VIRAL ZOONOSES • Diagnosis: demonstration of virus in blood or CSF;

direct IFA or RT-PCR in cell cultures and post-

• Alphaviruses • Pircornaviruses mortem specimen; detection of IgM in serum and
• Flaviviruses • Hepatitis E
CSF
• Bunyaviruses • Coronaviruses
• No specific treatment; symptomatic treatments
• Reoviruses • Retroviruses
• Arenaviruses • Herpesviruses • Passive and active physical therapy during recovery
• Filoviruses • Poxviruses stage
• Rhabdoviruses • Zoonoses associated • Control and Prevention:
• Paramyxoviruses with prions 1. No vaccine against EEEV for humans, vaccines
• Orthomyxoviruses available for horses
2. Reduce exposure to mosquitoes
Virus 3. Travel restriction
• Infective particle containing nucleic acid (DNA or 4. Mosquito repellent, wearing protective clothing,
RNA) usually surrounded by a protein coat (capsid) screens, destruction of mosquito breeding areas
and are capable of replication inside a host cell
which can further spread from one to cell to
another.

Viroses
• Zoonotic viral diseases - most abundant
• Most are RNA viruses (no proofreading mechanisms;
prone to mutation, genetic recombination and
genetic reassortment).

VIROSES (ALPHAVIRUSES)
• 25 species belong to genus Alphavirus (Togaviridae)
• Enveloped
• Glycoproteins: E1, E2 and 6K
• Mosquitoes
• Bird migration

1. Eastern equine encephalitis (EEE)

2. Western equine encephalitis (WEE)
3. Venezuelan equine encephalitis (VEE)
4. Semliki Forest fever
5. Sindbis fever
Chikungunya Fever
6. Ross River fever
7. Barmah Forest fever • Etiology: Alphavirus family Togaviridae
8. Chikungunya fever • Occurrence: South Africa, Uganda, Tanzania,
9. O'nyong-nyong fever Zimbabwe, Angola, Zaire, southern and
10. Mayaro fever southeastern Asia
• Reservoirs: wild primates, bats, birds
Eastern Equine Encephalitis • Vectors: mosquitoes
• Causative agent: Eastern Equine Encephalitis virus 1. Aedes aegypti (Sylvatic cycle)
(Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus) 2. Aedes albopictus (Urban cycle)
• Transmission to humans: bite from infected
mosquitoes
• Population at risk: residents near swampy / coastal
areas, visitors, people aged > 50 yrs and <15 yrs
• Presence of serological evidence in the Philippines
• Mosquito vector: Culiseta melanura
• Amplifying host: birds in freshwater hardwood
swamps
• Bridge vectors: Aedes, Coquillettidia, and Culex
• Dead-end hosts: horse (usually fatal), humans
• Other hosts: pheasants, bats, reptiles, rodents • No direct transmission between humans; mother-to-
• IP: 4-10 days child transmission is rare
• Clinical Manifestations in humans: • No reports of Chikungunya virus in milk
1. Systemic signs: fever, chills, malaise, arthralgia, • No vertical transmission in mosquitoes
myialgia • IP: 6-10 days
2. CNS signs: fever, headache, vomiting, diarrhea, • Clinical Manifestations: fever and joint pain (most
seizures, behavioral changes, drowsiness, coma common); headache, muscle pain, rashes
3. Abortion and fetal death in pregnant women • Population at Risk: newborns infected at the time of
• Clinical signs: fever, anorexia, tachycardia, birth, people aged >65 yrs, people with
depression, incoordination, signs of encephalitis comorbidities (hypertension, diabetes, heart
(e.g. constant head pressing, impaired vision, problems)
photophobia, dysphagia, circling, yawning, grinding • Diagnosis: RT-PCR
of teeth) death (if virus reached CNS) • No specific treatment; symptomatic treatments only

1|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

• No vaccine available
• Prevention and Control: vector control (mosquito
repellents, nets, screens, destruction of breeding
grounds)

O'Nyong-Nyong Fever
• "very painful and weak
• Etiology: Alphavirus (family Togaviridae)
• Occurrence: East Africa
• Transmission: mosquito bites (Anopheles gambiae,
A. funestus)
• Reservoir host is unknown
• IP: 8 days
• Transmission: mosquitoes (Culex tritaeniorhynchus,
• Clinical manifestations: fever, chills, epistaxis,
C. annulus, C. annulirostris & Aedes sp.)
arthralgias, exanthema, lymphadenitis
• Transovarial transmission in mosquitoes
• Diagnosis: virus isolation thru cell culture from
blood; RT-PCR
• No treatment; symptomatic treatments only
• Prevention and control: vector (mosquito) control

VIROSES (FLAVIVIRUS)
• At least 8 different virus complexes with 66 virus
types (from Family Flaviviridae)
• Enveloped virus
• Structural proteins: C (nucleocapsid), M (matrix) and
E (receptor-binding protein)

