CHAPTER 1

CONCEPT, THEORIES, AND PRINCIPLES OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, the student will be able to:

 Identify and understand different theories on human development;
 Understand how stages of personality development, from infancy to adulthood or old age, affects a
person’s ability to adapt to changes and his/her environment;
 Explain how these stages can either make or break a person’s motivation and ability to react to certain
situations.

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human development is a process in which a progressive series of changes occurs as a result of
maturation and experience. According to Newman and Newman (2015), human development emphasizes the
patterns of “constancy and change across the life span” and identifies the processes that account for such
patterns. They argue that development implies a process that happens over time and has a specific direction.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES
The goal of development changes is to enable people to adapt to the environment in which they live,
through a process called self-realization or self-actualization (DeRobertis, 2008). Given that self-realization
plays an important role in ensuring one’s mental well-being, individuals who make good personal and social
adjustment must seek opportunities to express their interest and desires in ways that yield personal
satisfaction while conforming to accepted standards at the same time. The absence of these opportunities can
lead to frustrations and generally negative toward people and even life in general.

SIGNIFICANT FACTS ABOUT DEVELOPMENT (Gines, et al., 1998)

Early foundations are critical. Essentially, attitudes, habits, and patterns of behavior that have been
established in the early years of one’s life largely determine the success of individuals in adjusting to
life as they grow older.

Roles of maturation and learning in development. Maturation refers to the process by which an
individual’s inherent traits are developed. Learning is the product of the exercise and effort spent by an
individual to achieve development. In relation to this, maturation provides the raw materials for learning
and determines the general patterns and sequences of one’s behavior.

Development follows a definite and predictable pattern. According to previous work, there are
patterns physics, motors, speech and intellectual development, and such development follows a pattern
similar for everyone, unless there are extenuating factors that hamper this process.

All individuals are different. No two individuals can be 100% biologically and genetically similar, even
in the case of identical twins. Such difference increases as children develop from childhood, move on to
adolescence, and eventually to old age.

Each phase of development has a characteristic behavior. This means that every stage of
development includes a set of behavior that can only be observed in a particular stage.

Each phase of development has hazards. Each stage in the life span of an individual can be
associated with specific developmental hazards- be they psychological, physical, or environmental;
such hazards may involve adjustment problems.

Development is aided by stimulation. A large part of human development occurs as a product of

maturation and environmental experiences, and in relation to this, much can be done to aid
development so that it will reach its full potential. This can be achieved by stimulating development by
directly encouraging an individual to utilize an ability, which is in the process of development.
Development is affective by cultural changes. An individual’s development often conforms to
cultural standards; hence changes in these standards can also affect one’s development pattern.

There are social expectations for every stage of development. All cultural groups expect their
members to familiarize themselves with essentials skills and acquire certain approved behavioral
patterns at various ages during one’s lifetime.

There are common traditional beliefs about people of all ages. Beliefs concerning physical and
psychological characteristics to do affect the judgment of others and their subsequence self-
evaluations.

PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Let us examine various psychological theories on human development, which can provide basic
frameworks through which we can better understand human growth, development, and learning. It is important
to study these theories because, through these, we can identify the main factors or conditions that motivate
human thoughts and behavior (theories of Development, 2016).
 Psychoanalytic Theories

As one of the most popular theories of development, Psychoanalytic theory originated with the work of
Sigmund Freud, who argued that childhood experiences and unconscious desires ultimately influence
our behavior as adults. Since then, neo- Freudians have proposed different theories of their own,
including Erick Erickson, who introduced his eight-stage stories of psychosocial development.

Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development

The theory of psychosexual development was first proposed by the famous psychoanalyst Sigmund
Freud. This controversial theory describes the process by when human personality is developed
throughout one’s childhood. Based on observations he recorded while treating his patients, he was able
to develop a theory that explained human behavioral development in terms of series of so-called
“psychosexual stages,” in which conflict that arise in each developmental stages may have a lifelong
influence on one’s personality and behavior (Cherry, 2015a).

