Computer Network Chapter 1 Theory Questions

Q.1. Explain ISO OSI reference model with diagram and functions of each layer.
(May15,16,19)
Ans:
➢ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model.
➢ It is developed by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in year 1984.
➢ OSI consist of Seven Layers and each layer performs a particular network function.
➢ Diagram:

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➢ Function of layers are:
Layer Layers Functions
No:
7 Application Layer - Provides user interface.

6 Presentation Layer - Presents data.

- Handles encryption and decryption

5 Session Layer - Maintain distinction between data of

separate application.
- Provides dialogue control between hosts.

4 Transport Layer - Provides end to end connections

- Provides reliable or unreliable delivery or
flow control.

3 Network Layer - Provides logical addressing.

- Provides path determination using logical
addressing.

2 Data Link Layer - This layer is responsible for the error-free

transfer of data frames.
- It is mainly responsible for the unique
identification of each device that resides on
a local network.
- It contains two sub-layers:
➢ Logical Link Control Layer &
➢ Media Access Control Layer

1 Physical Layer - First layer of OSI model.

- Convert digital data so it can be sent over the
physical medium.
- Moves data between hosts.

(Ques: Enumerate main responsibilities of data link layer. May 17- 5marks)
- The functions of the Data Link layer are:
- Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender
to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver.
- Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses (MAC address) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of each
frame.
- Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which
it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.

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 - Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent
before receiving acknowledgement.
- Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which device
has control over the channel at a given time.

Q.2. Explain TCP/IP reference model.

Ans:
1) TCP/IP Reference Model is a four-layered suite of communication protocols.
2) It is named after the two main protocols that are used in the model, namely, TCP
and IP.
3) TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol.
4) The four layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite are −
➢ Network Layer −It is the lowest layer that is concerned with the physical
transmission of data. TCP/IP does not specifically define any protocol here but
supports all the standard protocols.
➢ Internet Layer −It defines the protocols for logical transmission of data over
the network. The main protocol in this layer is Internet Protocol (IP) and it is
supported by the protocols ICMP, IGMP, RARP, and ARP.
➢ Transport Layer − It is responsible for error-free end-to-end delivery of data.
The protocols defined here are Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).
➢ Application Layer − This is the topmost layer and defines the interface of host
programs with the transport layer services. This layer includes all high-level
protocols like Telnet, DNS, HTTP, FTP, SMTP, etc.
5) The following diagram shows the layers and the protocols in each of the layers –

OSI Layers TCP/IP layers TCP/IP Protocol

Application Layer
Presentation Layer Application
Layer HTTP FTP Telnet SMTP DNS
Session Layer

Transport Layer Transport TCP UDP

Layer
Network Layer Internet Layer IP
Data Link Layer Network Ethernet Token Ring Other link layer
Physical Layer Access Layer protocol

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 Q.3. Compare TCP/IP and OSI reference model. (Very imp)
or Compare it with TCP/IP reference model. Which layer is used for the following:
1. To routes packets
2. To convert packets to frame
3. To detect and correct errors
4. To run services like FTP, Telnet, etc.
Ans:
Parameters OSI Model TCP/IP Model
Full Form OSI stands for Open System TCP /IP stands for Transmission Control
Interconnection Protocol / Internet Protocol.
Developed By ISO (International Standard ARPANET (Advanced Research Project
Organization) Agency Network)
Approach This model has Vertical Approach This model has Horizontal Approach
Services Network layer provides both Network layer provides only
connection-oriented and connectionless service
connectionless service
Layers It has 7 layers It has 4 layers
Usage The usage of this model is very low This model is highly used
To route Layer 3, Network layer where routing Layer 2, Internet layer from here routing
packets takes place takes place
To convert Layer 2, Data Link Layer convert Network Layer encapsulates IP datagram
packets to packets to frame and send the frames into frames transmitted by network and
frame to physical layer maps IP addresses into physical
addresses.
To detect and Layer 2, Data Link Layer detect and Layer 2, Transport Layers detect and
correct errors correct errors correct errors
To run Application Layer of OSI model is Application Layer of TCP/IP model is
services like responsible for running services like responsible for running services like
FTP, FTP, Telnet FTP, Telnet
Telnet,etc
Figure