Classification of Zoonotic Flavivirus Diseases

• IP: 4-14 days

• Clinical manifestations:
1. Humans: fever, headache, non-specific malaise,
respiratory and GIT problems
2. Animals: subclinical; causes abortion in pregnant
Louping Ill sows and death in newborn piglets
• Zoonotic disease (rare in humans) which primarily • Dx: history of traveling: demonstration of virus-
occurs in sheep and cattle specific IgM Abs in CSE; fluorescence microscopy
• Transmission: tick bites (Castor bean tick – Ixodes (post-mortem sample-brain); RT-PCR (targets NS5
ricinus); direct contact with diseased sheep; gene)
laboratory infections • No specific treatment
• Transmission via cheese or milk does NOT occur • Prevention and Control:
• IP: 4-7 days 1. Inactivated virus vaccine (prepared in mouse
• Clinical manifestations: brain or cell culture)
1. Humans: Influenza-like symptoms, CNS signs 2. Virus vaccine propagated in Vero cells
2. Sheep - fever, CNS signs (leaping gait), paralysis 3. Change in pig farming system
• Dx: demonstration of the agent in the CSF; Ab titers 4. Insecticides
in paired serum sample; RT PCR 5. Reducing rice crops
• No specific treatment 6. Vector control
• Prevention and Control: vector control Yellow Fever
• No vaccine for general use; formalin-inactivated • Arbovirus infection in humans and primates
vaccine for sheep • Transmission: mosquitoes
Japanese Encephalitis 1. Urban cycle - Aedes aegypti and Stegomyia
• Previously known as Japanese B Encephalitis simpsoni
• Occurs throughout the year in tropical Asian 2. Sylvatic cycle - Haemagogus sp.
countries; absent during winter in temperate areas
• Affects pigs, cattle, goats, cats, dogs, birds, bats,
snakes and toads
• Amplifying hosts: pigs and herons

2|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

• IP: 3-6 days • 1. Vaccination
• Clinical Manifestations: 2. Vector control - eliminating breeding sites
1. Humans: influenza-like syndrome, jaundice, 3. Mosquito repellent
epistaxis, hematemesis (black coffee-like vomit), 4. Mosquito nets
melena, urogenital bleeding, signs of kidney 5. Personal protective clothing
failure, oliguria
VIROSES (BUNYAVIRUSES)
2. Common laboratory findings: oliguria, anuria
and albuminuria; hyperbilirubinemia and • "Bunya= Bunyamwera (a town in Uganda where the
prolonged prothrombin time virus was first isolated)
3. Monkeys: fever, headache, jaundice, muscle • Bunyaviridae - largest virus family
pain, nausea, vomiting and fatigue • Four human pathogen genera:
• Diagnosis: History, CS, laboratory findings (most 1. Orthobunyavirus
common - oliguria, anuria, albuminuria and 2. Nairovirus
prolonged prothrombin time); virus isolation (blood 3. Phlebovirus
and CSF) and detection via immunofluorescence: 4. Hantavirus
RT-PCR (targeting NS5 gene); real time PCR; Ab
titer testing, IgM capture ELISA Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever
• No specific treatment • Caused by Nairovirus infection
• Symptomatic and Supportive: fluids, electrolytes; • Crimea in 1944 and Congo in 1969
control clotting and thrombocyte; blood transfusion • Transmission: Hyalomma (both vector and reservoir)
from vaccinated donors • Amplifying hosts - cattle, goat, sheep, hares
• Prevention and Control: • Human to human transmission - direct contact
1. Vaccination (blood and other body fluids)
2. Vaccination of immunosuppressed individuals • latrogenic and nosocomial transmission
should be assessed • Risk of Exposure
3. Pregnant women and newborns (< 9 months) - 1. Animal herders
do NOT vaccinate 2. Livestock workers
4. Vector control 3. Slaughterhouse workers
4. HCW
Dengue Fever 5. Veterinarians
• Aka Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, Dengue Shock • IP: 1-3 days (post tick bite)
Syndrome, Denga, Dyenga, Dandy Fever • Clinical manifestation:
• Most important and most common mosquito-borne 1. Initial signs: headache, high fever, back pain,
viral infection in humans joint pain, stomach pain, vomiting, red eyes,
• Occurs on all continents except Europe and sore throat & petechiae on the palate
Antarctica 2. Progressive signs: large areas of severe bruising,
• 2 billion people exposed to Dengue (30-50 mil epistaxis, uncontrolled bleeding at injection sites
diseases annually) 3. Fatality rate - 9-50%
• Transmission: mosquito (Aedes aegypti) 4. In animals - non-specific flu-like signs
• Dx: history, CS, Ag-capture ELISA, real time PCR,
detection of Ab and Ag (ELISA),
Immunohistochemistry
• No specific treatment
• Symptomatic and supportive - fluid therapy,
correcting electrolyte imbalances, oxygen therapy,
hemodynamic support
• Prevention:
1. Insect repellents
2. Use of protective clothing and gloves when
• IP: 4-7 days handling animals
• Clinical Manifestation: 3. Avoid contact with blood and other body fluids
1. Clinical diseases only occur in humans of livestock animals and humans with signs and
2. Monkeys become infected and develop viremia symptoms
3. Humans: fever, severe headache, retroorbital 4. No safe and effective vaccine yet for human use
pain, nausea, vomiting, rashes, joint and muscle
Rift Valley Fever
pain
• Etiology: Phlebovirus
• Dx: history of travel, CS, hypovolemia (high HCT)
• Rift Valley in early 1910's
and altered hemostasis (thrombocyte less than
• Affects domestic animals in sub Saharan Africa and
100,000); virus isolation (from blood);
causes severe acute hemorrhagic illness
immunofluorescence (tissue sample - liver, lung,
• Most severe RVF epizootic – Kenya (1960-1951) with
kidney, spleen, LN); RT-PCR
100,000 deaths in sheep
• No specific treatment Symptomatic and supportive:
• Humans with RVF - asymptomatic or mild illness
1. Blood transfusion
only
2. Replacement of fluid, electrolytes and plasma
• Transmission:
protein
• Prevention and Control:

