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An Adaptive PMU-based Fault Location

Estimation System with a Fault-Tolerance and
Load-Balancing Communication Network

Conference Paper · August 2007

DOI: 10.1109/PCT.2007.4538486 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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Paper No.:540 PowerTech2007, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1-5 July 2007, PES, IEEE
An Adaptive PMU-based Fault Location Estimation System with a
Fault-Tolerance and Load-Balancing Communication Network
Cheng-Long Chuang, Student Member, IEEE, Joe-Air Jiang, Member, IEEE, Yung-Chung Wang,
Chia-Pang Chen, and Ying-Tung Hsiao, Member, IEEE
Abstract—Modern fault detection/location technique for an
EHV/UHV transmission network usually works based on the
data measured by Phasor Measurement Units (PMU). The
synchronized voltage and current phasors measured by PMU
are transmitted to a monitoring center for analysis. Global
Positioning System (GPS) receivers are also equipped with PMU,
which is called GPS-PMU, to increase the accuracy of fault
detection/location by tagging all of the measured data with time
stamps. Once a fault was occurred in the transmission network,
the time of those measured data transmitted to the monitoring
center is crucial. Therefore, a high-quality communication
network is required to reduce the response time of the fault
detection/location algorithm. In this study, an evolutionary
routing algorithm is developed to handle guarantee the minimal
data transmission delay, and also robust against faults in
communication system itself. The proposed routing algorithm
has been tested through two kinds of experimental simulations,
and the result shows that the proposed algorithm can provide
minimal transmission delay by balancing the traffic over the
communication network, and while the network topology has
been changed, the proposed routing algorithm can adapt to the
new topology in a very short time without seriously affect the
response time of the transmission network fault detec-
tion/location algorithm.
I. INTRODUCTION
I N POWER systems, the importance of fault detec-
tion/location of power transmission lines is dramatically
increasing in recently decades. EHV and UHV transmission
network plays essential roles in transmitting electrical power
from the generating plants to the end users. Any occurrences
of fault in transmission network usually cause multimillion
dollars losses to the economic [1]-[6]. To avoid such event,
power providers have to guarantee the quality and stability of
C. L. Chuang is with the Bio-Industrial Machatronics Engineering De-
partment and Biomedical Engineering Institute, National Taiwan University,
Taipei, 106, Taiwan (e-mail: clchuang@ieee.org).
J. A. Jiang is with the Bio-Industrial Machatronics Engineering Depart-
ment, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 106, Taiwan (corresponding
author to provide phone: +886-2-3366-5341; e-mail: jajiang@ntu.edu.tw).
Y. C. Wong is with the Electrical Engineering Department, National
Taipei University of Technology, 106, Taiwan (email: yc-
wang@ee.ntut.edu.tw).
C. P. Chen is with the Bio-Industrial Machatronics Engineering Depart-
ment, National Taiwan University, Taipei, 106, Taiwan (e-mail: su-
percjb@pie.com.tw).
Y. T. Hsiao is with the Computer Science Department, National Taipei
University of Education, Taipei, 106, Taiwan (e-mail: yth-
siao@tea.ntue.edu.tw).
the power feeding. Therefore, to ensure the reliability of the
transmission lines is crucial. Once an occurrence of fault is
happened in the transmission network, a fault detection and
location systems estimate the fault location of transmission
lines, then a transmission line protection system isolates the
fault region from the entire transmission network by cutting
the power feeding at some relaying points around the fault
region. Any reason that causes the response times of the fault
detection/location/protection system failing to response
promptly, more transmission lines will be affected, and fi-
nally, the entire transmission network collapses [7]-[8].
According to the previous description, there are two pri-
mary issues have to be investigated: 1) fault detec-
tion/location/protection technology, which detects faults of
transmission network, and 2) adaptive communication net-
work, which is responsible to send measured data to moni-
toring center, and have to be robustness against heavy traffic
and fault of network connection links. In this study, an
adaptive computer network has been developed, and also
been integrated with a fault location method, which is one of
our previous work [9]-[10], to form a complete a complete
robustness fault location estimation system.
In this work, a phasor measurement unit (PMU) based
system along with a computer network routing protocol is
presented. Usually, PMU based approaches are installed at
the both ends of the power transmission lines. Voltages and
currents of three phases at installed sites are measured.
However, if the sampling time of all PMU is not synchro-
nized, the result of fault detection/location might be seriously
affected. To overcome such problem, a global synchronism
clock generators (GSCG) is installed to each PMU to provide
accurate and reliable external reference clock signal. Each
measured data is transmitted to a monitoring center, and each
data is tagged with a time stamp generated by GSCG for
further analysis. There is another critical issue in this system:
the communication network. The response times of the fault
detection and location systems, as well as the transmission
line protection system, deeply depend on the quality of the
communication network. This problem can be solved by
build up a star-topology network that links all PMU to
computers of monitoring center. However, the cost of
building up such network is too expensive when the number
of PMU is large.
In this study, conventional computer network is utilized to
transmit measured data to the monitoring center. In this way,
Paper No.:540 PowerTech2007, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1-5 July 2007, PES, IEEE

