Regional variations in Vernacular traditions of India

Regional Variations
Vernacular settlements in India often take on the shape and form that is dictated by
the climate they are in, or the socio-cultural norms that they are designed to preserve
and protect.

For example,
• Village settlements in Uttaranchal are often characterized by houses of stone,
timber and mud mortar on slopes, with thick stone walls of coursed rubble masonry
designed to ward off cold, with a shelter for animals below the main house (the
heat given off by mulch animals heats the house above further).
• In Kerala, village houses are slope-roofed with Mangalore tiles and thatch to draw
off and channel rain.
• In Assam, the same houses are often built on stilts, the better to counter the often
damp ground.
• In Punjab, whitewash on the outside walls helps to cool down the summer heat.

vernacular architecture in India’s diverse regions has evolved a unique way of

responding to the climate and the environment that is sustainable, shows an intelligent
approach to the problems of climate, and is a delicate balance of social and cultural
factors through spatial vocabulary such as walls, courtyards, floors and semi-private
and private spaces.

Climate in India varies from the scorching sun in the Gangetic plains to the tropical
conditions of the south, from the dry cold climates in Spiti and Leh to the perennially
damp conditions in the northeast of the country. This variation in climate spawns a
diversity of forms for vernacular architecture.
Hawelis of Rajasthan
HAVELIS

Haveli is a term used for a private mansion in India and Pakistan, usually one with
historical and architectural significance.

The word Haveli is derived from Arabic Hawali, meaning “partition” or “private space”/
“enclosed place” popularized under Mughal Empire. Later, the word Haveli came to be
used as generic term for various styles of regional mansions, townhouses and temples,
palaces, forts, manor houses etc.

It can also be said that Haveli is a medieval dwelling with a courtyard or a bigger
mansion within.

They have emerged in response to prevailing harsh climatic conditions of heat and
cold to create ambient living conditions.

They have been built generally by the rich to showcase their wealth, prosperity and
accordingly are known to be massive and have large footprints.

Havelis have emerged as buildings of importance considering their planning, designing,

construction and elements which have gone into their conceptualization.
HAVELIS OF RAJASTHAN
Havelis in Rajasthan are one of the most dominant aspects of its heritage. Havelis of
Rajasthan incorporate Hindu, Mughal and Rajput styles with exquisite carvings on walls,
elegant facades and elaborate balconies.

These havelis are intricately carved and frescoes are important feature. The havelis in
Rajasthan are widely seen in the areas of Jaisalmer, Sekhawat region, Marwar and other
districts where the traders used to dwell like Jaipur, Udaipur, Bikaner etc.

Havelis are Colourful, magnificent and are the symbol of rich culture and heritage.
Almost every little village has a haveli, the size and workmanship varying according to
the status of the owner

The land was divided into various zones. People were allocated land-based on
professions or occupations. Those were times when certain skills were carried out by
specific communities. So these are two sides of the same coin.

Important people like ministers and the rich businessmen were allocated bigger land in
strategic locations. The social standing of a person was judged by the number of
courtyards in his mansion. Some of the Havelis had up to seven courtyards, an indicator
of the social standing and influence of the owner.

Between 1830 and 1930,Affluent Marwaris erected buildings/Mansions in their

homeland Shekhawat and Marwar.
The havelis served as status symbols for the Marwaris as well as homes for their extended
families, providing security and comfort in seclusion from the outside world.
The havelis were designed to be closed from all sides with one large main gate.
Sociocultural aspects: The chowk or courtyard served as the centre for various ceremonies
and rituals. The sacred tulsi plant was placed in the centre and worshipped daily to bring
prosperity to the house.

Response to Climate –
• The architectural built form of these havelis
has evolved in response to the climate, lifestyle and availability of material.
• Using open space in the building design to respond to the local climate, air movement
caused by temperature differences assists in the natural ventilation of the building.
• In hot climates where cooling is a necessity, buildings with internal courtyards were con
sidered the most appropriate.
It acted as a perfect shading technique, while also allowing light inside.
• The arcade along the court, or the high wall around it, kept the interiors cool.

Security and privacy: The chowk, at times, separated areas for men and women, and
provided them with privacy.

Different activities at different times: In the daytime, the court was used mostly by women
to carry out their work and interact with other women in a private open space. Mansions
of the merchant class often had more than one courtyard.

Articulation of space: In Mor chowk, Udaipur palace, there is the concept of the
courtyard as a dancing hall. Similarly, in havelis, a courtyard has several functions,
commonly used for weddings and festive occasions.

Materials: bricks, sandstone, marble, wood, plaster, and granite are commonly used
materials.
HAVELI AS A CULTURAL SYMBOL OF RAJASTHAN

Haveli architecture is a unique vernacular architecture form that flourished in the 18th and
19th century in the pre-Partition western India, particularly in Rajasthan and Gujarat. The
term was first applied by the Vaishnava sect for their temples in Rajasthan and Gujarat.
Later, the architectural form was adopted for individual mansions.

Standing as a symbol of power and prestige, haveli householders were the noblemen,
landowners or successful merchants. They housed a complex social organisation formed
from the householders’ family, servants, story tellers, lady companions and sometimes
even slaves. Life in the haveli revolved around the instructions of the householder’s wife,
who oversaw the kitchen activities, managed finances, and organised festivals and
celebrations.

The heart of the haveli was a courtyard, the centre point from where all spaces originated.
The courtyard provided the transition between the public and the private spaces of the
haveli, while also functioning as a micro-climate modifier and providing ample light and
ventilation to all the spaces wrapping it.