3|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

 1. Direct contact (blood, body fluids, tissues, of • Filoviruses are pleomorphic (long filamentous and
infected animals other shapes)
2. Consuming raw / undercooked meat of infected • Characteristics of filoviruses:
animals 1. Unique morphology
3. Mosquito bites 2. Caused large outbreaks - have substantial
4. Aerosol transmission (laboratory setting) epidemic potential
5. No human to human transmission reports yet 3. High Mt rates
• Risk of Exposure: 4. Epidemiology remains unclear
1. People spending time in rural areas
2. People sleeping outdoors
3. Butchers
4. Animal product handlers
5. Herdsman
6. Farmer
7. Laboratory workers
8. International travelers

• IP: 3-7 days

• Clinical manifestation:
1. Most infected people are asymptomatic / have
mild illness (fever, weakness, back pain and
dizziness)
2. Patients recover 2-7 days after onset of
symptoms
3. Severe cases - ocular disease (blurred and
decreased vision), encephalitis (headache,
coma, seizure) and hemorrhagic fever (jaundice,
liver damage, hematemesis, melena, epistaxis,
bleeding from gums and skin)

Ebola Virus Hemorrhagic Fever

• Causes hemorrhagic fever with very high fatality
• Dx: RT-PCR, virus isolation, Ab testing ELISA
rates in humans
• No specific treatment
• Discovered in 1976 - two consecutive outbreaks of
1. Most cases are mild and self-limiting
fatal hemorrhagic fever in Congo and South Sudan
2. For severe cases, hospitalization may be
• Reservoir host – African fruit bats
required
• Dead-end hosts – humans, gorillas, chimpanzees
• Prevention:
and other mammals
1. Avoid contact with body fluids, blood, tissues of
• Transmission:
infected animals
1. Use of contaminated needles and syringes
2. Protecting equipment (gloves, boots, face
2. Direct contact with infected blood and body
shield)
fluids (e.g. urine, saliva, vomit, breast milk,
3. Avoid consuming raw or undercooked animal
amniotic fluid, semen)
products
3. Aerosol
4. Mosquito repellent
4. Contaminated objects (e.g. clothes, beddings)
5. No vaccines for human use
• People at Risk:
6. Vaccines for animal use are available - modified
• Healthcare workers caring for EVD patients that
live vaccine is commonly used
do not use proper infection control
VIROSES (FILOVIRUS) • Family and friends that are in close contact with
• Filo = filum = thread EVD patients
• IP: 6-9 days

