Week 1: Introduction to the Study of Culture, Society, and Politics

Sociology
- a scientific study of human society, its origin, structure, function and direction.
- has been practiced by the Greeks
- Socius, a Latin term which means companion or associate
- Logos, a Greek term for study
- systematic and scientific study of human social life.
- a relatively young science
Anthropology
- concerned with human culture as well as the physical and social characteristics that create
that culture.
- will compare one group of humans to another or even compare humans with animals.
- observed and recorded by men since the birth of civilization
- Herodotus and Tacitus.
18th century
- a codified study of cultures began.
- study of culture of other people has been done by Westerners (that brought forth to the racist
theories)
19th century
- Sociology was recognized as an academic discipline and became a part of the university
curriculum.
- beginning in late nineteenth century Europe during a time of great social upheaval.
- Auguste Comte, Harriet Martineau, Emile Durkheim, and others began to explore ideas for
regaining a sense of community and restoring order.
- After World War II, however, the greatest development of sociology took place in the United
States.
- Two early contributors: activists Jane Addams and W.E.B. DuBois, who helped focus
people's attention on social issues.
Nature of Sociology
Robert Bierstadt in his book “Social Order.”
1. Sociology is a social science not a physical science
2. Sociology is categorical not a normative discipline
3. It is a pure science.
4. Sociology is generalising and not a particularising or individualising science.
5. Sociology is a general science not a special science
6. Sociology is both a rational and an empirical science.
- Rationalism - a stressed reason and the theories that result from logical inference.
- Empiricism - emphasizes experience and the facts that result from observation and
experimentation.

Nature of Anthropology
1. the study of humankind
2. using facts, hypothesis, and theories
3. other culture’s languages, values, and achievements in the arts and literature.
4. committed to experiencing other cultures.

Focus of Anthropology and Sociology

Anthropology
- overall culture of a group of people.
- includes social institutions, art, history, mythology, and common mores, among other traits.
- study societies all over the world
- includes archeology
 - a softer science than sociology.
Sociology
- a quantitative social science
- based on polls, statistical analysis, sampling, and large collections of life histories.
- Sociologists: impartial and scientific as possible as they gather data.
- Data analyzed by sociologists: used by government officials and market researchers alike.
Summary
- Anthropology and Sociology are both fields of social science that study the behaviour of
humans within their societies.
- Anthropology dealt with the study of cultures of other people, while sociology was used to
understand our own society.
- Anthropology tends to look at the big picture of human culture while sociology spends more
time analyzing data from a specific study.
- Anthropology is considered to be a softer science than sociology as its conclusions are
based on case studies than hard data.
Pioneers in the Study of Sociology
Auguste Comte (1778 - 1857)
- born after the French revolution of 1789
- He proposed the Philosophical Position of Positivism.
- coined the term “sociology” - He was the founder of Sociology.
Harriet Martineau (1802 – 1876)
- She translated Comte’s work in English
- in favor of the rights of women
- Her book, “Society in America” examines religion, politics, child rearing, and immigration in
the young nation.
- She emphasized the impact that the economy, law, trade, and population could have on the
social problems of contemporary society.
- She said that intellectuals and scholars should not simply offer observations of social
conditions, but they should act upon their conditions in a manner that will benefit society.
Karl Marx (1818 - 1883)
- one of the thinkers of the modern times
- a Native German, exiled in England
- sociologist’s task is to explain conflict
- That conflict is shaped by the means of production
- two classes: owners and laborers
Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903)
- grew up in England
- parallelism between how society evolves in the same manner as animal species do
- “Darwin’s Theory of Evolution”
- man as a member of society is in a never ending competition and the name of the game
is to win.
Emile Durkheim (1858 - 1917)
- the only person who studied the discipline in the school of higher learning thoroughly
- provided insights into the social forces that contributed to the rise of the global village
- proposed four types of suicide, based on the degrees of imbalance of two social forces:
social integration and moral regulation
- concluded that suicide is not an ordinary phenomenon
Max Weber (1864 – 1920)
- focused on how industrial revolution changed thoughts and action and how it brought about a
process called rationalization
- Rationalization - refers to the way daily life is organized so as to accommodate large groups
of people.
Other sociologists:
Albion Small
- founder of the department of sociology at the University of Chicago
- he established the American Journal of Sociology
W.E.B Du Bois
- a black American who conducted research on race relations in the U.S
Wright Mills
- urged sociologists to get back to social reform
Robert K. Merton
- he stressed that sociologists need to develop middle-range theories

The Development of Sociology in the Philippines

Serfin M. Macaraig
- first Filipino to acquire a doctorate degree in Sociology
- published a book entitled “An Introduction to Sociology” in 1938.
Fr. Valentin Marin
- introduced Sociology in the Philippines
- University of Santo Tomas in 1950
Conrado Benitez and Luis Rivers
- first teachers of sociology in the Philippines
- 1952: Filipino pioneers in Sociology organized the Philippine Sociological Society whose main
trust is to collect, interpret and propose.
- 1957: Community Development Research Council was created to conduct and support social
science researchers.
- 1960: Fr. Frank Lynch, SJ, founded the Institute of the Philippines Culture at the Ateneo de
Manila University
- 1972: Xavier University first school that opened a program in PhD in sociology.
- It was the University of the Philippines that offered a bachelor degree in sociology.
Three Major Perspectives in Sociology
Sociological Perspectives
Sociological Perspective Level of Analysis Focus

1. Symbolic Interactionism Micro (small social patterns) Use of symbols; Facetoface

Interactions

2. Functionalism Macro (large patterns) Relationship between the parts

of society; How aspects of
society are functional
(adaptive)

3. Conflict Theory Macro Competition for scarce

resources; How the elite
control the poor and weak.

Symbolic Interaction
- The founding father is Mead (1863-1931), an American philosopher.
The theoretical perspective supports that:
- People attach meaning to symbols, then they act according to the subject interpretations
- Individual, social groups meaning to experience of life: we negotiate meaning
- Meanings can change or be modified through interaction and through time.
Structural Functionalism
- Two words can give an idea of this approach: structure and function.
 - Founding fathers of this perspective are Comte, Spencer and Durkheim.
- society is a stable, ordered system of interrelated part of the structures.
- explained as social institutions like the family, the educational system, politics, religion, mass
media systems, and the economy
- What would be the functions of above mentioned social institutions? (in terms of manifest* vs.
latent** functions, Robert Merton, b. 1910)
Dysfunction
- disturbance to or undesirable consequence
Harmony & Stability
- Manifest
● the obvious intended functions of a social institution (or social system)
- Latent
● the less obvious, perhaps unintended functions of a social structure
Cultural Theory
- The founding father is Karl Marx
Principles Embodied in this Theory:
- A materialistic view of society (focused on labor practices and economic reality, we play by
the rules (roles and functions) of these social systems
- Unequal groups usually have conflicting values and agenda causing them to compete against
one another.
- This constant competition between groups forms the basis of the ever changing nature of
society.
Sociological Imagination
- introduced by C. Wright Mills in 1959
- From his (C. Wright Mills’) book titled ‘Sociological Imagination’.
- the concept of being able to “think ourselves away” from the familiar routines of our daily lives
in order to look at them anew.
- Mills defined sociological imagination as “the vivid awareness of the relationship between
experience and wider society.”
- the willingness to view the social world from the perspective of others.
- involves moving away from thinking in terms of you and your problems (private issues), but
focusing rather on the social circumstances that produce social problems (public issues).
Example of Sociological Imagination
Issue – Unemployment
Private Trouble – When one person is unemployed that is a private trouble
Public Issue – When 5 million people are unemployed, that is a public issue

