Autonomous navigation and Obstacle Avoidance of a Micro-bus
using GPS and Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging sensor
Nguyen Van Dao, Duong Van Dang
 There are many international projects aiming to develop
Abstract — Automation technology is expected to change the
public transport sector radically in the future. The autonomous
vehicle is also called a self-driving vehicle which is capable of
sensing its environment and moving safely with no human
input. This paper is concerned with an electric autonomous
mini-bus. The vehicle position and orientation are obtained
from the GPS system by list of latitude-longitude points
(waypoints). Using a GPS sensor to drive autonomously from
one waypoint to another. Moreover, the vehicle is equipped a
multi-beam Laser Imaging Detection and Ranging (LIDAR)
sensor to detect obstacle and reconstrunt surrounding. When
an obstacle is detected in the planned path, the planned route is
modified to avoid the obstacle and continue way until it
completes the task. All the results presented in this paper are
based on data collected during a demonstration at the IEEE
Intelligent Vehicles Symposium 2012. The demonstration
included an electric minibus that traveled along a 725-meter
route to avoid obstacles. It has capacity for 14 people and
completed successfully 28 laps in self-driving mode, carrying a
total of 196 people for a distance of 20.3 km in self-driving
mode.
Keyword — Autonomous Vehicle, Micro-bus, Public
Transportation, GPS Navigation, Laser, Obstacle Detection,
Obstacle Avoidance
I. INTRODUCTION
Public transport is one of the key issues in large urban
design, one of the criteria that determines the quality of urban
life and is closely related to the social life of each resident.
There are many direct, indirect, and incidental factors
affecting public transport, but by far the most worrisome is
the human interaction in urban transport. Drivers' decisions
are influenced by many factors, and although they are
driving, driving is not always their sole focus; sometimes
drivers don't maintain a fixed distance between vehicles,
don't always pay attention to traffic signs and lights, don't
follow the required traffic rules and in their decisions, and
always Trust your feelings. If we remove the human factor
from this equation, we will significantly reduce traffic
congestion and increase road security. That's why the topic of
autonomous vehicle (AV) is being developed by a lot of
people nowadays. The main advantage of autonomous
driving is not only the replacement of the human driver with
emotional and physical limitations, but the possibility of the
vehicle to make predictions and to communicate with
infrastructure and other vehicles.

Nguyen Van Dao Dao is currently a student at the Hanoi University of
Science and Technology (corresponding author to provide phone:
09851889555; e-mail: dao.nv181106@sis.hust.edu.vn).
Duong Van Dang is currently a student at the Hanoi University of
Science and Technology (corresponding author to provide phone:
0981182455 ; e-mail: dang.dv191456@sis.hust.edu.vn).
these types of vehicles. One of the most relevant projects
developed in the USA is the DARPA Urban Challenge 2007.
This project has promoted research in the field of
autonomous vehicles in urban scenarios, with a focus on
military applications [2]. Detailed descriptions of the
different classes of navigation systems (mission planning,
behavior planning, and motion) of the vehicles that won first
and second place in the challenge are provided in [3] and [4].
A description of all vehicles participating in the challenge is
described in [5].
In this paper, the description of an autonomous electric
micro-bus is provided, with capacity for 14 persons.
Although the separate algorithmic components of the
proposed system do not outperform the current state of the art
solutions, as represented by the results in the DARPA Urban
Challenge [5], it is worth noting that previous contributions
were not specifically devised for high-capacity public
transport vehicles, but for passenger cars. Previous
autonomous vehicles for people transportation operate in
restricted areas without obstacle avoidance capabilities. The
presented approach is specifically designed to avoid
obstacles, such as pedestrians, using a multi-beam LIDAR
sensor. The results presented here were obtained in the
context of a demonstration event in the 2012 IEEE Intelligent
Vehicle Symposium. A total of 196 people got a ride in the
micro-bus, completing a total of 28 laps (725 metres long
each) on a private circuit. During the ride, the bus performed
automatic pedestrian avoidance manoeuvres. The
demonstration was accomplished without incidences, which
constitutes one of the main contributions of this work. In
addition, the large number of people involved in the
experiments offered us the opportunity to get valuable
feedback regarding system performance. Impressions, as
described by the passengers, are also provided and analysed.
In Section II of this paper, The vehicle position and
orientation are obtained from the GPS system. Using the GPS
system to drive from one place to another. Furthermore, the
vehicle is provided with a multi-beam Laser Imaging
Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) sensor for surrounding
reconstruction and obstacle detection. When an obstacle is
detected in the planned path, the planned route is modified to
avoid the obstacle and continue its way to the end of the
mission.
