolverton, C. J.,
temperature at which growth is Prescott, L. M., & Willey, J. M. (2011). Prescott's Microbiology
(7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
possible.
Bacteria are classified into three (3) primary groups on the basis of their
temperature requirement for growth.
a. Psychrophiles (cold- loving microbes) grow best at low temperatures

(0C–15C); generally cannot grow at 20C. Produce enzymes that
function (often optimally) in the cold and that may be denatured or
otherwise inactivated at even very moderate temperatures.
b. Mesophiles (moderate-temperature- loving microbes) has an optimum

temperature for growth that fall into the range of 20C to 40C.
Pathogenic bacteria fall under this category. For many of them, the
optimal temperature is about 37C.
c. Thermophiles (heat-loving microbes) are microorganisms that grow

optimally at temperatures greater than 45C. They generally vary in
heat requirements, with a general range of growth of 45C - 80C, many
of them cannot grow below 45C. Interestingly, many thermophiles are
spore-forming organisms.
5. pH refers to the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. Most bacteria grow best in a

narrow pH range near neutrality, between pH 6.5 and 7.5. The optimal pH for
growth of an organism refers to the extracellular

environment only. Several bacteria maintain their
intracellular pH at a value consistent with the stability of
macromolecules, especially those in the their cell
membrane, by pumping protons in or out of their cells.
Similar with other physical requirements, bacteria may
also be classified into one of the following groups based
on their pH requirements:
a. Acidophiles are those bacteria that grow best

at a pH range of 1.0 to 5.5.
b. Alkalinophiles are bacteria that grow in

environments with a pH greater that 8.5.
c. Neutrophiles grow best at a pH between 6.0

to 8.0 The pH scale.
Source: Willey, J. M., Sherwood,
M., & Willey, J. M. (2011).
Prescott's Microbiology (7th ed.).
6. Ionic strength/osmotic pressure. A bacterium obtains almost all its nutrients in

solution from water surrounding it. In a similar sense, water comprise 80 - 90%
of a bacterial cell. Thus, water is a necessity for bacterial growth and survival.
The concentration of solutes in water have a variable effects depending on
the type of bacterium exposed to it.
a. Osmophile require environment with high solute (e.g., salt or sugar)

concentration
b. Halophile requires a high salt (NaCl) concentration for growth.
c. Halotolerant has the ability to withstand large changes in salt

concentration.
Elaborate
Identify what would be extremophile conditions for each of the physical factors
described in this section.
Notes of interest.
Continuous Culture of Microorganisms
Research and industry often require
bacterial cultures that can be
maintained indefinitely in the log
phase of growth. This can be
accomplished by the continuous
cultures. These are open systems in
which microbial populations are
maintained by continuing to supply
fresh nutrients to the incubation vessel
A Continuous Culture System:
while simultaneously removing toxic The Chemostat.
wastes and excess microorganisms.The Source: Willey, J. M., Sherwood,
most common type of continuous M., & Willey, J. M. (2011).
culture device used is a chemostat. Prescott's Microbiology (7th ed.).
MLS 223._Evaluate 2.2.
Headings. Identify what is described in each item by choosing from the set options
given.
A. Growth factor requirement

B. Oxygen requirement
C. Carbon dioxide requirement
D. Temperature requirement
E. pH requirement
F. Osmotic pressure
1. Generally speaking, bacteria are neutrophiles.

2. Adaptation of bacteria is dependent on the presence or absence of enzymes,
superoxide dismutase and catalase.
3. Most pathogenic bacteria are mesophiles.
4. Some bacteria are adapted to living in environments with salt concentrations higher
than normal.
5. Compounds which the bacterium cannot synthesize but is needed for its growth.
References:
Carroll, K. C. (2016). Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg's medical microbiology (27th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., Bender, K. S., Buckley, D. H., & Stahl, D. A. (2015). Brock
Biology of Microorganisms(14th ed.). Glenview, Illinois: Pearson Education.
Melnick, J. L., Jawetz, E., Adelberg, E. A., & Riedel, S. (2020). Jawetz, Melnick y Adelberg
Microbiología médica. México: McGraw-Hill.
Pommerville, J. C. (2018). Alcamo's Fundamentals of Microbiology (11th ed.). Burlington:

Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Procop, G. W., Church, D. L., Hall, G. S., Janda, W. M., Koneman, E. W., Schreckenberger,
P. C., & Woods, G. L. (2017). Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology
(7th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.
Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology: An
introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

MODULE 2
Unit 3:
Bacterial Genetics
Unit Learning Outcome:
Discuss the concepts of bacterial genetics and compare the mechanisms of

genetic exchange and recombination in bacteria.
Engage
Almost all the microbial traits you have read about in the previous unit modules are
controlled or influenced by heredity. The inherited traits of microbes include their shape
and structural features, their metabolism, their ability to move or behave in various
ways, and their ability to interact with other organisms — perhaps causing disease.
Individual organisms transmit these characteristics to their offspring through genes.
Bacterial reproduction is asexual, i.e., by binary fission, so progeny cells are identical to
the parent cell.
How do bacteria get new genetic combinations? The bacterial genome may be
subject to different forms of alterations that give rise to expression or appearance of
characteristics not previously seen or observed in a species. These alterations result to
the differences in the characteristics we observe in different species of bacteria.
Explore
To understand the concepts and materials in this module unit, we first define terms
associated with bacterial genetics.
Genetics (L. genesis - birth, generation) is the science of inheritance, or heredity; it

includes the study of the composition of genes, how the genes carry information, how
they are replicated and passed to subsequent generations of cells or passed between
organisms, and how the expression of their information within an organism determines
the particular characteristics of that organism.
DNA is a macromolecule composed of repeating units called nucleotides, hence a

polynucleotide. Each nucleotide consists of a pentose sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate
group, and nitrogen-containing nucleobase which may either be a purine base —
cytosine (C), guanine (G), or a pyrimidine base — thymine (T), adenine (A).
(A) (B) (C)
A schematic diagram of (A) a nucleotide, (B) a nucleotide chain, and (C) a double-stranded DNA.
The nucleotides are joined to one another in a chain by covalent bonds between the
sugar of one nucleotide and the phosphate of the next, resulting in an alternating
sugar-phosphate backbone.
The DNA molecule consists of two strands of nucleotides resembling a

ladder with a sugar-phosphate backbone. Each rung of the ladder
consists of a of pair bases, which combine in specific pairs (A with T,
and C with G). According to base pairing rules, hydrogen bonds bind
the nitrogenous bases of the two separate polynucleotide strands to
make a double-stranded DNA. Thus, the sequence on one strand is
complementary to that on the other. It is the specific sequence of
bases which constitutes the genetic information. The two strands of
nucleotides are coiled around each other to form a double helix, a A schematic diagram of a
structure like a spiral ladder forming a double-stranded DNA that is double helix.
helical.
Genes are small sections of the DNA molecule that codes for production of proteins.
These are the fundamental units of heredity which is transferred from a parent to
offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.
Genome is the sum total of genes present in cell or organism.

Each genome contains all of the information needed to build 1 kilobase pairs (kbp)
and maintain that organism. The genome size is expressed in base = 1,000 base pairs
1 megabase pairs (mbp)
pairs. For example, in humans, 3 billion base pairs (3 gbp) is are = 1,000,000 base pairs
contained in all cells that have a nucleus. 1 gigabase pairs (gbp)
= 1,000,000,000 base pairs
Genotype is the inheritable genetic makeup of an organism that

codes for a particular trait.
Phenotype refers to actual, expressed or observable trait. It is governed by the

genotype. An organism’s phenotype may be affected by environmental factors thus, its
expression differs in different situations. Among the bacteria, temperature, ph, age,
humidity are some of the environmental influences that may dictate whether the
genetic trait may be expressed or not. For example, Serratia marcescens form red
colonies at 24 oC, and white colonies at 37 oC.
Explain
GENETIC DETERMINANTS IN BACTERIA