Week 2: Defining Culture and Society

Culture
- everything that is made, learned, or shared by the members of a society + values, beliefs,
behaviors, and material objects.
Two Parts of Culture:
Material Culture
- the visible part
- food we eat, your cars, your houses
- anything that members of society make, use and share.
Non-Material Culture
- Intangible
- influences our behavior like our language, beliefs, values, rules of behavior, family patterns
and political system
Five Components of Culture
1. Technology
- makes our life easier
- volume production of goods
2. Symbols
- cultural representations of reality
- give meanings to events and things
- ex: statue, handshake, college ring, flag etc.
3. Language
- most powerful of all human symbols
- allows us to communicate
- conveys our beliefs and culture.
4. Values
- ideas
- determine our character.
- the standards
- goodness, acceptability, beauty or desirability.
5. Norm
- a rule that guides our behavior.
- how we should behave – what we should do and what we should not do.
Classification of Norms:
1. Mores
- Distinguish right from wrong
2. Folkways
- distinguish between right and rude
- customs
- measurements of behavior but not approved by society.
3. Laws
- written rules of conduct
- by government
- is forbidden or sacred based
4. Taboo
- religious beliefs or morals.
- Breaking a taboo is extremely objectionable in society as a whole
- an act may be taboo in one culture and not in another.
Examples:
Mores Laws:
- child abuse, rape, carnapping, etc.
Folkway Laws:
- jaywalking, counterflowing, etc.
Law:
- Driving while drunk, theft, murder, and trespassing are all examples of laws. If violated, the
person violating the law could get reprimanded, pay a fine, or go to jail.
Taboos:
- abortion, addiction, cannibalism, offensive language, slavery, etc.
Difference between Culture and Society
Society
- people who interact to share a common culture
Culture
- beliefs, behaviors, objects and other characteristics common to a particular group or society.
Where did culture originate? Biological or Societal? Nature or Nurture?
Nature
- innate qualities or nativism
 - your genes
- built from your biological and family factors
Nurture
- personal experiences
- your childhood, or how you were brought up
- societal or environmental factor
Cultural Change
- culture is learned – from our families, peers, institutions and media.
- As we absorb other’s culture, we change ours.
- shared as we share it with our group members.
- based on symbols
Culture
- Integrated
- ready to relate all of the aspects, not only a part or a few.
- It is also dynamic because of interaction and change. (changes may be in the form of
discoveries, inventions or cultural borrowings. )
Cultural Diversity
- Present in a society
- existence of multiple cultures
- creates differences within the society
Subcultures
- exist in small cultural groups but differ in some way.
- Examples: “heavy metal” music devotees, tattoo enthusiasts, gangs, skinheads, etc.
Dominant Culture
- When you oppose the norms and values of a dominant culture, you possess a counterculture.
Assimilation
- When your culture is dominant, it absorbs subcultural and countercultural groups.
Multiculturalism
- If culture respects cultural variations
Ethnocentrism
- judging other cultures against the standards of one’s culture
Cultural Relativism
- a culture should be sociologically evaluated according to its standards, and not those of any
other culture.
Social Groups and Organization
Classification of People
- “No man is an island” - Man can not thrive without the presence of other men.
Group
- giving an individual a sense of identity as well as emotional intimacy.
- for group members interact on a regular basis through communication.
a. Interact overtime
b. Have a sense of identity or belonging
c. Have norms that non-members don’t have.
Aggregate
- collection of people who happen to be at the same place at the same time but who have no
other connection to one another.
- An example: the people in a restaurant on a particular evening are an example of an
aggregate, not a group
Category
- people who share a particular characteristic.
- do not necessarily interact with one another and have nothing else in common.
 - Ex: people who have green eyes, or people who were born in the Philippines, or women who
gave birth to twins.
Social Group
- Those who interact with one another and share similar characteristics and a sense of unity
- ex: families, companies, circles of friends, fraternities and sororities and local religious
congregations
Nature of Social Group
- provides specific form
- each member assumes a specific status and adopts a particular role.
- procedures and values are agreed upon.
- The members of the group feel a sense of identity
Types of Social Group
● Ties
- Primary Group - most fundamental unit, long-lasting group, strong ties of love and affection.
Do’s and don’ts of behavior are learned. Ex: families, gangs, cliques, play groups, friendship
groups
- Secondary Group - individuals come in contact later in life, impersonal business-like,
contractual, formal and casual relationships, large in size, limited relationships. People
needed other people for the satisfaction of their complex needs. Ex: Industrial Workers,
business associates. Faculty staff, Company employees
● Form Organization
- Informal Group - out of the interactions of two or more persons, unplanned, no explicit rules,
does not have specific objectives to be attained.
- Formal Group - Social organization, their purpose and objectives are explicitly defined,
goals are clearly stated, the division of labor is based on a member's ability or merit.
● Self identification
- In-Group - individuals feel at home and with which they identify themselves
- Out-Group- individuals do not belong due to differences in social categories and with which
they do not identify.
● Purpose
- Special Interest Group - organized to meet the special interest of the members
- Task Force - assigned to accomplish jobs which cannot be done by one person.
● Geographical Location and Degree of Relationship
- Gemeinschaft - most relationships are personal and traditional, intimate, private and
exclusive living and familism, homogeneous and traditional-bound.
- Gesellschaft - impersonal, formal, contractual or bargain-like, individualistic, business-like,
secondary and rationalized, heterogeneous and more advanced.
Social Organization
- established for the pursuit of specific aims or goods
- formal structure of rules, authority relations, a division of labor and limited membership or
admission
- ex: Family, church, college, factory, a play group, a political party, a community
Organization
- an orderly relationship or arrangement of parts.
- used to refer the interdependence and inter-related of parts in groups
Types of Social Organization
1. Political Organization: State (Government)
2. Economic Organization: Factory
3. Religious Organization: Church
4. Financial Organization: Bank
5. Educational Organization: School and Colleges
Goal of Social Organization
 - That members of an organization are inter-related to each other for the pursuit of a common
goal
Preparedness to accept one’s role and status
Organization - an arrangement of persons and parts, every member of the organization has an
assigned role, a position and a status.
Norms and Mores of Social Organization:
Sanctions - If a member does not follow the norms he is compelled to follow them through sanctions
(conditions) which may range from warning to physical punishment. For example; a member may be
expelled, or dismissed.

a Group is a major source of solidarity and cohesion in society.