ES ER
ZS ZR

(a) (b) Fig. 2. Configuration of adaptive PMU based fault detection/location system
Fig. 1. Illustrations of (a) star-topology and (b) mesh-topology computer for EHV/UHV transmission line.
networks, where blue spots represent monitoring center and white spots are
PMU measuring locations.

a lot of cost of maintenance of the communication network

can be significantly reduced. Computer networks using
star-topology and mesh-topology are drawn in Fig. 1 for
comparison. For the star-topology as shown in Fig. 1(a), each
of the nodes of the network is connected to the monitoring
center using a point-to-point direct link. All measured data
are transmitted to the monitoring center directly without any Fig. 3. A single-phase faulted transmission line.
active device to relay them. In Fig. 2(b), a network with
mesh-topology is demonstrated. Mesh-topology has two transmission lines to estimate the location of fault. Consider a
kinds of connection styles, which are fully connected and normally working single-phase transmission line. The vol-
partially connected. The fully connected type is that each tage and current of the transmission line are both measured at
nodes of the network is connected to each of the other nodes a distance x km from receiving end obey the partial differen-
in the network with a point-to-point link. However, this kind tial equations:
of network is like an extension of star-topology, which is ∂v ∂i
= Ri + L (1)
even more costly and complex. In this study, all PMUs are in ∂x ∂t
partially connected style as drawn in Fig. 2(b). Nodes in the ∂i ∂v
network are connected to one or more nodes of the network = Gv + C (2)
∂x ∂t
with point-to-point link. It provides some redundant links where R, L, G, and C are resistance, inductance, conductance
without increasing the complexity of the network. In this and capacitance of the transmission line per unit length, re-
work, we try to develop a routing algorithm that provides spectively. Eq. (1) and (2) can be converted in to two linear,
features of traffic-balance and fault-tolerance to the commu- second-order, homogeneous differential equations by subs-
nication network, so the PMU-based fault location estimation tituting ∂ ∂t by jω , and the solutions are:
system can react in a short time to protect the power trans-
mission network when a fault is occurred. V = Aeγ x + Be−γ x (3)
This paper is organized into four sections, the first of which
is introduction. In the Section II, an overview of an adaptive
(
I = Ae γx
+ Be −γ x
) Zc (4)

