ԵՐԵՎԱՆԻ ՊԵՏԱԿԱՆ ՀԱՄԱԼՍԱՐԱՆ

ԵՎՐՈՊԱԿԱՆ ԼԵԶՈՒՆԵՐԻ ԵՎ ՀԱՂՈՐԴԱԿՑՈՒԹՅԱՆ ՖԱԿՈՒԼՏԵՏ

ԹԱՐԳՄԱՆՈՒԹՅԱՆ ՏԵՍՈՒԹՅԱՆ ԵՎ ՊՐԱԿՏԻԿԱՅԻ ԱՄԲԻՈՆ
ԹԱՐԳՄԱՆՉԱԿԱՆ ԳՈՐԾ՝ ԱՆԳԼԵՐԵՆ-ՀԱՅԵՐԵՆ

ՔԻՇՄԻՐՅԱՆ ԱՐՓԻ ԿՈՐՅՈՒՆԻ

ԱՎԱՐՏԱԿԱՆ ԱՇԽԱՏԱՆՔ
ԻՐԱՎԱԿԱՆ ՓԱՍՏԱԹՂԹԵՐԻ ԹԱՐԳՄԱՆԱԿԱՆ
ԽՆԴԻՐՆԵՐԸ
(հատուկ անդրադարձ Մարդու իրավունքների եվրոպական
կոնվենցիային)

«Թարգմանչական գործ`անգլերեն և հայերեն» մասնագիտությամբ

լեզվաբանության բակալավրի որակավորման աստիճանի հայցման
համար

ԵՐԵՎԱՆ 2021
 YEREVAN STATE UNIVERSITY
FACULTY OF EUROPEAN LANGUAGES AND
COMMUNICATIONTRANSLATION STUDIES DEPARTMENT
TRANSLATION STUDIES – ENGLISH AND ARMENIAN

KISHMIRYAN ARPI

BACHELOR’S DEGREE THESIS

TRANSLATION PROBLEMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS
(with special reference to the European Convention on
Human Rights)

For Bachelor’s Degree in Linguistics

YEREVAN 2021
Ուսանող`_______________
ստորագրություն

Քիշմիրյան Արփի
ազգանուն, անուն

Ղեկավար՝ _______________
ստորագրություն

բ.գ.թ., դոցենտ Սարգսյան Լուսինե

գիտ. աստիճան, կոչում, ազգանուն, անուն

«Թույլատրել պաշտպանության»

Ամբիոնի վարիչ՝ _______________

ստորագրություն

բ.գ.թ., դոցենտ Ղազարյան Ռուզան

գիտ. աստիճան, կոչում, ազգանուն, անուն

«_____»___________2021 թ.

Translation Problems of Legal Documents (with special reference to the European

Convention on Human Rights)
Իրավական փաստաթղթերի թարգմանական խնդիրները (հատուկ անդրադարձ
Մարդու իրավունքների եվրոպական կոնվենցիային)

Ստորև ներկայացված է վերլուծություն՝ իրավական փաստաթղթերի թարգմա-

նության խնդիրների և դժվարությունների մասին: Հատկանշական է, որ իրավական
փաստաթղթերի թարգմանության կարևորությունը չի սահմանափակվում միայն իրա-
վաբանական անձանց գործունեության շրջանակներով: Իրավական փաստաթղթերի
լեզուն տարբերվում է առօրյա խոսակցական լեզվից: Նման փաստաթղթերի
թարգմանությունը թարգմանչից պահանջում է մասնագիտական լեզվի բառապաշա-
րի իմացություն: Իրավական փաստաթղթերի թարգմանությունը կարևոր է ոչ միայն
անհատի, այլև պետության համար: Ուստի, թարգմանիչը պետք է ուսումնասիրի, վեր-
լուծի և պատշաճ ուշադրություն դարձնի իրավական փաստաթղթերի թարգմա-
նության խնդիրներին:
Հետազոտության նպատակը իրավական փաստաթղթերի թարգմանության
խնդիրները և դրանց լուծման տարբերակներն առավել ցայտուն ներկայացնելն է:
Համառոտ անդրադառնալով արված արդյունքներին՝ նշենք, որ իրավական
փաստաթղթերի թարգմանության լեզուն չափազանց «սառն» է, հուզական տարրերը
բացակայում են: Լեզուն հստակ է և տեխնիկական՝ զուրկ բացականչական և հարցա-
կան նշաններից:
 CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………………...6
CHAPTER I: NATURE OF LEGAL ENGLISH…………………………………………………..8
1.1. Brief Outline of the History of Legal Language…………………………………………….8
1.2. Characteristic Features of Legalese………………………………………………………...10
CHAPTER II: TRANSLATION PROBLEMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS………………….....16
2.1. Issue of Equivalence in Legal Translation…………………………………………………16
2.2. Peculiarities of Legal Concepts and Legal Terms…………………………………………18
2.3.Transformations in Legal Document Translation……………………………….…………21
CHAPTER III: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON
HUMAN RIGHTS………………………………………………………………………………28

CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………………………………..38
BIBLIOGRAPHY………………………………………………………………………………..40

5
 INTRODUCTION
The present paper is dedicated to the study of translation peculiarities of legal
documents. The significance of this paper lies primarily in the fact that it is beneficial for the
translators.
Translation of legal documents has always been of great interest not only to linguists
and professional translators and interpreters, but also to lawyers and all the educated people.
Throughout his life, any person can face various situations demanding profound advice of the
professional lawyer. Frequently besides the professional advice there arises a strong need to
translate legal documents into English. Accurate translation of any legal document can play
crucial role not only in the life of one single person but also a whole country. That’s why it’s
very important to study, analyze and review the translation difficulties of legal documents.
The object of this paper is to investigate translation peculiarities of legal documents,
to study the lexical and grammatical units and their translation problems. The practical value
of this work involves the idea that translation represents a field aimed at training future
translators/interpreters to translate legal documents.
The study aims to reveal and investigate translation peculiarities of legal documents,
difficulties of legal translation and main characteristic features of legal texts. The following
objectives have been set up in order to fulfill the aim of the paper:
 to define legalese and its peculiarities
 to examine the problem of equivalence
 to define the structural peculiarities of legal translations
 to analyze lexico-grammatical peculiarities of legal translations

The paper consists of an introduction, three chapters, and a conclusion. It is also

provided with a bibliography list.
The introduction explains the urgency of the research theme, its theoretical and
practical value; it identifies the object, aim and tasks of the work.
The first chapter of this research represents the history of legalese and reveals the
main characteristic features of legal linguistics.
The second chapter deals with the problem of translation equivalence and gives a
detailed review of transformations in legal document translation.
6
 The third chapter is a practical investigation of this research; it describes the main
grammatical and lexical peculiarities of legal document translation on the basis of the
“European Convention on Human Rights”.
The results of the research are submitted in the conclusion of the work, which
summarizes the whole practical experience and brings up all the findings of the paper.
The bibliography gives an overview of scientific literature used in the paper.