4|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

• Clinical manifestation: fever, severe headache,
muscle pain, joint pain, weakness, fatigue, sore
throat, in appetence, GIT symptoms, bleeding &
bruising, red eyes, skin rashes and hiccups (late
stage)
• Diagnosis: symptoms and signs, history (exposure
from objects, blood or body fluid of sick person or
those who died of EVD; exposure from fruit bats and
nonhuman primates; exposure to semen from a man
who has recovered from EVD); PCR
• For Zaire ebolavirus
• Inmazeb - combination of three monoclonal
antibodies
• Ebanga - single monoclonal antibody
• Supportive and symptomatic treatment: fluid
therapy, electrolytes, pain killers, antiemetics,
antidiarrheals
• Prevention:
1. Avoid contact with blood and body fluids from
people with EVD
2. Avoid contact with semen from a man who has
recovered from EVD
3. Avoid contact with objects that might be
exposed with EVD patients
4. Avoid attending burial and funeral ceremonies of
people who died from EVD
5. Avoid contact with bats and nonhuman primates'
blood, body fluids or bush meat
6. Vaccination
7. Practice proper sanitation and hygiene (correct
handwashing using soap and water, sanitation
using alcohol)
Marburg Virus Hemorrhagic Fever
• Rare but severe hemorrhagic fever affecting people
and nonhuman primates
• First recognized in Marburg and Frankfurt, Germany
and Serbia (1967) – simultaneous outbreaks
occurred in laboratory workers because of handling
of green moneys imported from Uganda
• Reservoir host: African fruit bat
• Transmission:
1. Blood or body fluids (urine, saliva, sweat, feces,
vomit, breast milk, amniotic fluid, semen) of
person who is sick or died with Marburg virus
disease
2. Contaminated objects (clothes, beddings,
iatrogenic - needles)
3. Nosocomial transmission
4. Semen from man who recovered from Marburg
virus disease
• IP: 7 days
• Clinical manifestation:
• Onset of symptoms: fever, chills, headache,
myalgia
• 5 days after onset of symptoms: maculopapular
rash (chest, back), nausea, vomiting chest pain,
sore throat, abdominal pain, diarrhea
• Severe cases: jaundice, weight loss, delirium,
shock, liver failure, pancreatitis, massive
hemorrhaging and multiple organ failure
• CFR-23-90%
• Dx: history, CS, ELISA, PCR, virus isolation
• IgM capture ELISAm - used for confirmatory few
days after the onset of symptoms
5|P a g e
• IHC, virus isolation and PCR of blood or tissue
specimens for deceased patients
• No specific treatment
• Supportive and symptomatic treatment - balancing
electrolyte levels, fluid therapy, oxygenation,
maintaining blood pressure, blood transfusion
• Prevention:
1. Avoiding fruit bats and sick nonhuman primates
2. Avoid physical direct contact with MVD patients
3. Personal protective equipment
4. Strict isolation of sick individuals
5. Proper disposal of needles, equipment and
patient excretions
VIROSES (RHABDOVIRUSES)
• Rhabdos = bullet or rod
• Has 6 genera and broad host range; some species
are arboviruses
• Enveloped, bullet-shaped, cylindrical nucleocapsid,
70 nm in diameter, 170 nm long; linear (-) SSRNA,
11-15 kb in size
• Virions are relatively stable in the environment
(especially with alkaline pH); virions can be
destroyed by direct sunlight, detergent-based
disinfectants and iodinecontaining preparations
• Major Viral Proteins:
• Nucleoprotein (N) – major protein in the
nucleocapsid
• Co-factor of viral polymerase (P)
• Matrix (M) – facilitates virion budding
• Glycoprotein (G) - contains neutralizing epitopes
• Polymerase (L) - RNA-dependent RNA
polymerase
Rabies
• Aka hydrophobia, tollwut, le rage, le rabia,
derriengue
• Etiology: lyssavirus
• Transmission: bite from rabid animals; scratch on
skin, abrasions, inhalation, organ transplant
• IP: 10 days to 3 months (sometimes up to years);
the closer (and deeper) the bite to the CNS, the
shorter IP
• Species Variations:
• Ruminants: usually paralytic form with
abdominal pain, diarrhea, pruritus lactation
ceases, abnormal bellowing:
• Horse: distress and extreme agitation; in some
resembles tetanus with pruritus
• Swine: irritation, may bite other animals like dog
• Chickens: ruffled feathers, attack complex and
hoarse cry
• Man: fever, headache, perspiration
• Diagnosis: CS and history, direct microscopic
examination (Seller's stain; impression smear of the
brain particularly medulla, pons and hippocampus,
Negri bodies); immunofluorescence microscopy
(fresh brain tissue - must include medulla oblongata
and cerebellum); VI (mouse neuroblastoma cells),
RT-PCR
• No specific treatment
Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health
• Prevention in Animals • Ribavirin - showed effectiveness against the virus in
1. Vaccination vitro
2. Updating rabies vaccines regularly • Prevention: vaccine (for horses; vaccine for human
3. Keeping pets indoors use is still under study), avoiding contact with
4. Spay / neuter horses that are infected or exposed with HeV,
5. Calling the attention of animal control in cases of avoiding contact with flying foxes and fruit bats
stray animals
Nipah Virus Infection (NIV)
• Prevention in Humans
• Etiology: Henipavirus from the family
1. Vaccination
Paramyxoviridae
• Pre-exposure prophylaxis - one injection per
• First discovered in 1999 during a swine disease
day on days 0,7, 21 and 28 with booster
outbreak in Malaysia and Singapore
shots every 6 months to 2 years depending
• Reservoir host: fruit bat aka flying fox
on the exposure
• Transmission:
• Post-exposure prophylaxis - consists of
1. Direct contact with infected animals (e.g. bats,
human rabies immune globulin and rabies
pigs)
vaccine; administered on days 3, 7 and 14
2. Exposure to body fluids of infected animals (e.g.
2. Stay away from wildlife
blood, urine, saliva)
3. Preventing rabies in pets
3. Consumption of food products contaminated
VIROSES (PARAMYXOVIRUSES) with body fluids of infected animals (e.g. palm
• para = by the side; myxa = mucus sap or fruits)
• Enveloped (large glycoprotein spikes), pleomorphic 4. Close contact with infected person or via their
(linear or filamentous), 150-300 nm in diameter: (-) body fluids (respiratory droplets, urine, or blood)
SSRNA
• Viral proteins:
• Hemagglutinin - attachment; induction of
protective immunity
• Neuraminidase - virion release, destruction of
mucin inhibitors
• Fusion protein (F) - cell fusion, virion entry, cell-
cell spread, protective immunity
• Nucleoprotein (N) - protection of viral genome
• Transcriptase (L & P) - RNA genome
transcription (polymerase activity)
• Matrix protein (M) - virion stability

Hendra Virus Disease (HeV)