Week 3 - Human Biocultural and Social Evolution

Society - a group of people living together in a particular place or at a particular time and having
many things in common.
- looks like an object itself (sui generis or unique)
- scientifically weighted, measured and dissected
- composed of culture, working class and ethnicity
Visions of Society that account for Social Change and Societal Evolution
Four Diverse Perspectives:
Karl Marx - He looked at society that is in conflict (social conflict).
- a struggle between segments of society over valued resources.
- rejected false consciousness or explanation of social problems as the shortcomings of
individuals rather than the flaws of society
- He believed that the history of all existing society is the history of class struggle (or class
conflict)
- believed that worker must replace false consciousness with class consciousness
Capitalists - people who own and operate factories and other businesses in pursuit of profits
Proletariat - people who sell their productive labor for wages
Infrastructure - society’s economic system
Superstructure - other social institutions: family, religion, political institution
Marx’s Model of Society
Alienation - isolation and misery resulting from powerlessness
Capitalism alienates workers in four specific ways:
Form the act of working - work is tedious and repetitive
Form the products of work - no ownership in the product that is merely sold for profit
Form other workers - competitive rather than cooperative
From human potential - Workers deny, not fulfill themselves in their work
Max Weber - believed in predestination and God’s favor, religious ethic and transformed to work
ethic.
Rationalization of Society - historical change from tradition – sentiments and beliefs passed from
one generation to another to rationality
Weber’s Rational Social Organization: - has seven characteristics and are expressed in
bureaucracy and capitalism.
• Distinctive social institutions
• Large scale organization
• Specialized tasks
• Personal discipline
• Awareness of time
• Technical competence
• Impersonality
Emile Durkheim - society as more than individuals
 - Society has a life of its own – beyond our personal experiences
- rather than the experience of individuals.
- o Society has an “objective reality” beyond our own subjective perceptions of the world. Ex:
norms, values, religious beliefs, and rituals
- Society has the power to guide our thoughts and actions
- said that change is from mechanical solidarity.
- Social bonds are based on common sentiment and shared moral value that are strong
among members of industrial societies
- key to change is an expanding division of labor – a specialization of economic activity.
Anomie - society provides little moral guidance to individuals
Organic Solidarity - social bonds are based on specialization and interdependence
Gerhard Lenski - said that sociocultural evolution is the change that occurs as a society acquires
new technology
- Societies range from simple to the technologically complex
- Societies that are simple in technology tend to resemble one another
- complex societies reveal striking cultural diversity.
Socio-Cultural Evolution - change that occurs as a society acquires new technology
- simple technology can only support small numbers of people who live simple lives
- Technology shapes other cultural patterns
- greater amount of technology a society has within its grasp, the faster cultural change will
take place
- High-tech societies are capable of sustaining large numbers of people
Types of Society
Hunting and Gathering Stage
- man used simple tools to hunt animals and vegetation.
a. The primary institution is the family
b. Number of families in this society tend to be small
c. They were nomadic in search of food
d. Society members have very high level of interdependence
e. men hunt, women gather
Horticultural and Pastoral Societies
Horticultural Societies - use hand tools to raise crops. People started to stay in one place and grow
their own food.
Pastoral Societies - started the domestication and breeding of animals for food.
Agricultural Societies
- the invention of the plow led to the establishment of agricultural societies.
- tend crops with an animal harnessed to a plow
- The use of animals to pull a plow eventually led to the creation of cities and formed the basic
structure of modern societies.
a. Animals are used to pull plow
b. Larger areas of land can then be cultivated
c. More crops were yielded for longer periods of time
d. Productivity increased and people did not move to another place with abundant supply of food for
them
e. Towns form and then cities
f. When yields increased, members engaged in some other forms of farming, thus developing other
skills. Job specialization increased
g. When fewer people are directly involved with production of food, the economy became more
complex
Industrial Societies - advanced sources of energy, rather than humans and animals, to run large
machinery.
Industrialization - started in the mid-1700s, when the steam engine was first used in Great Britain as
a means of running other machines.
- In the 20th century, industrialized societies had changed dramatically.
- People and goods traversed much longer distances because of innovations in transportation
- Rural areas lost population
- Societies became urbanized
Postindustrial Societies - features an economy based on services and technology, not production
three major characteristics of postindustrial economy:
- focus on ideas as tangible goods no longer drive the economy
- a need for higher education for the postindustrial societies
- new communications technology allows work to be performed from a variety of
locations.

Week 4: Socialization
- “No man is an island”
Socialization
- the process by which children and adults learn from others skills, knowledge, norms, and
values of their society
- exposes the person to the culture of society + also a mode of social control
- is continuing
- they establish our identity
- a form of social control
- It may be in the form of coercion: like punishment, economy. It may also be in the form of
language which we use as cultural symbols
Primary Socialization - socialization that we have with our parents, our caregivers, and immediate
relatives
- food, clothing, shelter, love, peace and security
Secondary Socialization - happens when we start schooling, then working for the job that we end up
to
- Our interaction with classmates, co-employees or play friends
Agents of Socialization
Family - introduces us to the expectations of society, family members orient us with the necessary
experiences so that we develop our self-sense.
Media - are dominant tools for socialization.
Religion - influences your beliefs about sexuality, including the likelihood of tolerance for gay and
lesbian sexuality.
a. The family b. Religion c. The peer group d. Education e. Mass media

Sociologists’ view on Socialization

Sigmund Freud
- Psychoanalytic Theory (the unconscious mind shapes the behavior of a person.)
- The formation of the self occurs between the id and the superego
- The influence of society happens in the superego.
Jean Piaget
- Cognitive Development theory (socialization happens in different stages of our mind’s
development – from infancy to adolescence or adulthood.)
Lawrence Kohlberg
- Moral Development Theory
- moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout our lifespan.
George Herbert Mead
- theory of the social self
 - the self emerges from social interactions (ex: when we observe and interact with others,
respond to the opinions of others we internalize outside opinions and keep them inside us.)
Charles Cooley
- Theory of Looking-Glass Self (we learn to take the role of others.)
- it is how we appear to other people; how we think others judge us and how these make us
feel proud, embarrassed or something else.
- socialization happens when existing social roles are changed or replaced
Resocialization
- The learning of new norms and values which occurs later in life, when life circumstances
change or when people join a new group
- socialization that happens in the workplace.
Deviance, Crimes, Social Control
Deviance - connotes odd or unacceptable behavior, any violation of society’s norms, can range from
something minor, such as a traffic violation, to something major, such as murder.
- a violation of the standards of behavior of a society.
Sociologists’ view on Deviance
A. Functionalist’s View on Deviance
Merton - strain theory, “in order to access goals that are accepted by society, deviance plays a very
important role in determining whether a person is conforming or not”.
5 types of deviance:
Conformists - who choose to conform and NOT deviate.
Innovators - accept approved goals but disregard institutional means to achieve them.
Ritualist - gives up cultural goals but follows the prescribed norms.
Retreatist - abandons both the cultural goals and the prescribed means to achieve them.
Rebel - rejects both the societal goals and prescribed means to achieve them.