7
 CHAPTER I
NATURE OF LEGAL ENGLISH
1.1. Brief Outline of the History of Legal Language
It must be mentioned that, to some extent, legal English is indeed a product of its
history. It is a story of Anglo-Saxon mercenaries, Latin-speaking missionaries, Scandinavian
raiders, and Norman invaders, all of whom left their mark not only on England, but on the
language of its law.
Although the Anglo-Saxons seem to have had no distinct legal profession, they did
develop a type of legalese, remnants of which have survived until today. Examples include
words like bequeath «կտակել», goods «սեփականություն», guilt «մեղք», manslaughter
«մարդասպանություն», murder «սպանություն», oath «երդում», right «իրավունք», sheriff
«շերիֆ», steal «գողանալ», swear «երդվել», theft «հափշտակում, գողություն», thief «գող»,
ward «խնամակալություն», witness «վկա» and writ «ծանուցագիր».
Besides vocabulary, an Anglo-Saxon characteristic that left traces in legal English is
alliteration. Alliteration is the repetition of a particular sound in the prominent lifts (or
stressed syllables) of a series of words or phrases. As opposed to rhyme, where the ends of
words are phonetically the same, alliteration requires that words begin with the same sound.
Alliteration is not only poetic, but makes phrases easier to remember, an important feature in
a largely preliterate society.
Most Anglo-Saxon alliterative phrases have disappeared from the English language.
One that has survived is “to have and to hold” «պահել և պահպանել», which is still part of
many marriage vows. Other illustrations are “any and all” and “each and every”, both
preferred by lawyers.
French has had a tremendous influence on legal English. A vast amount of legal
vocabulary is French in origin, including such basic words as appeal «բողոք», attorney
«փաստաբան», bailiff «հարկահավաք», bar «կանխարգելել, դադարեցնել», claim
«պահանջ», complaint «բողոք», counsel «խորհուրդ», court «դատարան», defendant
«ամբաստանյալ», demurrer «առարկություն», evidence «ապացույց, փաստ», indictment
«մեղադրանք», judge «դատավոր», judgment «դատական գործընթաց», jury «երդվյալ
ատենակալներ», justice «արդարադատություն», party «կողմ», plaintiff «հայցվոր», plea
8
«դատական գործընթաց, դատավարություն», plead «պաշտպանել մեղադրյալին
դատարանում», sentence «դատավճիռ», sue «հայց ներկայացնել», suit «գործընթաց,
դատավարություն», summon «դատական ծանուցագիր», verdict «դատավճիռ» and voir
dire «խոսել ճշմարտությունը».
Another example of French influence is that in that language adjectives normally
follow the noun that they modify. Several such combinations are still common in legalese,
including attorney general «գլխավոր դատախազ», court martial «ռազմական
դատարան», fee simple absolute «սեփականության բացարձակ իրավունք», letters
testamentary «կտակի նամակ», malice aforethought «կանխամտածված չարություն», and
solicitor general «ընդհանուր փաստաբան».
Also, Law French allowed the creation of words ending in -ee to indicate the person
who was the recipient or object of an action (lessee: "the person leased to"). Lawyers, even
today, are coining new words on this pattern, including asylee, condemnee, detainee,
expellee and tippee.
Language in legal settings is characterized by highly technical vocabulary and
colloquial terms used in specialized ways. It is also plagued with lengthy noun phrases, heavy
use of passive voice, multiple negatives, and complex grammatical structures, including
multiple embedded clauses and unusually placed subordinate clauses.
It is clear to see that legalese is based on ordinary language. For that reason, the
grammar and – in general – the vocabulary of legal language are the same as in the case of
ordinary language. However, legal language is a language for special purposes.
Legalese is often characterized as a technical language or “technolect”, which is to say
a language used by a specialist.
D. Cao classifies legal language with respect to the nature of its use that can be
described as normative, performative and technical. 1
Normative
The language of law is used to impose rights and obligations; it is largely prescriptive.
Law’s basic function is to regulate human behavior and human relations. Law exists as a set
of prescriptions having the form of imperatives defining and enforcing the arrangements,
relationships, procedures and patterns of behavior that are to be followed in a society.
1
Cao D., Legal Translation, Translating Legal Language, London, Routledge, 2010
9
Legalese serves to communicate the legal norms to their addressees.
Performative
The speech act theory developed by J. L. Austin and J. R. Searle makes language
responsible for effects in reality. Speech is not only words but also actions. By uttering
certain words, the facts may be changed. Legal effects and legal consequences are commonly
obtained by merely uttering certain words, for example in a court’s judgment or in front of a
clerk or a priest during the marriage ceremony.
Technical
The question of technicality of legalese is not perceived consistently. One position
argues that there is no legal language as such and it is a part of the ordinary language. The
other holds that legal language is a technical language. If the latter view is accepted, what
makes the language of law different from other types of language use?
The chief differences may be discussed in relation to the following aspects:
1. speakers
2. stylistic differences
a) specific vocabulary – terminology issues
b) syntactic structures.2

1.2. Characteristic Features of Legalese

An examination of the characteristics of legalese should take into account the fact of
its many internal differences. The first point to bear in mind is that English is a global
language: it is not exactly the same in all continents. Next, it varies according to different
situations in which the language is used. Sometimes, legal English is stiff and conservative,
while at others it is innovative and creative. One especially major difference is evident
between the spoken language of court sessions and written legal language.
Here are a few general characteristics of legalese:
1. Legal language is conservative, slow to change to become formulaic. Legal language
is conservative and slow to change because of many reasons; it is considered more formal
than everyday speech. Language continually changes. Most people today combine data with

2
ibid
10
a singular verb (the data is convincing), use input as a verb (I input some data in my
computer). Formal and archaic are thus closely related.
2. Legal language is definite, precise and technical. The message must be transmitted
in language that is extraordinarily definite and precise. Words must be used in strict
accordance with definitions understood by all concerned. "The degree of definiteness
(needed for legal discourse) can usually be obtained only by employing technical legal words
whose meaning has been brought out and fixed by long experience and use," B. Shartel
explains.
3. In everyday language, we ordinarily try to leave the obvious unsaid; we take it for
granted that people know what we are thinking and understand what we mean. In legal
discourse, nothing can be taken for granted: every significant detail must be stated explicitly.
We often feel that legal language is unnecessarily wordy, even redundant, and we often feel
tempted, while translating, to try to reduce the number of words. This can have dangerous
consequences, because the apparent redundancy usually is serving an important function.
4. Legalese is characterized in all its aspects by formality. Formality in legal language
is the expression of the formality of the legal process itself.
5. Lengthy and complex sentences
One of the other characteristics of the legal discourse can be described as matters of
style. Style relates to the fact that given any proposition that you wish to communicate, there
are typically many alternative ways in which you can express the proposition in words.
6. Many foreign expressions are found in the legal language, especially Latin, the
vocabulary and the syntactic rules of the literary language.
7. Universality and aloofness
The time span linked to legal rules is often characterized by a certain universality,
impossible to see from the chronological standpoint.
8. Impersonality and objectivisation
The frequent use of the passive is characteristic of legalese. This brings the object of
the action into the foreground, giving the actor only a secondary role. In this way, authors of
legal texts underline the objectivity of their findings and conclusions.
9. Neutrality

11
 Legal language today tends to be official and formal. The style of this language is as
neutral as possible because the main intention is to have an effect on the understanding,
rather than the feelings, of the reader or listener. The style of legal language is “cold”: it
rejects all that is affective and does not include emotional elements. Legal texts contain
practically no exclamation or question marks.

Lexical Features of Legal English

The changing perspective of legal English vocabulary comprises archaic, technical and
foreign words and phrases, as well as binomials.
a) Archaisms
Archaic words are being used less frequently than other terms, so they became rather
obscure in the course of time. The examples include adverb hereinafter «այսուհետ», verb
darraign «պատասխանել մեղադրանքներին», noun surrejoinder «հայցվորի պատաս-
խանը մեղադրյալին ի պատասխան առարկության», and adjective aforesaid «վերը
նշված ձևով».3
Archaic terms belonging to formal style which are used by lawyers are called
legalisms and lawyerisms, such as pursuant to (under, in accordance with), prior to (before),
subsequent to (after), vel non (or not, or the lack of it). 4
The same goes for prepositions: abutting / next to, anterior to / before, prior to /
before.
Claims that archaisms can easily be simplified are justified by the fact that an average
person is usually ignorant of their meaning.
b) Technical terms
Technical terms or terms of art are pure legal terms.
Apart from pure legal terms, there are also common words with uncommon
meanings, i.e., polysemous lexemes, which have specific meaning within legal English, e.g.,
attachment, action, consideration, execute, party. These are the words legal professionals use
as technical terms for their purposes in specific contexts.
c) Foreign words