Women and those serving the household performed everyday activities in the courtyard
and the verandahs wrapping it, while on summer nights they would pull beds into the
courtyard to sleep under the cool sky. Hindu havelis often had a corner dedicated to the
family deity with the sacred tulsi plant adorning it. The design of the courtyard was
symbolic of the family’s social status, lifestyle, wealth, art and cultural inclinations. The
householders often invited reputed artists to paint scenes from religious scriptures,
everyday life or their social beliefs on the courtyard walls. An example of this are the
havelis in the Shekhawati region of Rajasthan.
While most spaces in the havelis were flexible for use, they had a grand hall, usually close to
the entrance, which would have a pronounced threshold with chabutras (platforms) on
either side. This hall could have private jharokhas (balconies) or screened mezzanine
galleries where women could witness activities and festivities in the mardana (men’s
quarters).

The zenana (women’s quarters) may have its own reception room. Larger havelis could have
about four courtyards up to two or three storeys high, with separate courtyards for men,
women and animals, especially horses or elephants, which were the preferred mode of
transport for noblemen.

Jaisalmer in Rajasthan has one of the most ornate and exquisite havelis with facades carved
from yellow sandstone. One of the largest and oldest havelis in Jaisalmer, Patwon Ji ki Haveli
built by Guman Chand Patwa in 1805, is a cluster of five havelis in one. There is also Salim
Singh Ki Haveli, and Nathmal-Ki Haveli.

Marwar and Shekhawat Havelis are famous for the embellished frescoes on the walls of their
grandiose. Famous Shekhawati Havelis are Sethani ka Johara, LakshmiNarayan temple,
Ratangarh fort etc.

Another notable haveli is Seth ji ri Haveli in Udaipur city; now known as Shree Jagdish Mahal,
it is 250 years old. There is Bagore-ki-Haveli, Jaivana Haveli which is also famous but is
converted to luxury hotels now.

Mandawa Haveli in Jaipur is a spectacular haveli which has around 70 rooms. Other notable
havelis are Samode haveli, Hari Mahal Palace, Narayan Niwas place etc.

Jodhpur’s Meharngarh fort, Umaid bhavan palace is also a classic example.

HAVELIS OF JAISALMER

Orientation – The ‘haveli is oriented in north-west

to south east direction.

Built form : The plan of the ‘haveli’ is in the shape

of rectangular, giving two long walls exposed.
Open spaces – There is one large courtyard in the centre which keeps the room cool &
there is one open space on the second floor which is used during Summer.

Structure – The entire structure is made of stone therefore the walls are very thick.
Patwan Ji ki Haveli Orientation : NW-SE

Built form : Rectangular form

Zoning : The ‘haveli’ is a six floor

building consisting of three main floors,
two wind pavilions and a basement
floor. The courtyard at ground is
surrounded by ‘Verandah’ on all sides
with additional row of rooms in front
and back of the haveli.

The building projects out on every floor

both towards the street and the
courtyard. The two connecting
staircases act as a wind shafts.

Walls & Roof : Made of stone.

Shading devices : Projections like

‘jharokhas’, chajjas shade the lower
floor.

Street : The entire street façade is

covered with stone carved fine
surface, blaconies and sunshades.
Nathmal Ji ki Haveli
A unique feature of the marvelous architectural
monument of Nathmalji-ki-Haveli is the giant structure of
two elephants of yellow sandstone at the main entrance
of the beautiful edifice.

Construction : Brothers named Hathi and Lulu were

sanctioned to build the Magnificent haveli for Diwan
Nathmal.

They started building the haveli simultaneously with each

other concentrating on one side. The result of building it
simultaneously showed up with different details on both
sides when work was completed.

But one can notice if only observed closely.

Nathmalji-ki-Haveli presents a harmonius

blend of indigenous architectural styles of
the Rajputs & Muslims.

Amidst the picturesque landscape of

Jaisalmer, the giant structure stands tall
with its over imposing architectural
features.

The walls & Ceilings are decorated with

exquisite paintings & fine carvings.
 The building is planned around two
courtyards, the one in front is much
smaller than the rear one.
The front part of the building is
three storeys high and has the main
living quarters.
The rear portion is two storey high
and contains the ancillary
accommodation.

Building Form & Materials :

• The entire building is of unequal
heights with wind pavilions and
high parapet walls, creating an
uneven skyline.
• On the second floor level, they
have a no. of projections like
sunshades & balconies.
• At the lowest levels, the flat parts
of building façade are deeply
carved creating a fine surface.
• Uneven building forms also influence radiative heat loss from the wall.
• Also increased wall area of the uneven building mass radiates a greater amount of
heat to the sky and consequently stays cooler than a more compact mass.
• The building material used for the walls are light / yellow sandstone whereas
limestone has been used for the upper storeys and façade since it can be easily
carved.
• The stone joints are made without mortar and are held together using iron cramps.
 The courtyards provide the
necessary light and ventilation for
all the surrounding rooms.

While the front receives some

sunlight during the summer, the
rear courtyard is completely
exposed to sun.

The streets and the two narrow

shafts are completely protected
from the sun.

The differential heating of the

vertical ducts ensures continuous
airflow through the house.

Windows and balconies are generally fitted with jalis or Roofing :

lattice windows ( shutter like windows) for privacy as well • The roof is made of closely
as to restrict dust but at the same time let in wind. spaces timber beams and then
Doors are built with stone frames and fitted with timber it is covered by the layer of
doors. reed or grass matting and finally
laid by a layer of earth on top.
• These are then finished with
stone flooring or mud plaster.
• The layer of earth and grass
matting keeps the interiors cool.
HAVELIS OF JODHPUR
Wall – Stone -200mm

Roof – Stone – 150mm

Openings : The rooms

get ventilation
through courtyard.
There are no opening
in the rooms.