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Q.4. Design issues of various layers or OSI layer (Very imp)
Ans:
1. Reliability
2. Internetworking
3. Scalability
4. Addressing
5. Error Control
6. Flow Control
7. Security
8. Congestion
9. Resource Allocation
10. Routing
11. Protocol Layering
12. Quality of Service
13. Statistical multiplexing
14. Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability

Explanation:

1. Addressing: There are multiple process running on one machine. Every

layer needs a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
2. Reliability: Network channels and components may be unreliable,
resulting in loss of bits while data transfer. So important design issue is to
make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.
3. Internetworking: An aspect of growth is that different network
technologies often have different limitations
4. Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus,
Scalability is important so that network can continue to work well when it
gets large.
5. Flow Control: If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher
than the rate at which data is received at receiver, there are chances of
overflowing the receiver. So proper flow control mechanism needs to be
implemented.

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Q.5. Why there is a need for layered designing for networking and communication?
(IMP)
Ans:
➢ The layered architecture’s major goal is to split the design into tiny parts.
➢ Each lower layer contributes its services to the top layer, resulting in a complete
collection of services for managing communications and running applications.
➢ It provides modularity and explicit interfaces, allowing subsystems to interact with
one another.
➢ It ensures layer independence by offering services from the lowest to the highest
layer without specifying how the services are implemented. As a result, any
changes made to one layer have no effect on the other levels.
➢ The number of levels, functions, and contents of each layer will differ from one
network to the next.

Q.6. Difference between Connection Oriented and Connectionless Service

Ans:
S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
1. Connection-oriented service is related Connection-less service is related to the postal
to the telephone system. system.
2. Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
necessary.
3. Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not feasible.
feasible.
4. In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Congestion is
Congestion is not possible. possible.
5. Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give a
guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.
6. In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Packets do not
Packets follow the same route. follow the same route.
7. Connection-oriented services require Connection-less Service requires a bandwidth
a bandwidth of a high range. of low range.
8. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Protocol)
9. Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not require
authentication. authentication

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Q.7. Difference Between TCP and UDP
Ans:
Parameters TCP UDP
Full form It stands for Transmission Control It stands for User Datagram Protocol.
Protocol.
Type of It is a connection-oriented protocol, It is a connectionless protocol, which
connection which means that the connection means that it sends the data without
needs to be established before the checking whether the system is ready
data is transmitted over the to receive or not.
network.
Reliable TCP is a reliable protocol as it UDP is an unreliable protocol as it
provides assurance for the delivery does not take the guarantee for the
of data packets. delivery of packets.
Speed TCP is slower than UDP UDP is faster than TCP
Header size The size of TCP is 20 bytes. The size of the UDP is 8 bytes.
Retransmission Retransmission of data packets is There is no retransmission of lost
possible in TCP packets in UDP
Broadcasting TCP does not support broadcasting. UDP support broadcasting.
Application TCP is used by HTTP, HTTPs, FTP, UDP is used by DNS, DHCP, SNMP, RIP,
SMTP and Telnet TFTP and VoIP

Q.8. Write Short note on: Internetworking Devices

Or Explain Repeater, HUB, Switches, Router, Bridge or L2-Switch, Gateway (IMP)
Ans:
➢ The devices which are used for communication between different hardware’s used
in computer network are known as network devices.
➢ Internetworking devices are Repeater, HUB, Switches, Router, Bridge, Gateway.
1) Repeater:
- A repeater operates at the physical layer.
- The main function of repeater is to reproduce the signal on the similar
network before the signal gets weak otherwise damaged.
- Whenever signal gets weak, they reproduce it at actual strength.
- It is a 2-port device.