3
Williams C., The New Testament: A Translation in the Language of the People, Bruce Humphries Inc., Boston, 1937
4
Garner B.A., The Elements of Legal Style, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002
12
 There is a considerable amount of foreign words and phrases in Legal English, which
are mainly of Latin and French origin. The examples of native terms in legal English from
the Anglo-Saxon period are: bequeath, goods, guilt, manslaughter, murder, oath, right,
sheriff, steal, swear, theft, thief, ward, witness, writ. Words of Latin origin are negligence,
adjacent, frustrating, inferior, legal, quit, subscribe. The French influence reflects not only in
the words of French origin (appeal, attorney, claim, complaint, counsel, court, damage,
default, defendant, demurrer, evidence, indictment, judge, jury, justice, party, plaintiff, plea,
sentence, sue, verdict), but also in the use of adjectives standing behind the nouns which
they modify in phrases such as, attorney general, court martial.
d) Synonymy
Due to French and Latin influence, English abounds in synonyms.
What complicates legal drafting is the existence of a number of synonyms referring to
the same legal concept. In the following examples produced by R. Haigh 5 we can see the
accumulation of synonyms.
Assign – transfer «փոխանցել»
Breach – violation «խախտում, զանցառում»
Clause – provision – paragraph – article «հոդված»
Contract – agreement «պայմանագիր»
Default – failure «խափանում, թերություն»
Lessee – tenant «վարձակալ»
Promise – assurance – undertaking «հավաստիացում, երաշխավորություն»
Void – invalid – ineffective «անվավեր»
Most common types of synonym pairs and synonym strings, which are also named
doublets and triplets, are binomials. Binomials have two lexical units (nouns, adjectives,
adverbs or prepositions), which are usually joined by a conjunction (act and deed, custom
and usage, leave and license, legal and valid, object and purpose, ver and above, pains and
penalties). As in legal English they consist of two words with the same conceptual meaning.
Numerous suggestions are aimed at putting an end to this stylistic tradition and
utilizing one word instead of redundant legal binomials.
Able and willing (=able) «ընդունակ»
5
Haigh R., Legal English, Cavendish Publishing Limited, London, 2004
13
 Agree and covenant (=agree) «համաձայնվել»
All and sundry (=all) «ամբողջ»
Authorize and direct (=authorize) «թույլատրել»
Cancel, annual and set aside (=cancel) «անվավեր համարել»
e) Repetition of words
During the Latin and French periods, the English language became enormously
enriched in vocabulary. This facilitated the use of repetitions. For these reasons, binary
phrases are still in evidence in English legal language today. One of the words in a binary
phrase is usually of Latin-Romance origin and the other of Germanic origin: acknowledge
and confess, act and deed, goods and chattels, will and testament.
Repetition can even be triple: null and void and of no effect. The solemnity value of
repetition is often added by the rhythmic nature of the phrase. For example, a witness
promises to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth. The repetition is used
in order to avoid ambiguity. The nouns are being repeated instead of the pronouns; for it is
not always clear which word in the text a certain pronoun refers to, which legal writing does
not tolerate.
Syntactic Features of Legal English
a) Sentence length
The length and complexity of sentences are the most obvious syntactic features. Plain
English movement disputed the structural complexity in legal writing and explored the
opportunities for the shortening of sentences. As a result, lawyers are advised to measure the
sentence length, or cut out superfluous words and sentences, or even delete redundant words
and phrases.
b) Nominalization
Nouns derived from verbs are often used instead of verbs, such as ‘to give
consideration’ instead of ‘to consider’, ‘to be in opposition’ rather than ‘to oppose’, ‘to be in
contravention’ instead of ‘to contravene’, ‘to be in agreement’ instead of ‘to agree’.
Nominalization is a morphological process that is to be avoided because it makes the text
long and non-dynamic.
However, it is hard to eradicate nominalization, as lawyers do not say to arbitrate, but

14
to go on arbitration, because the arbitration is a legally defined procedure and should be
considered as such.
c) Impersonal style
The use of passive voice and peculiar use of pronouns are characteristics of a highly
impersonal style of writing. Passive voice is inherent in legal language, but it is also overused
in all types of legal documents. Legal drafters tend to create the impression that such rules
are infallible as they occur without the influence of the human agent.
The omission of personal pronouns is another feature. The use of the third person
singular and plural is predominant. ‘Everybody’, ‘everyone’, ‘every person’ is used when a
provision applies to all, and ‘no one’, ‘nobody’ is used in prohibitions. The intent is to create
the impression that law is impartial, but such generalizations are vague, and their efficiency
is often disputable6.

6
Williams C., The New Testament: A Translation in the Language of the People, Bruce Humphries, Boston, 1937
15
 CHAPTER II
TRANSLATION PROBLEMS OF LEGAL DOCUMENTS
2.1. Issue of Equivalence in Legal Translation

The concept of equivalence has been one of the key issues in translation studies. From
the sociolinguistic orientation that this discipline has recently taken on, equivalence is
understood as a dynamic relationship that materializes in a different manner in each
translation process. In many cases, the divergencies between the socio-cultural contexts of
the source and target languages force the translator to situate his text in a third cultural
space. Such is the case of legal translations, where the differences between legal systems raise
the problem of a lack of equivalency among the concepts and terms used in both cultures.
According to de Groot7, the first stage in translating legal concepts involves studying
the meaning of the source language legal term to be translated. Then, after having compared
the legal systems involved, a term with the same content must be sought in the target
language legal system. Equivalence aims to give the lexis and terminology of two languages
equal meaning and corresponding import and significance.
Functional equivalence
Functional equivalence can be categorized into three groups: near-equivalence,
partial equivalence and non-equivalence.
a) Near-equivalence occurs when legal concepts in Armenian and English share most
of their primary and incidental characteristics or are the same, which is very rare.
b) Partial equivalence occurs when the Armenian and English legal concepts are quite
similar and the differences can be clarified, e.g. by lexical expansion.
c) Non-equivalence occurs when only few or none of the important aspects of
Armenian or English legal concepts coincide or if there is no functional equivalent in the
target legal system for a specific concept.
When dealing with legal conceptual voids or partial equivalents a legal background
can be very helpful for the translator. The legal topic must be well researched in order to
provide supporting information in the TL8.
In modern times, the internationalisation of society has brought new megacities and
7
De Groot A. M., Forward and Backward Word Translation by Bilinguals, Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 1994
8
Pinchuck I., Scientific and Technical Translation, Andre Deutsch, 1977
16
megastates that have changed the world legal system fundamentally. The European legal
system is integrated by the European Union, within the frame of the global era and common
legislation.
In addition, Latinisms and Romanisms in English largely used in legal texts are: ad
hoc, sans prejudice, a priori, de facto, de jure, ex officio, id est, malum in se, pro rata, mens
rea. They could be freely considered legal internationalisms as part of a Latin lexicon but
adapted, borrowed or taken into legal English.
The problems of equivalence in translation are cultural ones 9. The invisibility of the
legal translator comes into question when legal system differences appear, then translation
techniques cover the new cultural and legal contexts.The level of equivalence of the terms
depends on the extent of relatedness of the legal systems.
Legal terms are semantically stable and unambiguous as well as contextually bound.
Only an official translator of legal background could successfully surpass and avoid all
misunderstandings and differences of legal systems, because of the necessary legal knowledge
and precise legal meaning.
Legal translation can be classified according to different criteria. For instance, legal
translation has been classified according to the subject matter of the SL texts into the
following categories:
* translating domestic statutes and international treaties;
* translating private legal documents;
* translating legal scholarly works;
* translating case law.
Determining the acceptability of functional equivalents is the most important aspect
10
of the process of legal translation and it frequently depends on the context. Šarčević
suggests that when assessing the acceptability of a functional equivalent the legal translator
should ‘take account of the structure, classification, scope of application and legal effects of
both the functional equivalent and its source term’. Therefore, when dealing with legal
conceptual voids or partial equivalents a legal background can be very helpful for the

9
Basnett-McGuire, Translation Features, Grove Press, New York, 1980
10
Šarčević S., New Approach to Legal Translation, London, Kluwer Law International, 2000

17
translator. The legal topic must be well researched in order to provide supporting
information in the TL.