• Etiology: genus Henipavirus family Paramyxoviridae
• First isolated in 1994 on Australia - outbreak of
respiratory and neurologic disease in horses and
humans
• Reservoir host: fruit-eating bats, flying foxes
• Source of infection: horses
• Transmission:
• Exposure of humans to body fluids, excretions
and tissues of infected horses
• Horses are infected after exposure to urine of
infected flying foxes
• No reported human-to-human transmission
• People living within the distribution of flying foxes or
horses that had contact with flying foxes
• IP: 9-16 days
• Clinical manifestations: flu-like symptoms,
respiratory illness, some cases develop into
encephalitis
• Case fatality rate is high: 4 out of 7 (57%)
• Diagnosis: ELISA (detection of Abs like IgG and
IgM), real time PCR, virus isolation
• IP: 7-14 days
• Many affected swine are asymptomatic
• Clinical symptoms in humans: fever, headache,
coughing, sore throat, dyspnea, vomiting
• In severe cases: disorientation, drowsiness,
confusion, seizures, coma, brain swelling
• Long-term side effects: persistent convulsions and
personality changes
• CFR - 40-75%
• Dx:
• During early stages: real time PCR (throat and
nasal swabs, CSF, urine, blood)
• During later stages and recovery: ELISA
• No specific treatment; supportive and symptomatic
treatment
• Immunotherapy is being currently developed
• Prevention:
1. Handwashing and sanitation
2. Proper hygiene
3. Avoid contact with sick bats or pigs
4. Avoid areas where bats roost
5. Avoid consumption of raw date palm sap

6|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

 6. Avoid contact with the blood or body fluids of • In US, main swine influenza viruses - swine triple
NIV infected person reassortant (tr) H1N1 influenza virus, trH3N2 virus,
and trH1N2 virus.
• Transmission:
VIROSES (ORTHOMYXOVIRUSES) 1. Movement of animals (newly acquired stocks,
• ortho = straight; myxa = mucus introduction of new breeder animals)
• Composed of viruses with 6-8 genome segments of 2. Aerosol
ssRNA 3. Direct contact
• Influenza viruses 4. Contaminated objects
• Influenza virus A - pathogenic to domestic • IP: 1-3 days
animals and frequently transmitted from animals
to humans
• Influenza virus B and C - not as pathogenic as
Influenza A but can continuously circulate in
humans
• Extensive genomic rearrangements between
different influenza viruses can occur – leading to • Dx: complement fixation test, hemagglutination
formation of new variants inhibition test, ELISA confirmation and typing -
• Enveloped, pleomorphic, 80-120 nm in diameter; hemagglutination, direct IF, RT-PCR
linear SSRNA, 10-14.6 kb in size, helical • Tx: amantadine, rimantadine, oseltamivir, peramivir,
nucleocapsid (divided into 6-8 segments) zanamivir, baloxavir
• Influenza A = 8 segments; B = 7 segments; C = • Prevention
6 segments (lacks N) - Avoid going to places like pig barns and farms
• Peplomeres: Neuraminidase (N) and Hemagglutinin - Don't eat food or drink in pig areas
(H) - Avoid close contact with infected or ill pigs
• Proteins: hemagglutinin, neuraminidase, matrix (M1 - Wear personal protective equipment
& M2), nucleoprotein, transcriptase complex (PB1, - Proper handwashing and sanitation
PB2 & PA), NS1 & NS2
Avian Influenza
• Aka: fowl plague, fowl pest, Brunswick bird plague,
fowl disease, fowl or bird grippe
• Etiology: avian influenza A virus (H5N1, H7N7,
H7N9, H9N2)
• First observed in Hong Kong in 1997 (H5N1) -
caused six deaths in 18 infected people
• Occurs naturally in wild aquatic birds and can infect
domestic poultry and other birds and animal species
• Basis of Classification: • Transmission:
- Virus type (A, B & C) 1. Ingestion
- Host species 2. Inhalation
- Geographic origin Strain number 3. H5N1 - primarily via direct contact with infected
- Year of isolation birds
- Type of hemagglutinin and neuraminidase 4. H9N7 - no human to human transmission
- Examples:
 influenza virus A / equine /
Miami/1/1963 (H3N8)
 A / swine / lowa / 15 / 1930 (H1N1)
 A / chicken / Scotland / 1959 (H5N1)
• Immune evasion:
- Antigenic drift - minor changes (e.g. point
mutations, nucleotide deletions, substitutions,
insertions)
- Antigenic shift - genomic segment reassortment
• Symptoms and signs in humans:
1. Conjunctivitis 9. Respiratory distress
2. Fever 10. Dyspnea
3. Cough 11. Shortness of breath
4. Sore throat 12. Pneumonia
5. Muscle aches 13. Seizures
6. Nausea
7. Abdominal pain
8. Diarrhea and vomiting
• Dx: history, CS, lesions, necropsy; AGID, ELISA RT-
Swine Influenza
PCR, VI
• Etiology: type A Influenza virus
• Tx: Antivirals (amantadine, rimantadine, zanamivir
• Aka swine flu, pig flu, hog flu
and oseltamivir), symptomatic and supportive
• 1918-1919 - 20 million deaths
treatment