Orientation : Both the axis shows equal distribution for all the faces.

Built Form : The plan form is in a shape of square and the haveli has two floors with a terrace.

Zoning : The entrance is through the south face through a semi covered space called ‘otta’.
The courtyard is surrounded by a semi covered space on east and west side. Rooms are
placed after semi enclosed verandahs.

Open Spaces : There is one courtyard measuring 5m x 5m. The width to height ratio of the
courtyard is 12:6 approx.
HAVELIS OF JAIPUR
Haveli, a multistoried building with rooms facing an inner courtyard or a system of
courtyards( sometimes as many as seven). They are generally built of red sandstone or brick
with lime mortar.

The haveli principle was developed to contend with the extreme climate and to satisfy
socio cultural requirements.

Together, the havelis are accessible only from narrow alleys, and they form densely built
residential complexes.

Such a complex is known as mohalla; in addition to dwellings, it contains a number of artisan

workshops, a temple or two and perhaps a mosque.

Each mohalla typically accommodates about 40 to 50 residential plots, which makes them
a cohesive social and cultural subgroup.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAVELIS

The main features of these havelis were chhajjas (sunshades), jharokhas (balcony
windows) and jalis(Screen windows).

They were usually built around a courtyard with darwazas done in beautiful
architectural elements.

The motifs on the walls varied from everyday scenes and subjects inspired by the west.

An amazing feature of these havelis was the intricately carved wooden doors.

Havelis were designed to temper the excess heat with range of spaces from external
courtyards (chowk) to internal courtyards and terraces to verandahs to inner rooms, for
use at different times of day and in different seasons.

Every haveli had a grand reception for receiving formal visitors and for festival
gatherings or family celebrations.

Some had a further reception room in the Zenana, and some had screened viewing
windows to allow the women to watch certain of the men’s festivities.

Smaller reception rooms were required for business offices, and raised platforms
(chabutras) served as the inevitable waiting room.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HAVELIS

The main features of these havelis were chhajjas (sunshades), jharokhas (balcony
windows) and jalis(Screen windows).

Jharokhas, bay windows bracketed out from the walls and often filled with jalis, helped
those sitting behind to catch any possible breeze, as well as to glimpse the world
beyond.

Bracketed access balconies and overhanging upper stories not only maximized space,
but provided welcome shading.

Besides these practical considerations, the havelis played an important role as status
symbols, so size and richness of the decoration were highly valued.

Most of the rooms in the haveli were required to be flexible in their use, with soft
furnishings.
HAVELIS OF SHEKHAWATI

In Shekhawati, frescoes were initially introduced by Shekhwat Rajputs in their forts and
palaces and the towns in the shekhawati region are known for their painted havelis and
this region has been recognized for having the largest concentration of frescoes in the
world.

The Marwaris from Marwar was the influential business community in the Shekhawat
region, they prospered until the beginning of 19th century, due to caravan routes that
crossed the area to reach the ports of Gujarat. They erected the buildings in their
homeland as evidence to their success. As the ultimate symbol of their Opulence, the
Marwaris commissioned artists to paint those buildings.

The havelis are noted for their frescoes depicting mythological and historic themes. The
frescoes includes the images of God, Goddesses, animals, life history of Lord Rama etc.
PASSIVE COOLING FEATURES IDENTIFIED IN SHEKHAWATI HAVELIS

Compact Settlement Plan : The heat produced from the buildings is very low thus a
compact planning helps in reducing heat gain. It also allows mutual shading by
buildings. It reduces the area of exposed surfaces.

Narrow Streets with tall buildings around : It helps in shading the streets thus allowing
less of direct sunlight during daytime and makes the movement easy for people. It also
helps in lowering the ambient air temperature surrounding the building envelope by
shading.
 Courtyard Planning : Internal courtyard with
high building mass all around it leads to
induced ventilation, lowering the
temperatures by cooling and natural
lighting.

Heavy Structure : Heavy building envelopes stores larger

amount of heat due to large heat capacities and creates a
larger time lag. This helps in keeping the inside cool during
daytime when it is most inconvenient outside.

Ceiling Heights : The habitable rooms were found to have

ceiling height larger than 3.5m while the other spaces like
the ones made as viewing gallery for women which were to
be used temporarily and occasionally were only 25-18m
high. This meant a larger air mass resulting in lower
temperatures.

Shaded Colonnades and Semi Open areas : All buildings

are planned with some areas being semi open. These
spaces are used during the daytime and rains. Such areas
received fairly good sunlight and natural ventilation
induced by combination of courtyards and wind towers.
Flat roofs with Insulation Layer : The roofs are constructed flat with stone slabs joined with
lime mortar. Above that a layer of inverted earthen pots to create an air layer for
insulation. On the top of it again a layer of lime mortar finished with reflective smooth
material like broken pieces of porcelain pots of white wash to reflect most of the
significant falling on it.

Small openings with thick shutters, jail screens and jharokhas :

Due to hot and dusty winds, natural ventilation inside the building during day is not
desirable. Thus small openings are provided. These openings are opened during
nighttime to allow cooling. During daytime the thick wooden shutters having low thermal
capacity are closed. All the openings are shaded with projections covered all around
with perforated stone screens known as jharokhas.

Wind Towers : The staircase mumty was taken higher and each room was provided an
opening from it to allow forced ventilation. This allowed convective cooling during night
and induced ventilation during day.