fault detection/location algorithm based on PMU technique is
presented. An adaptive routing algorithm for is introduced in
Section III. In the last section, preliminary experimental
results are presented, and conclusions are given with discus-
sions.
II. ADAPTIVE FAULT DETECTION/LOCATION ALGORITHM
The overall diagram of the adaptive PMU based fault de-
tection/location technique is shown in Fig. 2. The phasor
measurement units (PMU) are installed at both ends of the
transmission line. The voltages and currents of three phases
are measured by PMU, simultaneously. The Global Syn-
chronism Clock Generator (GSCG) has been equipped to-
gether with PMU to provide accurate and reliable external
reference clock signal, it can synchronize the sampling time
of each PMU to an accuracy of better than 1 μ-sec.
The fault detection/location index utilized in this work uses
the synchronized voltage and current samples at both ends of
where Z c = ( R + jω L ) ( G + jωC ) , whose units are Ω
(surge impedance), and γ = ( R + jω L ) ( G + jωC ) , whose
units are m-1 (propagation constant of the transmission line),
The constants A and B can be determined by boundary con-
dition at the sending and receiving ends of the transmission
line. In Fig. 3, suppose that a fault occurred in the middle of
the transmission line at place F, where is x km away from
receiving end R on the transmission line SR, and L and D are
total length of the transmission line and per unit distance from
receiving end to the fault, respectively. If two sets of meas-
ured data (VS, IS) and (VR, IR) are putted together on the same
reference position x = 0 with boundary condition on both ends,
then the voltage on the fault position x km can be expressed
as:
V + ZC I S ) e DL + e ( S C S )e− DL (5)
1 1 γ L V −Z I
γL ( S
VF =
2e 2
Paper No.:540 PowerTech2007, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1-5 July 2007, PES, IEEE
V + Z R I R DL VR − Z R I R − DL
VF = R e + e (6)
2 2
Eq. (5) and (6) represent the post-fault voltages at fault point
which are expressed in terms of measured sending and re-
ceiving data (VS, IS) and (VR, IR), respectively. Since VF is the
voltage at the same point F, therefore, the results of Eq. (5)
and (6) should be identical. The fault detection/location index
D yields:
D = ln ( N / M ) 2γ L (7)
where
V − ZC I R VS − ZC I S γ L
N= R − e (8)
2 2
and
V − ZC I S −γ L VR − ZC I R
M= S e − (9)
2 2
After the fault detection/location index D is obtained, fault
location can be estimated by multiply D by the total length of
the transmission line between two PMU nodes L as follow:
x = DL (10)
where x is the estimated fault location distanced from the
receiving end of the transmission line, whose units are km.
The index described in above is a single line version, but it
can be expanded to three-phase cases, and all simulations are
on-line demonstrated, and conducted a very well performance
in the 161 kV substations of Taipower system using EMTP
generated data. In order to simulate the error caused by
technology limitations in the measurement procedures,
Gaussian noise signals were added into the EMTP generated
data during the simulation. Besides system noises, hardware
errors, harmonics, and system frequency fluctuation problem
have been considered in the simulation. The accuracy of fault
location estimation achieved can be up to 99.9% for most of
the simulation cases. The required computational time is
1-cycle of the system frequency, which is around 16 ms. For
the simulation results regardless of communication network,
please refer to [3]-[4]. However, such short response time
doesn’t consider about the delay time cause by communica-
tion network of the system. In order to minimize the delay
time and building cost of the communication network, an
adaptive routing algorithm is utilized and introduced in the
next section.
III. ADAPTIVE ROUTING ALGORITHM FOR COMMUNICATION
NETWORKS
In network-based applications, minimizing the delay time
of data packets transmitting from source node to its destina-
tion is critical, especially when the application is related to
design of protective devices. In this study, we consider the
fault detection/location/protection system as one of the ap-
plications that requires a reliable communication network to
become fully functional. The primary objective of this algo-
rithm is to maintain the measured data flow through the
computer network from PMU to monitoring center smoothly.
Generally, links, routers and servers in the computer net-
works are the primary sources of transmission delay. When
the scale of the network becomes larger and more complex,
more data packets might be transmitted through the same
node of the network, and once the capacity of the node is
saturated, a hot-spot could be produced. Moreover, if one or
more links encounter technical difficulties and break down,
how to route data packets to their destination node through
redundant links of the network is an essential task. Therefore,
in this work, to ensure the reliability of the PMU-based
transmission line fault location estimation system, we de-
velop an adaptive communication network with dynamic
management strategy to balance the traffic loading of links of
the network.
The definition of the network model is given as follows:
For a given network N(Γ, Λ), where Γ is the set of nodes and
Λ is the set of links. Π denotes the set of all possible paths,
and Π(s,d) denotes the set of all possible paths start from
source node s to destination node d. Let Πl be the set of all
possible paths share the same path l. Let π be a generic path,
and πi(s, d) represents the ith link in a journey from source
node s to destination node d.
Let Φ(π) be a generic cost function associated to a desig-
nated path π. Φ(π) can be the delay time θ(π) for a packet
transfers through a path π, or the number of hops ε(π), even a
hybrid function combined both of them. For two or more
paths conducted the same cost, we consider them as
Φ-equivalent.
As the definition given in above, it is clearly shown that
computer network apparently is a graphical model. The de-
tailed structure of the mesh-topology network is defined in a
connection matrix. Connection matrix (commonly named
routing table, but still a few different from the generic ones)
is denoted by Ts = [ts,d], where Ts is a array that registers all
outgoing links of node s, and ts,d determines weather node s
has a outgoing link connected to node d or not, whose value is
1 represents nodes s and d are connected by a point-to-point
link, and 0 represents nodes s and d are not directly connected.
Let Bs,d denotes the utility rate of bandwidth of link from node
s to node d, whose value is 1 represents the bandwidth of the
link is fully utilized, and 0 represents that the link is idle. The
value of Bs,d usually falls in an range from 0 to 1. The prob-
ability matrix is denoted by Es,df = [es,df,j], where Es,df deter-
mines the probability table of a packet at node s been trans-
ferred passing through node j to its destination node df, and
Σj(es,df,j) = 1. With the notations given in above, the proportion
of choosing node j as the next node for transferring the packet
while the node is queued at node s is
α β
ts , j ⋅ ⎡es ,d f , j ⎤ ⋅ ⎡⎣1 − Bs , j ⎤⎦ (10)
⎣ ⎦
The probability of choosing node j as next node of the
package can be defined as follow
α β
t s , j ⋅ ⎡ es , d f , j ⎤ ⋅ ⎡⎣1 − Bs , j ⎤⎦
ps , j = ⎣ ⎦ (11)
α β
∑h ts,h ⋅ ⎡⎣es ,d f ,h ⎤⎦ ⋅ ⎡⎣1 − Bs ,h ⎤⎦
Paper No.:540 PowerTech2007, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1-5 July 2007, PES, IEEE

