Semester –III / ECE / SSNCE

Course Instructor
Time response subjected to unit step input R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝟏 ω𝟐𝒏 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏
𝐂 𝐒 =
𝒔 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏
Using method of partial fractions
ω𝒅 = ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐
𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟐ζω𝒏 𝟏 𝒔 + 𝟐ζω𝒏
𝐂 𝐒 = − 𝐂 𝐒 = −
𝒔 [ 𝒔 + 𝜻ω𝒏 𝟐 + ω𝒏 𝟐 (𝟏 − ζ𝟐 )] 𝒔 [ 𝒔 + 𝜻ω𝒏 𝟐 + ω𝒅 𝟐 ]

𝟏 𝒔 + ζω𝒏 ζω𝒏 ω𝒅
𝐂 𝐒 = − − .
𝒔 𝒔 + 𝜻ω𝒏 𝟐 + ω𝒅 𝟐 ω𝒅 𝒔 + 𝜻ω𝒏 𝟐 + ω𝒅 𝟐
Taking Laplace Inverse
𝛇𝛚𝐧
𝐜 𝐭 = 𝟏 − 𝐞𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐝 𝐭 − . 𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐝 𝐭
𝛚𝐝

𝟏 −𝐭 𝟏 −𝐭
Error : e(t) = r(t)-c(t) (𝐓 𝐞 𝐓 ); Steady State Error: lim ( 𝐞 𝐓 )=0
𝒕→∞ 𝐓
 𝛇𝛚𝐧
𝐜 𝐭 = 𝟏 − 𝐞𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 . 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛚𝐝 𝐭 − . 𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐝 𝐭 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝛚𝐝
Making some clever substitutions
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
𝐜 𝐭 =𝟏 − . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭+ 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝛇
𝟏− 𝛇𝟐 𝛇

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭
𝐜 𝐭 =𝟏 − . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 + ∅ 𝛚𝒏 = Natural frequency of oscillation
𝟏− 𝛇𝟐
𝛚𝐝 = Damped frequency of oscillation
𝛇= Damping ratio

The nature of the response c(t) can be any thing from an exponent {decaying/
raising} to an exponential sinusoid {decaying / raising} to a sustained sinusoid
It all depends on 𝛇

𝛇 >1 Over damped, 𝛇=1 Critically damped, 𝛇<1 Under damped, 𝛇 =0 Un damped
& 𝛇< 0 unstable
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒅𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏
𝑭 𝒕 =𝒎 +𝒃 + 𝒌𝒙
𝒅𝒕 𝟐 𝒅𝒕

𝐗(𝐒) 𝟏
= R(𝐒) 𝐊 ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝐅(𝐒) 𝐦𝐬 𝟐 +𝐛𝐬+𝐤
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝟏 R(𝐒) 𝐊 𝐂(𝐒)
R(𝐒) 𝒌 𝐂(𝐒) 𝒔𝟐 𝟐 ζ
𝒎 𝟐 𝒃 + 𝒔+𝟏
𝒔 + 𝒔+𝟏 ω𝟐𝒏 ω𝒏
𝒌 𝒌

1 1 𝑏
𝑲= 𝑘 𝜻= ω𝒅 = ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐
𝑘 𝝎𝒏 = 2 𝑘𝑚
𝑚
 F(t) = mX + bx + kx e = (x-r) f(t) = -Kp (x-r)-Kd 𝑥
r Controller PD x(t)
+ System
− f(t) = -Kp e- Kd 𝑒

Output
𝑥 Output feed back signal

New system dynamics of the controlled system is dictated by

R(𝐒) 𝐊 𝐂(𝐒)
mX+(b+Kd)x+(k+Kp)x = Kp r 𝒔𝟐 𝟐 ζ
+ 𝒔+𝟏
ω𝟐𝒏 ω𝒏
𝐗(𝐒) 𝐊𝐩 𝑲𝒑
=
𝐦𝐬 𝟐 + 𝐛+𝐊 𝐝 𝐬+(𝐤+𝐊 𝐩 )
𝑲=
𝐑(𝐒) 𝒌+𝑲𝒑
1 𝑏+𝑲𝒅
𝑲𝒑
𝝎𝒏 =
𝒌+𝑲𝒑 𝜻=
R(𝐒) 𝒌 + 𝑲𝒑 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒎 2 𝑚(𝒌+𝑲𝒑 )
𝒎 𝒃 + 𝑲𝒅
𝒔𝟐 + 𝒔+𝟏
𝒌 + 𝑲𝒑 𝒌 + 𝑲𝒑 ω𝒅 = ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐

𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 → 𝑍𝑛𝑇𝑖𝑙𝑙 [ ]

 F(t) = mX + bx + kx

We know that the poles of the system R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)

contributes majorly to the dynamics of the 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏
system.
Hence the denominator of the transfer function 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏 = 0
is termed as the characteristic equation Poles of the system is given as

𝑺𝟏 , 𝑺𝟐 = −ζω𝒏 ± 𝒋ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐
Negative real and distinct roots 𝛇 >1  Over damped
Negative real and same roots  𝛇=1  Critically damped
Negative complex roots  𝛇<1  Under damped
Imaginary roots  𝛇 =0  Un damped
Positive roots  𝛇< 0  Unstable
𝑇𝑕𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑤𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙 𝑎𝑛𝑦𝑡𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑕𝑎𝑟𝑚𝑜𝑛𝑦 𝑐𝑓 𝑖𝑠 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑡 → 𝑍𝑛𝑇𝑖𝑙𝑙 [ ]
 F(t) = mX + bx + kx
R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝜻 =0 𝑺𝟏 , 𝑺𝟐 = −ζω𝒏 ± 𝒋ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐
𝜻<1 ω 𝜻 < −1

ω 𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐
𝜻 =1 𝝎𝒏
𝜻 =-1
θ

−σ 𝜻𝝎𝒏 σ

𝜻 >1 𝜻 >-1
𝜻<0
−ω
θ = cos −𝟏 ζ
ζω𝒏 = Real(s) = σ ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐 = Img(s) = ω
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝑺𝟏 , 𝑺𝟐 = −ζω𝒏 ± 𝒋ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐

𝐌𝐩 = 𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐨𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐨𝐭

𝒕𝐩 = 𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝒕𝒓 = 𝐑𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝒕𝒔 = 𝐒𝐞𝐭𝐭𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝐬𝐭𝐞𝐚𝐝𝐲 𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐞𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫
θ = cos −𝟏 ζ
ζω𝒏 = Real(s) = σ ω𝒏 𝟏 − ζ𝟐 = Img(s) = ω
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝐭 𝐫 = 𝐑𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭
𝐜 𝐭 =𝟏 − . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 + ∅  𝐜 𝐭 = 𝟏 & 𝐭 = 𝐭𝒓
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧𝐭𝐫
𝟎= . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇 𝟐 𝐭 𝐫 + ∅
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭𝐫
𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝐫 + ∅ =0 π− ∅
𝟏− 𝛇𝟐 𝐭𝐫 =
𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭𝐫 + ∅ =π
𝛚𝐧 𝟏−𝛇𝟐
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝐭 𝐏 = 𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤 𝐭𝐢𝐦𝐞

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 𝒅𝐜(𝒕)
𝐜 𝐭 =𝟏 − . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 + ∅  = 𝟎 & 𝐭 = 𝐭𝒑
𝟏− 𝛇𝟐 𝒅𝒕

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝐭 𝒑
𝟎= −𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛚 𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 + ∅ + 𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝛚 𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 + ∅
𝟏−𝛇𝟐

𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧𝒑
𝒊𝒔 𝒇𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒆 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛚 𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 + ∅ = 𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝛚 𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 + ∅
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 + ∅ = 𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 + ∅

𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 ∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝐩 + ∅ = 𝛇
𝛇

𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝐩 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏
=
𝛇 𝛇