Stage of Psychosexual Development

Stage 1: Oral stage (Birth to 18 months)

During this stage, an infant’s main source of interaction occurs through the mouth, and as such, rooting
and sucking are especially important in this stage. It is said that the infant derives pleasures from oral
stimulation by performing gratifying activities, such as sucking. The infant ay also develop a sense of
trust and comfort with an adult who is providing this kind of oral stimulation (e.g., feeding the child).

Conflict occurs during the weaning process, and at this point, the child must become less dependent
upon his/her caretaker; otherwise, fixation may occur. If this fixation is not resolved, then the child may
grow up with issues concerning binge eating, drinking, nail biting, or smoking. The individual may also
have problems related to dependency and aggression (Cherry, 2015a)

Oral traits may be expressed as opposites. Hence, oral types may be unhealthily pessimistic or
healthily optimistic, gullible or suspicious, manipulative or passive, and prone to admiration or envy, to
name a few (Furnham, 2015).

Stage 2: Anal stage (18 months to 3 years)

During this stage, a child becomes aware of correct bowel control and experiences pleasure in
eliminating or retaining feces. Some parents praise and reward children who show correct behavior in
this sense. These children eventually grow up to become productive and confident.

When the child becomes fixated in the pleasure obtained through these stimulant (i.e., controlling and
eliminating feces), then he/she become obsessed with perfection, order, cleanliness, and control as an
adult. When a person is prone to this tendency then he/she is called anal retentive, and its opposite is
called anal expulsive. Compared with anal retentive individuals, anal expulsive individuals are
extremely disorganized and chaotic (Cherry, 2015a).

Stage 3: Phallic stage (3 to 6 years)

The phallic stage is mainly characterized by a child’s focus on sexual interest, stimulation, and
excitement in relation to the genital area. This is an important part of the development process as it lays
the foundation of one’s gender identity. According to Freud, the patterns of identification arising from
the phallic stage primarily determine the development of human character (McLeod, 2008).

Common phallic traits are expressed in opposites, just like in the other stages. These traits typically
includes vanity versus self-hatred, brashness versus bashfulness, pride versus humility, gaiety versus
gloom and gregariousness versus isolation, to name a few (Furnham, 2015).

Stage 4: Latency stage (5 0r 6 years to puberty)

This development stage begins around the same time when children enter school and become more
focused on their peer relationship, personal interests, and hobbies, along with greater social exposure.
Hence, this is a period of exploration and plays an important role in the development of confident as
well as social and communication skills (Cherry, 2015a).

Stage 5: Genital stage (Puberty to adulthood)

 During this period, a child undergoes the physiological maturation of systems of sexual functioning and
associated hormonal system. Thus leading to intensified drives and impulses. The main objective of
this phase is the eventual separation from one’s attachment to his/her parents and the achievement of
mature relationship as well as adult roles and duties.

Erickson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

One of the best-known theories of personality in the field of psychology, Erickson’s theory of
psychosocial development describes the influence of social experience on our development across the whole
human lifespan. A major element of this theory is the “ego identify,” which is the “conscious sense of self that
we develop through social interaction” (Cherry, 2015b). According to Erickson, this ego identity constantly
changes due to new information and experiences we accumulate through our daily interactions with others. As
we face each new stage of development, we confront a new challenge that can help further develop or hinder
the development of our identity.

Stages in Human Lifespan

A. Prenatal period- This period begins at conception and ends, at birth. It occurs within about 270 to
280 days or nine calendar months.

B. Infancy- This period occurs from birth to the end of the second week. It is the shortest of all
developmental periods and is considered a time of extreme adjustments, thus making it a
hazardous period.

C. Babyhood- This period occurs from the end of the second until the end of a child’s second year. It
is said to be the period of true foundation of age and marks the beginning of socialization and
creativity. This period is also a time of increased individuality, decreasing dependency, and rapid
growth and change, making it a hazardous period as well.

D. Early Childhood- This period lasts from 2 to 6 years, and is considered by many parents as a
problematic or troublesome age. For educators, this is considered the preschool age

E. Late Childhood- This period occurs from 10 to 12 years or the so- called elementary years. For
parents, they consider it also as a troublesome age, especially since, according psychologist, this is
the “gang” age or the time at which children seek conformity and become part of groups.