II.METHODS
A. Control of the vehicle
The control of the vehicle is based on GPS data. Once a
GPS signal is received, the control program is triggered. In
the first step, all available information from the GPS signal is
collected. The RTK-GPS provides latitude (ϕ) and longitude
(λ) (which are transformed into UTM North and East
coordinates), orientation (Ψ) and velocity (v). As the GPS
positioning error has a big impact on the accuracy of the
velocity measurements (false spikes), particularly at low
speed, the velocity is filtered following equation 1. The same
applies to the vehicle orientation (yaw). Thus, the control
system compares the current orientation measurement with
the last four measurements obtained by the system. The
filtering equation formulated in 2 is applied to the orientation
measurement whenever an orientation change greater than
50◦ degrees is detected. Ackermann steering geometry is
used. If we define the vehicle heading at instant t as Ψt, the
vehicle heading at instant t + 1 can be calculated following
equations 3 and 4, where v is the linear speed, δ is the wheels
angle, and L is the wheel base (distance between front and
rear wheels). Wheel angle measurement is given by an
encoder attached to the steering wheel column.
4 v t +3 v t −1+ 2 v t−2 +v t −3
v= (1)
10
5 Ψ t + 4 Ψ t−1 +3 Ψ t−2 +2 Ψ t−3 +Ψ t −4
Ψ=
15
(2)
v Negative Small
Ψ̇ = tan ⁡(δ ) (3)
L Zero
Ψ t +1=Ψ + Ψ̇ .TAD (4)
where TAD is the so-called Time Ahead Distance. This
variable is used to estimate the future state of the vehicle
assuming a constant velocity model. The definition of the
TAD is discussed in Section 3.1. In order to define the
commands to be issued to the accelerator, brake pedal and
steering wheel actuators, the following procedure is
accomplished. First, the future position of the vehicle is
computed by applying equations 5, 6 and 7.
v λ =v . cos ⁡(Ψ t +1)
v φ =v . sin ⁡(Ψ t +1 ) (5)
λ t+1 =λt + v λ .TAD (6)
φ t+1 =φt + v φ . TAD
(7)
The future vehicle position is used to compute the lateral
error with respect to the desired trajectory. The distance
between the future vehicle position and the reference line
(Dc), as well as its first derivative, are smoothed up using a
filtering formulation similar to equation 1. The inputs for the
controller are Dc and Ψc, where Ψc is the difference between
the reference line orientation and the vehicle orientation. In
[27], an adaptive PID control is used to generate motion
commands based on the vehicle lateral dynamics. In this
work, the desired position of the steering wheel is computed
using a Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller action on the
following variables: Dc, its first derivative and Ψc. The
following equations are used:
1 1 0.08
k p= ; k d = ; k c = (8)
6 6 6
Ψ c =Ψ reference +Ψ t+1 (9)
kd .Dc
δ PD =−k p . D c −
dt−k c . Ψ c
(10)
The reference position for the steering wheel low level
controller (δSW) is a value between −400 and 400. These
values are the limits of the steering wheel movement in
degrees.
δ SW =400. δ PD (11)
The low level controller sets the voltage applied to the motor
that handles the steering wheel, each 40 milliseconds. This
value is obtained by means of a fuzzy controller that uses the
difference between the current position of the steering wheel
and the reference, as well as the current speed of the steering
wheel. The fuzzy rules are described in Table 1.
IF Error AND Speed THEN Motor
Negative Not Zero Positive Maximum
Negative Zero Positive Small
_ Positive Small
_ Zero
Positive Small _ Negative Small
Positive Zero Negative Small
Positive Not Zero Negative Maximum
Table 1. Fuzzy rules for the low level controller of the steering
wheel.
The longitudinal control of the vehicle is independent
from the lateral control and vice versa. The vehicle speed at t
+ TAD seconds is computed using a filtered acceleration
measurement. That speed is subtracted to the reference speed.
The difference and its first derivative are used by the PD
controller to determine the increase or decrease needed on the
speed signal sent to the accelerator and brake pedal. The PD
constants have been manually adjusted to select a quick
recovery versus inclination changes (kp) and a smooth
cushioning (kd). If the value that has to be added or
subtracted to the speed signal results in a speed below zero,
the brake pump will be activated. If the signal is above zero,
only the accelerator will be activated. An output voltage
between 0.9 and 6.0 volts will be set in the analogue card and
sent to the vehicle motor.
B. Laser-based Obstacle Detection
LIDAR rays impacting on the road create a smooth
projection as depicted in Figure 4, but this feature is not valid
in the presence of an obstacle. By finding strong distance
variations between close points we estimate the position of
the object and analyse each layer independently. A first list of
layer-clusters is extracted from the cloud of points. In the
presence of an obstacle, clusters of different layers are at the
same X and Y coordinates, but at a different Z coordinate.
