An Approach Toward A Rational Classification of Climate

American Geographical Society
An Approach toward a Rational Classification of Climate

Author(s): C. W. Thornthwaite
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Geographical Review, Vol. 38, No. 1 (Jan., 1948), pp. 55-94
Published by: American Geographical Society
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AN APPROACH TOWARD A RATIONAL
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
C. W. THORNTHWAITE
[With separatemap, P1. I, facing p. 941
THE directionthat the modernstudyof climatehas takenhas been

dictatedlargelyby the developmentof meteorologicalinstruments,
and the collection
of meteorologicalobservatories,
the establishment
of weatherdata.The catalogueof climaticelementsconsistsof thosethat
are customarilymeasuredand usuallyincludestemperature, precipitation,
atmospheric humidityandpressure, climatic
andwindvelocity.Increasingly,
studieshave tendedto become statisticalanalysesof the observationsof
individualelements.Becauseof this,climatologyhasbeenregardedin some
quartersas nothingmorethanstatisticalmeteorology.
THE ROLE OF EVAPORATION AND TRANSPIRATION
But the sum of the climaticelementsthathave beenunderobservation
doesnot equalclimate.One elementconspicuously missingfrom the list is
evaporation. The combinedevaporation fromthe soil surfaceandtranspira-
tion from plants,called "evapotranspiration,"representsthe transportof
waterfrom the earthbackto the atmosphere,the reverseof precipitation.
The raingaugemeasuresprecipitation withinacceptablelimitsof accuracy.
We know reasonablywell how rainfallvariesfrom one placeto another
overthe inhabitedpartsof the earthandalsohow it variesthroughthe year
and from one yearto another.On the otherhand,no instrumenthas yet
been perfectedto measurethe water movementfrom the earth to the
atmosphere,and consequentlywe know next to nothing about the dis-
tributionof evapotranspiration
in spaceor time.
We cannottell whethera climateis moistor dry by knowingthe pre-
cipitationalone. We must know whetherprecipitationis greateror less
thanthe waterneededfor evaporationand transpiration. Precipitation
and
evapotranspirationareequallyimportantclimaticfactors.Sinceprecipitation
and evapotranspirationare due to differentmeteorologicalcauses,they are
not oftenthe sameeitherin amountor in distribution throughthe year.In
someplacesmorerain-fallsmonthaftermonththanevaporates or thanthe
vegetationuses.The surplusmovesthroughthe groundandoverit to form
> DR. THORNTHWAITE, consulting climatologist, has spent the growing seasonsof I946
and I947 in experiments "fitting crops to weather" (see p. 4).
56 THE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
streamsand riversand flows backto the sea. In otherplaces,monthafter

month, thereis less water in the soil than the vegetationwould use if it
were available.Thereis no excessof precipitation and no runoff,except
locallywherethe soil is imperviousandcannotabsorbthe rainon the rare
occasionswhen it falls.Consequently,thereare no permanentrivers,and
thereis no drainageto the ocean.In stillotherareasthe rainfallis deficient
in one seasonandexcessivein another,so thata periodof droughtis followed
by one with runoff.The marchof precipitation throughthe year almost
nevercoincideswith the changingdemandsfor water.
Where precipitationis in excessof water need, the climateis moist.
Wherethewaterdeficiencyis largein comparison withtheneed,the climate
is dry. Whereprecipitation and waterneed are equalor nearlyequal,the
climateis neitherhumidnor arid.
POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION AS A CLIMATIC FACTOR
The vegetationof the desertis sparseanduseslittlewaterbecausewater

is deficient.If more water were available,the vegetationwould be less
sparseandwould use morewater.Thereis a distinction,then,betweenthe
amountof water that actuallytranspiresand evaporatesand that which
would transpireand evaporateif it were available.When water supply
increases, as in a desertirrigationproject,evapotranspiration risesto a maxi-
mum thatdependsonly on the climate.This we may call "potentialevapo-
transpiration," as distinctfromactualevapotranspiration.
We know very littleabouteitheractualevapotranspiration or potential
evapotranspiration. We shallbe able to measureactualevapotranspiration
as soonas existingmethodsareperfected.But to determinepotentialevapo-
transpiration is very difficult.Sinceit does not representactualtransferof
water to the atmospherebut ratherthe transferthat would be possible
underidealconditionsof soil moistureandvegetation,it usuallycannotbe
measureddirectly but must be determinedexperimentally.Like actual
evapotranspiration, potentialevapotranspiration is clearlya climaticelement
of greatimportance.By comparingit with precipitation we can obtaina
rationaldefinitionof the moisturefactor.
Precipitationis a strictlyphysicalprocess,which meteorologistshave
investigated in muchdetail.Evapotranspiration is likewisea physicalprocess,
yet sinceit is subjectto biologicalcontrol,it mustbe studiedby methods
unfamiliarto the meteorologist.Informationconcerningevapotranspira-
tion has come chieflynot from the meteorologistbut from the biologist.
For this reasonit is necessaryto makeuse of the literatureand applythe
RATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE 57
methods of plant physiology. Nevertheless, evapotranspirationrepresents