Different types of DNA may be found in a bacterial cell. The genes are carried on: (1)
bacterial chromosome, (2) plasmid, (3) phage, or (4) transposon.
1. BACTERIAL CHROMOSOME.
Bacterial cell has only one (1) chromosome, which consists

of a double-stranded DNA molecule arranged in a circular
form. Most bacterial chromosomes are large, up to 1,000
um long, about 1,000 times the diameter of the cell. It can
range in size anywhere from about 130 kbp to 14 mbp ,
with 3,000 to 10,000 genes. (Escherichia coli is about 4.6
mbp),
A schematic diagram of the
bacterial chromosome
Bacterial chromosome is found in the region of the consisting of a single, circular,
double stranded DNA
cytoplasm called nucleoid.
Chromosomes carry most bacterial genes. All genes essential for bacterial
growth are carried on chromosome. During cell division, duplication of
chromosome occurs so that each daughter cell receives an identical set.
2. PLASMIDS
Plasmids are circular, double-stranded DNA. They are small

ranging from 1.5 to 400 kbp.
Plasmids are extra-chromosomal. They can replicate

autonomously in bacterial cells. One subclass of plasmids
may be integrated into the bacterial chromosome. Source: Willey, J. M., Sherwood,
M., & Willey, J. M. (2011).
They carry genes that code for specialized functions, e.g, Prescott's Microbiology (7th ed.).
fertility genes that direct conjugation, many of the genes New York: McGraw-Hill.
for antibiotic resistance, and most bacterial exotoxins.
3. PHAGE (or bacteriophage, a bacterial virus)
Stable pieces of phage DNA (called

prophage) may be inserted into the bacterial
chromosome (process known as lysogeny)
and replicates with the bacterial DNA
following infection with a temperate phage
( a repressed virus --- carried passively without
replication and causing lysis of the infected The ultrastructure of a bacteriophage.
Source: Tille, P. M. (2017). Bailey & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology
bacterium). (14th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Elsevier.
Besides the repressor protein, this prophage DNA may also direct synthesis of
another protein. Most notable are gene products that make bacteria more
pathogenic. This enhanced virulence is called lysogenic
conversion.
4. TRANSPOSON
Transposons are large, mobile genetic elements, with

DNA sequences of several kbp , that can move Source: Tille, P. M. (2017). Bailey
themselves or a copy from one molecule of DNA to & Scott's Diagnostic Microbiology
(14th ed.). St. Louis, Missouri:
another, so are referred j to as "jumping genes". Elsevier.
Transfer of transposons can occur between one plasmid to another, or

between plasmid and chromosome within a bacterial cell. The process is
called transposition.
Similar with plasmids, transposons carry genes for specialized functions.

However, in contrast with plasmids, transposons do not contain genetic
information for replication.
GENETIC EXCHANGE and RECOMBINATION IN BACTERIA

Genetic exchange is the unilateral transfer of genetic information from a donor cell to a
recipient cell, The transferred genes can be stably incorporated into the recipient's
chromosome by recombination.
In bacteria, genetic exchange is not an essential step in the life cycle. But, it is
beneficial and may bring together combination of genes that enables the
recombinant bacteria to carry out a valuable new function.
Mechanisms of genetic exchange:
1. CONJUGATION
Conjugation is the gene transfer from one bacterial cell to another involving
direct cell-to-cell contact. This process is controlled by F factor (fertility
plasmid) that carries the genes that code for sex pili formation which bring
the two cells in physical contact.
Donor (male) cells have F factor, therefore form sex pili.

F+ cells - have F factor in its free state (not incorporated into the
bacterial chromosome)
Hfr cells - have F factor that is integrated into the bacterial
chromosome. The term Hfr denotes high frequency of
recombination, referring to the fact that Hfr cells donate
copies of genes on the bacterial chromosome.
Recipient (female) cells lack F factors and are called F- cells.

Types of conjugal crosses:
a. F+ x F- conjugation 1. Attachment between F+ and F- cells. It is

mediated by the sex pilus that forms the
conjugative tube through which the F factor
passes.
2. Transfer of the F factor from the F+ cell to the F-

cell. Only a single strand of the DNA duplex is
transferred. The area that is lost is reduplicated so
the donor always stays the same genotype. The
transfer of the plasmid is fairly quick so that it is
transferred in its entirety. No bacterial genes are
transferred.
3. Separation of both cells. The donor cell remains

F+ cell. The recipient cell is converted to F+ cell.
Only the F factor has been transferred and it

remains a free element in the cytoplasm. The F
factor will replicated independently of the
F+ x F- conjugation.
Source: Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. chromosome, thus, there is no genetic
(2018). Foundations in recombination.
Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw
Hill.
Other plasmids are transferred by similar mechanisms. Examples are R