2.2. Peculiarities of Legal Concepts and Legal Terms

A “concept” is the mental representation of an object. It involves an abstract image

created by the human mind on the basis of the features peculiar to a thing or matter. A
“term”, as such, is the technical designation of a concept; the appearance of that concept. In
consequence, a “term” defines as the verbal expression of a concept belonging to the
conceptual system of a language for special purposes. Such an expression may be a single
word or a compound word, but often involves a phrase (e.g., “good faith”, “free movement of
persons”). Normally, terms are nouns. Verbs and adjectives can also be classed as terms. 11
The difference between legal terms and other words in a language is vague. According
to a classic German dictionary (1914) words of a legal character are chiefly met within the
form of expressions that are not imaginable without a legal relationship, or for which the
necessary condition is a legal relationship. Further, expressions that can be used in other
contexts, but that have a particular content in certain legal relationships, are also legal in the
broad sense. In contemporary France, G. Cornu 12 defines “legal term” in greater detail.
According to him, it is possible to “recognize a native legalness in all that owes its existence
to the Law, that is, on the one hand, all that the Law establishes (legal institutions), on the
other hand all that can only be constituted in line with the Law (on this basis all legal acts
the constitutive elements of which are defined by the law can be included without any
doubts)”. It is also possible to include, amongst legal terms, words expressing legal facts in
cases where the features “to which the Law attaches effects answer to the conditions that the
Law imposes and thus to a legal notion that confers on them a meaning with regard to the
Law”. A good example is the word “error”13.
Polysemy - As it was mentioned above a term is the verbal expression of a concept.
According to one particularly important observation, legal terms are characterized by
polysemy: depending on context, a single term can express several concepts than the
exception in legal language. This is basically explained by the fact that legal orders are
11
Mattila H., Comparative Legal Linguistics, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Burlington, 2006
12
Cornu G., International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, N 8, Paris, 2005
13
Ibid
18
continually changing over time. To take an example – the Latin term “jus civile” and its
variants in modern languages.
The term jus civile has had several meanings which have overlapped each other over
two millenia. In Ancient Rome, the term referred to classical Roman law (as opposed to jus
honorarium) on the one hand and, on the other, to the law applied to Roman citizens (as
opposed to jus gentium). In Byzantium, in medieval Europe, and still at the beginning of
modern times, jus civile generally referred to Roman law and – still more broadly – to
temporal State law, as opposed to the divine law imposed by God (jus divinum) or natural
law (jus naturae, jus naturale).14
A legal term has two or three closely connected meanings. Often, the concepts
expressed by a particular term are hierarchical or partly imbricated (overlapping). The
phenomenon of orderly polysemy is very common, even as to terms of prime importance in
legal systems. A good example is the term common law, which has three hierarchical
meanings as far as the legal systems of English origin are concerned. Further, the term is
misleading from the international standpoint. The English common law is something quite
different from the pan-European jus commune (which literally means “common law”). The
first term refers to the law developed by the English courts over the centuries. The second
term refers to the law developed in European universities in the Middle Ages and in early
modern times. As for disorderly (inconsistent) polysemy, the meanings of the term diverge to
such an extent that they no longer have anything in common 15.
Synonymy - Synonymy as a phenomenon stands opposite to polysemy: two or several
terms express the same concept. For example, legal English often expresses the same concept
by an Anglo-Saxon term, a French term, and a Latin term. For example, where magistrates
arrange an inspection on the scene, legal French uses synonymous terms. Linguists find that
synonymy is a common enough feature of legal terms. In legal languages with several layers
of language, such as English, this phenomenon is especially frequent.
The counterpart of synonymy is antonymy. In that event, meanings of words are
opposite to one another (e.g. “hot” and “cold”). Legal regulation rests largely on this
phenomenon. For example, an antonymic connection exists between the words “right” and

14
Mattila H., Comparative Legal Linguistics, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Burlington, 2006
15
Ibid: pp. 111-112
19
“duty”. Nevertheless, it should be noted that antonymy is a highly complex phenomenon and
difficult to analyze. In legal texts, terms such as “judicial decision” and “contract” may appear
in the nature of antonyms. Partial synonyms are especially misleading. In general, mistakes
and misunderstandings are possible where the semantic fields of two terms stand side by side.
Good examples are the terms “juge” [‘judge’] and “magistrat” [‘magistrate’] in legal French. At
the same time, partial synonymy is a very useful phenomenon in legal language. Thanks to
quasi-synonyms, it is possible to draft a legal provision or a clause in a contract without
leaving gaps: listing a number of quasi-synonyms leads to blanket coverage of the semantic
field intended. This is especially in evidence in contract practice in common law countries.
Neologisms - Neologisms are created in legislative reception, that is, in situations
where a State puts into effect legislation coming more or less directly from another State
belonging to a different linguistic zone. Lexical neologisms are formed in several ways: by
creating entirely new words; by deriving new words on the basis of words already in
existence (normally, by raising the level of abstraction of the original word); by forming
compound words and phrases. In our times, it is rare to create elementary legal words that
are entirely new and of national origin (i.e., not borrowed). However, it is common enough
to form acronyms, that is, initializations pronounced like ordinary words.
Loanwords - Adopting new foreign words into a language is a complex phenomenon.
Beyond the technical aspect (formation of loanwords), the phenomenon can also be
considered from the ideological standpoint.
It should be noted that problems of terminology are the subject of discussion in all
international organizations. This is notably so for organizations aiming to harmonize the
legal orders of their States members. As in the case of the European Union, it is normally
French and English that operate as working languages of these organizations – previously,
French was often the only working language. Terminological problems exist chiefly when
States members implement texts produced as a result of international cooperation: these texts
then have to be translated into the national languages. Problems of this kind can also appear
in the relationship between the principal working languages of international organizations –
French and English – because the terminology of private international law originally
developed in the frame of the first of these two languages. 16
16
Mattila H., Comparative Legal Linguistics, Ashgate Publishing Limited, Burlington, 2006, p.120
20
 A large problem with legal translation is the lack of equivalence at the word level due
to mismatches in propositional meaning because of the differences in the legal systems
underlying the two languages.
D. Cao cites tree categories of terms, which occur in legal translation:
1) terms with one meaning in legal language and another in everyday language, like
"consideration";
2) terms without an equivalent in the target language due to differences in legal language,
such as most terms related to equity;
3) terms with multiple meanings depending on the context17.
The first and third categories should not be insurmountable for a translator with
sufficient legal knowledge, but a lack of equivalence may be impossible to overcome
completely. Legal terms have little meaning outside the context of their legal systems.

2.3. Transformations in Legal Document Translation

The use of transformations while interpreting or translating a legal text is necessary,
as there are words and phrases with special semantic load which are not translatable or
which have no equivalent in the TL. Translation transformations are defined by Russian
linguist L.S.Barkhudarov18as numerous and varied in their qualityinter – lingual changes
which are made to achieve adequacy in translation in spite of discrepancies in the formal and
semantic systems between languages.
According to Barkhudarov all translation transformations can be divided into the
following four types:
1. Transposition
2. Substitution
3. Addition
4. Omission
1. As a type of Translation Transformation, transposition is a change of the
arrangement or order of linguistic elements in the target text as compared with the source
text.

17
Cao D., Legal Translation, Translating Legal Language, Routledge, London, 2010, p. 133
18
Barkhudarov L. S., Language and Translation, Moscow, 1975
21
 2. Substitutions are the most prevalent and diverse type of Translation
Transformations. In the process of translation, both grammatical and lexical units can be
substituted. Accordingly, there are two major types of substitutions: 1) grammatical
substitution and 2) lexical substitution. These two types of substitution are respectively
divided into several sub-types.
Grammatical Substitutions:
a) Substitution of word forms
b) Substitution of parts of speech
c) Substitution of parts of sentence
d) Syntactic substitution in sentences
Lexical Substitutions:
a) Concretization: the substitution of source language words and combinations with
wider meaning by target language words and word combinations with narrower meaning:
b) Generalization: is a phenomenon opposite to concretization, that is substitution of
source language words and combinations with narrower meaning by target language words
and combinations with wider meaning.
c) Substitution of phraseological units of the source language by their target language
equivalence.
3. Addition: In the process of translation the reasons for making addition may be
different. In the second chapter we will introduce some examples of this transformation and
reveal the reasons of the additions
4. Omission is the phenomenon opposite to addition. In the process of translation, this
transformation may be applied to words that are semantically spare.