7|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

• Prevention:
1. Avoid sources of exposure
2. Avoid wild birds; observe the, form a distance
only
3. Avoid contact with ill or domestic birds that died
4. Avoid contact with surfaces that are
contaminated
5. Strict biosecurity
6. Proper hygiene and disinfection
VIROSES (PICORNAVIRUSES)
• Pico = very small
• Genome is 1 piece of linear (+) SSRNA;
nonenveloped, icosahedral capsids, about 30nm
diameter; -60 capsomeres
• Capsid has 4 coat proteins; VP1, VP2, VP3, VP4.
• RNA is infectious and is the message for protein
translation
• Stable in certain environmental condition; heat
stable
- Aphthovirus: unstable at pH=7
- Entero-, hepato-, cardio-, parechivriruses: stable
at pH=3
Foot-and-Mouth Disease
• Etiology: Aphthovirus
• Serotype: A = Allemagne, O = Oise Valley, C =
German isolate, SAT (1, 2 & 3) = Sat African Type,
Asia Type 1.
• Inactivated at a pH below 6.5 or above 11 (acidic or
very basic condition).
• Most economically devastating livestock disease
virus in the world
• Major outbreak in 1995
• Transmission:
1. Respiratory aerosols
2. Direct or indirect contact with infected animals
3. Fomites
4. Semen (cows can acquire FMD from bull's
semen)
5. Undercooked food scraps and feed supplements
containing infected animal products
• Peak transmission occurs when vesicles rupture,
• IP: 2-8 days
• Clinical manifestations general malaise, fever,
nausea, head and limb pain; erythematous mucus
membranes and painful vesicles
• Ageing of Lesion:
- 1-2 days - fresh, unruptured vesicles on the
tongue and/or feet,
- 2-3 days - ruptured vesicles covered with ragged
but intact epithelium, bright red ulcers
- 4-5 days - epithelium necrotic and caseous,
granulation tissue on tongue and mouth
- 7 days - epithelium lost, healing underway in
mouth, old and new horn clearly separated on
hoof.
• Diagnosis: CS (rapidly spreading vesicular disease)
as presumptive diagnosis; serology (ELISA, CFT); IF,
Ag-capture ELISA
• Treatment is symptomatic and supportive
• Prevention:
8|P a g e
1. Vaccination
2. Culling / Slaughter
3. Proper hygiene and sanitation
4. Limit movements of animals
5. Isolation and quarantine
VIROSES (HEPEVIRUS - HEPATITIS E)
• Etiology: genus Hepevirus family Hepeviridae
• Detected in 1983
• ssRNA (+) sense
• Endemic in countries with low standard of hygiene
- Genotype 1 - Asia and North Africa
- Genotype 2 - West Africa and Middle America
- Genotype 3 - zoonotic, widely distributed
Hepatitis E
• Transmission (genotypes 1 & 2):
1. Feco-oral route
2. Drinking of contaminated water
3. Sexual transmission
4. Blood transfusion
5. Organ transplant
• Youths - more affected than children
• Male > female
• Zoonotic transmission (genotypes 3):
1. Contact with animal excrements and animal
products
2. Eating raw or undercooked meat, liver or offal
from domestic pigs/wild boar
• IP: 2-9 weeks
• Clinical Manifestations: fever, malaise, epigastric
pain, vomiting, diarrhea, icterus, dark colored urine
- Pregnant women and their fetuses - endangered
mainly during 3rd trimester; fatality rate = 20%
- Patients with chronic liver damage - fatality rate
= 70%
• Dx: RT-PCR (sample: serum, stool) 1 week before
clinical signs manifest and after recovery: ELISA
(IgM is detectable up to 3 months after infection)
• No specific treatment; symptomatic treatments like
other hepatitis
• Prevention:
1. No vaccine yet
2. Proper personal hygiene
3. Avoid contact with animals, cadavers, animal
products, blood and excrement
4. Meat from wild boars and pigs should be cooked
properly
VIROSES (CORONAVIRUSES)
• "corona" = crown-like virions
• Enveloped, helical nucleocapsid, linear, (+) SSRNA,
27-31 kb, largest viral genomes so far
Severe Acute Respirator Syndrome (SARS)
• First described in 2002 in Hong Kong and Hanoi due
to atypical pneumonia
• According to WHO, there were 8,098 cases of SARS
in 32 countries with 774 deaths (CFR = 9.56%)
• Reservoir host: bats
• Transmission:
1. Direct contact
2. Airborne (respiratory droplets)
3. Contaminated surfaces
Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health
 • 3-4 out of 10 people - reported mortality
• Mild to moderate disease in children and younger
adults without comorbidity
• Severe disease and higher fatality in patients aged >
40 yrs and those with comorbidities (e.g. diabetes,
cardiac problems, renal problems, etc)
• Dx: RT-PCR; serodiagnosis (IF, ELISA, Western
blotting)
• No specific treatment
• Supportive therapy (e.g. oxygen respiration) and
symptomatic treatment
• IP: 2-7 days • Prevention
• Clinical Symptoms: 1. No vaccine available
1. Fever and chills 2. Prompt detection of cases and early warning
2. Headache system
3. Malaise 3. Isolation and quarantine (10 days) of suspected
4. Muscle pain cases
5. Mild respiratory symptoms (non-productive 4. Contact tracing
cough, dyspnea) 5. Proper hygiene and disinfection
6. Rashes 6. Wearing of personal protective equipment
• Dx: RT-PCR, enzyme immunoassay 7. Pregnant women or individuals with comorbidity
• No specific treatment; supportive and symptomatic should avoid traveling in rural regions on
treatments only Arabian Peninsula
• Prevention
1. No vaccine available yet COVID-19
2. Prompt detection of cases and early warning • Discovered in December 2019 in Wuhan, China
system • Highly contagious which quickly spread around the
3. Isolation and quarantine (10 days) of suspected world - causing a pandemic
cases • Most people with COVID-19 have mild symptoms;
4. Contact tracing older people and those with underlying conditions
5. Proper hygiene and disinfection are at increased risk
6. Wearing of personal protective equipment