(2nd Theory) Social Disorganization - says that deviant behavior is caused by the breakdown of
norms, laws, mores, and other important values of society.
Cultural Deviance Theory
- Shaw and McKay.
- concluded that socioeconomic status correlated to race and ethnicity resulted in a higher
crime rate.
Social Control and Sanctions
Social Control - the regulation and enforcement of norms to maintain social order - an arrangement
of practices and behaviors on which society’s members base their daily lives
Sanctions - The way to enforce these guidelines
Positive Sanctions - those who conform to the norms
Negative Sanctions - punishments for violating norms
Informal Sanctions - happen in face-to-face interactions.
Formal Sanctions - officially recognizing and enforcing norm violations.
Conflict Theories - says that social and economic factors are the causes of crime.
- Deviance and inequality exist in this system.
The Unequal System by Karl Marx
- deviance and crime cross with wealth and power.
Power Elite Theory (Mills)
- the rules of society are stacked in favor of a privileged few who manipulate them to stay on
top.
- the effects are often felt most by those who have little power
Symbolic Interactionism’s View on Deviance
Labeling Theory - behaviors are tagged or labeled as proper or improper, moral or immoral, good or
bad.
Differential Association Theory - individuals learn deviant behavior from those who are close to
them
Crime - a behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions behavior that
violates official law
Crime is classified into the following:
White Collar Crime - committed by people occupying high positions.
- does not involve violence
- The person who committed the crime ends up in hearings, not labeled as criminal.
- a 50/50 chance of going to jail
Victimless Crime - committed by the person towards himself
Corporate Crime - committed by a company or corporation or people acting on its behalf.
- The focus is on the corporation not the individual.
Street Crime - committed by ordinary people against other people or organizations, usually in public
spaces
Status Crime - illegal because of age like you who are still young, drinking liquor or wine
Civil Disobedience - violating a law because the violator wants to make a statement. People see this
as unjust or immoral.
Republic Act No. 9165 of June 7, 2002 otherwise known as the “Comprehensive Dangerous
Drugs Act of 2002”
- a form of social control to a deviant behavior of those who use the dangerous drugs.
- from life imprisonment to death. Fine could be from P500,000.00 to P10,000,000.00
regardless of quantity and purity involved.

Week 11 - Social Institutions

Social Institutions
- are organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules, practices, and
relationships which are established with the aim of attaining social order. They
are densely interwoven and enduring, and are important structural
components of modern societies. Without these institutions, the society won’t
last.
Non-State Institutions
- institutions that are not under the control of the government or by the State.
- strive to come up with services and other necessities which the members of
the society need in order for them to progress.
State Institutions
- institutions that are within the control of the State.

Both the state and non-state institutions are essential for the development of the
society, and we are unable to progress without either one of them.

Banks and Corporations

- One of the non-state institutions that serve an important purpose to the
society
- They are an important part of the economic structure of the State.
Banks
- The society relies on banks when it comes to keeping their wealth.
- provide a safe place to save excess cash, known as deposits.
 - do not merely store money or assets.
- They primarily make profit by lending a portion of the deposited money to
corporations, who make use of loans as capital for their businesses.
Corporations
- refers to legal entities which are established under state law that are designed
to generate a profit.
- They are an essential driving force for the economy of a state.
- They produce the products and services that we use in daily life. Moreover,
they create millions of jobs, which helps individuals to be able to fulfill their
basic needs.
Religion
- another social institution that is not under the control of the government. The
separation of Church and State, allowed people in certain countries to
practice religious freedom with government interference.
- an essential part of a society, in a way that it has been the basis of most of the
laws and rules of governance among different states since ancient times.
- Before the laws were made, most societies relied on religion in order to
establish norms which helped maintain social order.
Cooperatives and Trade Unions
- are non-state institutions that play a major role in the economic development
of the society. They are directly involved with economic systems of production
and distribution. Moreover, they also influence the course and content of
employment, as well as the social and economic policies.
- are established to ensure the welfare of the workers as well as the
consumers. They look after the interests of their members and ensure that the
employers will not abuse them.
Trade Unions
- also regulate the working relationship between the unions and the employers.

Week 12: Cultural, Social and Political Institutions (Part 5)

Education as a Social Institution
Education
- is one of the important social institutions needed to ensure the progress of the
society.
- is relevant in developing individuals, who make up our society. It upholds the
basic human right to be functionally literate. Moreover, it is also one way of
transmitting culture to the younger generations.
- begins from the moment a child is born. It begins as an informal process in
which a child watches others and learns by imitating them. As they grow up,
they receive a more formal education, starting with playschool. Once they
reach grade school, they begin to focus on academic lessons. And their
education continues even after they finish their studies and attain a degree.
- education shapes the individuals.
 - it is also affected by other social institutions. The quality of education that we
receive may be affected by the current state of economic institutions.
Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education
Formal Education
- is classroom-based, provided by trained teachers. It is a systematic,
organized education model that has structure and a given set of laws and
norms.
- comes with a rigid curriculum, as well as objective, content, and methodology.
- It corresponds to the education process that is normally adopted by schools
and universities.
Non-Formal Education
- refers to an education process that has a more flexible curricula and
methodology compared to formal education.
- tends to adapt to the interest and work pace of the students. Under
non-formal education are educative processes such as correspondence
learning, distance learning, and open systems.
Correspondence Learning
- is a planned, systematized and individualized learning system that allows
students to proceed at their own pace, according to their interests.
Distance Learning
- is, according to B. Holmberg, “learning supported by those teaching methods
in which, because of the physical separateness of learners and teachers, the
interactive, as well as the preactive phase of teaching is conducted through
print, mechanical, or electronic devices.”
- This is different from correspondence learning, in a way that in distance study,
the student is at a distance from the teacher for much, most or even all the
time, during the teaching-learning process.
Open Systems or Open Learning
- is “defined as those which offer students a measure of flexibility and
autonomy, to study the programmes of their choice when and where they
wish, and at a pace to suit their circumstances.”
Informal Education
- refers to education that does not correspond to an organized and systematic
view. It does not necessarily include the objective and subjects which we often
encounter in the traditional curricula.
- is learning that takes place outside of a classroom setting. An example of this
would be visiting museums or exhibits, or watching educational TV programs,
etc.
- there is generally no control over the performed activities nor does it
necessarily regard the providing of degrees or diplomas. Informal education
simply serves as a supplement for both formal and non-formal education.
Productive Citizenry
- Educational institutions play an important role in building productive citizenry
for the development of society
 - The society needs productive citizens in order for it to become more
progressive in the future. That is why it is essential for the individual to be
nurtured and achieve skills which they can use to contribute to society.
- The main goal of educating individuals is to help them grow up and develop
essential competencies which they will need to become productive citizens in
the future.
Self-Actualization and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
- is the need for personal growth and development that exists throughout your
life. People who are self-actualized tend to work hard in order to achieve
growth and become the kind of person that they want to be in the future.
Simply put, it refers to the person’s need to reach his or her full potential.
- It is the highest level in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
- Abraham Maslow believed that human motivation comes from the individual’s
ability to seek fulfillment and change through personal growth.
- According to Maslow, individuals strive for higher needs once their lower-level
needs have been fulfilled.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