Materials for Construction :

The stone was used along with lime mortar. Lime mortar allowed keeping lower
temperatures inside the building. Stone helped in creating time lag due to high thermal
capacities.

External smooth surface painted in light colours : Carving was not possible on the local
stones available thus instead of providing rough surface, which would also have allowed
inter granular shading, a smooth surface was created. To break the monotony of the flat
white surfaces, painting was done with variety of colours all obtained form natural stones
or materials.
Bohra Houses of Gujarat
WHO ARE BOHRA’S? or BOHRI MUSLIMS

The Bohras are the traditional habitats of the Islamic

community, Shia Muslim and they are also referred to as
Dawoodi bohras/ Bohri Muslims.

They are from Gujarat with a very distinct history and

identity. Bohras in India speak Gujarati Language. Their
origin is said to be from Saudi Arabia.

A close knit community, they have a significant

presence in Indian cities like Mumbai and Ahmedabad,
Karachi in Pakistan and Madagascar in South Africa.

The Dawoodi Bohras wear a distinct form of attire. The

men traditionally dress in a predominantly white, three-
piece outfit: kurta, a form of tunic; saaya, an overcoat
of equal length; and izaar, loose-fit trousers; with topi, a
white cap usually laced in a
golden arabesque design. They are also expected to
grow beard.
The women wear a two piece dress called rida distinct
from hijab, purdah, and chador. The bright colors,
decorative patterns and lace, and the fact that it does
not cover a woman's face are its distinguishing features.
The rida is of any colour except black.

Though they are the sects of Muslims, they are very

Modern in their approach and lifestyle.
Bohrawad ~ Community living
The Bohras are an Islamic trading community from Gujarat who eventually spread out
because of the demands of their work. Wherever they settled, they created communities
called Bohrawad.

There were neighbourhoods built around a particular street as well as its by-lanes. The
homes within Vohrawads/ Bohrawads consisted of rows of narrow, deep houses, multiple
homes, three- or four-storey tall, closely packed together. Most of the houses shared a
wall with the houses on either side giving a feeling of being connected.

Although the community believed in being tight-knit, they also valued their privacy. While
external viewing was made possible through window seats, privacy was maintained due
to the houses being elevated above street level.
The houses in a Bohrawad are typically
grouped around a street and these
form a mohalla. Several mohallas form
a Bohrawad. Besides the houses, it
generally contains a mosque, a
Madrassa, a Jamat Khana and other
buildings for collective functions.

The neighbourhood mosque is the

most important institution as the
central public space for religious
rituals.
Bohra community is found in cities and towns such as Surat, Siddhpur, Dahod, Godhra,
Kapadvanj, Khambhat, Ahmedabad, Palanpur, Bhavnagar, Dholka, Surendranagar,
Morbi and Jamnagar etc in Gujarat.

The Bohrawad streets stand apart because of a sense of order, extreme cleanliness,
well designed drainage system and the element of visual surprise. These
neighbourhoods have a structural unity and give a general impression of relative
orderliness and homogeneity. It is well knit and densely urban.
While the overall style of the house is very unorthodox
and extraordinary, certain elements have been
derived from the local architecture. High plinths
or otlas, provides a transition base to the entrance of
the house, a feature that has long been used in
dwellings not only in Gujarat but all over
India. Otlas are used as social spaces, where families
of Dawoodi Bohra would get together after dusk- a
key aspect of a close-knit community.

The façade of each house is painted with Caribbean

pastel tones- baby pink, peach, sky blue, lime green,
and even mint- distinguishing the Bohravads from the
other buildings of the town which have a very neutral
color palette. These houses have been adorned with
intricate neoclassical style details. The neighborhood
almost exudes a feel of walking through a rainbow!
These are known as French villas.
The colorful facades of the Bohravads
Entrance
Through the display of several textures &patterns, they express balance and harmony within a
predominantly symmetrical composition.
The surface of the facade is visually broken by ornamented columns, brackets and mouldings,
at times bringing multicolored cohesion to the streets.
The facades enhance the totality of the physical ambience of the built environment.
The unity of facades has been achieved by the
similarity of building types, materials of construction and commonality of a design vocabulary
.

External design/ Facades

Bohrashave adopted the regional tradition of Gujarat in making facades with intricate details
in wood.
They accommodated a whole range of styles, building materials and decorative treatments r
esulting in attractive facades (and streets).
In contrast to Islamic philosophy, there is exterior display and frontal exposure as the facades a
re rich in variety and aesthetic expressions.

They create a sense of enclosure and a play of light and shadows by using of solids and voids.
Richly decorated windows provided picturesque views. The facades themselves had exquisite
detailing on wood. Visual relief was provided with the use of ornamental columns, mouldings,
and brackets.

The ornamental designs were restricted to abstract geometric patterns and patterns that did
not involve figures. This was in keeping with Islamic beliefs.
The facades also featured Jharokhas or floor projections with breath-taking designs. Shielded
from outsiders by iron screens, these Jharokhas had window seats on the inside which allowed
women to sit together and view the goings on outside the home.
Internal Layout
A traditional Bohra house can be considered a metaphor
for the social system. Gender is important as an
organizing theme in dwelling layouts and use of spaces,
religion that provides a civic code, influencing social
behavior and interactions.

Certain concepts like clear separation between the

public and private, the necessity for an in between zone
at the entrance level, the male/female divide, seclusion
of women, the intense need for privacy, etc. have
brought about specific devices and spatial configurations
that reflect the tenets of religion.