For this reason, the layer clusters are matched to each other in
order to make groups of clusters which are located very close
between them. In addition, some restrictions are applied to
clusters such as minimum and maximum size or minimum
number of points. The group composed by three or more
different layers is labelled as an obstacle and an identification
number is assigned for obstacle tracking. In the obstacle
tracking stage, one counter is increased when the obstacle is
detected and another one is incremented when the obstacle is
not detected. On the one hand, those obstacles that are lost
during more than five consecutive iterations are removed
from the list. On the other hand, obstacles detected more than
five consecutive times are considered in the path-planning
stage. The data association problem is solved by using the
Euclidean distance between different cluster centroids.
Figure 4. Representation of three LIDAR layers in the presence
of an obstacle. The continuous smooth projection of LIDAR
measurements is broken in presence of an obstacle.
The proposed obstacle detection stage does not allow
distinguishing between different types of objects
(pedestrians, poles, vehicles, etc.) since it has been conceived
for generic obstacle detection. In our case, it is not
particularly relevant to know the type of object that appears
in the micro-bus trajectory, since it represents a real 3D
obstacle that has to be avoided. The most important variable
is the relative location of the obstacle with respect to the pre-
defined trajectory and current position of the micro-bus. The
system can handle obstacles that are not in the vehicle path,
such as lampposts or pedestrians on the pavements, by
merging the global position of the host vehicle and the
relative position of the detected obstacles. Note that this
procedure is limited by the accuracy of both measurements,
and some false positives can arise if they are very close to the
road. In such cases, if the path planner is not able to provide a
safety avoidance route, the vehicle will stop.
C. Path Planner
Figure 5. Two geometric transformations (rotation, translation)
are calculated: the first one to convert from vehicle GPS position
(A) to vehicle LIDAR position in UTM coordinates (B). When
UTM coordinates of LIDAR position are calculated, a second
transformation converts from LIDAR local coordinates to global
UTM coordinates (C).
In the path-planning stage, trajectory and obstacles are
managed in GPS latitude and longitude coordinates, therefore
the global position of the obstacle has to be calculated every
time an obstacle is detected. A scheme of the geometric
transformations applied for global position estimation is
depicted in Figure 5. The waypoints that compose the
trajectory, as well as the limits of the road, are shown in
Figure 6. The trajectory is composed by a list of waypoints
(pairs of latitude and longitude). It is not necessary to
calculate a smooth path in the path-planning because the
control stage makes it smooth by adjusting the controller
parameters.
The safety area is defined as the lateral space the vehicle
needs to avoid a collision with an object. That distance is the
addition of vehicle width, 0.5 metres on the left and 0.5
metres on the right. If there are one or more obstacles in the
safety area, the trajectory needs to be re-calculated for
obstacle avoidance. Free space on the left and right sides
from the obstacle to road limits are calculated and the
location of the bigger one is the side the vehicle is going use
to avoid the object. If free space is not enough for driving
safely, the vehicle will stop.
When an obstacle is detected in the safety area, a new
trajectory has to be calculated to avoid an accident. As
depicted in Figure 6, the new trajectory is composed of two
new points located near the obstacle but in a parallel
trajectory to the original route. In order to guarantee the
safety of the avoidance manoeuvres during the experiments,
which was critical due to the number of passengers inside the
micro-bus,

Figure 6. New points are added to the previous route close to
the obstacle but shifted from the original path. The lateral distance
of the new points to the obstacle is 0.6W, where W is the free space
between the obstacle and the limit of the road. The location of the
waypoints along the new parallel line is 3 metres before and 3
metres after the obstacle.
the system was strictly designed to avoid static obstacles or at
least obstacles moving at low speeds (such as pedestrians
walking). The avoidance of dynamic obstacles, which needs
to introduce future position estimation techniques and
adaptive avoidance trajectories generation, is an interesting
research topic. However, it is out of the scope of this paper
and is considered as future research work.
III. RESULTS
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APPENDIX
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[16] G. W. Juette and L. E. Zeffanella, “Radio noise currents n short
sections on bundle conductors (Presented Conference Paper style),”
presented at the IEEE Summer power Meeting, Dallas, TX, June 22–
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[17] J. G. Kreifeldt, “An analysis of surface-detected EMG as an
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[18] J. Williams, “Narrow-band analyzer (Thesis or Dissertation style),”
Ph.D. dissertation, Dept. Elect. Eng., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, MA,
1993.
[19] N. Kawasaki, “Parametric study of thermal and chemical
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Univ., Osaka, Japan, 1993.
[20] J. P. Wilkinson, “Nonlinear resonant circuit devices (Patent style),”
U.S. Patent 3 624 12, July 16, 1990.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
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unnumbered footnote on the first page.

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