- is a five stage model, the highest being selfactualization
- But in order to get to this stage, the individual must first fulfill the lower basic
needs, from Physiological needs, Safety needs, Belongingness and Love, and
Esteem
People who are self-actualized are said to have the following characteristics:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty.
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are
3. Spontaneous in thought and action
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered)
5. Unusual sense of humor
6. Able to look at life objectively
7. Highly creative
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional
9. Concerned for the welfare of the humanity
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with few people
12. Peak experiences
13. Need for privacy
14. Democratic attitudes
15. Strong moral/ethical standards
- Everyone is capable of reaching self-actualization. However, there are those
who are hindered by their failure to meet lower level needs. According to
Maslow, only one in a hundred people become fully self-actualized because
society tends to reward motivation based on esteem, love and other social
needs.
- But while self-actualization is the highest in the hierarchy of needs, Maslow
did not equate it with perfection. Self-actualization simply involves achieving
one’s potential.
Primary Education as a Human Right
- Human Rights have been established to ensure that the basic needs of
people are met. An example of this would be the right to education
Mass Illiteracy
- which is caused mainly by poverty, is one of the global issues which are
affecting the progress of the society.
- It is for this reason that universal primary education has become an
imperative for addressing the worldwide problem that is eradication of poverty.
- Education has become increasingly important in the 20th century. As we
progress in technology and other aspects of knowledge, people continuously
need to acquire more competencies which will help them grow to become
productive citizens of the society.
- Moreover, education has become a fundamental requirement for social
justice. Education is increasingly becoming a determinant of living standards
nowadays. Countries that have access to the skills and knowledge provided
by education are more advanced and tend to be more progressive compared
to those who have no access.
- Society needs to have capable individuals to ensure its continuous progress.
Education has been regarded by all societies as a means for growth, not just
for the individual but to the society as well.

Week 14: Cultural, Social and Political Institutions (Part 6)

Societies
 - are built by individuals who are united by certain beliefs.
Religion and Belief System
Religion
- is among the institutions that have relevant influence to our society today.
- is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of a particular social
group.
- can be organized into a group that has universal membership (called a
church) or into an exclusive group (called a sect).
-
Belief
- refers to a conviction or ideal of an individual or group accepted as real or
true, regardless of the lack of verifiable evidence.
- The beliefs of religious groups affect the behavior of their members. It is
important therefore to know how the beliefs of a religion affect the actions of
its members.
Emile Durkheim
- The sociologist Emile Durkheim defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs
and practices related to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and
forbidden – beliefs and practices which unite into one single moral
community.”
Sect
- on the other hand, refers to a type of religious group that is distinguished by
having broken away from a larger organization, usually a church.
- The church of a particular religion may be supported by the majority of the
society. The sect, on the other hand, usually challenges the norm of the
majority.
- An example would be Christianity, from which numerous sects such as The
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism) have come out.
- Sociologists and other thinkers have different views towards religion.
Durkheim
- believed that religion is essential to social cohesion and solidarity. It holds
society together by means of a set of beliefs that the individuals hold in
common.
Karl Marx
- on the other hand, believes that religion is something that the elites of the
society use in order to keep a hold on the working and lower classes. It is a
tool that is being utilized by the powerful and the wealthy to ensure the
unequal status quo in the society. He considered abolition of religion as part of
the socialist revolution that would pave the way to communism.
Max Weber
- believed that religion is essential for economic development, something which
can be observed among predominantly Protestant Christian societies. He
described how the specific religious doctrine of predestination held by the
Calvinists brought about specific economic behavior that created early
 merchant capitalism. According to him, people behave based on what they
think, their religious ideas or otherwise. In the case of Protestants, their
religious ideas influence non-religious behavior – something which has the
potential to create social change.
Auguste Comte
- proposed the secularization theory. According to him, the dominance of
religion is part of the theological phase of the development of society. The
phase is characterized by mysticism, which then transitions to the
metaphysical phase, in which man already possesses abstract ideas. Soon
the society will ultimately arrive at the scientific phase whereby science and
rationality will dominate. This is the start of the secularization process.
Animism
- is a belief in numerous personalized, supernatural beings endowed with
reason, intelligence, and/or volition, that inhabit both objects and living beings
and govern their existences.
- People who believe in Animism believe that everything has a soul and
consciousness. The natural world is a community of living personas, only
some of whom are human.
- To most thinkers, Animism is not a form of religion, but rather an explanation
of a phenomena. It was not an attitude of mind towards the cause of the
phenomena. It was rather philosophical instead of religious.
- While Animism is not considered as religion, there are certain belief
systems that are influenced by it. Shintoism and Jainism are known to
contain elements of animism.
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor
- According to the anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, animist thought
serves as a starting point for human religious development. Primitive
societies relied on animism to explain the occurrence of certain events and
processes.
Monotheism
- refers to religious belief in the existence of one god, or the oneness of God.
The most well-known examples of this would be Christianity, Islam, and
Judaism.
- To monotheistic religions, there is the one real god that is believed to exist or,
in any case, that is acknowledged as such.
- The God of monotheism is conceived of as the creator of the world and of
humanity; he has not abandoned his creation but continues to lead it through
his power and wisdom. Everything is in the hands of God, and that includes
the ethical and social order to which humanity ought to conform.
Polytheism
- comes from the combination of Greek words poly + theoi, literally meaning
many gods”.
- Simply put, polytheism is belief in multiple gods or divinities.
- Most of the ancient religions were polytheistic.
 - Ancient Greeks and Romans were well-known for their belief in various gods
and goddesses.
- Norse mythology tells numerous tales about the gods and goddesses of the
Viking tribes, from sky-god Odin and his wife Frigga to the god of thunder
Thor.
- polytheistic religions continue to thrive today. Present-day polytheistic
religions include Hinduism and Shinto religion.
Institutionalized Religions
- refers to religious groups that seek to establish a system for actively believing
in and engaging God.
- The main religious groups that have integrated a religious belief and/or
practice in their community, society, government, etc., are considered as
institutionalized religions.
- have existed throughout the years due to the fact that religion have been the
building blocks to most societies since the ancient times. There were such
institutionalized religions whose power influenced even the political institutions
of the society. There are certain countries that have their state religion, or a
religious body that is officially endorsed by the state.
Theocracy
- Theocracy was one of the governments that Ancient Egypt was a form of
theocracy, or a form of government in which a country is ruled by
ecclesiastical authorities.
- Theocracies exist today as well. The Vatican City is a Christian theocracy
ruled by the Pope. Islamic States are also a form of theocracy, and their
governance are based on the teachings of Islam.
Pharaoh
- was said to have the support of the god. This was the idea of divine kingship,
in which the king was the divine representative of a god on earth.
Separation of Church and State
- This means that the government cannot sponsor a religion, or require
individuals to practice a particular faith. One example of this would be the
United states.
- Separation of Church and State is often heard especially at courts and among
the media. This was a famous misinterpretation of the First Amendment of the
US Constitution.
The First Amendment:
“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting
the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the right of the
people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of
grievances.”