Եթե Կանոնադրական կապիտալն ավելացնելու համար պահանջվում են լրա-

ցուցիչ դրամական վճարումներ Բաժնետերերի կողմից, ապա, սույն Կանոնադրու-
թյան դրույթների համաձայն, յուրաքանչյուր Բաժնետեր պարտավոր է իրեն
տեղաբաշխված նոր թողարկման բաժնետոմսերի արժեքի առնվազն 50%-ը վճարել
Վարկային կազմակերպության որևէ թղթակից հաշվի` Բաժնետերերի ժողովի կողմից
սահմանված պայմաններին համապատասխան, սակայն Կանոնադրական կապի-

22
տալի համապատասխան ավելացումը գրանցելու համար պահանջվող փաստա-
թղթերը ՀՀ կենտրոնական բանկ ներկայացնելու օրվանից ոչ ուշ:

In the event an increase in the Charter Capital requires additional monetary

payments by Shareholders, and subject to the terms of the present Charter, each of the
Shareholders shall pay at least 50% of the respective value of shares of the new issuance
allocated to it to a correspondent account of the Credit Organization in accordance with such
terms as indicated by the Shareholders’ Meeting, but not later than on the date of submission
to the CBA of the documents required for the registration of the relevant increase in the
Charter Capital.
In the Armenian language, the usage of passive voice is more typical of the formal
style. The use of passive structure in SLT has a stylistic reference and it creates cohesion.
Generally, SVO order is typical to English and is fixed, in case of the Armenian language, we
have relatively restrictive word order, i.e. the word order is more flexible.
There may be substitution of the noun number category, the singular by the plural or
vice versa. This transformation is due to the structural difference between the English and
Armenian languages.
Վարկային կազմակերպության Բաժնետերերը պարտավոր են աջակցել
վարկային կազմակերպության գործունեությանը:
Shareholders of the Credit Organization shall support the activities of the Credit
Organization.
Here SL noun in singular is translated into TL plural form, because it is natural in SL
context and corresponds to linguistic way of thinking of the target language.
Ընկերությունն ունի օրենքով չարգելված գործունեության ցանկացած
տեսակներ իրականացնելու համար անհրաժեշտ քաղաքացիական իրավունքներ և
կրում է այդ գործունեության հետ կապված քաղաքացիական պարտականություններ:
The Company can implement any type of activity not prohibited by Law: has civil rights
necessary for implementation any type of activity not prohibited by Law and bears civil
responsibilities related to that activity.

23
 In the given example, the plural structure is converted into singular one. Generally
English and Armenian possess formally corresponding systems of number. In translation,
however, it quite frequently happens that this formal correspondence is departed.
Ընկերության վերստուգիչ հանձնաժողովը /վերստուգողը/ ընտրվում է ընդհա-
նուր ժողովի կողմից երեք տարի ժամկետով:
The supervisory commission (auditor) of the Company is elected by the General
meeting for three years.
Translation equivalent of Armenian singular is English plural. We mainly tend to use
singular noun after plural number in the role of attribute. This represents a shift within a
system, internally; that is, for those cases where SL and TL possess systems which
approximately correspond formally as to their constitution, but when translation involves
selection of a non-corresponding term in the TL system.
Transposition:Parts of speech, along with the parts of the sentence, can be changed.
This kind of transformation is known as transposition, which may result in part-of-
speechsubstitution and at the same time cover all the cases of restructuring, so naturally here
refer transformations made on the syntactic level which result in changes in word order.
Ընկերությունն ունի իր ֆիրմային անվանումը (հայերեն և անգլերեն
գրառումներով), ինչպես նաև Հայաստանի Հանրապետության Կառավարության
կողմից սահմանված վավերապայմաններ պարունակող կլոր կնիք, դրոշմներ և
ձևաթղթեր, ինչպես նաև խորհրդանիշ, օրենքով սահմանված կարգով գրանցված
ապրանքային, առևտրային և այլ նշաններ ու անհատականացնող այլ միջոցներ:
The Company has its firm name /in Armenian, and in English/, it is also can have a
round seal containing other essential elements defined by the Republic of Armenia, stamps,
blanks, as well as a logo, illustration or the symbol of its trademark and other means of its
own identification, which will be registered by the order, prescribed by law.
In the Armenian version we have adjective and noun while in the translation we
have noun and noun.
Վարկային կազմակերպության բաժնետոմսերը տեղաբաշխվում են Բաժնետե-
րերին փակ բաժանորդագրության միջոցով` անվանական արժեքով կամ շուկայական
արժեքով, Հայաստանի օրենսդրությամբ սահմանված կարգով:

24
 The shares of the Credit Organization shall be allocated among the Shareholders
through closed subscription at the nominal value or at a market value, in an order defined by
the Armenian Law.
Here we have two types of transformations: adjective→noun, noun→adjective, which
have no semantic content nor modifies any inherent feature of the transposed form merely
changes the adjective into a noun and viceversa.
Ընկերության ստեղծման նպատակն է տնտեսական գործունեություն
իրականացնելու ճանապարհով շահույթի ստացումը:
The purpose of Company is getting profit by the way of implementation of economic
activity.
In the present example, we have two types of transformations: verb→noun,
noun→verb. This does not change the meaning of the message. The transposed form
generally has a mere literary character.
Word order change: Usually the reason for this transformation is that English and
Armenian sentences have different information structures, or functional sentence
perspective. Here the adverbial modifier, subject and predicate are positioned in a mirrorlike
mode.
Ընկերությունից դուրս եկող մասնակցի բաժնեմասը դուրս գալու դիմումը
ներկայացնելու պահից փոխանցվում է Ընկերությանը:
The share of participant leaving the Company is transferred to the Company from the
moment of representation of the application.
Կազմակերպության անդամությունից դուրս գալը կատարվում է տվյալ
անդամի գրավոր դիմումի կամ Կազմակերպության խորհրդի՝ տվյալ անդամին
Կազմակերպության անդամությունից հեռացնելու մասին որոշման հիման վրա՝ սույն
կանոնադրության 3.7 կետով սահմանված պարտականությունների չկատարման կամ
ոչ պատշաճ կատարման համար:
Withdrawal from membership of the Organization is either carried out upon the
member’s written application or by the decision of the Board of the Organization by
dismissal of the member for either failure to perform his/her duties or failure to perform
them in a proper manner as defined by point 3.7. of this Charter.

25
 Lexical transformations change the semantic core of a translated word. It often results
from the different semantic structures of the source language and target language words.It
includes several subtypes depending on the character of changes in the lexical meaning of a
SL unit.
Specification or substituting words with a wider meaning with words of a narrower
meaning; a SL word with an abstract, broad, and general meaning is replaced by a TL word
with a concrete, narrow and specific meaning.
Ընկերության իրավունքները կարող են սահմանափակվել միայն օրենքով
նախատեսված դեպքերում և օրենքով սահմանված կարգով:
The rights of the Company may be limited only in cases and through a procedure
stipulated by the law.
The underlined Armenian word has larger scope of meaning than its English
counterpart and its particular semantics is recognized from the context. It is an instance of
specification because the TL equivalent gives a more detailed description of the idea than
does the word in ST.
Generalization or substituting words of a narrower meaning with those of a wider
meaning; a SL word with a concrete, narrow, scecific meaning changed for a TL word, which
has an abstract, broad, general meaning.
Վարկային կազմակերպության բաժնետոմսերը տեղաբաշխվում են Բաժնե-
տերերին փակ բաժանորդագրության միջոցով` անվանական արժեքով կամ շուկայա-
կան արժեքով, Հայաստանի օրենսդրությամբ սահմանված կարգով:
The shares of the Credit Organization shall be allocated among the Shareholders
through closed subscription at the nominal value or at a market value, in an order defined by
the Armenian Law.
Գնել և վաճառել պարտամուրհակներ, իրականացնել ֆինանսական
վարձակալության գործառնություններ… –purchase and sell notes, carry out financial
leasing operations…
The underlined Armenian words have a narrower scope of meaning than their
English counterparts do and their particular semantics is recognized from the context.