F. Puberty or Preadolescence- This period last from 12 to 13 or 14 years. It is a short, overlapping

period that is subdivided into several stages, namely, prepubescent, pubescent and post-
pubescent stages. This is a period of rapid growth and change and occurs at variable age.

G. Adolescence- This period occurs from 13 or 14 to 18 years. It is an important transitional period

that is characterized by significant change. Others consider it a problem or dreaded age, during
which the child searches for his/her identity and is about to cross over into adulthood.

H. Early Adulthood- This period lasts from 18-40 years. This is the productive age, a period of
dependency for most, and a period of emotional tension or even social isolation. In addition, it is a
time of commitment, a time at which one’s values change, which can lead to changes in lifestyle
choices.

I. Middle Age- This period occurs from 40-60 years. Many people dread this stage because it is a
time of stress and transition. Others may feel bored with their lives at around this age and may feel
awkward or inadequate when comparing themselves with others and evaluating their lives against
them.

J. Old Age or Senescence- This period lasts from 60 years to one’s death. This is considered a
period of decline, during which people are judged by different critical based on prevalent
stereotypes of old people. People in this age group have varying social attitudes towards old age
 and may feel that they are part of a minority. As aging requires role changes, some may not be so
successful in making the proper adjustments. Still, the desire for rejuvenation is widespread in old
age.

DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Purpose of Developmental Tasks

Developmental tasks serve’ as guideline that enable individuals to know what society expects of them
at any given age. Such tasks motivate individuals to do what their respective social groups expect them to do
at certain ages during their lives. Finally, these tasks show individuals what lie ahead and the corresponding
expectations of what they need to do when they reach their next stage of development.

Developmental Tasks During Each Stage of the Lifespan (Gines, et al, 1998)

1. Babyhood and Early Childhood

 Learning to take solid foods
 Learning to walk and talk
 Learning to control the elimination of body waste
 Learning sex differences and sexual modesty
 Getting ready to read
 Learning to distinguish between right and wrong and beginning to develop a conscience

2. Late Childhood
 Learning physical skills that are necessary for ordinary games
 Building a wholesome attitude toward one’s self as a growing individual
 Learning to get along with peers with the same age
 Beginning to develop appropriate social roles depending on one’s gender
 Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing and calculating
 Developing concept and skills that are necessary for everyday living
 Developing a conscience, a sense of morality and a scale of value
 Developing attitudes toward social groups and institutions
 Achieving personal independence

3. Adolescence
 Achieving new and more mature relationship with peers from both sexes
 Achieving masculine or feminine social roles
 Accepting one’s physique and using one’s body effectively
 Desiring, accepting and achieving socially responsible behaviors
 Achieving, emotional independence from parents and other adults
 Preparing for an economic career
 Preparing for marriage and family life
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to one’s behavior
 Acquiring belies and a set of ideologies

4. Early Adulthood
 Getting started in an occupation
 Selecting a partner
 Learning to live with a marriage partner
 Starting a family
 Rearing children
 Managing a home
 Taking on civic responsibilities
 Finding a social group with whom one shares the same interests

5. Middle Age
 Achieving adult civic and social responsibilities
 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
 Developing adult leisure-time activities
 Relating one’s self to one’s spouse as a person
 Accepting and adjusting to physiological change of middle age
 Reaching and maintaining a satisfactory performance in one’s occupation and career
 Adjusting to aging parents

6. Old Age
 Adjusting to decreasing physical health
  Adjusting to retirement and reduced income
 Adjusting to the death of spouse
 Establishing an explicit affiliation with member of one’s peer group
 Establishing a satisfactory and safe physical living arrangement
 Adopting to changing or reduced social roles in a flexible way

FACTORS INFLUENCING THE MASTERY OF DEVELOPMENTAL TASKS

Handicaps to Mastery
 A retarded developmental level
 Lack of opportunities to learn the developmental tasks or lack of guidance in their mastery
 Lack of motivation
 Poor health condition
 Physical defect
 A low intellectual level

Aids to Mastery
 A normal or accelerated developmental level
 Opportunities to learn the developmental tasks and receiving guidance in mastering them
 Strong motivation to learn and improve
 Good health and the absence of sickness
 A high level of intelligence
 A sense of creativity