Simply put, the First Amendment gives the citizens the freedom to worship without
interference from the government. If anything, the separation of church and state
was not even mentioned in the amendment. It originated from a letter that Thomas
Jefferson wrote back in 1802. He sent a letter to the Danbury Baptist Association
of Connecticut, in which he wrote the now famous phrase. Jefferson was actually
underscoring the First Amendment as a protection of the religious freedom of the
people. There is no official religion; everyone has the freedom to express their
religious beliefs.

The Impact of Religion

- Religion has played an important role in the development of societies all over
the world. They have also been a great part of our history, its influence
reaching even the State.
- In Europe, for instance, Catholicism was a strong political power especially
throughout the Middle Ages and even in the Renaissance.
- Its influence gave rise to important historical events like the Crusades and the
Inquisition. Protestantism, on the other hand, also attained political power in
the form of Calvin’s Geneva, Savonarola’s Florence, Cromwell’s England, and
the early settlements in the New World.
- Islam’s influence is also felt in the laws that govern countries like Pakistan.
- Here we can say that religion also has an influence on the laws that the
society has to abide by. While religion is undoubtedly an important part of our
society, some thinkers believe that it should not go so far as to completely
overtake governance of the society. It is important to keep in mind the
separation of the Church and State, and to ensure that no law can justify itself
purely on the basis of the authority of any religion or belief system.

Week 15: Cultural, Social and Political Institutions (Part 7)

Health as a Human Right
World Health Organization (WHO)
- defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being
and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity.”
- In their 1946 Constitution, the organization also stated that “the enjoyment of
the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of
every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief,
economic, or social condition.”
- This was one of the basic rights that are in the International Human Rights
Law. The human right to health means that everyone, regardless of race,
gender, or social status, has the right to the highest attainable standard of
physical and mental health. The right to health is an inclusive right. Everyone
has the right not just to access medical services, but also to other living
conditions that enable us to be healthy.
- This includes sanitation, adequate food, decent housing, healthy working
conditions, and a clean environment. Moreover, it also contains freedoms and
entitlements. The freedoms include the right to be free from non-consensual
medical treatment (e.g., medical experiments and research or forced
 sterilization), and freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading
treatment or punishment.
The entitlements, on the other hand, include the following:
1. The right to a system of health protection providing equality of opportunity for
everyone to enjoy the highest attainable level of health;
2. The right to prevention, treatment, and control of diseases;
3. Access to essential medicines;
4. Maternal, child, and reproductive health;
5. Equal and timely access to basic health services;
6. The provision of health-related education and information;
7. Participation of the population in health-related decision-making at the national
and community levels. All of these health services, goods and facilities must be
provided to all without any discrimination. Health institutions have been established
to ensure public health and to provide universal health services. Without them,
society’s progress will be hindered due to the individuals lacking in their basic need
for health.

Culture-Specific Syndromes and Illnesses

- Culture-specific syndrome or folk illness is defined as a combination of
symptoms that are considered to be a recognizable disease only within a
specific society or culture.
- These folk illnesses are unique and affect a specific ethnic group or society.
These diseases are not recognized in other cultures, thus they are considered
to be rare and exotic. It can be attributed to cultural behavior patterns.
Culture-specific syndromes are found in countries all over the world. In the
Philippines, for instance, illnesses such as binat and pasma do not have an
equivalent in other countries. There have been folk illnesses that have been
documented as far back to early explorers. Explorers such as Captain James
Cook have described culture-bound syndromes like the Malaysian amok.
While there has been no definite characteristics, scientists proposed certain
criteria for culture specific syndromes:
1. Must be a discreet, well-defined syndrome
2. Recognized as a specific illness in the culture
3. Disorder must be recognized, and sanctioned as a response to certain participants
in the culture
4. Higher incidence or prevalence in the society where it is culturally recognized.
Systems of Diagnosis, Prevention and Healing
Western health systems
- are based on science and the skills of health workers standardized and
learned from health sciences schools. Patients are treated based on
standardized diagnostic practices.
Traditional health systems
 - refer to the healthcare beliefs and practices that have been established by
indigenous people in developing nations. This often reflects the concept that
human beings function as an integral part of nature. Traditional health
systems are less intrusive compared to western health systems, and make
use of natural medicines such as herbs. Massages and mind/body practices
which address the physical, mental, and spiritual wellbeing of the patient are
included as well.
Alternative health systems
- are defined as a number of practices which are beyond the scope of
conventional medicine. Alternative health approaches are based on a
philosophy different from the conventional medicine system. Examples of this
include homeopathy and neuropathy.