The load-balance feature of the proposed routing algorithm is

done in Eq. (11). This equation contains the rate of bandwidth
utility (Bs,j). The higher rate of bandwidth utility it is, the
lower visibility of es,df,j it will be. Therefore, the proposed
routing scheme is capable of preventing from sending more
packets passing through routes with hot-spot nodes.
In this study, once the packet reaches to its final destination
node through a path π, the cost function of the path can be
defined as follow
Φ ( π ) =θ ( π ) (12)
where θ(π) represents the transmission delay of a packet
Fig. 4. Network architecture of CARIN topology.
transferring through a path π. The possibility of selecting a
path π(s, d) to transfer a package from node s to node j is
updated by the following equation
⎧ Q
⎪ if ( s , j ) ⊂ π
Δ es , d f , j = ⎨ Φ ( π ) (13)
⎪ 0
⎩ otherwise
Therefore, we can update the probability matrix Es,df ac-
cording to the following equation
( )
∀ s , d f , j , es ,d , j = ρ ⋅ es ,d , j + Δes ,d , j
f f f
(14)
In order to keep the probability matrix Es,df constantly nor-
malized, every time after Es,df has been modified by Eq. (14),
we have to normalize Es,df using
es ,d f , j Fig. 5. Network architecture of Cubic topology.
es ,d f , j = (15)