26
 Additions are complex lexico-grammatical transformations which bring about
changes in the lexical elements of a SLT that are accompanied by grammatical changes.
Նրանք տրամադրում են վարկեր, այդ թվում` ձեռնարկատիրական և
սպառողական:
They extend loans, including business and consumer loans.
The word վարկեր is the added lexical unit in TT and as added unit when translating,
it makes extension to the original utterance. Here addition was done caused by ellipsis:
element which is considered redundant in the SLT has to be restored in the TT, since it is
compulsory to it.
The most frequently used method of translation of legal texts is the loan translation
combined with additions, which is caused by a number of reasons (the stylistic pecularities of
English legal language, to make the meaning of the sentence more exact, etc.). Seldom may
one find the method of loan translation combined with omission.

27
 CHAPTER III
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE EUROPEAN CONVENTION ON
HUMAN RIGHTS

While scrutinizing legal documents, we have to pay attention to the general layout of
texts. Layout refers to the sketch or plan of the text's physical appearance. This includes
paragraphing, indentation and graphitic choices.
Cristal and Davy19 called the general layout of legal texts as ''solid block''. Solid block
is characterized by long lines, that are from margin to margin and without any use of
spacing or indentation to indicate the limits of the paragraphs or the relations between
them. Therefore, it was common to compose an entire document in the form of single
sentence. Hence, one of the most striking features is the use of long, detailed and complex
sentences. As a rule, one sentence spreads to a whole paragraph and contains many
dependent clauses. Here is the introductory part of the Convention for the Protection of
Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms which is the best example of what has been
mentioned above.
''The Governments signatory hereto, being Members of the Council of
Europe, Considering the Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaimed by the
General Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1948;
Considering that this Declaration aims at securing the universal and effective
recognition and observance of the Rights therein declared;
Considering that the aim of the Council of Europe is the achievement of
greater unity between its Members and that one of the methods by which the aim is
to be pursued is the maintenance and further realization of Human Rights and
Fundamental Freedoms; …20
Have agreed as follows…'' (p. 5)
«Սույն Կոնվենցիան ստորագրած կառավարությունները, լինելով
Եվրոպայի խորհրդի անդամներ,

19
? Cristal D. & Davy D., Investigating English Style, Longman Group, Hong Kong, 1969, p. 34
20
“European Convention on Human Rights”, retrieved from URL: https://bit.ly/2E8PRcw
28
 Նկատի ունենալով 1948 թվականի դեկտեմբերի 10-ին Միավորված
ազգերի կազմակերպության Գլխավոր ասամբլեայի հռչակած Մարդու
իրավունքների համընդհանուր հռչակագիրը,
նկատի ունենալով, որ սույն Հռչակագիրը նպատակ ունի ապահովելու
այնտեղ հռչակված իրավունքների համընդհանուր և արդյունավետ ճանաչումն
ու պահպանումը,
նկատի ունենալով, որ Եվրոպայի խորհրդի նպատակն իր անդամների
միջև առավել միասնություն ձեռք բերելն է, և որ այդ նպատակին հասնելու
միջոցներից մեկը մարդու իրավունքների ու հիմնարար ազատությունների
պահպանումը և հետագա իրականացումն է, …
համաձայնեցին ներքոհիշյալի շուրջ»: (էջ 1)21
As we see, the form of the translated text is the same as in the original version. The
long and detailed sentence is also preserved. While translating into the Armenian language
the method of addition is frequently used, that's why sentence in the Armenian version is
even longer and complex. However, the syntactic devices of enumeration and repetition
(anaphora) are also preserved: as in the English version each clause starts with the word
considering, in Armenian it has its equivalent «նկատի ունենալով».
The aim of using long and detailed sentences is to give classifications, to concretize
the situation or to scrutinize the subject. The Convention is full of long and complex
sentences, which are properly translated in Armenian.
In the second part the transposition is obvious as in the Armenian text adverbial
modifier is brought to the beginning of the text while in English the place of time is fixed
(“…considering the Universal Declaration of Human Rights proclaimed by the General
Assembly of the United Nations on 10 December 1948”; «նկատի ունենալով 1948
թվականի դեկտեմբերի 10-ին Միավորված ազգերի կազմակերպության Գլխավոր
ասամբլեայի հռչակած Մարդու իրավունքների համընդհանուր հռչակագիրը …»).
Adverbial modifiers of place, time, frequency, manner often expressed by adverbs or
by nouns are placed at the end of the sentence after the main verb or after the object if there
is an object.

21
Կոնվենցիա Մարդու Իրավունքների և Հիմնարար Ազատությունների Պաշտպանության Մասին* Փոփոխված 11-
րդ Արձանագրությամբ››, retrieved from URL: https://bit.ly/2UvhGnt
29
 It's obvious, that passive constructions are prevailing in legal texts. Its basic function
is to avoid using first person pronouns, which secures the desirable effect of impersonality.
Impersonality or objectivity is an object of high concern in legal documentations. Many
other strategies and tools assess in achieving objectivity in legal document. This objectivity
performs two primary functions. On the one hand, is the strategy to obscure the actor,
mostly through the use of passive voice sentence. It is used when the action itself is more
important than actor or receiver. On the other hand, it projects the impression, that Law is
impartial and objective in its dealing.
“Everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law”. (p. 6) / «Յուրաքանչյուրի կյանքի
Իրավունքը պաշտպանվում է օրենքով»:(էջ 1)
“No one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment”. (p. 7) / «Ոչ ոք չպետք է ենթարկվի խոշտանգումների կամ
անմարդկային կամ նվաստացնող վերաբերմունքի կամ պատժի»: (էջ 2)
“There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right...”.
(p.11)/«Չի թույլատրվում պետական մարմինների միջամտությունն այդ
իրավունքի իրականացմանը...»: (էջ 4)

In the Armenian translation the passive sentence is preserved, as being not only word
for word transition, it transfers both meaning and intention of the original sentence, that is
to show that the action itself is important and it is worth using passive structures.
As it is typical of all kinds of legal documents, in the Convention we can also observe
the use of conditional sentences. They occur to express, that the action can only take place if
a certain condition is fulfilled. As we seek an analytical explanation here, the usage of
conditionals is justified, it makes the regulations and commands more understandable and
emphatic.
“If the single judge does not declare an application inadmissible or strike it out, that
judge shall forward it to a committee or to a Chamber for further examination”. (p. 18)
This point of the article doesn't have its properly translated version in Armenian, it is
introduced with a number of transformations and additions. Additions are used when the
sense is doubtful, and their usage fills the gaps and makes the context more comprehensible.
The use of transformations while translating a legal text is necessary, as there are words and

30
phrases with special semantic load which are not translatable or which have no equivalent
in the language of translation.
Besides, the method of rendering was also used while translating the European
Convention on Human Rights into Armenian, that's why a number of inadequacies occur.
Though, it conveys the same point as the one in the original text.

«Երբ որևէ դատավոր, (...), չի կարող մասնակցել Մեծ պալատի նիստերի...» (էջ 8).
However, there are conditional sentences in the Convention, that are properly
preserved in the Armenian translation, and both the form and the content are conveyed in
the target language. In such examples, some kind of transformations also can take place:
“If no decision is taken under Article 27 or 28, or no judgment rendered under Article
28, Chamber shall decide on the admissibility and merits of individual applications
submitted under Article 34. The decision on admissibility may be taken separately”. (p. 19) /
«Եթե 28-րդ հոդվածին համապատասխան որոշում չի ընդունվում, Պալատը որոշում
է կայացնում 34-րդ հոդվածին համապատասխան ներկայացված անհատական
գանգատի ընդունելիության մասին և ըստ էության»: (էջ 9)
As to lexical features, we can observe the use of archaic words, which are rarely used
in daily conversations.
“The Governments signatory hereto...”, “...effective recognition and observance of the
Rights therein declared”. (p. 5)
“Hereto” and “therein” are considered to be archaisms, meaning to this document or
file and in this document or file, respectively. Basically, these expressions were employed as
abbreviations and sometimes were used to avoid ambiguity. These are often used to refer
exactly and precisely to a particular document or some part of document.
Some linguists dismiss the use of archaic expressions and blame that archaic
expressions are only meant for formality and uniqueness of style without any important
semantic functions. They argue, that these old expressions are outdated and consequently
obscure to understand for common users, so these should be replaced by new and frequently
used expressions, e.g. “aforesaid” by “previously mentioned”, “anterior to” by “before to”.
However, archaisms still remain an integral part of legal documents.