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 2) HUB:(Passive Device)
- A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect
multiple devices in a network.
- Hub is use for data transferring. A hub has many ports in it.
- It is a non-intelligent network device that sends message to all ports.
- Transmission mode is half duplex.
- Collisions may occur during setup of transmission when more than one
computer place data simultaneously in the corresponding ports.
- Types: Active Hub→ A hub that has built in repeater
Passive Hub→ A hub that required separate repeater.

3) Switches: (Active Device)

- A switch is data link layer networking device which is used for filtering and
forwarding the data.
- It uses packet switching technique to receive and forward data packets from
the source to the destination device.
- It is an intelligent network device that sends message to selected destination
ports.
- Transmission mode is full duplex, i.e. communication in the channel occurs
in both the directions at the same time. Due to this, collisions do not occur.

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 4) Router:
- A router is network layer networking device which is used for connecting
different networks together and sends data packets from one network to
another.
- A router can be used both in LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide
Area Networks).
- Routers have a routing table in it that is refreshed periodically according to
the changes in the network. In order to transmit data packets, it consults the
table and uses a routing protocol.

5) Bridge: (also Known as L2-Switch)

- Bridges are used to divide large busy networks into multiple smaller and
interconnected networks to improve performance.
- Bridges also can increase the physical size of a network.
- It combines two LANs to form an extended LAN.
- The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s
data link layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.

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 6) Gateway:
- A gateway is network layer networking device which forms a passage
between two networks operating with different transmission protocols.
- Depending upon the functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven
layers of OSI model.
- It also stores information about the routing paths of the communicating
networks.
- It uses packet switching technique to transmit data across the networks.

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Q.9. Explain LAN, MAN and WAN (IMP)
OR Compare various types of networks.
Ans:

Q.10. What is Topology? Explains different types of topologies with its advantages
and disadvantages. (IMP)
Ans:
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other.
The various network topologies are:
1) Bus Topology:
2) Ring Topology
3) Star Topology
4) Tree Topology
5) Mesh Topology
6) Hybrid Topology

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 1) Bus Topology:

• Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable.
• It transmits the data from one end to another in a single direction.
• No bi-directional feature is in bus topology.
• Bus topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.
• Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator.
• Advantages: Low-cost cable, Moderate data speed, Familiar Technology, Limited
Failure.
• Disadvantages:, Difficult trouble shooting, Reconfiguration difficult, Extensive
Cabling, Signal interference, Attenuation.

2) Ring Topology:

• In ring topology is like bus topology but with connected ends

• Set of machines connected together in circular fashion
• Here data flow in one direction i.e it is unidirectional.
• Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.
• It has no terminated ends.
• Advantages: Low-cost cable, Reliable, Network management, Product availability.
• Disadvantages: Difficult trouble shooting, Reconfiguration difficult, one station
fails then entire networks get failed, delay

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 3) Star Topology:

• Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to

the central hub, switch or a central computer.
• The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to
the server are known as clients.
• Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
• Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
• Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.
• Advantages Low-cost cable, High data speed, Familiar Technology, Limited Failure.
• Disadvantages: If central hub goes down then all connected nodes will not be able
to communicate with each other, cable routing becomes difficult when significant
amount of routing is required.

4) Tree Topology:

• Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
• A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
• The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
• There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.
• Advantages: Limited Failure, Support broadband transmission, easily expandable,
easily manageable, error detection and error correction becomes very easy.
• Disadvantages: High Cost, Difficult trouble shooting, Reconfiguration difficult

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 5) Mesh Topology:
• Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
• There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.

• It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
• The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
• Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
• Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
• Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;
Where n is the number of nodes that represents the network.

6) Hybrid Topology:

• The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.

• A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.
• When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology.

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 • For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI bank and bus
topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two topologies will
result in Hybrid topology.

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Q.11. Difference between Subnet, Network and Internetwork
Ans:

Q.12 Goals of Computer Network

Ans:
1) Resource sharing
2) High reliability
3) Inter process communication
4) Flexible access
5) Distribution of processing functions
6) Centralized management and allocation of network resources.