Middle East Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus

(MERS-CoV)
• First reported in September 2012 in Saudi Arabia,
according to retrospective studies, the first known
cases of MERS-Cov occurred in Jordan in April 2012
• Reservoir host: bats
• Genome sequences similar to MERSCov were found
in nasal secretions and stools of dromedaries
• Transmission:
1. Respiratory secretions (coughing, sneezing, etc.)
2. Close contact (caring of sick individual)
3. Nosocomial infections
4. Contact with infected dromedaries

• Transmission:
1. Respiratory droplets
2. Breathing in air close to an infected person
3. Entry of virus particles into the eyes, nose or
mouth
4. Direct contact with infected animal hosts

• IP: 2-14 days

• Clinical manifestations:
1. Fever
2. Coughing
3. Shortness of breath
4. Diarrhea / vomiting
5. Nausea

9|P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

 • Global distribution
• Transmission (human to human):
1. Sexual intercourse (vaginal, anal)
2. Perinatal
3. Breastfeeding
4. Sharing of needles, syringes or other drug
injection equipment
5. Blood transfusion and organ transplant
• Transmission (animal to human):
1. Consumption of bushmeat
2. Exposure to infected body fluids and meat of
chimpanzees, bonobos and other primates
• IP: 1-4 weeks
• Clinical Manifestations (3 stages):
- Acute HIV infection: fever, chills, rashes, night
sweats, muscle aches, sore throat, fatigue,
swollen LN, mouth ulcers
- Chronic HIV infection: aka asymptomatic HIV
• Clinical symptoms:
infection or clinical latency
1. Fever or chills 9. Sore throat - AIDS: most severe phase as patients have
2. Cough 10. Congested or weakened immune system
3. Shortness of breath or runny nose
dyspnea 11. Nausea
4. Fatigue 12. Vomiting
5. Muscle or body ache 13. Diarrhea
6. Headache
7. Sore throat
8. Loss of taste and anosmia
• Dx: RT-PCR, Antigen testing, Antibody testing
• No specific treatment
• Supportive therapy and symptomatic treatments
• Prevention:
1. Vaccines are available and effective
2. Personal protective equipment
3. Proper hygiene and sanitation places
4. Isolation and quarantine (10-14 days) if exposed
to sick individuals of infected/ill animals host
5. Avoid travelling to places with high COVID-19
cases
6. Avoid crowded and poorly-ventilated
7. Keeping distance from others (6 feet) • Dx: ELISA (for detection of IgG and IgM), PCR (gold
8. Regular monitoring of health standard)
• No effective cure for HIV but a treatment that
VIROSES (RETROVIRUSES)
reduces the amount of HIV in the body is available
• Retroviruses replicate using reverse transcriptase
• Antiretroviral therapy (ART)
(virus-encoded enzyme that synthesizes a DNA copy
• Prevention:
from RNA viral genome)
1. Avoid contact with wild animals
• 3-layered structure
2. Avoid consumption of bush meat
- Genome-nucleoprotein complex - helical
3. Abstinence
symmetry; contains about 30 reverse
4. Avoid sharing needles and syringes
transcriptase molecules
5. Using condoms during sex
- lcosahedral capsid - 60 nm in diameter
6. HIV preventive medicines (e.g. pre-exposure
- Envelope - contains glycoprotein spikes
prophylaxis or PrEP and post exposure
(peplomeres)
prophylaxis or PEP)
• Genome: diploid (2 molecules of linear (+) SSRNA),
7-11 kb in size VIROSES (POXVIRUSES)
• Poc = pustule, ulcer
Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
• Largest and most complex of all the viruses of
• Etiology: Lentiviruses - HIV 1 (originated in East
vertebrates.
Africa) and HIV 2 (West Africa) Global prevalence of
• Brick-shaped (except Parapox which is ovoid) virion,
HIV, 2009
300-450 nm x 170-260nm, with an envelope
• A virus which attacks and weakens the immune
containing lipid and tubular or globular protein
system. If left untreated, it can lead to Acquired
structures enclosing 1 or 2 lateral bodies and a core
Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS)
containing the genome.
• If people get HIV, they have it for life
• Origin of the virus: chimpanzee (simian
immunodeficiency virus)