Week 16- Social Stratification

Social Stratification
- The term social stratification refers to the division of large social groups into
smaller groups based on categories determined by economics.
- The society is a hierarchy of individuals with varying access to or control over
basic economic resources.
- Among sociologists, social stratification is often related to social standing, and
it gives rise to inequality in society. Members of the society are distinguished
by their membership in and relation to social groups and categories.
- In sociology, there are three different theoretical perspectives which can be
used to further examine social stratification. These are functionalism,
conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.
Functionalism Theory
- is a theoretical perspective that examines how various aspects of society
contribute to ensuring its stability and continued function. Functionalists
believe that each aspect of society is essential, and that social stratification is
based on the intrinsic value of social activities or roles.
Conflict Theory
- is a more critical perspective towards social stratification. Conflict theorists
often based their ideas from the works of Karl Marx.
- According to Marx, social stratification is influenced by economic forces.
Moreover, relationships in society are defined by the factors of production.
Society is divided between two classes: the bourgeois (capitalists who own
the factors of production such as resources, land and businesses) and the
proletariat (workers that provide the manual labor needed for production.
Bourgeois (bor·zhwaa)
- are the upper class, who gain wealth through the profits from their
businesses.
Proletariat
 - belongs to the lower classes, lacks power and influence, and the ones that
experience more hardships.
The inequalities in the society are the reason workers experience alienation,
isolation, and misery due to their social status. It is the inequalities brought about by
social stratification which leads to conflict among social classes.
Symbolic Interactionism
- perspective examines stratification from a micro level perspective. Symbolic
interactionists believe that social stratification is a system that groups people
together, as it causes individuals to interact with others within their own social
class.
Systems of Social Stratification
- Sociologists distinguish between two primary social mobility systems, namely
the closed and open systems.
Two Primary Social Mobility Systems
Closed Systems
- impose rigid boundaries between social groups and limit interactions among
members who belong to different social groups or occupy different levels in
the social hierarchy.
- tend to resist change, particularly in social mobility of its members.
Open Systems
- are based on achievement.
- This allows more flexibility in social roles, increased social mobility, and better
interaction among social groups and classes.
The following are some of the systems of social stratification:
Slavery System
- is an extreme form of social inequality in which some individuals are owned by
others as their property. The slave owner has full control over the slave – this
includes violence and other forms of abuse. A slave is a man who is regarded
as a property of another by law. He is in lower condition as compared with
freeman, and is wholly without rights.
- Slave system has existed sporadically in countries across the world, most
notable in the ancient times. The most notable were the Greek and Roman
societies which are based upon slavery, as well as the southern states of the
USA during the 18th and 19th centuries.
- In the Philippines, the slave system existed as far back as the pre-Hispanic
period. Part of the social hierarchy are the slaves or the alipin, which are
classified into two: aliping namamahay (household servants that have their
own houses) and the aliping saguiguilid (slave workers without a house). The
alipin can earn their freedom or gain higher status by means of marriage,
buying their freedom using their earnings, fulfillment of their obligations, or by
extraordinary accomplishments and bravery in battle.
Caste Systems
- are an example of a closed stratification system. Its system promotes belief in
fate, destiny, and the will of a higher spiritual power rather than the promotion
 of individual freedom. People born into a caste society are socialized to
accept their social standing.
Estate System
- meanwhile, is a stratification system that was associated with Feudalism. It
has three important characteristics: (1) It is legally defined, and each state
had a status with legal rights and duties; (2) It represents a broad division of
labor with definite functions – the nobility are ordained to protect all, while the
clergy are to pray for all, and the commoners to provide food for all; (3) the
estates were all political groups.
Class System
- is a stratification system that is based on the ownership of resources and the
individual’s occupation or profession. Unlike the caste system, class systems
base social status on achievement rather than ascription. They are also more
open in terms of social mobility. This allows people to move from one social
class to another and achieve higher status in life through education and
employment
Meritocracy
- refers to the stratification system that is determined by personal effort and
merit. Here, the social standing of an individual depends on his or her
performance of a social role. High levels of effort are aptly rewarded with
advancement in social standing, while insufficient effort will lead to the loss of
social status.
Social Desirables
- There are a variety of factors that affect the stratification of a society. Among
these factors are desirables such as wealth, power, and influence. These
three factors determine the stratification in a society.
Wealth
- This is more than the money or income acquired. Wealth also includes
property, from buildings and houses to other forms of assets.
Prestige
- the respect or admiration that comes from success, achievement, rank, or
other favorable attributes.
Power
- the ability to accomplish something, regardless of the opposition of others.
Social Inequality
- With social stratification, the society is divided into different classes. This
social division reflects an unequal distribution of status, wealth, and power
within society and results in individuals and groups occupying varying
positions of influence and power. This leads to what is now called social
inequality.
- Social inequality is characterized by unequal opportunities and rewards for
different social classes in a society. Understanding this concept requires
knowledge on social class and stratification.
- Sociologists have different perspectives regarding social class.
Karl Marx
- considered class as an essential characteristic based on the economic
structure of society.
Max Weber
- defined social stratification through the concept of status, which he defined as
the esteem or social honor given to certain individuals or groups.
Warner, Meeker, and Eels
- proposed the concept that class is influenced by cultural factors such as
lifestyle and consumption patterns. Lifestyle choice defines the identity of the
individual. This serves as a basis for social prestige apart from occupation
and wealth.
Nevertheless, social inequality is not limited to social classes’ access to social,
political, and symbolic capital. There are other aspects of social inequality which
must be addressed as well.
Gender Inequality
- Gender refers to the culturally-imposed characteristics which define
masculinity and femininity. This is not to be confused with sex, which refers to
the biological or anatomical differences which distinguish males from females.
- The concept of gender identity refers to how a person identifies himself or
herself as belonging to a particular gender. It is particularly important when it
comes to determining gender roles. However, societies tend to define
stratification through gender identity. It also defines social hierarchy, as well as
creates limitations and divisions among social groups.
Ethnic Minorities
Ethnicity
- is the feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population, cultural
group, or territorial area. This is different from;
Race
- which refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry.
Social inequality affects ethnic minorities in various forms such as racism, prejudice,
and discrimination.
Racism
- is defined as the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to
people simply on the basis of their race and that some racial groups are
superior to others.
Prejudice
refers to holding of stereotypes – preconceived views which are often based on
faulty generalizations about members of a race or particular ethnic or other groups.
Lastly, discrimination
- is the action or behavior of a dominant social group which has a negative
impact on other members of the society which do not belong to that group.
PWDs and Other Minorities
- There are certain groups which can be considered as part of the minority,
such as persons with disabilities (PWDs), elderly, and communities living in
 remote areas. They also face social inequality, in the form of discrimination,
as well as other social issues such as the lack of access to resources and
opportunities. The PWDs often have problems finding employment, and more
often than not they experience treatment that is different from the more
capable co-workers. Communities living in isolated areas are not often given
the access to basic services from electricity to clean water supply. There is
also religious discrimination, which affects not just the sects but the
institutionalized and mainstream religions as well.
Global Inequality
- Social inequality affects societies on a global scale. The world is defined by
differences in wealth and poverty nowadays. The unequal distribution of
wealth, power and prestige on a global basis is called global stratification.
This results in what is referred to as global inequality. It causes varying
lifestyles and opportunities among the nations.
There are various theories that explain global inequality
Market-oriented theories
- like the modernization theory, for instance, claims that existing cultural and
institutional barriers are the cause of poverty in low-income countries.
Moreover, societies develop in fairly predictable stages through which they
become increasingly complex. Political and social changes must take place in
order for these societies to develop. Poverty can only be eliminated by means
of overcoming or adjusting cultural values.
Dependency theories
- are used to explain the failure of non-industrialized countries to develop
economically in spite of investment from industrial countries. These theories
claim that global poverty is caused by the exploitation of poor countries by the
wealthy ones. There is a cycle of structural and economic dependency in
which low-income countries rely on high-income countries for infusion of
economic capital.
World-Systems Theory
- which was proposed by Immanuel Wallerstein. The theory focused on the
relationship among the “core”, “peripheral” and “semi-peripheral” countries in
the global economy. The core states are the geographically-advantaged areas
of the world, while the peripheral areas are the least developed and are
continuously exploited by the core for their cheap labor, raw materials, and