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 Computer Network Chapter 2 Theory Questions
Q.1. Compare Guided media and Unguided media
Ans:
Parameters Guided Media Unguided media
Medium Used The signal energy propagates through The signal energy propagates through air in
wires in guided media. unguided media.
Types of Guided media is used for point-to-point Unguided media generally suited for radio
Communication communication. broadcasting in all directions.
Network Discrete network topologies are formed Continuous network topologies are formed
Topologies by the guided media. by the unguided media.
Signal Type Signals are in the form of voltage, Signals are in the form of electromagnetic
current or photons in the guided media waves in unguided media.
Example Examples of guided media are twisted Examples of unguided media, are
pair wires, coaxial cables, optical fiber microwave or radio links and infrared light.
cables.
Enhancement By adding more wires, the transmission It is not possible to obtain additional
Capacity capacity can be increased in guided capacity in unguided media.
media.

Q.2. Compare Different Unguided Media. Or What are different unguided

transmission media.
Ans:
Parameters Radio Wave Microwave Infrared wave
Direction These are omni-directional in These are unidirectional These are
nature in nature unidirectional in nature
Frequency 3 KHz to 1 GHz 1 GHz to 300 GHz 300 GHz to 400 GHz
Range
Security These offer poor security These offer medium These offer high
security security
Attenuation Attenuation is high Attenuation is variable Attenuation is low
Government Some frequencies in radio Some frequencies in There is no need
License waves require government microwaves require government license to
license to use these government license to use these waves
use these
Usage Cost Cost is moderate Cost is high Cost is very less
Communication Used in long distance Used in long distance Not used in long distance
communication communication communication

Diagram

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Q.3. Compare Different Guided Media. Or What are different guided
transmission media.
Ans:
Parameters Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable
Alternative ---- Also Known as Coax Cable Also Known as Optical Fiber
Name Cable
Definition Two conductors of a It contains two conductors It consists of one or more
single circuit are twisted parallel to each other. optic fibers that are used to
together transmit data
Made Up of Pair of insulated copper 4 components: Very thin optical fiber that
wire Solid conductor wire, layer are bundled together
of insulation, grounding
conductor, layer of exterior
insulation.
Types Unshielded Twisted Pair Baseband and Broadband Single Mode Fiber and Multi
(UTP) and Shielded Mode Fiber
Twisted Pair (STP)
Price Cost of cable is low than Cost of cable is higher than Cost of cable is more
other two cables twisted pair cable expensive
Attenuation Attenuation is very high Attenuation is low Attenuation is very much low

Installation and Simple and Easy Relatively Difficult Difficult

Implementation
Bandwidth Low Moderately high Very high
Security Security of transmitted Security of transmitted Security of transmitted signal
signal is not guaranteed signal is not guaranteed is guaranteed
Transmission Low Low High
Speed
Applications Telephone lines, local Used in ethernet LAN and They are installed to support
area networks, used for MAN, television, internet, long distance connections
both analog and digital CCTV, Video,HDTV between countries and cities
transmission
Diagrams:
Twisted Pair Cable Coaxial Cable

Fiber Optic Cable

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Q.4. Compare different types of Twisted Pair Cables (UTP and STP)
Ans:
Parameters UTP STP
Basic UTP stands for Unshielded Twisted Pair. STP stands for Shielded Twisted Pair.
Grounding grounding cable is not necessary. grounding cable is required.
Speed Data rate in UTP is slow compared to STP. Data rate in STP is high.
Cost cost of UTP is less. STP is costlier than UTP.
Maintenance more maintenance is not needed. more maintenance is needed.
Noise and Prone to noise and interference Less Prone to noise and interference
Interference
Attenuation attenuation is high in comparison to STP. attenuation is low.