the returnflow of water to the atmosphereand is thus an importantmeteor-
ological process.
The only method so far developed that measuresthe actual evapotran-
spirationfrom a field or any other naturalsurfacewithout disturbingthe
vegetation cover in any way is the so-called "vapor transfer" method.
Water vapor when it entersthe atmospherefrom the ground or from plants
is carriedupward by the moving air. It is carriedupward in small eddies
or bodies of air that are replacedby drier eddies from above. Although we
cannot see water vapor, we can measureit in the air. We find that when
evaporation is taking place the amount of moisture is greatest in the air
near the ground and decreaseswith distanceabove it. If we determinethe
rate at which the air near the ground is mixing with that above it and at
the same time measure the differencein water-vapor content at the two
levels, we can determine both the rate and the amount of evapotranspira-
tion. Furthermore,we can determine equally well the amount of water
condensedas dew.'
This method is not easy either to understandor to use. It is hard to use
because it requires physical measurementsmore precise than are usually
made. Furthermore,the coefficientof turbulenttransferof air is not a con-
stant. It varies from time to time and from place to place. It even varies
with height at a given time and place. In spiteof thesedifficultiesthe method
can be perfectedand will answermany importantquestionsfor climatology
and biology.2
Scientistshave tried in various ways to determinethe amount of water
used by plants.One of the earliestattemptswas to remove leavesor branches
from a plant, let them dry for a brief time, and weigh them to see how
much water they had lost. Another method is to place plantsin sealedcon-
tainers and measure the moisture that accumulates in the confined air.
Experimentershave grown thousandsof individualplantsin pots, weighing
them periodicallyto determinethe evapotranspiration losses.These methods
are highly artificial,and generalizationfrom them sometimes gives fantastic
' See the note by John Leighly: New Occasionsand New Duties for Climatology, Geogr.Rev.,
Vol. 29, I939, pp. 682-683.
C. W. Thornthwaite and Benjamin Holzman: Measurement of Evaporation from Land and
2
Water Surfaces,U. S. Dept. of Agric. Tech.Bull. No. 817, I942; C. W. Thornthwaite:The Measurement
of Evaporationand Transpirationfrom Natural Surfaces,Proc.HydrologyConference,StateCollege, Pa.,
June30-July 2, 1941 (PennsylvaniaStateCollegeSchoolof EngineeringTech.Bull. No. 27), I942, pp. I85-
197; idem: Atmospheric Turbulence and the Measurement of Evaporation, Proc. SecondHydraulics
Conference,
June 1-4, 1942 (Univ. of Iowa Studiesin Engineering, Bull. 27), Iowa City, I943, pp. 28o-288.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~~~~~~Eveopot,onsp-rafion
from grossmn
Bermuda tanksat Son8e,nordino,
Co1.f. 1931
1929,1930,ond
9l _ _ . _ __ _Potent_ol
_ O byt-E ethod
computed
evopot,onspwofion
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ternperoture
dotoof SonBernardino,
Colif.
from
Weathe
Qureou_
Obr____ from
.edIepotrspr __aon ta__ _
. _ _ _ _ 7 ~~Q?1
Grounel f etg24 n,ches t"rk 3) .*i G-n i at 24| .Ches (tor 3} 0 t
7~~~~~~7N -F - tF
?-X
.~ _-_ to ~~ A 111 - -
3t tX
4 [ tk00ror k4
-ie
~~~~t
~~~~~ ~ rr.nat36 441)
..h.
(t.nk
2
20
iz 36 z (rankX/
-4z4jX4~~~~~~~~~~~-r~- #)4 lS .thes - j q 4
-N
F M i A
a 0 N 0 i F A M J J Ae S O N D vI F M A U J J A S O hl
1929 1930 1931
FIG. I
results.For exarmple,in a German study transpirationfrom an oak wood-

land was computed as being more than eight times the actual rainfall.3
There are other, less artificialmethods of determining both water use
and water need. In some irrigatedareasrainfall,water appliedby irrigation,
and water outflow are all measured.The fraction of the water applied that
does not run off is the evapotranspiration.Irrigation engineers have de-
terminedthe evapotranspirationfrom plants growing in sunkentanks filled
to ground level with soil in which water tables are maintainedat different
predetermineddepths beneath the soil surface.4Lee found that the annual
use of water by salt grassat Independence,Calif., rangedfrom I3.4 inches
with the water table at S feet below the ground surfaceto 48.8 inches with
it at i.$ feet below. Debler reporteda range in annualuse of water by salt
grassat Los Griegos, N. Mex., from io.i mches with the water table at 37
inches to 48.4 inches with it at 5 inches. Young and Blaney observed a
range at Santa Ana, Calif, from I3.4 inches with free water 4 feet below
the surface to 42.8 inches with it i foot below. Comparablefigures for
Bermuda grassat San Bernardino,Calif, were 28.I9 inches with the water
3 B. G. Ivanov: Evaporationunder Natural Conditions: Methods of Study and Results Attained
(HydrometeorologicalPublications), Moscow, I939. (Translatedfrom the Russian by Headquarters,
Army Air Forces Weather Division.)
4 A. A. Young and H. F. Blaney: Use of Water by Native Vegetation, CaliforniaDept. of Public
Works, Division of WaterResourcesBull. No. 50, I942.