(resistance) plasmids, Col plasmids (bacteriocinogenic plasmids), and
virulence plasmids.
b. Hfr x F- conjugation 1. Attachment of the Hfr cell to an F- cell. It is

facilitated by the sex pilus.
2. Transfer of the F factor from the Hfr cell to the F-

cell. The first half of F factor will be transferred first
and then the bacterial genes in the linear order.
Most of the integrated F factor enters the
recipient cell last.
Only a single strand of the DNA duplex is
transferred. The area that is lost is reduplicated so
that the donor always stays the same genotype.
It takes approximately 90 minutes for a complete
transfer to occur. Because the conjugative bridge
is so fine, mating is normally interrupted, so the
entire genome of the donor cell is not transferred
3. Separation of cells. The donor cell remains Hfr. The

recipient gets some donor chromosomal genes
that can recombine with its own chromosome,
Hfr x F- conjugation. but does not become Hfr since the complete F
(2018). Foundations in Microbiology factor is not transferred. It becomes a
(10th ed.). McGraw Hill. recombinant F- cell.
2. TRANSFORMATION
Destruction of cell does not necessarily destroy its genetic material. When
bacteria lyse, they often release their DNA into the surrounding medium.
When this DNA is introduced into another viable cell, it retains its ability to
direct the synthesis of specific proteins. The uptake of free (or naked)
extracellular DNA in the environment by a competent cell and subsequent
integration into its chromosome by a competent is called transformation. The
recipient cell often acquires new characteristics as a result.
Competency is dependent on several factors:

• Stage of growth — logarithmic phase
• Alterations in the cell membrane that makes it permeable to the
DNA molecule
• Synthesis of receptor sites on the bacterial cell surface
Only a few bacterial species are capable of natural transformation. Naturally

competent transformable bacteria, of medical importance, are found in
several genera and include Haemophilus influenzae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae,
Neisseria meningitidis, and Streptococcus pneumoniae. Specific DNA
sequences are required for uptake of the DNA, thus restricting genetic
exchange to a single species or closely related species.
Artificial (or forced) transformation is

induced in the laboratory by a variety of
techniques. The procedure involves
extraction of the DNA, and treatment of
cells with high salt (e.g., CaCl2 ) and
temperature shock to render the cell
membrane more permeable to DNA and
make them readily take up DNA. This is
fundamental in genetic engineering.

A transformation experiment.
The ability to synthesize capsule, which is necessary for virulence, is transferred
to an avirulent (nonencapsulated strain of pneumococcus (Streptococcus
pneumoniae) by cell-free DNA extracted from the encapsulated strain.
3. TRANSDUCTION
Transduction is the transfer of DNA between bacteria by means of a phage

(bacteriophage)
Phages come in two major types:

• Virulent phage infects bacterial cells, replicates, and and kills the
host bacteria, usually by lysing --- lytic cycle.
• Temperate phage often have repressor genes to prevent phage

replication; integrates their DNA into the bacterial chromosome
where it stably stays as a prophage without lysing the host bacteria.
--- lysogeny
In the absence of functional repressor protein, they also may
replicate lytically.
There are two (2) types of transduction: generalized and specialized.
a. Generalized transduction is mediated virulent phages.
1. Attachment and infection. The virulent phage

DNA is injected into the bacterium.
2. Replication of the phage DNA. This directs

synthesis of the phage components and the in
disintegration of the bacterial chromosome
into small pieces.
3. Assembly and package. Phage DNA and

protein coat (capsid) are packaged into
phages . Occasionally, bacterial DNA are
packaged in a phage capsid by mistake ---
these are called transducing particles.
4. Lysis of the host bacterium. This releases the

phages and transducing particles.
When the transducing particle infects a new

bacterium, it injects the DNA from the donor
bacterium, rather than viral nucleic acid. The
recipient bacterium receives the donated DNA
and incorporates it into its own chromosome.
producing a recombinant cell with a new
genotype. Because the virus is defective
(biologically inactive as a virus), it is unable to
S e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s i n a initiate lytic cycle. The transduced cell survives
generalized transduction. and can use the new genetic material.
Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018).
Foundations in Microbiology (10th
ed.). McGraw Hill.
Generalized transduction is so-called because any bacterial DNA fragment can

be packaged within the phage and can be transferred from one cell to another.
b. Specialized transduction is mediated by temperate phages.

1. A t t a c h m e n t a n d i n f e c t i o n . T h e
temperate phage DNA is injected into
the bacterium, and represses its own
replication (R, repressor molecules).
2. Lysogeny and lysogenic conversion.