Diagram

Q.5. What are the advantages over other guided media? Or List the advantages
of Fiber optics as a communication medium.
Ans: Advantages of Fiber optics as a communication medium:
➢ Higher bandwidth
➢ Less signal attenuation
➢ Immunity to electromagnetic interference
➢ Resistance to corrosive materials
➢ Light weight
➢ Greater immunity to tapping
Q.6. State advantages and disadvantages of Microwave
Ans:
Advantages Disadvantages
Used for longer distance Installation and maintenance are very
expensive
No cable needed Not very effective in bad weather
conditions.
High frequency signals require small Reflected from flat surfaces like water and
antennae metal
Carry 1000’s of voice Channels at a time They are hefty and occupy more space.
Communication over oceans can be Diffracted around solid objects
achieved

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 Computer Network Chapter 3 Theory Questions

Q.1. Explain design issues of Data Link Layer.

Ans:
Main Functions and design issues of Data Link Layer are as follows:
1) Services to the Network Layer
➢ Data link layer uses the services of physical layer and provide service interface to
network layer.
➢ Type of services provided:
(A) Unacknowledged Connectionless Service
(B) Acknowledged Connectionless Service
(C) Acknowledged Connection-oriented Service

2) Frame synchronization
➢ The source machine sends data in the form of blocks called frames to the
destination machine.
➢ The starting and ending of each frame should be identified so that the frame can
be recognized by the destination machine.

3) Flow control
➢ Flow control is a mechanism to prevent loss of data
➢ When data transmitted rate and data received rate is not same, some data may be
lost

4) Error control
➢ Error control is done to prevent duplication of frames.
➢ The errors introduced during transmission from source to destination machines
must be detected and corrected at the destination machine.

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Q.2. Explain CSMA/CA protocols. Explain how collision are handled in CSMA/CD.
Ans:
CSMA/CA protocol:
➢ CSMA/CA stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Avoidance
➢ It is a protocol which functions in Data Link Layer of OSI model.
➢ It prevents collision and avoids wasteful transmission.
➢ It has been specially designed for wireless networks.
➢ We need to avoid collision on wireless network because they cannot be detected.
➢ Collision can be avoided using 3 strategies – Interframe Space
- Contention Window
- Acknowledgement

Collisions are handled in CSMA/CD in following way:

➢ CSMA/ CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection
➢ It is a network protocol for carrier transmission that operates in the Medium
Access Control (MAC) layer
➢ The collision detection technology detects collisions by sensing transmissions
from other stations.
➢ On detection of a collision, the station stops transmitting, sends a jam signal, and
then waits for a random time interval before retransmission.
➢ Though this algorithm detects collisions, it does not reduce the number of
collisions

➢ Flow Diagram

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Q.3. What is error detection and error correction?
Ans:

Error Correction codes are used to detect and correct the errors when data is
transmitted from the sender to the receiver.

Error Correction can be handled in two ways:

➢ Backward error correction: Once the error is discovered, the receiver requests
the sender to retransmit the entire data unit.
➢ Forward error correction: In this case, the receiver uses the error-correcting
code which automatically corrects the errors.

Error detection uses the concept of redundancy which means adding extra bits for
detecting error at destination
Some popular techniques for error detection are:
➢ Simple Parity check
➢ Two-dimensional Parity check
➢ Checksum
➢ Cyclic redundancy check

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Q.4. Explain CRC with example.
Ans:
➢ The Cyclic Redundancy Checks (CRC) is the most powerful than parity check
and checksum error detection.
➢ Works on binary division.
➢ Sequence of redundant bits called as CRC remainder is appended at the end
➢ This forms a codeword.
➢ To form this codeword agreed upon G(x) [G(x) - Generator Polynomial] is
used.
➢ At receiver end, this G(x) is used to divide sent codeword
➢ Remainder = 0 implies no error
Remainder 0 implies error
➢ CRC cannot detect all types of errors.
Example:
Note: EX-OR operation
X Y OUTPUT
0 0 0
1 0 1
0 1 1
1 1 0

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Generate the CRC code for data word 110010101. The divisor is 10101
Ans:

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Other sums ( They also ask to check the given string is acceptable or not. Note: for such
questions if u got remainder as zeros means all zeros then that string is not acceptable,
if string contain combination or any 1 value in it then it is acceptable)

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Q.5.
UQ: Compare data flow control techniques.
UQ: Compare it performance to sliding window with Go-back-n technique.
UQ: Explain how the Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat ARQ differ from each other
Ans:

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Q.6. Explain Go-Back-N ARQ
Ans: (Refer theory from Q.5 difference)

(Write till here only, below is explanation of example)

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Q.7. Explain Selective Repeat ARQ
Ans: (Refer theory from Q.5 difference)

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Example Explanation:

Suppose there is a sender and a receiver.

There are 11 frames to be sent, and the frames are numbered as 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10.

The sequence number of the frames is decided by the size of the window N.

Let's take the sender's window size to be 4, which means the sender can send 4 frames before
expecting any acknowledgement from the first frame, which is 0.

The sender sends the first frame, which is 0, frame 0 will be there in the current window.

The sender will send the next frames in the buffer (1, 2, 3) because the sender can send 4 frames
without expecting any acknowledgement from the receiver

The sender is expected to receive an acknowledgement from the receiver.

Let's assume the sender received an acknowledgement for frame 0 from the receiver.

Frame 0 is sent and acknowledged. The current window size is 3; the sender will send the next
frame from the buffer, which is 4, and the window slides.

Now, the current window size is 4. So, the receiver acknowledges frame number 1

The window slides and the sender will send the next frame in the buffer, which is 5, and the window
slides.

Let's assume that the sender is not acknowledging frame number 2 because either the frame is lost
or the acknowledgement is lost.

In this case, the sender will not send frames 4 and 5 again, and it knows that frame 2 is missing
because the receiver would have sent a negative acknowledgement (NACK) for frame 2.

So, the sender will retransmit frame 2 alone and as usual other frames are transmitted.

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Q.8. Explain Stop and Wait ARQ
Ans: (Refer theory from Q.5 difference)

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Q.9. Explain Framing Methods
Ans:

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 Computer Network
Q.6 Theory Questions
Q.1. Design issues of various layers or OSI layer
Ans:
1. Reliability
2. Internetworking
3. Scalability
4. Addressing
5. Error Control
6. Flow Control
7. Security
8. Congestion
9. Resource Allocation
10. Routing
11. Protocol Layering
12. Quality of Service
13. Statistical multiplexing
14. Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability

Explanation:

1. Addressing: There are multiple process running on one machine. Every

layer needs a mechanism to identify senders and receivers.
2. Reliability: Network channels and components may be unreliable,
resulting in loss of bits while data transfer. So important design issue is to
make sure that the information transferred is not distorted.
3. Internetworking: An aspect of growth is that different network
technologies often have different limitations
4. Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus,
Scalability is important so that network can continue to work well when it
gets large.
5. Flow Control: If the rate at which data is produced by the sender is higher
than the rate at which data is received at receiver, there are chances of
overflowing the receiver. So proper flow control mechanism needs to be
implemented.

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 Q.2. Explain the need for DNS and describe the protocol functioning.
Short Notes on: DNS
Ans:
Definition:
➢ DNS stands for Domain Name System.
➢ DNS is an application layer protocol for message exchange between clients
and servers.
➢ DNS is required for functioning of internet.
➢ DNS is a service that translates the domain name into IP addresses.
➢ Components of DNS: Domain Name Space, Name Servers and Resolvers.
Example:
If someone wants to access the site of example into web browser that had an
IP address 132.147.165.50 , most people would reach the site by specifying
“www.example.com”. Therefore, the domain name is more reliable than IP
address.
Need for DNS:
➢ The purpose of DNS is to translate a domain name into appropriate IP
address.
➢ DNS server eliminates the need for humans to memorize IP addresses such
as 192.168.66.89.
➢ DNS allows you to use internet more easily by allowing you to specify
meaningful name on your web browser instead of useful IP address.
DNS Protocol Functioning:

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 ➢ The client machine sends a request to the local name server, which, if root
does not find the address in its database, sends a request to the root name
server, which in turn, will route the query to a top-level domain (TLD) or
authoritative name server.
➢ The root name server can also contain some hostname to IP address
mappings.
➢ The Top-level domain (TLD) server always knows who the authoritative
name server is.
➢ So finally, the IP address is returned to the local name server which in turn
returns the IP address to the host.