31
 «Սույն Կոնվենցիան ստորագրած կառավարությունները...», «...այնտեղ հռչակ
ված իրավունքների համընդհանուր և արդյունավետ ճանաչումն ու
պահպանումը»: (էջ 1)
The archaic word “hereto” is transferred into Armenian archaism «սույն», which is
also only used to add formality of the text. It is just the proper equivalent to the word
hereto.
The other archaic expression is not transferred as archaism (therein - այնտեղ). The
translator gives a descriptive translation of an abbreviated archaic word, as in Armenian
there is not a similar archaism, that could be an exact equivalent of the word therein. While
the English concept is archaic and bookish, in this case its Armenian equivalent can be used
in casual conversations.
Technical terminology adds in formality of the text and imparts specific semantic
preciseness. Sometimes in legal register we also find many common words with uncommon
meanings. There are many expressions in English having sole function of increasing its
formality.
We have an example of technical usage in the following title;
“Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms” (p. 5)
«Կոնվենցիա Մարդու Իրավունքների Եվ Հիմնարար Ազատությունների
Պաշտպանության Մասին»: (էջ 1)
The abstract noun freedom is used in plural form that is not accepted in grammar,
although the meaning is the same. This stylistic device is used to refer to all kinds of
freedoms in every aspect of life․ In the Armenian version the plural form of the word
«ազատություն» is preserved, even though in the Armenian language the word
«ազատություն» is also abstract and is not used in plural form. The usage of plurality has
only stylistic purpose.
“The Governments signatory hereto...” (p. 5) / «Սույն Կոնվենցիան ստորագրած
կառավարությունները...»: (էջ 1)
The word signatory is pure technical term, meaning a person, organization, or
country that has signed an agreement. We can never come across this word in everyday
speech, as it is a legal term. It doesn't have its equivalent in Armenian, that's why while

32
translating, the descriptive translation is needed in order to fill the gap and properly convey
the meaning and idea of the original sentence.
“Have agreed as follows: …” (p. 6) / «... համաձայնեցին ներքոհիշյալի շուրջ»: (էջ 1)
This kind of set expression is also widely used and is common to meet in legal
documents. Its Armenian equivalent has an archaic notion «ներքոհիշյալ», as this kind of
word combinations are used to indicate some part of a sentence or a document.
“No one shall be deprived of his life intentionally save in the execution of a sentence of
a court...” (p. 6) / «Ոչ մեկին չի կարելի դիտավորությամբ զրկել կյանքից այլ կերպ,
քան ի կատարումն դատարանի կայացրած դատավճռի...»: (էջ 1)
The word combination “in the execution of” is introduced as a set expression, and
while translating a kind of loan translation, i.e. calque translation, is used and in Armenian
version it is transferred with archaic expression. Word expressions in Armenian consisted of
the preposition «ի» in the beginning are considered to be pure archaic, they are out of use in
modern language. It also adds in the formality of a text and preserves the same specific
semantic preciseness as it does in the original text.
“The judges shall sit on the Court in their individual capacity.” (p. 15)
«Դատավորները Դատարանի աշխատանքին մասնակցում են անձամբ»։
(էջ 6)
Another example is “to sit on the Court”, which is translated as «Դատարանի
աշխատանքին մասնակցել», and it is explained, that the verb sit has the meaning of
participate (to sit an exam, to sit a course). From the present example we can conclude, that
the word having ordinary meaning in everyday speech, in legal documentations gains
formal and different meaning.
Lexical clichés are also considered to be a type of technical words. In Convention
lexical clichés are appropriately substituted with their Armenian equivalents and also loan
translation (calque) is used to stay as close to the original as possible, e.g. “fundamental
freedoms” /«հիմնարար ազատություններ», “universal recognition”/«համընդհանուր
ճանաչում», “maintenance and further realization”/«պահպանում և հետագա իրականա-
ցում», “profound belief”’/«խորին հավատ», etc.

33
 As elsewhere, here we also encounter with modal verbs, but here the use of modal
verbs is restricted with specific ones. Modal verbs are used to show the speaker's attitude
toward the action or state, but in legal discourse, modal verbs are used in such ethical
concepts as obligation and permission. The basic function of the modal verb ''shall'' in the
official documents is the statement of laws, regulations, commands, determination.
In Armenian this modal verb is expressed in the Present Simple and expresses the
statement of laws or regulations.
“Everyone’s right to life shall be protected by law”. (p. 6)
«Յուրաքանչյուրի կյանքի իրավունքը պաշտպանվում է օրենքով»: (էջ 1)
“Deprivation of life shall not be regarded as inflicted in contravention of this
Article when...” (p. 6)
«Կյանքից զրկելը չի համարվում սույն հոդվածի խախտում...»: (էջ 1)
“The judges shall sit on the Court in their individual capacity”. (p. 15)
«Դատավորները Դատարանի աշխատանքին մասնակցում են անձամբ»։
(էջ 9)
Sometimes when translating modal verbs, the one in English might be properly
substituted with its equivalent in Armenian. The modal verb, that expresses obligation in
the Armenian language is «պետք է» or «պիտի»։ «Պետք է» is more formal and is more
preferable to use in official context, than the verb «պիտի».
“No one shall be subjected to torture or to inhuman or degrading treatment or
punishment”. (p. 7)
«Ոչ ոք չպետք է ենթարկվի խոշտանգումների կամ անմարդկային կամ
նվաստացնող վերաբերմունքի կամ պատժի»: (էջ 2)
“No one shall be held in slavery or servitude”. (p. 7)
«Ոչ ոք չպետք է պահվի ստրկության մեջ կամ անազատ վիճակում»: (էջ 2)
“The judges shall be of high moral character”. (p. 15)
«Դատավորները պետք է ունենան բարոյական բարձր նկարագիր»: (էջ 8)
It's already stated, that modals express permission as well. For it the modal verb
''may'' is used.

34
 “Any High Contracting Party may refer to the Court any alleged breach of the
provisions of the Convention and the Protocols thereto by another High Contracting
Party”. (p. 21)
«Ցանկացած Բարձր պայմանավորվող կողմ կարող է Դատարան դիմել
Կոնվենցիայի և նրան կից Արձանագրությունների դրույթների ցանկացած
ենթադրվող խախտման հարցով, որը թույլ է տվել մեկ այլ Բարձր
պայմանավորվող կողմ»: (էջ 9)
“The Court may receive applications from any person, nongovernmental organization
or group of individuals claiming to be the victim of a violation by one of the High
Contracting Parties of the rights set forth in the Convention or the Protocols thereto”.
(p. 21)
«Դատարանը կարող է գանգատներ ընդունել ցանկացած անձից, հասարա-
կական կազմակերպությունից կամ անձանց խմբից, որոնք պնդում են, թե
դարձել են սույն Կոնվենցիայով կամ նրան կից Արձանագրություններով
ճանաչված իրենց իրավունքների` որևէ Բարձր պայմանավորվող կողմի թույլ
տված խախտման զոհ»: (էջ 9)
In the case of ''shall'' we indicated, that its basic function is to express legal
regulations and command. It has stronger effect than the verb ''may''.
The omission of personal pronouns is another feature to achieve maximum
objectivity. In the Convention we can never encounter with personal pronouns. The use of
the third person singular and plural is predominant, but they are not introduced with
personal but with indefinite or negative pronouns (everybody, everyone, nobody, no one).
However, we can observe the use of possessive pronouns. The frequent use of possessive
pronouns makes the information in the text more precise and accurate. As a rule, in English
the third person singular denoting masculine gender is used to denote possessiveness of the
indefinite pronouns.
“Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his
correspondence”. (p. 11)
«Յուրաքանչյուր ոք ունի իր անձնական ու ընտանեկան կյանքի, բնակարանի և
նամակագրության նկատմամբ հարգանքի իրավունք»։ (էջ 4)