10 | P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

• Virion contains more than 30 structural proteins and - Animals: nervousness, aggressive behavior,
several viral enzymes, including DNAdependent RNA depression, hypersensitivity to sound and touch,
polymerase. twitching, tremors, abnormal posture,
• Genome is single molecule of dsDNA incoordination, weight loss, decreased milk yield
- Humans: loss of intellect and memory, changes
Orf
in personality, incoordination, slurred, speech,
• Aka Contagious Ecthyma, Contagious pustular vision problems, abnormal jerking movements,
dermatitis, Sore mouth, Scabby mouth
progressive loss of brain function and mobility
• Etiology: parapoxvirus • Dx: Antigen detection, Antibody against Prp protein
• Infectious dermatitis of sheep and goats that
to detect prions; Immunohistochemistry, Western
primarily affects the lips of young animals; more blot
severe in goat than in sheep
• No specific treatment
• Worldwide occurrence • Prevention:
• Transmission: contact of virus from infected animals
1. Limited movement of animals and animal
into the broken skin products
1. Bottle feeding, tube feeding, shearing
2. Avoid importing feed from sources with BSE
2. Petting or direct contact with infected cases
animals
3. Isolation and quarantine
3. Handling infected equipment 4. Transparency in reporting cases of BSE
4. Bites from infected animals
5. Removal of specified risk materials or SMRs
• Orf virus - not transmitted one infected person to (e.g. brain, spinal column, etc) during
another
slaughter
• Orf virus do not generate enduring immunity
• Clinical Manifestation:
- Humans: papules that become ulcerative; occurs
on fingers, hands, forearms; mild fever, malaise,
local swelling of LN
- Animals: crusting and proliferative lesions of the
mouth, nose and gums, lesions develop as
papuples - vesicular and pustular stages →
encrusting → coalescence of lesions lead to
formation of large scabs + scabs drop off and
tissues heal without scarring
• Dx: Gel Diffusion tests, ELISA, CS
• No specific treatment
• Antibiotics may be used to combat secondary
bacterial infections
• Prevention: vaccine for animals is available; use
PPEs when handling infected animal; proper hygiene
and sanitation

PRIONS
• Smaller than the smallest known virus; not yet
completely characterized
• Insoluble in strongest solvents
• Highly resistant to digestion by proteases
• Resistant to heat, normal sterilization process and
sunlight
• Prions can survive in post-mortem tissues

Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy (BSE)

• First described in 1986 in UK; cumulatively, through
the end of 2015, there have been more than 184,
500 confirmed cases
• Etiology: insoluble form of PrP gene product
• A progressive neurological disorder of cattle
• Transmission:
1. Dietary intake of prion contaminated feed
(possible source: meat-and-bone offal)
2. No horizontal transmission; inadequate
proof of vertical transmission
3. Animal to human transmission: consumption
of contaminated beef products, contact with
objects contaminated with prions
• IP: 4-6 years
• Clinical manifestations:

11 | P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health

 ALPHAVIRUS BUNYAVIRUS

Western Equine Encephalitis Zoonotic Bunyaviruses

 Causative agent: Western Equine Encephalitis virus
(Family Togaviridae, genus Alphavirus)
 Five subtypes: WEE, Buggy Creek, Fort Morgan,
Highlands J and Aura
 Amplifying host: wild birds especially the young
 Vector: Culex trasalis
 Clinical Manifestations: fever and myalgia, spasms,
flaccid and spastic paresis; mental retardation and
emotional instability
 Virulence – age-dependent
 WEEV is less virulent than EEEV in horses; IP – 1-3
weeks
 CS (horses): fever, somnolence, excitability,
incoordination, dysphagia, lips paresis
 Diagnosis: VI, ELISA (IgM capture ELISA), VN, HI,
RT-PCR
 Symptomatic treatment only
 Prevention and Control: Vaccination (inactivated cell
culture vaccines for Eastern, Western and
Venezuelan EEV; inactivated bi- or trivalent vaccines
2 doses 4-6 weeks apart; given annually during
spring); mosquito control programs; quarantine of
horses during outbreak

FLAVIVIRUS

Tick-borne Encephalitis
 Central European Tick Encephalitis – aka Western
Subtype of TBE, spring-summer meningoencephalitis
 Transmission: tick bite (Central European
Encephalitis – Ixodes ricinus; Russian Spring
Summer Meningoencephalitis – I. persulcatus,
Dermacenrtor marginatus, D. silvarum &
Haemaphysalis spp.); transstadial and transovarial
transmission; animal to human transmission via
drinking of raw and non-pasteurized milk
 Reservoir hosts: hedgehogs, shrews, moles,
waterfowls, bats
 IP: 1-2 weeks
 Clinical Manifestations:
❖ Prodromal stage – flu-like symptoms, limb pain
and gastrointestinal problems
❖ Severe cases – encephalomyelitis with paresis and
paralysis; meningoencephalitis
 Diagnosis: history (previous tick bites; ingestion of
raw goat/sheep milk); virus isolation; Ag detection;
PCR
 No specific treatment
 Control and Prevention: wear thick protective
clothing; pasteurization of milk; Anti-TBE
hyperimmunoglobulin as pre- and post-exposure
prophylaxis; vaccination

12 | P a g e Geriel Quides | DVM 4A | Zoonoses, EIDs, and One Health