The houses have a spatial hierarchy of spaces – having a

sequence of Otla (entrance platform), deli (arrival
space), avas (courtyard), parsalli and the ordo (room).
The upper floors mainly house the bedrooms and the
agashi (terrace).

Generally a joint family system is followed. The kitchen is

common to all, it is accessed by men also and it is
becomes a central space to the family.

The individual courtyard becomes an air and light shaft

where the cooler air sinks in below and the hotter air
escapes out of the roof.
The Bohrawad “courtyard is generally no more than a series of cutouts in every floor,
lined one above the other.

The opening is small, about 4 sq.ft, and covered with a metal grill or mesh for safety.
The women in the house mostly inside parsalli/ parsal
(hall) and the rasodu (kitchen).

The use of decorative pilasters, fascia boards, jaliwork

patterns used as elements for façade treatment.

Elaborate wooden work can be seen and the level of

craftsmanship.
Banglas ( Village huts) of
Bishnupur, Bengal
Bishnupur is a city and a municipality of Bankura district in the state of West Bengal, India.
It is famous for its terracotta temples built by the Malla rulers, historic Radha Krishna
(Shyam Rai temple) temples and the Baluchari sarees.

Royal patronage also gave rise to Bishnupur Gharana (school) of Hindustani classical
music in late 18th-century and the Bishnupur school of painting.
Since 1997, the temples of Bishnupur is on the UNESCO World Heritage Site's Tentative list.

Temples of Bishnupur
The religious architecture in Bengal may be divided into three periods:
• The early Hindu period (up to the end of the 12th century, or may be a little later in
certain areas),
• The Sultanate period (14th to early 16th century),
• The Hindu revival period (16th to 19th century).

“The coming of the Muslims at the beginning of the 13th century marked a sharp break
with the past. The temples of the pre-Muslim period have nearly all disappeared and
from the few that are there the predominant is the tall curvilinear rekha deul, akin to
the Odishan style. Another type that is similar to styles in Odisha is the pirha. During the
following two centuries a distinctive Bengali culture took shape.”

“Between the earlier and later Hindu periods astonishing religious changes took place in
Bengal: the worship of Vishnu gave way to that of Radha-Krishna, of Chamunda” There
have also been changes in temple architecture. The rekha deul continues, the pirha has
become rare, other old forms have disappeared. Two new styles are predominant – the
hut (chala) style similar to the mud hut with a thatched roof and the pinnacled (ratna)
style which is closest to Islamic traditions.
Bengal temple architecture is about temple styles developed and used in Bengal,
particularly the chala, ratna and dalan temples.

Chala temples

The ek-bangla or do-chala consists of a hut with two sloping roofs, following the pattern
of huts, mostly in East Bengal villages.
It was first adopted in Muslim architecture, a prominent example being the Mausoleum
of Fateh Khan at Gauda.
Two such huts, one forming a porch in front and the other being the shrine at the back
constitutes the jor-bangla – “Bengal's most distinctive contribution to temple design”.

In West Bengal, the hut roof generally has four sides and the char-chala temple is built
on this model. When a miniature is built on the roof, it becomes an at-chala. The char-
chala temples started coming up around the 17th century. Apart from the main
shrines, nahabatkhana or entrance gateways also have char-chala roof.
Dalan temples

The flat-roofed (Dalan) temples “with their heavy cornices on S-curved brackets they too
have a long Indo-Islamic place and temple tradition” and then was influenced by
European ideas in the 19th century. It was easier to build.

In the long run, this style lost its special identity as religious architecture and got mixed up
with domestic architecture. In some temples a dome has been added.
Rekha deul

The traditional rekha deul is predominant in the western districts of Bengal. Some are
smooth curvilinear and others are ridged curvilinear. In the smooth type, the sikhara is
free of horizontal bars and in ridged type, it is closely ridged with bars.

The ratha projections are generally deep and spaced, and sometimes decorated. The
crowning amalaka is generally large and flat. There are large and small types of deuls.
Many of the very small types dispense with the complicated styling. It went on
developing from the late 7th century or early 8th century to around the 12th century,
increasing its complexity and height but retaining its basic features.

The Odisha temple is considered remarkable for its plan and elevation. The base is
normally square in Hindu temple architecture. The structure of the temple is marked by
vertical offset projections called rathas (on plan) and pagas (on elevation). The main
temple (the rekha deul) rests on a high platform called pista. The assembly hall is
called jagamohan, through which the devotees reach the main temple. The deity is
placed in the garbhagriha, over which the sikhara rises.
 Bishnupur – Temples of Earth
• The temples are dedicated to Lord Vishnu – hence the name ‘Bishnupur’ in
local language – and were built across 700 years, from the 10th to the 17th
centuries.

• The Bishnupur temple complex consists of 20 temples. The first of these, the
Mrinmayee Temple, was built in 997 AD by King Jagat Malla. The temples of
Bishnupur reflect the local architecture of Bengal and most of them were
built between 1622 AD and 1758 AD
 Jor-bangla temple

Jor Bangla or Keshto Raya temple

The temple is simple yet elegant and boasts of excellent terracotta relief art work on its wall.
In Bengali ‘Jor’ means ‘pair’. It is a pair of cottages placed side by side with a four-way
sloped roofed as the temple’s crown. This type of design is very rare in India. Originally, the
temple was called Krishna Rai, but due to its design people started calling it Jor Bangla.

Jor-bangla temple, also called Keshta Rai Temple, has a typical architecture that is found in
the southern part of Bengal. The temple was built by Malla King Raghunath Singha in c.1655 .

The structure resembles two traditional 'do-chala' village huts put together side by side. One
of them serves as a porch and the other, which is behind the former, serves as a shrine. The
curved roof of this pair of huts is surmounted by a ‘char-chala sikhara’.