Acceptable solutions are

n=𝟏
𝛚𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 𝐭 𝒑 = nπ π
𝐭𝒑 =
𝛚𝐧 𝟏−𝛇𝟐
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝐌𝐩 = 𝐂(𝐭 𝐩 ) -1
𝐞−𝛇𝛚𝐧 𝒕𝒑
𝐜 𝒕𝒑 = 𝟏 − . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚 𝐧 𝟏 − 𝛇 𝟐 𝒕𝒑 + ∅
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
π
−𝛇π 𝐭𝒑 =
𝛚𝐧 𝟏−𝛇𝟐
𝒆 𝟏−𝛇𝟐
𝐜 𝒕𝒑 = 𝟏 − . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 π + ∅ 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐 ∅ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏
𝛇

−𝛇π
sin ∅ = 𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
𝒆 𝟏−𝛇𝟐
𝐜 𝒕𝒑 = 𝟏 + . 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ∅ −𝛇π
𝟏 − 𝛇𝟐
𝐜 𝒕𝒑 = 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝟏−𝛇𝟐
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏
−𝛇π
𝐜 𝒕𝒑 = 𝟏 + 𝒆 𝟏−𝛇𝟐

−𝛇 π
𝟏−𝛇𝟐
𝐌𝐩 = 𝒆 𝐌𝐩 = 𝐂(𝐭 𝐩 ) -1
% 𝐌𝐩
−𝛇 π 𝟏𝟎𝟎 %
𝟏−𝛇𝟐
% 𝐌𝐩 = 𝒆 *100

1 𝛇
R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

𝐭 𝐬 = 𝟒𝐓

𝟏
𝐓 =
𝛇ω𝒏

𝟒
𝐭𝐬=
𝛇ω𝒏
 R(𝐒) ω𝟐𝒏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝒔𝟐 + 𝟐 ζω𝒏 𝒔 + ω𝟐𝒏

R(s) E(s) C(s) 𝐂 𝐬 = 𝐄 𝐬 𝐆(𝐬)

+± G
R(s) - 𝐂 𝐬 𝐇(𝐬) = E(s)

H R(s) - E 𝐬 𝐆 𝐬 𝐇(𝐬) = E(s)

R(s) ={ 1+ 𝐆 𝐬 𝐇(𝐬)} E(s)
Final Value Theorem
𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏
=
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝒔𝑬 𝒔 = lim 𝒔 𝑹 𝒔
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
 𝟏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝟏 E(𝐒)
𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝒔

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝒔𝑬 𝒔 = lim 𝒔 𝑹 𝒔
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim
𝑠→0 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

𝟏 𝑲𝒑 =lim 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝑠→0
𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟏 + lim 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝑠→0
𝑲𝒑 = Static positional error coefficient
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝟏 + 𝑲𝒑
 𝟏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝟏 E(𝐒)
𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝒔𝟐

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝒔𝑬 𝒔 = lim 𝒔 𝑹 𝒔
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim
𝑠→0 𝒔 + 𝒔𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

𝟏 𝑲𝒗 =lim 𝒔 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝑠→0
𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
lim 𝒔𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝑠→0
𝑲𝒗 = Static velocity error coefficient
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑲𝒗
 𝟏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝟏 E(𝐒)
𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝒔𝟑

𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝒔𝑬 𝒔 = lim 𝒔 𝑹 𝒔
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝟐
𝑠→0 𝒔 + 𝒔𝟐 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

𝟏 𝑲𝒂 =lim 𝒔𝟐 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝑠→0
lim 𝒔𝟐 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝑠→0
𝑲𝒂 = Static acceleration error coefficient
𝟏
𝒆𝒔𝒔 =
𝑲𝒂
 F(t) = C1 + C2 t+ C3t2
step ramp parabolic
It seems that any function is characterized by the elementary
functions called the step , ramp & parabolic ( In turn each of them are
characterized commonly by an impulse)

By the principle of linearity of the system

Understanding the response of a system to these elementary

functions is equivalent to understanding the response of the system in
general for all functions.