Lysogeny --- the phage DNA
integrates into the chromosome of
the host bacterium. The integrated
phage DNA is now called prophage.
Lysogenic conversion --- the
bacterium (lysogenic cell) acquires
new traits.
3. Replication. Prophage is replicated

with the host chromosome. All
daughter cells are lysogenic cells qnd
have the potential for producing
temperate phages.
4. Most cells continue to divide, showing

no evidence of viral infection.
5. Spontaneous induction. In a small

percentage of lysogenic cells,
prophage DNA excises from the
bacterial chromosome. This occurs
spontaneously but is enhanced by
irradiation with UV light or exposure to
agents that inter fere with DNA
replication.
6. Reactivation of phage DNA, assembly and package. Following excision, phage DNA
replicates and progeny temperate phages assemble and become packaged within
a capsid. When prophage separates from the bacterial chromosome, it carries with it
a segment of bacterial DNA in the same capsid, becoming a specialized transducing
particle.

7. Lysis of the host bacterium. The induced cell lyses and infectious temperate phages
are released.
Phage-coded pathogenic
factors:
• O antigen of Salmonella
Because prophages are inserted only at special site on the • Botulinum toxin of
bacterial chromosome, only bacterial DNA adjacent to this site Clostridium botulinum
can be transferred in specialized transduction. (causing botulism)
• Erythrogenic toxins of
Streptococcus pyogenes
The medical significance of lysogenic conversion is illustrated by its (causing scarlet fever)
• Diphtheria toxin of
role in the pathogenesis of certain bacteria. Corynebacterium
diphtheriae
Elaborate
In addition to genetic exchange, genetic variation in bacteria may result from

mutation. Mutation is a permanent alteration in the base sequence of the gene (DNA)
resulting in phenotypic change.
Mechanisms of mutation:
1. I n s e r t i o n . I n s e r t i o n t a k e s p l a c e w h e n a
nitrogenous base (nucleobase) is added to the
nucleotide sequence.
2. Deletion. Deletion is the removal of a nucleobase

from the nucleotide chain.
3. Substitution. Substitutions arise when there is

mispairing between complementary bases. It
occurs when one or more nucleobases in a
nucleotide sequence is replaced with another
base.
Mutations can be spontaneous, or induced by a mutagen in the environment.
Spontaneous mutation is a random, undirected alteration of the DNA base sequence

that arise as a consequence of mistakes in DNA replication. This type of mutation
occurs naturally in the environment. In fact, most of the mutations that we think matter
to evolution are “naturally-occurring”. Example, when a cell divides, it makes a copy of
its DNA — and sometimes the copy is not quite perfect. That small difference from the
original DNA sequence is a mutation.
Induced mutation are caused by exposure to external influences or agents that result in
the DNA to breakdown. Such external influences include chemicals, radiation, viruses,
diet and lifestyle. These agents that induce mutations are collectively referred to as
mutagens causing the DNA to break down.
• Nitrous acid (HNO2) converts the nucleobase adenine (A) to a form that no longer pairs with thymine (T) but cytosine (C).
Thus, when DNA containing such modified adenines replicates, one daughter DNA molecule will have a base-pair sequence
different from that of the parent DNA.
X rays and gamma rays ionize atoms and molecules with the formation of highly reactive ions and free radicals Some of .
these ions can combine with bases in DNA, resulting in errors in DNA replication and repair that produce mutations.
Ultraviolet (UV) light is a non-ionizing component of ordinary sunlight. Its most important effect on DNA is the formation of
harmful covalent bonds between certain bases. Adjacent thymines in a DNA strand can cross-link to form thymine dimers.
Such dimers, unless repaired, may cause serious damage or death to the cell because it cannot properly transcribe or
replicate such DNA.
MLS 223_Evaluate 2.3.
Multiple choice.
1. Which of the following consists of a pentose sugar, a phosphate group and either a
purine or pyrimidine base?
A. Nucleobase C. DNA molecule
B. Nucleotide D. Genes
2. Structures that carry hereditary information and contain small segments of DNA are
called:
A. genes C. chromosomes
B. genomes D. polynucleotides
3. Which of the following results from a permanent change in the base sequence of a
gene through natural or artificial means?
A. Mutation C. Transformation
B. Genetic Recombination D. Genetic Exchange
4. Which of the following genetic recombination requires a competent cell?