agricultural production. Lastly, the semi-peripheral areas are both exploited by
the core and also take part in the exploitation of peripheral areas at the same
time.
State-Centered Theories
- focus on the role of governments in fostering economic development. It
emphasizes the role of the government in civil society. They are the ones to
regulate distribution of resources to protect the workers. The global
stratification reflects the increasing social inequality worldwide. This may lead
to a growing rift between the rich and the poor.
Week 18: Social, Cultural, and Political Changes
Change
- Change is said to be the only permanent thing in the world. The societies of today
are no exception – they may develop and last for a long time, but there is also the
possibility of a drastic political, cultural, or social change in the near future. There are
a variety of factors which can serve as catalyst in changing societies.
Social, Cultural, and Political Change
- Social and political changes are relevant parts of the development of the
society. both have a great impact on the lives of individuals all over the world,
in different times. This is evident in the differences between the generations –
people who were born in the 1960s live a lifestyle that is different from those
who were born in the 1990s and in the new millennium. This is due to the
social, political, and cultural changes that have occurred during those time
periods.
- First, we must understand what social change and cultural change are. These
two words are often used interchangeably, but sociologists argue that these
terms have different meanings.
Robert MacIver and Charles Page
Social Change
- refers to transformations that alter the roles and status of people as well as
the structure and organization of society and its institutions. It is the
transformation of culture and social structure over time.
Cultural Change
- refers to the dynamic process in which the living cultures of the world change
and adapt to external or internal forces.
Sources of Social and Cultural Change
- There are a variety of factors that serve as catalysts for social, cultural, and
political change. Certain processes drive the society into change.
Innovation
- the process of introducing new ideas, things, and methods in society. It leads
to social change when new ideas begin to spread throughout a society
through diffusion.
- An example of significant social change caused by technology is the
introduction of mobile phones. When it was first introduced in the 1990s,
many people believed that it was not going to be as popular as landlines and
mail due to its expensiveness and bulky design. But with technological
innovations came the introduction of compact and more affordable mobile
phones, which the society immediately accepted.
Diffusion
- the spread of certain elements from one group to another in society. An idea,
object, or process is introduced and becomes widely accepted in society,
causing social change.
 - Aside from technology, social change was also brought by the spread of new
ideas, ideologies, and views. One great example would be the recognition of
women’s rights. During the Industrial Revolution, the emergence of factories
led to the need for greater workforce, and so women were being hired as well
as men. This gave women a greater role in the workplace as well as in
society, as they are no longer confined to housework. This led to more
relevant events in history, such as the recognition of women’s right to suffrage
and their right reproductive health.
Acculturation
- refers to the process in which individuals and groups learn aspects of a
culture that is not their own. Immigrants, for instance, have to learn the
language prevalent in the country they live in, and adapt to a different lifestyle.
Assimilation
- the process in which the individual or group fully adopts another culture, often
leading to the loss of their native culture.
Social Contradiction
- a process that takes place when two social groups or classes are so different
that a compromise between them is impossible. In Conflict Theory, the
structure of the society consists of the contradicting capitalist and working
classes. Contradiction can occur when new ideas are introduced. It can also
happen when social change affects a certain social class. This eventually
leads to a social tension, which in turn may bring about conflict between
social classes.
- There have been numerous instances in which social change was brought
about by social contradictions and tensions. In the United States, the issue of
slavery sparked the civil war between The Union and the Confederate States
of America in 1861. In the Philippines, the social tension brought about by
political issues caused the peaceful uprisings now known as EDSA 1 and
EDSA 2.
Political Change
- takes place when there is a significant disruption that leads to the alteration in
the way power and authority are exercised in a state.
- Sometimes this change entails a shift in the relationship between the
government and those who are governed.
- Significant circumstances often bring about political change in a state. For
instance, extreme political changes such as the change in the system of
government, are often caused by a revolution. A revolution is, according to the
political scientist Theda Skocpol, a “rapid and basic transformation of a
society’s state and class structures that are accompanied and in part carried
through by class-based revolts from below.” It is classified into two primary
forms: political revolution and social revolution. Political revolution results in
the change of government, but does not alter other aspects of society. Social
revolution, on the other hand, leads to a large scale change in the society,
from the government and other institutions to the social structures.
New challenges to human adaptation and social change
- A progressive society requires social change. However, there are challenges
which we must overcome in order to ensure this.
- With the society’s development comes new challenges that everyone must
face. One of these challenges is global warming and climate change. These
two terms are often used interchangeably, as both refer to the extreme
change in climate patterns all over the world.
- Climate change is defined as the change in the patterns of temperature,
precipitation, humidity, wind and seasons all over the world. It is the
consequence of unchecked pollution when carbon emissions caused by
human activities enter the air. Moreover, these have dangerous effects on the
environment, as well as the economy and the well-being of individuals.
- Another challenge that society must overcome is migration. This refers to the
movement of people from one place to another for the purpose of temporary
or permanent residence. This can be Emigration (also called out-migration)
which is the movement of people out of their country, or Immigration which is
the movement of people into a country that is not their native land. There is
also Internal migration, or movement of people within their country, such as
moving from one city to another.
- Migration leads to certain issues which often lead to social conflict. For
instance, there are countries which do not welcome immigrants because they
are perceived to take away jobs from the locals. There is also the matter of
ethnicity and cultural differences, which often leads to the ill treatment of
immigrants.
Responding to social, political, and cultural change
- Social change has a great impact on society. Many of the changes that people
have experienced throughout history come with numerous challenges which
must be overcome. It is for this reason that people devised various ways of
dealing with social, political, and cultural change through involvement and
collective action. These actions are what we need in order to respond to the
social, political, and cultural changes that are happening.
Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory Governance
Citizenship
- is defined as the legal state of being vested with the rights, privileges, and
duties of a citizen. This allows an individual to be a beneficiary of social
welfare programs and other public services provided by a State.
- There are different bases for citizenship in different states. In the Philippines,
the 1987 Constitution recognizes a person as a Filipino citizen based on the
following:
1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of the 1987
Constitution;
2. Those whose parents, mothers or fathers are citizens of the Philippines;
3. Those born before 17 January 1973, of Filipino mothers, and who elect Philippine
citizenship upon reaching the age of majority; and
4. Those who undergo the naturalization process.
- Several views exist regarding the nature of citizenship as it relates to
involvement in politics and society. The view on inclusive citizenship
believes that marginalized groups and individuals should be empowered and
included in the political processes. Deliberate views on citizenship consider
citizens as being involved in dialogue, information exchange, and decision
making. Then there is the different democratic view of citizenship which
sees that the practice of one’s citizenship is not limited to direct involvement in
government, or public events – the citizen must also be active in civil society
and the private sector. Lastly, the cosmopolitan view of citizenship extends
citizenship beyond the state to regional and international levels.
- Inclusive view of citizenship continues to redefine the nature of citizen
involvement. It implies a citizenry that is engaged in governance.
Participatory governance, according to the United Nations Committee of
Experts on Public Administration (CEPA), is one of the many public
institutional strategies that contribute to shared visions in planning, budgeting,
monitoring and accountability of development policies and programs. This
allows citizens to participate in political processes aside from elections.
New Forms of Media and Social Networking
New Media
- refers to the various forms of electronic communication made possible by
digital or computer technology. Examples are cable and satellite
communications and the Internet.
Social Media
- refers to forms of electronic communication which facilitate social interaction
and formation of online communities through the exchange of user-generated
context. This includes websites and applications like social networks, forums,
microblogs, and more.
- Media become a significant source of political change especially in modern
times. Electronic communication has altered the conduct of elections.
E-campaigning is gaining popularity, especially among the youth. Another
innovation is the electronic voting (e-voting), which is now practiced by
countries like France and Germany in Europe and India and the Philippines in
Asia.
Social Movements
- have occurred with the aim of creating social and political change by means of
collective action. There are three different kinds of social movements based
on the type of social or political change they are able to develop.
- Reform movement is a type of social movement which successfully introduced
changes in the political structures and processes of their respective societies.
Revolutionary movement refers to a kind of social movement that resulted in
massive and deep changes in society and politics. Lastly, religious
movements aim to achieve better recognition of their religion.