Q.3. Write short note on: SNMP and MIB (SNMP is imp)
Ans:
➢ SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol.
➢ SNMP is a framework used for managing devices on the internet.
➢ It provides a set of operations for monitoring and managing the internet.
➢ SNMP is an application layer protocol that uses UDP port number 161/162.
➢ SNMP is used to monitor the network, detect network faults, and sometimes
even used to configure remote devices.
➢ SNMP components –

There are 3 components of SNMP:

a. SNMP Manager –
- It is a centralized system used to monitor network. It is also known as
Network Management Station (NMS)

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 b. SNMP agent –
- It is a software management software module installed on a managed
device.
- Managed devices can be network devices like PC, routers, switches,
servers, etc.

c. Management Information Base –

- MIB consists of information on resources that are to be managed.
- This information is organized hierarchically.
- It consists of objects instances which are essentially variables.
- It is a hierarchical virtual database of network, this database is in text file
(.mib)

Q.4. Write short note on: SMTP

Ans:
➢ SMTP stands for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol.
➢ It was first proposed in 1982.
➢ It is a standard protocol, which is used for the purpose of sending e-mail
over the internet with efficiency and reliability.
➢ SMTP also provides notification about the incoming mail.
➢ SMTP is application level, connection oriented and text-based protocol.
➢ There is no need of user interaction for the exchange of commands between
servers.
➢ They also have a way of handling the errors such as incorrect email address.
➢ For example, if the recipient address is wrong, then receiving server reply
with an error message of some kind.
➢ SMTP commands: HELLO, EHELLO, MAIL FROM, SIZE, DATA, QUIT, etc.
Q.5. Write short note on: Telnet
Ans:
➢ TELNET stands for Terminal Network.
➢ It was developed in 1969.
➢ It is a standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service as proposed by
International Standard Organization (ISO).
➢ Computer which starts connection known as the local computer.
➢ Computer which is being connected to i.e. which accepts the connection
known as remote computer.
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 ➢ When the connection is established between local and remote computer.
➢ During telnet operation whatever that is being performed on the remote
computer will be displayed by local computer.
➢ Telnet operates on client/server principle.
➢ Local computer uses telnet client program and the remote computers uses
telnet server program.

Q.6. Write short note on: Telnet Timer

Ans:
➢ TCP uses several timers to ensure that excessive delays are not encountered
during communications.
➢ Several of these timers are elegant, handling problems that are not
immediately obvious at first analysis.
➢ TCP implementation uses four timers:
1) Retransmission Timer – To retransmit lost segments, TCP uses
retransmission timeout (RTO). When TCP sends a segment the timer
starts and stops when the acknowledgment is received. If the timer
expires timeout occurs and the segment is retransmitted. RTO
(retransmission timeout is for 1 RTT) to calculate retransmission timeout
we first need to calculate the RTT(round trip time).
RTT three types –
Measured RTT(RTTm) – The measured round-trip time for a segment is
the time required for the segment to reach the destination and be
acknowledged, although the acknowledgement may include other
segments.
Smoothed RTT(RTTs) – It is the weighted average of RTTm. RTTm is
likely to change and its fluctuation is so high that a single measurement
cannot be used to calculate RTO.
Deviated RTT(RTTd) – Most implementations do not use RTTs alone so
RTT deviated is also calculated to find out RTO.
2) Persistent Timer – To deal with a zero-window-size deadlock situation,
TCP uses a persistence timer. When the sending TCP receives an
acknowledgment with a window size of zero, it starts a persistence timer.
When the persistence timer goes off, the sending TCP sends a special
segment called a probe. This segment contains only 1 byte of new data. It
has a sequence number, but its sequence number is never acknowledged;
it is even ignored in calculating the sequence number for the rest of the