A. Mutation C. Conjugation
B. Transduction D. Transformation
5. The transfer of either a chromosomal DNA or plasmid through a sex pilus is called:
A. mutation C. conjugation
B. transduction D. transformation

References:
Carroll, K. C. (2016). Jawetz, Melnick & Adelberg's medical microbiology (27th ed.). New
York: McGraw-Hill Education.
Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., Bender, K. S., Buckley, D. H., & Stahl, D. A. (2015). Brock
Biology of Microorganisms(14th ed.). Glenview, Illinois: Pearson Education.
Melnick, J. L., Jawetz, E., Adelberg, E. A., & Riedel, S. (2020). Jawetz, Melnick y Adelberg
Microbiología médica. México: McGraw-Hill.
Pommerville, J. C. (2018). Alcamo's Fundamentals of Microbiology (11th ed.). Burlington:

Jones & Bartlett Learning.
Procop, G. W., Church, D. L., Hall, G. S., Janda, W. M., Koneman, E. W., Schreckenberger,
P. C., & Woods, G. L. (2017). Color Atlas and Textbook of Diagnostic Microbiology
(7th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health.
Talaro, K. P., & Chess, B. (2018). Foundations in Microbiology (10th ed.). McGraw Hill.
Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., Case, C. L., Weber, D., & Bair, W. (2020). Microbiology: An
introduction (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

Module 2 Unit 1-3 Merged

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Module 2 Unit 1-3 Merged

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MODULE 2 IN

By the end of the module, you should be able to:

1. describe the structure and function of the various components of a bacterial

2. compare the various shapes and arrangements of bacterial cells.

3.describe the process of bacterial growth.

4. describe the various nutritional and environmental requirements for bacterial

5. discuss the concepts of bacterial genetics and compare mechanisms of

1. Describe the structure and function of the various components of a composite

1. Cocci (sing. coccus; meaning berries) are usually spherical-shaped but

a. Diplococci are cocci that remain in

b. Streptococci are cocci in chain-like

c. Tetrads are cocci in groups of four

d. Sarcinae are cocci in cube-like

e. Staphylococci (staphyle, bunch of Cocci.

a. Single rods as in most bacilli.

b. Diplobacilli appear in pairs after

c. Streptobacilli occur in chains.

d. Cuneiforms are bacilli that are

e. Palisades are bacilli in "picket

3. Spirals are bacteria have one or more twists;

a. Vibrios are rods that are curved into

b. Spirilla (sing. spirillum) have a helical

c. Spirochetes are helical and flexible. Spiral bacteria.

Structurally, the bacterial cell has three (3) architectural

The cell envelope is a descriptive term for the structure

1. CELL MEMBRANE, also called the plasma membrane or cytoplasmic

a. Structure of the cell membrane:

i. Phospholipid molecules comprise about 40% of the cell

The arrangement of the lipids and proteins to form a membrane is

The bacterial cell membrane is structurally similar to the cell

b. Functions of the cell membrane:

i. Selective permeability. The most important function of the

Osmosis. The movement of water

In an isotonic medium, where the concentration of solutes is the

cytoplasm Used for accumulation of many

Transports at a rate faster that

Used primarily for transport of

iii. Site of energy generation. The cell membrane is the site of

vi. Chemotaxis. One of the tactic behaviors (their ability to move/

Mesosomes significantly increase the membrane surface area without

viii. Site of antibiotic action. The cell membrane is particularly susceptible

a. Structure of the cell wall:

The cell wall is a complex structure composed of several

Polymyxin B causes disruption

The peptidoglycan is composed of carbohydrate (CHO) backbone

The structure of peptidoglycan backbone.

‣ GRAM-POSITIVE CELL WALL

A detailed structure of gram-positive cell wall.

The thickness and extensive cross-linking within

ii. Teichoic acid (TA)

A detailed structure of gram-negative cell wall.

This structure of gram-negative cell walls make

ii. Outer membrane

The inner leaflet of the OM consists of

- Porin proteins completely span the outer

The outer leaflet of the OM contains

- Lipid A is commonly referred to as

- The polysaccharides that extend

iii. Periplasm is the space between the OM and the inner

b. Functions of the cell wall:

iii. Determines the difference in Gram’s stain reaction of bacteria.

Because the peptidoglycan in gram-

In gram-negative bacteria, the alcohol