h
∑ es,d f ,h
Thus, elements in Es,df will be remained in an interval ranging
from 0 to 1 without expanding into huge numbers. Without
performing normalization, it might lead to troubles if the
values of the elements become unreasonable large.
IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
In this work, three mesh-topology networks with different
architectures are utilized to test the performance of the pro-
posed routing algorithm. Among these networks, the archi-
tectures of the two networks are fixed ones; one is CAIRN
topology, and the other is Cubic topology. The third network
is a random generated mesh-topology network encompasses
with 20 nodes. The CAIRN topology is a real research
backbone network that has been widely used to evaluate the
performance of newly proposed routing algorithms or com-
munication protocols. More detailed information about
CAIRN topology can be found on the web site
(http://www.isi.edu/div7/CAIRN/topology-top.html). The
Cubic topology is a network that consists of 8 nodes. Its
internal interconnected nodes and edges correspond to the
vertices and edges of a three-dimensional cube. The topolo-
gies of CARIN and Cubic networks are depicted in Fig. 4 and
5, where node 10 and node 4 are selected to be the monitoring
center (which is the control center of the PMU-based fault
detection and location system), and the rest of the nodes in the
network are the locations where PMUs are installed to
measure the voltages and currents of the power transmission
lines.
The format of transferring a measured data packet was
specified in IEEE Standard for Synchrophasors for power
systems [11]. Each data packet generated by a PMU contains
6 primary values, which are voltages and currents measured
on each phase of power transmission lines. The size of data
packet can be 48 bytes by conservatively estimate. The sam-
pling rate of measuring the voltages and currents of power
transmission lines is 32 times per cycle. Therefore, in our
simulations, the service request rate of each PMU is 32 × 60 =
1920 requests per second.
For the simplicity of the simulations, some parameters and
constraints are applied during the simulation is proceeding:
1) Link capacity: the link capacity is the maximum data
transmission rate of a point-to-point directly connected link.
In this study, the proposed routing algorithm has been tho-
roughly tested using 10, 100 and 1000 Mbps link capacities.
2) Queuing Model: The queuing model of each node is
M/M/K queue, because there are several ways for a packet to
reach to its destination node, therefore, M/M/1 queue is not
suitable in this algorithm.
3) Propagation Delay Time: The propagation delay time is
a fixed delay added between the transmission and reception
of a packet. In this study, the propagation delay time is set to
10 ms.
4) Average Processing Delay Time: The average
processing delay time is the time requirement for every node
to process a packet arriving from other nodes. In this work,
Paper No.:540 PowerTech2007, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1-5 July 2007, PES, IEEE

-3
the average process time is set to 100 us. 1.8
x 10

First, we apply the proposed routing algorithm to CAIRN

1.6
network topology, and node 10 is selected to be the location
of the transmission lines monitoring center. The simulation 1.4
results are demonstrated in Fig. 6. We can see that the pro-

Averaged Delay Time (s)

1.2
posed routing algorithm can transmit the packets from PMUs
to the monitoring center (node 10) with lesser than 1.6 ms. 1

Transmission delays for packets generated at node 8 and 9 are 0.8

significantly lesser than ones from other nodes, because they
have point-to-point link directly connected to node 10. 0.6

The same simulation was conducted using Cubic network 0.4

10 Mbps
topology, and node 4 is selected to be the location of the 100 Mbps
0.2
transmission lines monitoring center. The simulation results 1000 Mbps

are demonstrated in Fig. 7. We can see that the delay times of 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
packets from node 2, 6 and 7 are larger than other nodes due Source Nodes
to long transmission distances. However, the maximum delay Fig. 6. Simulation results of all PMUs constantly sending measured data
time of the network is still bounded in a 2 ms range. packets to the monitoring center (node 10) using CAIRN network topology.
The third simulation is conducted using a random gener-
ated mesh-network with 20 nodes and 40 point-to-point links, -3
x 10
2
and node 10 is the location of the power transmission lines
monitoring system. The simulation results are demonstrated 1.8

in Fig. 8. The performances of 100 and 1000 Mbps networks 1.6

are almost identical. For 10 Mbps network, the bound of 1.4
maximum delay time is still below 1.7 ms. This result means Averaged Delay Time (s)
1.2
that the proposed routing algorithm is generic enough to be
applied to networks with nonspecific topology. 1