Note :
 E(𝐒) 𝟏 𝐂(𝐒)
𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)

𝑬(𝒔) 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝑬 𝒔 =𝑹 𝒔
𝑹(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔) 𝟏 + 𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
By the property of Laplace Transforms &
𝑬 𝒔 = 𝑹 𝒔 𝑭(𝒔)
Principle of Convolution Let
𝟏
𝑡 𝐅 𝐬 =
e 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝜏 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 𝟏 + 𝐆 𝐬 𝐇(𝐬)
0
𝟏
From Taylors series 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝜏 can be expressed as 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝟏+𝑮 𝒔 𝑯(𝒔)
𝜏2
𝑟 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑑𝜏= 𝑟 𝑡 − 𝜏 𝑟 𝑡 + 2!
𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯… r 𝑡 = 𝐿−1 𝑹(𝒔)
𝑡
𝜏2
𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝜏 𝑟 𝑡 −𝜏𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯ … 𝑑𝜏
0 2!
𝑡 𝑡 1 𝑡 2
𝑒 𝑡 =𝑟 𝑡 0
𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝜏 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝜏 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + ⋯ … … …
2!

𝐸𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒(𝑡)

𝑡→∞
 𝐸𝑠𝑠 = lim 𝑒(𝑡)
𝑡→∞

𝑡 𝑡 1 𝑡 2
𝑒 𝑡 =𝑟 𝑡 0
𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝜏 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝜏 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + ⋯ … … …
2!

∞ ∞ 1 ∞ 2
𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 − 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝜏 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + 𝑟 𝑡 0
𝜏 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 + ⋯ … … …
2!

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
𝐶0 = 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 , 𝐶1 = − 𝜏𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 , 𝐶2 = − 𝜏 2 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 , …. 𝐶𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 𝜏 𝑛 𝑓 𝜏 𝑑𝜏
0 0 0 0

𝐶2
𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶0 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐶1 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯ … … … … … . .
2!
Where 𝐶0 , 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 ….. 𝐶𝑛 are known as the generalized error Coefficients or Dynamic
error Coefficients
Determining these generalized error Coefficients are time consuming in time domain
Lets try in Frequency domain…..

𝑑𝐹(𝑠) 𝑑𝑛 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐶0 = lim 𝐹(𝑠), 𝐶1 = − lim 𝑑𝑡 …. 𝐶𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 lim
𝑠→𝟎 𝑠→𝟎 𝑠→𝟎 𝑑𝑡 𝑛
 𝐶2
𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶0 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐶1 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑟 𝑡 + ⋯ … … … … … . .
2!
𝑑𝐹(𝑠) 𝑑𝑛 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐶0 = lim 𝐹(𝑠), 𝐶1 = − lim 𝑑𝑡 …. 𝐶𝑛 = (−1)𝑛 lim
𝑠→𝟎 𝑠→𝟎 𝑠→𝟎 𝑑𝑡 𝑛

𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶0 𝑟 𝑡

𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶0 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐶1 𝑟 𝑡

𝐶2
𝐸𝑠𝑠 = 𝐶0 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝐶1 𝑟 𝑡 + 𝑟 𝑡
2!
 𝟏 𝒔 𝒔𝟐 𝒔𝟑
𝒆𝒔𝒔 = lim 𝒔𝑬 𝒔 = lim 𝒔 𝑹(𝒔)[ + + + ……… ]
𝑠→0 𝑠→0 𝒌𝟏 𝒌𝟐 𝒌𝟑 𝒌𝟒

Type ‘0’ Type ‘1’ Type’2’

Input
R(s) Static error
r(t) 𝒆𝒔𝒔
Static error
𝒆𝒔𝒔
Static error
𝒆𝒔𝒔
coefficients coefficients coefficients

𝟏 𝟏
Unit step 𝑲𝒑 = 𝑲 𝑲𝒑 = ∞ 0 𝑲𝒑 = ∞ 0
𝒔 (𝟏 + K)

𝟏 𝟏
Unit ramp 𝑲𝒗 = 𝟎 ∞ 𝑲𝒗 = 𝑲 𝑲𝒗 = ∞ 0
𝒔𝟐 K

𝟏 𝟏
Unit
𝒔𝟑 𝑲𝒂 = 𝟎 ∞ 𝑲𝒂 = 𝟎 ∞ 𝑲𝒂 = 𝑲 K
parabolic
 Questions

Today I have nothing to say ……. ZnTill [ ]