The base of the temple is a square of size 11.8m X 11.48m, and the height above the
platform is 10.7m. The walls are decorated mostly with terracotta panels describing scenes
from the Ramayana and the Mahabharata along with floral and geometrical patterns.
Jor-bangla temple
 Rasmancha Temple

The Rasmancha temple is

unique, with its unusual
elongated pyramidical
tower surrounded by hut-
shaped turrets, which was
very typical of Bengali roof
structures of the time.

It was commissioned by Mallabhum king Hambir Malla Dev (Bir Hambir) in 1600
AD. Length and breadth of this temple is 24.5 meter and the height is 12.5 meter. The
base or altar of the temple is made of laterite stone and upper part is made with bricks.
Upper structure looks like a pyramid. Middle part resembles Bengali huts and the
arches of the lower part resembles Islamic architecture. During the Vaishnava Ras
festival, all the Radha Krishna idols of Bishnupur town used to be brought here to be
worshipped by the citizens. The annual festival was held till 1932.
Rasmancha temple stands on a raised square laterite
plinth with a pyramidal superstructure. Three successive
circulatory galleries, The arches of which are decorated
with terracotta lotus motifs.

Many images and idols from the neighboring temples

were brought at the time of Ras Festival and displayed in
the galleries for the public.

The interesting thing about the temple is that it has only a

single chamber, the sanctum sanctorum, with an
elongated tower, surrounded by hut shaped turrets. A
passageway surrounds it and some large cannons found
here date back to the Malla period.

Rasmancha is the oldest brick temple.

Rasmancha is no more a temple today, it has now been

converted into a protected monument by the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), which is making
sincere maintenance efforts on this masterpiece.
Madan Mohan Temple
The Madanmohan temple built by King
Durjana Singha Deva, has a square flat-
roofed building with carved cornices,
surmounted by a pinnacle. Impressive
carvings on the walls of Madanmohan
temple depict scenes from the Ramayana,
Mahabharata and the Puranas.
Madanmohan temple was built by Malla king
Durjan Singha in 1695 AD. It is relatively a
bigger Eka-Ratna temple compared to other similar
temples in Bishnupur and is important too.

The temple has a square base of 12.2m X 12.2m

and a height of 10.7m above a moderate platform.

The roof of the temple is typical Bengali 'chala'

type surmounted by a single 'sikhara' or tower.

The temple is mainly built of earthen bricks on a

laterite block platform and the frontal facade of the
temple is profusely decorated with rich terracotta
plaques depicting mythological stories like ‘Krishna
Leela’.

Around the innermost sanctuary where the idol is

kept, there are covered porches on three sides.
Except the rear wall, on each of these three sides
there are three arched openings, the main entrance
being on the west.

In 1820, the original temple was destructed due to

a massive earthquake. After that the present
temple was built.
Shyam Rai Temple
 Shyam Rai Temple
Shyam Rai Temple,
regarded as a
structural beauty
amongst the Bishnupur
Temple Complex in
West Bengal.

It was built during the reign of Raghunath Singha IN 1643 AD, a Malla King who is
recognised to be a patron of art and architecture.

The temple is a pancharatha (5 gems) temple with one main shikhara, spire, joined
by four subsidiary shikharas on all four sides.

It stands on a low square plinth and consists of an ambulatory pathway with a porch
opened by three arches on the four sides of the temple. The central pinnacle is
octagonal, while the rest four are square. The walls are richly decorated with
terracotta carvings featuring aspects of Lord Krishna’s life.

The temple is decorated with around 5000 tiles and intricate terracotta work.

The sanctum sanctorum, inner sanctuary, houses several plaques with the names of
the artisans inscribed on it.
 The temple is square in plan with a dimension of 11.4
meters each side. Each of the sides has three arched
gateways in the centre and elaborate terracotta carvings
on the entire surface.

The roof of the building is flat curved ‘Chala’ type – a

unique feature of Bengali Architecture. Above the roof
rises five beautiful pinnacles – giving the name Pancha
Ratna.

While Rasmancha, the only temple built before the Shyam

Rai temple, has a very high plinth (It can also be found in
temples built later), this temple has a very low plinth.

The four towers on each corner of the building are also square in plan. The corner towers have a
lined sloping roof (a close variation of the ‘Deul’ type of roofs).

On each direction of the corner towers, an arched window is created and the surface of the
tower is also decorated with intricately decorated terracotta tiles.

The central tower, the highest and the grandest is octagonal. The central tower is also different
in terms of its roof. While the corner towers had single roofs, the central tower has a double roof
built in two levels. This is very similar to the ‘8 Chala’ or 8 sided roofing in Bengal. Also, unlike
the corner towers, the central tower has a smooth dome at the peak. The dome was also built of
brick. The top of the central tower is 10.7 meters high from the base.
Radha Shyaam temple Nandalal temple

Radha Madhav temple

The Temple builders
In Bengal only 2 caste forms can be traced – The Acharyas and Sutradharas.

• The role of Acharya and Sutradhara indicates an age old relationship of working
together that existed in India.

• These artists followed rules and regulations of the Shilpa shastras. In course of time
Sutradharas became capable of using materials like Stone, Ivory, Metal etc.

• They accordingly developed into 4 directions namely – Kastha (wood), Mrttika (Clay),
Chitra (painting), Pasan (Stone).

• They work in a group including family members.

Temple Planning
• The overall form & arrangement is different from the other
Indian temple typologies. The popular sequence of
Bhogmandapa, Natmandapa is absent here.