In order to test the fault-tolerance feature provided by the 0.8

proposed routing algorithm, CAIRN topology is used to
0.6
simulate the situation when a link is suddenly disconnected
0.4
from the network. In this simulation, the point-to-point link 10 Mbps
100 Mbps
between node 2 and 3 is set to disconnect from the network at 0.2
1000 Mbps
500 ms of the simulation time. The simulation results are 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
demonstrated in Fig. 9. The result shows that the average Source Node
transmission delay for packets transferring to node 2 in- Fig. 7. Simulation results of all PMUs constantly sending measured data
creases to 1.6 ms at simulation time 505 ms, and the proposed packets to the monitoring center (node 4) using Cubic network topology.
routing algorithm adapted to the changed topology in lesser
than 25 ms after the event occurred. Thus, it demonstrates that -3
x 10
the fault-tolerance feature provided by the proposed algo-
10 Mbps
rithm is very useful, and requires a very short time to adapt to 2
100 Mbps
the new network topology (high learning performance). 1000 Mbps
By accumulating the response time of the PMU-based fault
Averaged Delay Time (s)

location estimation system and the transmission delay of the 1.5

communication network, the response time of the entire

system is conservatively estimated to be lesser than 20 ms.
1
Thus, the PMU-based fault detection/location/protection
system will react in 20 ms (approx. 1.2-cycle) after a fault
occurs in power transmission network, which is sufficient to
0.5
prevent the power system from large scale break down.

V. CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSIONS

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
In this study, a system combines an adaptive PMU based Source Node
fault detection/location approach and an adaptive computer Fig. 8. Simulation results of all PMUs constantly sending measured data
network routing algorithm is presented. The fault detec- packets to the monitoring center (node 10) using random generated network
topology.
tion/location index D, and its factors M and N are also com-
puted to serve as fault detector and locator simultaneously.
Paper No.:540 PowerTech2007, Lausanne, Switzerland, 1-5 July 2007, PES, IEEE

Fault-Tolerance Demonstration
1.8
1.6
Averaged delay time (milliseconds)
1.4
1.2
1 ments in Microprocessor Based Protection and Communication, IEEE
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0 actions on Power Approatus and Systems, vol. PAS-100, no. 3, pp.
425 450 475 500 525 550 575
Time (milliseconds)
Fig. 9. Simulation result when a fault occurs in the communication network.
The data used to verify the proposed system in the simulation
are generated by EMTP. Hardware errors, system noises are
also considered in the simulation. Different types of fault,
different fault resistances, different synchronization errors,
various power flow conditions, and inception angles of the
fault occurrence were considered. In the simulation, a 345 kV,
100 kilometers transposed transmission line is simulated. The
required computational time is 1-cycle of the system fre-
quency, which is around 16 ms regardless of delay time
caused by communication network. Because each GPS-PMU
device generates data packets to the communication network
very rapidly, higher network traffic loading causes longer
transmission delay for the measured data to reach to the
monitoring center. Consequently, the fault detection/location
system takes longer time to calculate the location index D.
The cooperative adaptive network routing algorithm is also
integrated with the fault detection/location algorithm to test
the response time of the enhanced fault detection/location
system. Various numbers of monitoring nodes with different
network topologies were used in the simulation. The simula-
tion results show that the maximal delay of the communica-
tion network sized 20 nodes was lesser than 2 ms. Even if the
some links in the communication networks were suddenly
disconnected from the network, the adaptive routing algo-
rithm can converge to another optimal routing table in the
matter of about 25 ms, which provides a very efficient and
stable communication platform for GPS-PMU based fault
detection/location algorithm to indicate the location of the
faults in a very short time.
[2] S. H. Horowitz and A. G. Phadke, Power System Relaying, second
edition, Research Studies Press, Ltd., London, 1995.
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[4] A. T. Johns and S. K. Salma, Digital Protection For Power System,
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[5] Power Engineering Education Committee and the Power System Re-
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[6] Z. Q. Bo, M. A. Redfern, and G. C. Weller, ”Positional Protection of
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ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors are grateful to the National Science Council of
the Republic of China for financially supporting this research
under contract no. NSC 94-2213-E-002-120.

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