35
 As we see in the following example there is a repetition of possessive pronoun his,
which is used for stylistic purposes, as it gives an emphasis. In Armenian translation the
possessive pronoun of the third person singular is properly translated. However, the
repetition of the possessive pronoun is not preserved in the Armenian translation and the
effect is not the same as it is in the original version.
In regulations, commands or statements of laws we can see the abundance of
indefinite pronouns. They are used to refer to a total number of people, things or places, not
to indicate them separately but generally. Here, in the Convention everything is written
generally and refers to all, not to a particular person: ''everybody'', ''everyone'', ''every
person'' is used when a provision applies to all, and ''no one'', ''nobody'' is used in
prohibitions.
“Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his
correspondence”. (p. 11)
«Յուրաքանչյուր ոք ունի իր անձնական ու ընտանեկան կյանքի, բնակարանի և
նամակագրության նկատմամբ հարգանքի իրավունք»։ (էջ 4)
“Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the following minimum rights...” (p. 9)
«Քրեական հանցագործություն կատարելու մեջ մեղադրվող յուրաքանչյուր ոք
ունի հետևյալ նվազագույն իրավունքները...»: (էջ 3)
“Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion...” (p. 11)
«Յուրաքանչյուր ոք ունի մտքի, խղճի և կրոնի ազատության իրավունք...»: (էջ 4)
The indefinite pronouns have their equivalents in Armenian, such as
«յուրաքանչյուրը», «յուրաքանչյուր ոք», «յուրաքանչյուր մարդ», etc. In the Armenian
translation of the Convention on Human Rights this indefinite pronouns are properly
translated with their equivalents to provide the same effect and preserve the reference to all.
Besides, negatives abundantly occur in official documents. Multiple negatives are not
only expressed by ''not'', but other expression are also employed to get the very result such
as ''unless'', ''except'', ''not only'', ''never'' etc. In the Armenian language they are performed
by double negatives, which is not typical of the English language.
“No one shall be held guilty of any criminal offence on account of any act or
omission...” (p. 10)

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 «Ոչ ոք չպետք է մեղավոր ճանաչվի որևէ գործողության կամ անգործության
համար...»: (էջ 3)
“Nothing in this Convention shall prejudice the powers conferred on the ommittee
of Ministers by the Statute of the Council of Europe”. (p. 29)
«Սույն Կոնվենցիայում ոչինչ ի վնաս չէ Նախարարների կոմիտեի լիազորութ-
յուններին, որոնք նրան վերապահված են Եվրոպայի խորհրդի Կանոնա-
դրությամբ»: (էջ12)
“For the purpose of this Article the term “forced or compulsory labour” shall not
include: ...” (p. 7)
«Սույն հոդվածի նպատակների համար «պարտադիր կամ հարկադիր
աշխատանք» հասկացությունը չի ներառում՝...»: (p. 3)
According to the grammatical rules of the Armenian language, the negative
sentences are performed by double negations, and negative pronouns have their proper
equivalents in Armenian such as «ոչ ոք», «ոչինչ», «երբեք», «ոչ մի դեպքում», etc.
''Any'' is in frequent use in legal documentations and is considered as redundant. It
makes the thing as inclusive as possible.
Any High Contracting Party may refer to the Court any alleged breach of the
provisions of the Convention and the Protocols thereto by another High Contracting
Party. (p. 21)
Ցանկացած Բարձր պայմանավորվող կողմ կարող է Դատարան դիմել
Կոնվենցիայի և նրան կից Արձանագրությունների դրույթների ցանկացած
ենթադրվող խախտման հարցով, որը թույլ է տվել մեկ այլ Բարձր
պայմանավորվող կողմ: (էջ 11)
In the Armenian translation, ''any'' is translated as «ցանկացած», which makes the
thing similarly inclusive. It refers to each one, each case.
Thus, in the present chapter we carefully considered the grammatical and lexical
transformations that occur while translating legal documents from English into Armenian.
Moreover, we have figured out that most of these reasons are rooted in national and cultural
settings of languages.

37
 CONCLUSION
The given paper deals with translation peculiarities of legal documents. Thus, the
theoretical part is focused on the nature of legalese and its translation strategies. The practical
part of the paper is based on the analysis of translation of the European Convention on Human
Rights. The Convention is a vivid example containing the whole range of lexical and
grammatical peculiarities.
As a result of an independent analysis of the material we have come to the following
conclusions:
1. The style of legal language is “cold”: it rejects all that is affective and does not include
emotional elements. Legal texts contain practically no exclamation or question marks
and the main intention is to have an effect on the understanding, rather than the
feelings, of the reader or listener. Legal language is definite, precise and technical.
2. The study of the structure of the European Convention on Human Rights shows that
all the articles and paragraphs consist of complex, detailed and long sentences (many
expressions are even doubled or tripled by near-synonyms) which distinguish any legal
document. While translating the Convention into the Armenian language the method
of addition is frequently used, that is why sentences in the Armenian variant are even
longer and complex.
3. ''Shall'' as a modal verb has a basic function of expressing the statement of laws,
regulations, and commands. In the Armenian language, this modal verb is expressed in
the Present Simple or with its proper equivalent պետք է, պիտի in Armenian.
4. One of the peculiarities of the English text of the European Convention on Human
Rights is the use of formal words, which are considered archaic and rarely used in daily
conversation. Some of them are properly preserved in Armenian version, and some are
substituted with non-archaisms, which can be found in every day speech.
5. The frequent use of possessive pronouns makes the information in the text more
precise and accurate. The omission of personal pronouns is another feature to achieve
maximum objectivity. The use of the third person singular and plural is predominant.
Everybody, everyone, every person (Arm: յուրաքանչյուրը, յուրաքանչյուր ոք) is

38
 used when a provision applies to all and no one, nobody (ոչ ոք, ոչ մեկը) is used for
prohibitions.
6. All the numerals are written in words. The Armenian translation preserves the initial
form of appearance of the numerals.
7. A considerable amount of foreign words and phrases are also typical to the Convention.
Foreign words derived from Latin, French or from the Anglo-Saxon period underwent
either the process of transliteration or the direct borrowing process. The Armenian text
is presented with archaic words and expressions, which come to alternate the
borrowed expressions. French has had a tremendous influence on legal English. A vast
amount of legal vocabulary is French in origin, including such basic words as appeal
«բողոք», attorney «փաստաբան», claim «պահանջ», complaint «բողոք», etc.
8. Legal speech is characterized by a great number of stylistic devices and special etiquette
phrases (greetings and words of appreciation) which make the speech sound more
persuasive and expressive. The same expressions have special place in Armenian
variants, and they serve for the stylistic purpose.
9. Passive constructions are prevailing in the Convention. The basic function of using
passive sentences is to project the impression, that the action is more important that
the actor himself. This kind of sentences are properly preserved in Armenian.
10. The repetition is also widely used with stylistic purposes in both English and Armenian
legal languages. In these cases, the translator is compelled to apply stylistic changes,
make substitution or omission.

Law’s basic function is to regulate human behavior and human relations. Law exists as
a set of prescriptions having the form of imperatives defining and enforcing the
arrangements, relationships, procedures and patterns of behavior that are to be followed in a
society. In everyday language, we ordinarily try to leave the obvious unsaid; we take it for
granted that people know what we are thinking and understand what we mean. In legal
discourse, nothing can be taken for granted: every significant detail must be stated explicitly.
We often feel that legal language is unnecessarily wordy, even redundant, and we often feel
tempted, while translating, to try to reduce the number of words. This can have dangerous
consequences, because the apparent redundancy usually is serving and important function.

39
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3. ‹‹Կոնվենցիա Մարդու Իրավունքների և Հիմնարար Ազատությունների
Պաշտպանության Մասին* Փոփոխված 11-րդ Արձանագրությամբ››, retrieved
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