• There are limited no. of architectural elements used in

temple plan – square, rectangular, octagonal chambers and
long rectangular corridors and porches.

• These spaces are vaulted or domed and are limited in size.

• Walls are generally slender in size (75cm to 125 cm) except

certain exceptions like massive brickwork at Kodla (about 3m
thick).

• Characteristic of Bengali brick architecture is the pointed

vault on the rectangular plan with curved base and spine,
producing the interior of a Bangla form.

• Pillars on the façade were the main feature, and were

decorated with terracotta panels of smaller sizes, mostly
octagonal capitals and the shaft were further divided by 2 to
5 mouldings of smaller parts decorated with terracotta
panels.

• The walls of these temples were generally flat provided by

the framing of the panels.
Style and Ornamentation
• Sculptures on the temple façade w.r.t
their architectural setting.

• More preference for large scale

figurative art.

• Omission of glazed tiles.

• Facades of these temples were divided

into panels by vertical, horizontal, curved
bands.

• Sculptural characteristics of these

temples are crowded compositions
within individual panels.

• Compositions above the arches, friezes

and panels have a distinct rhythmic
effect created by frequent repetition of
identical panels.

• Some of the temples show European

influence in their articulation. These
panels have large scale composition in
high relief above their triple arched
porches.
Materials and Construction Technique
• Terracotta is the main material used. During this period for the first time local building
forms were translated into permanent materials.

• Hut shapes were recreated in brick vaulting, together with curved cornices and
terracotta façade decoration.

• Typical Islamic techniques of arches, vaults and domes construction were used to
create this type of architecture and the material adopted was brick which was locally
available.

• Coherent series of architecture and sculpture, characteristically expressed in brick &

terracotta.

• Brick temples of Bengal have wooden doors which are decorated with terracotta
depicting human and animal figure compositions as well as floral & geometrical
designs in panel.

• Brick core of the temples generally consist of well laid horizontal brick courses.

• Vaults and domes are also created with bricks laid as stretcher.

• In arches, bricks are cut to form tapering voussoirs.

• Curved layers of brickwork are employed to create vaults as well as swelling contours
of temple cornice and roofs.
• Sometimes bricks are laid diagonally to decorate supporting arches and pendentives.

• Fired bricks were laid in mortar composed of powdered brick and lime. Lime was
obtained by processing snail’s shells.
Non Standardization in Construction
• Brick sizes vary, not only from region to region and from century to century but also
within the same building.

• Different shapes of bricks are used such as long thin bricks laid edgewise as framing
bands, triangular bricks as filling pieces and flat plaques coordinated in large scale
sculptural compositions, these all carefully interlocked.
Terracotta Decorations
Terracotta itself ceased to be popular in the temple-building traditions of the later Pala
and Sena periods: their broad brickwork acted as bases for stucco decoration alone.

The terracotta work on the Shyam Raya temple (1643), one of the oldest terracotta
temples in Bishnupur, is a fine example of this. This temple has been constructed in the
pancha-ratna style and is the most richly decorated of all the terracotta temples to be
found in the region—every inch of the temple from the interiors to the archway and from
the vaulting inside to the towers on the roof are sheathed with fine terracotta work. There
are innumerable small plaques embellished with images

Panels with different carvings, Jor Krishna with Gopis Bhishma on a bed of arrows
Bangla or Keshto Raya
Chettinad houses of
TamilNadu
Chettinadu Area
The Chettinad region of Tamil Nadu is acclaimed for its gorgeous traditional
mansions belonging to the old mercantile, agricultural and land-owning
families, who titled themselves Chettiar or Chetti.

The exterior of these homes are reminiscent of palatial European buildings,

while the interiors are predominantly traditional in character.

These are known to be designed according to Vastu Shastra and constructed

with local materials, crafts and construction techniques that responded to the
local climate of that area.

Chettinad architecture is also famous for its luxurious scale in terms of halls
and courtyards, vivid colours, wood carvings and even imported materials
from all over the world, such as Burma teak, Italian marble, ornate
embellishments like Belgian glass, intricate woodwork, spectacular ceramic
tiles, stone, iron and wooden pillars, together creating an indigenous
amalgam of traditional Indian architecture and various European styles.

Vernacular features of Chettinad homes are Multiple courtyards, Typical

entrances, Richly carved wooden doors, Athangudi tiles, Carved pillars,
Pitched roofs.
Evolution of the Houses and the Materials
Employed through 1850-1950 The houses in
Chettinad underwent a transformation from
simple dwellings to independent opulent villas
between 1850 and 1950.

Early houses were strictly bilaterally

symmetrical. This was not strictly adhered to
later, as spaces like Bhojan Salai (dining hall)
were added to one side of the house in the
longitudinal direction. Large halls like
Kalyanakottai are spaces seen in the bigger
houses running the full width of plot. Early
houses were single storied with pitched roofs
and clay tiles.

As the traders grew wealthy, the Thinnai

became double storied with elaborate
balustrades and raised parapets with
polychrome niches adorned with gods and
goddesses and at times British soldiers.
Elements belonging to Art Deco , Art Nouveau
and Neoclassical architecture are integrated
in the house facades. These were applied in
the treatment of arches, grills, gates and stain
glass paneling
The social order becomes instrumental in shaping the architecture of the
homes, as well as dictating the rules of design for space making and space
allocation within a house.

The home is the centre of all major life events, and hence birth, death,
marriages and coming of age ceremonies are still celebrated only in the
ancestral home with grandeur and fervor. The boundaries and rules laid down
for conducting business and social behavior are the fundamental principles
on which this community is formed.