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 data. The probe causes the receiving TCP to resend the acknowledgment
which was lost.
3) Keep Alive Timer – A keepalive timer is used to prevent a long idle
connection between two TCPs. If a client opens a TCP connection to a
server transfers some data and becomes silent the client will crash. In this
case, the connection remains open forever. So a keepalive timer is used.
Each time the server hears from a client, it resets this timer. The time-out
is usually 2 hours. If the server does not hear from the client after 2 hours,
it sends a probe segment. If there is no response after 10 probes, each of
which is 75 s apart, it assumes that the client is down and terminates the
connection.
4) Time Wait Timer – This timer is used during tcp connection termination.
The timer starts after sending the last Ack for 2nd FIN and closing the
connection. After a TCP connection is closed, it is possible for datagrams
that are still making their way through the network to attempt to access
the closed port. The quiet timer is intended to prevent the just-closed port
from reopening again quickly and receiving these last datagrams.

Q.7. Write short note on: Berkley Socket. OR

What are Berkley Socket primitives? Explain in brief.
Ans:
➢ Berkley Socket are an application programming interface (API) for Internet
sockets and Unix domain sockets.
➢ It is used for inter process communication (IPC).
➢ It is commonly implemented as a library of linkable modules.
➢ It originated with the 4.2BSD UNIX released in 1983.
➢ Berkley Socket primitives are as follows:

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 Q.8. Write short note on: TCP segment header OR Draw and explain TCP
segment header in detail. (IMP)
Ans:
➢ A packet in TCP is called a segment and segment consists of header.

➢ Source Port (16-bits): Identifies sending port

➢ Destination Port(16-bits): Identifies receiving port
➢ Sequence Number: A 32-bit field that holds the sequence number
➢ Acknowledgement Number: If the ACK control bit is set, this field contains
the next number that the receiver expects to receive.
➢ Data Offset: The several 32-bit words in the TCP header shows from where
the user data begins.
➢ Reserved (6 bit): It is reserved for future use.
➢ Control Flags: These are 6 1-bit control bits that control connection
establishment, connection termination, connection abortion, flow control,
mode of transfer etc. Their function is:
- URG: Urgent pointer is valid
- ACK: Acknowledgement number is valid( used in case of cumulative
acknowledgement)
- PUSH: Request for push
- RST: It Resets the connection.
- SYN: It synchronizes the sequence number.
- FIN: Terminate the connection
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 ➢ Window: This field tells the window size of the sending TCP in bytes.
➢ Checksum: It is used for error detection.
➢ Urgent pointer: This field (valid only if the URG control flag is set) is used to
point to data that is urgently required that needs to reach the receiving
process at the earliest.
Q.9. Write short note on: Connection Oriented and Connectionless Service
Difference between Connection Oriented and Connectionless Service
Ans:
S.NO Connection-oriented Service Connection-less Service
1. Connection-oriented service is related Connection-less service is related to the postal
to the telephone system. system.
2. Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not compulsory.
necessary.
3. Connection-oriented Service is Connection-less Service is not feasible.
feasible.
4. In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Congestion is
Congestion is not possible. possible.
5. Connection-oriented Service gives the Connection-less Service does not give a
guarantee of reliability. guarantee of reliability.
6. In connection-oriented Service, In connection-less Service, Packets do not
Packets follow the same route. follow the same route.
7. Connection-oriented services require Connection-less Service requires a bandwidth
a bandwidth of a high range. of low range.
8. Ex: TCP (Transmission Control Ex: UDP (User Datagram Protocol)
Protocol)
9. Connection-oriented requires Connection-less Service does not require
authentication. authentication

By Shri