UGRC 150: CRITICAL THINKING AND PRACTICAL REASONING

DISTANCE EDUCATION

LECTURE 2: DEFINITIONS, VERBAL DISPUTES & SUBSTANTIVE

DISAGREEMENTS

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

Senior Lecturer
Dept of Philosophy and Classics, (Arts, Humanities, U.G)
Jan - April, 2023
nancymylesugrc150@gmail.com
 Definitions:
connotation/denotation
• Every definition has two aspects:

➢the meaning (connotation) of the word

and
➢the particular examples that the meaning refers
to(denotation).

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)
 understanding connotation

• Look at the different connotations of the word chair

- Chair is a furniture we sit on

- Chair is the head of an institution
- Chair is the person who steers the affairs of a meeting

Note: The given connotation then will determine the

specific denotation (particular instances or examples
referred to) in each sentence above.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Pause & think!

• “The legislature agreed to table the motion

for another day”
• “The rows and columns in the table are too
complex”
• “Your breakfast is already on the table”.

• Notice the different connotations of the word

‘table’!!
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Detecting equivocation!
If more than one connotation of a word is used in
the same context without any signal of the shift
with the intention to manipulate or to persuade,
the speaker is accused of committing
equivocation.
E.g.: I don’t see why women are always complaining that they
do not enjoy the same freedom as men do. It is a free country;
so what’s the problem? Everybody in Ghana here is free to do
what they like.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 E.gs. of equivocation

• Example 2:
I don’t see how you can say you are an ethical
person. It is so hard to get you to do anything;
your work ethic is so bad.
• Example 3
Sure philosophy helps you argue better, but do we
really need to encourage people to argue? There’s
enough hostility in this world.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Types of Definitions:
• Lexical: dictionary
• Ostensive: pointing to (demonstrating)
• Operational: steps (or instruction)
• Stipulative: fiat (agreed upon by users, think of jargons)
• Theoretical: theory based (institutionalized)
• Real(Ideal, eliminative, essential): definiendum can
replace definiens in all contexts of use.
(Note: Overlaps in types of definitions. Discuss!!)
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 On definitions:
open textured terms
• Open textured/open class concept: a
word is open textured or essentially
contestable if it has several connotations
(meanings) and therefore any given
meaning can be contested even within
the same discipline. E.g. of such terms
are family, justice, fidelity, democracy,
etc.… Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 On definitions:
well-defined terms
• Well-defined concept: a term is well-defined if
its definition makes completely clear which
objects or individuals, or properties are
correctly called by that word. Its meaning is not
contestable in the discipline in question!
• (Common in deductive studies like Maths and
Logic)
• Refer to the definition of even number in the
prescribed text Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Problems with definitions
Flaws(errors) in definitions include being broad, narrow, circular or
vague. Note: one definition may be flawed in more than one way!!
Broad: the definiens covers things that do not belong in
the denotation of the word.
Narrow: the definiens does not cover all the things that
correctly belong in the denotation of the word.
Circular: (begging the question/tautology): the definiens
repeats the definiendum.
Vague: the definiens does not specify adequately to
determine what belongs to the word’s denotation.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Trial questions! (Activity 4.1, unit 2)

• “Lady, efficiency is being efficient at what you do in

this office please”.
• The meaning of evil is murder.
• A dinosaur is a pre-historical creature.
• “Development is to develop the nation and …”
• Religion is the opiate of the masses
• Volta ladies are snobs
Note: some definitions can be both broad and narrow.
See e,g 4
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 UNIT 3:
Types of discourse
Your text identifies four types of discourse (a
collection of expressions not a single expression
as we have seen so far; passages):
- argument,
- narration,
- instruction
- rhetorical polemic.

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)
 Types of discourse
1. narrative
Narrative: a discourse which
only reports a sequence of
events in order of their
occurrence.
Refer to examples in the text!
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Types of discourse
2. instruction

Instruction: a discourse
which describes the process
or sequence of things to do in
a specified order to
accomplish some desired
effect.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Types of discourse
3. rhetorical polemic

Rhetorical polemic: a
passage that communicates
(usually strong) feeling or
persuasively vents an
opinion.

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)
 Types of discourse
4. Argument
Argument: a passage that contains a single
conclusion that is presented as a logical
consequence of reasons
(premises/evidence)offered.
▪ Thus, hence, therefore, so, indicate conclusion
▪ Since, if, given that, provided, indicate premises
(reasons/evidence).
▪ Refer to the text for examples!! Discuss during zoom
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Understanding the technical
meaning of argument
An argument is NOT:
The use of aggressive language or
demeanour in an attempt to shout
down or intimidate an opponent.
‘win at all costs’?

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)
 What is an argument?

• An argument simply
means making a claim
and giving reasons why
that claim should be
accepted.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 argument cont’d
➢An argument is a set of statements only
one of which is the conclusion (claim)
which one attempts to support, justify or
prove with reasons(evidence).

➢Every argument has two parts:

• Conclusion: the claim being made.
• Premise(s): the reason(s) or evidence
intended to support the claim.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Examples of arguments
(refer to activity 4.1, unit 3)
1. All students write exams
Ama is a student
So, she writes exams
2. Most Ghanaians are hospitable
My mother is a Ghanaian
Therefore, she is hospitable
• Note that sometimes if the premises are true it becomes
necessary to accept the conclusion also.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Examples of arguments cont’d
(refer to activity 4.1, unit 3)

3. Since the security man was the last

person who left the building yesterday, he
stole the project leader’s laptop.
4. Every registrar of UG is a member of
Staff of UG. Mrs. Otoo-Ayeh is the registrar
of the Faculty of Humanities of UG.
Therefore, she is a member of Staff of UG.

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)
 examples of arguments cont’d
1) Bats are mammals, and they can fly. So, some
mammals can fly.

2. The Administrator will arrive on time, since she’s

never been late a day in her life.
• Both examples are arguments because
both attempt to show that a conclusion
is true by offering premises in support of it.

Credit: Dr. Kwesi Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)
 Soundness & validity of arguments

1. All men are mortal.

Socrates is a man.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

2. All human beings have feathers.

Socrates is a human being
So, Socrates has feathers
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Trial
• “It is important that UG actively encourages
older people to remain within the work- force.
Older people often have rare skills and useful
attitudes that are wasted when they leave the
work- force early. Moreover, staying on longer
in full-time or part-time work is believed to be
good for the health. Besides, it is unrealistic to
expect savings and pensions to be sufficient to
meet the needs of people retired for 40 years
or more.” Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 Unit 3: Distinguishing
verbal disputes from substantive disagreements

➢Verbal dispute:
when disputants seem to disagree because they are
using the same words inconsistently.
(That is, they actually are saying the same thing
differently, so they are not disagreeing after all).
✓ This can be corrected by stipulating meaning.
E.g. : Kofi- She is a nurse
Kojo- No, She is a health worker instead.
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
 substantive disagreements

Substantive disagreement:
when disputants disagree because each side
subscribes to contrasting values or has in view
different facts. (not subjective ‘feelings’!).
• This is an actual disagreement
• Arguments are meant to resolve such disagreements. But they
may never be resolved
E.g.: Kofi- She is a nurse because she has a certificate from the
training school. Kojo- No, She is not really a nurse because she does
not care for her patients! (Refer to text for egs.)
Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi
( 2023)
End of lecture 2
Effective marketing of
the knowledge you
acquire in your field
of study depends on
how well you DEFINE
that content to suit
your target audience
at any point in time!!

DEFINITIONS!!!!!

Dr. (Mrs.) Nancy Myles B. Gyamfi

( 2023)