The houses of Chettinad are oriented along an East-West axis because the
house as a unit was considered a cosmos within the cosmos, and all the daily
rituals were based on the movement of the sun across the sky.

This orientation also facilitated the free flow of the wind inside the house. In
the longitudinal direction, the houses were organized in terms of use of space
and gender of the occupants. The outer areas of the house were occupied
by the males and the inner portions by the women and servants. The aspects
of public to private zones within the house are also in increasing gradation in
the longitudinal axis.

The five main parts of the house are Mugappu, Valavu, Nadu Vaasal, Irandan
Kattu and Moonran Kattu
Nalukettu (and it’s variations) of Kerala
Nalukettu means four blocks and a typical house built in this fashion would be divided
into a north, south, east, and west block. The naalukettu was a typical feature of the
Kerala tharavadu tradition, where joint families lived together for generations with a
patriarch and matriarch overseeing all their affairs.

Thatchu Shasthra, or the Science of Carpentry and Traditional Vasthu, was the governing
science in this architectural form. This branch of knowledge was well developed in the
traditional architecture of Kerala and has created its own branch of literature known
under the names of Tantrasamuchaya, Vastuvidya, Manushyalaya-Chandrika,
and Silparatna.

The layout of these homes are simple, and catered to the dwelling of the large number
of people usually part of a tharavaadu. Ettukettu (eight halled with two central
courtyards) or Pathinarukettu (sixteen halled with four central courtyards) are the more
elaborate forms of the same architecture.

Every structure faces the sunlight, and in some well designed naalukettu, there is
excellent ventilation. Temperatures, even in the heat of summer, are markedly lower
within the naalukettu.
The nalukettu and ettukettu buildings must have been inspired from the ancient Chinese
house architecture. Kerala had a long and strong history of trade between China.
The traditional architectural style of the homes in Kerala is popularly known as Nalukettu
houses. These houses prevailed several years back when the culture of a joint family was
prominent. In Nalukettu, ‘Nalu’ means four and ‘kettu’ means built-up sides. A Nalukettu
house was a huge and spacious, it was built in the center of a compound with more
than one storey. Hinge on the castes, the Nalukettu houses are also referred to as
tharavadu, kovilakam, kottaram, meda or illam.

Design And Style Of Nalukettu

Typically, a Nalukettu is a rectangular structure with four blocks joined by an open

courtyard. The blocks are referred to as:
1.Vadakkini (northern block)
2.Padinjattini (western block)
3.Kizhakkini (eastern block)
4.Thekkini (southern block)

The central open courtyard in a Nalukettu house imparts it a unique feeling. Like other
normal homes, Nalukettu also has a kitchen, veranda, bedrooms, granaries, dining hall,
pooja room, utilities, cattle shed, and well. The different parts of a Nalukettu house are:

Padippura – Characterized by a step and tiled roof, padippura is the entrance to the
compound. This is one of the most distinguishing features of the structure with a top
naalukettu gate consisting of an elaborate, temple-like gopuram.

Poomukham – A space that has tiled roofing with supporting pillars.

Chuttu Verandah – A corridor that runs around the house.

Nadumuttom – The central courtyard of the structure that is open to the sky. The most
interesting part of this part is that it houses a tulsi plant in the center.

Pooja Space – the north-east corner of the house houses the room for worship; in the
puja space the idols face east or west.

Kulam – A small lotus pond at the end of the Chuttu Verandah. It is believed that the
presence of this water body enhances the flow of energy in the house.

Nalukettu houses were typically made of teak wood or the wood from wild jackfruit
trees (anjili). Most of the materials used in the construction were sourced locally, these
included wood, red bricks/ laterite, and mud. These homes had excellent ventilation
and lighting which kept the house well aerated and lit up at almost all times. Gabled
windows on the top of all naalukettus always ensured cross-ventilation and allowed
enough light into the attic while extended rafters gave ample protection from the
heavy rains that are characteristic to Kerala.
Design Guidelines

An abstract gridiron called mandala guides the configuration of Nalukettu. The gridiron
demonstrates concentric order that situates the highest rank God in the center of the
mandala where no built form is allowed there.

Superimposing the concentric order, a diagonal hierarchical orientation gradually

sloping down from northeast to southwest corner. The hierarchical placement of rooms
follows this diagonal and concentric orientation.

Types of Architectural style

There are two general architecture styles in Kerala, namely;

1. Travancore Style of the southern Kerala,
2. Malabar style of the Central and Northern Kerala.

Both being busy maritime kingdoms both style absorbed many outside architectural
influence and yielded eclectic expression.

Travancore architecture tends to have moderate size courtyard-house, small inner yard,
with open layout interior space. It demonstrates very rich timber construction and
overwhelming hipped gable, and bent ridge roof architecture.

Laterite masonry and wooden carpentry characterize Malabar style. The masonry allows
huge and multistory buildings, with intensive walled interior and eclectic ornamentation.

The distinction between the two styles is not clear-cut but gradual, from south to north.
Types of Courtyard Configuration

Courtyard in Nalukettu is called anakanam. Each community has its courtyard style.
However, some common characters prevail. They are :

1. The courtyard dimensions is generally small and generally varies from 1.8m to 5m
spans;

2. Courtyard – house has outer wall and tend to have at least one hall opened;

3. Regardless of religion and communities, most of the houses give importance to

kitchen, well and orientation towards river;

4. Most courtyard houses have a walled wooden hall containing raised granary in the
middle (ara), semi basement storage-pedestal or nilavara for storing utensils and
farming tools, and one ot two supporting rooms (kalavara) next to ara.