table at 3 feet and 34.37 inches with it at 2 feet. The observationsfrom San
Bernardinoare shown in Figure i.
Lowry and Johnson5publisheddata on annualwater use in I2 irrigated
valleys in the western United States and one in the Dominican Republic.
Since water is suppliedby irrigation,water use in these valleys approximates
potential evapotranspiration.It rangesfrom i8 inches in a mountain valley
in Coloradoto 58 inchesin the Barahonadistrictin the DominicanRepublic.
Although the various methods of determiningpotentialevapotranspira-
tion have many faults and the determinationsare scatteredand few, we get
from them an idea of how much water is transpiredand evaporatedand
how much would be if it were available.We find that the rate of evapo-
transpirationdepends on four things: climate, soil-moisture supply, plant
cover, and land management. Of these the first two prove to be by far
the most important.
Some scientistshave believed that transpirationservesno useful purpose
for the plant. We now understandthat transpirationeffectivelypreventsthe
plant surfacesthat are exposed to sunlight from being overheated. Most
plants require sunlight for growth. The energy of the sun combines water
and carbondioxide in the leaves into food, which is later carriedto all parts
of the plant and used in growth. This process, which is called "photo-
synthesis,"is most efficientwhen the leaf temperaturesare between 850 and
goo F. But a leaf exposed to direct sunlight would quickly become much
hotter if the energy of the sun were not disposed of in some way. The
surface of dry ground may reach a temperatureof 2000 F.; temperatures
higher than I60? F. have been measuredone-fourth of an inch below the
ground surface.The plant is admirablydesignedto dissipateheat, the leaves
being like the fins of a radiator,and some of the excess heat is conducted
into the adjacentair and carriedaway in turbulencebodies. In this way the
air is heated. But some of the excess heat energy is utilized in transpiration,
to change water from a liquid into a vapor. Most of the heat of evaporation
must come from the plant. Thus, the greaterthe intensity of sunshine,the
greater will be the tendency to overheating, and the larger will be the
transpirationof a plant exposed to it, if water is availablefor the process.
Transpirationis a heat regulator, preventing temperatureexcesses in both
plant and air. Dew formation at night is the reverse of this process and
tends to prevent low temperatureextremes, since the heat released goes
5 R. L. Lowry, Jr., and A. F. Johnson: Consumptive Use of Water for Agriculture, Trans. Amer.
Soc. of Civil Engineers, Vol. I07, I942, pp. I243-I266 (Paper No. 2I58); discussion, pp. I267-I302.
6o THE GEOGRAPHICAL
REVIEW
mainly to the plant. Both transpirationand growth are relatedto tempera-

ture in the same way.
Atmosphericelementswhose influenceon transpirationhas been studied
include solar radiation,air temperature,wind, and atmospherichumidity.
These factorsare all interrelated.Although solarradiationis the basicfactor,
there seemsto be a closer parallelismbetween air temperatureand transpira-
tion. The temperatureof the transpiringpart is most closely related to the
rate of transpiration.
Transpirationand growth are both affected in the same way by varia-
tions in soil moisture. Both increasewith increaseof availablewater in the
root zone of the soil, to an optimum. Above the optimum both are less,
presumablybecauseof poor aerationof the soil, which resultsin a lack of
oxygen to supply the roots and an excess of carbon dioxide.6 On the other
hand, as water in the soil increasesabove the optimum for growth, direct
evaporationfrom the soil surfacealso continuesto increase.
We do not yet know how much we may increaseor decreasetranspira-
tion by varying the type of plants or by modifying the plant cover. Since
transpirationregulatesleaf temperature,and since most plants reach their
optimum growth at about the same temperature,we probably cannot
change it very much except by reducingthe density of the plant cover and
thus wasting a part of the solarenergy. If all the vegetationis removed from
a field, there will be no transpiration.But as long as the root zone of the
soil is well suppliedwith water, the amountof water transpiredfrom a com-
pletelycoveredareawill dependmore on the amount of solar energyreceived
by the surface and the resultanttemperaturethan on the kind of plants.
Since potential evapotranspirationis an importantclimatic element, we
need to know its distributionover the earth and how it varies through the
year and from one year to another. Actual determinationsare so few that
it would be impossibleto make a map of any area by means of them. At
the present time the only alternativeis to discover a relation between po-
tential evapotranspirationand other climatic factors for which there are
abundantdata.
AND GROWTH
TEMPERATURE
Many studies have been made of temperature and growth. Some in-
vestigatorshave measuredthe elongation of shoots, stems, and roots grow-
6 A. J. Loustalot:Influenceof Soil-MoistureConditionson ApparentPhotosynthesisand Transpira-
tion of Pecan Leaves,Journ.of Agric.Research,Vol. 7I, I945, pp. 5I9-532; G. W. Schneiderand N. F.
Childers:Influenceof Soil Moisture on Photosynthesis,Respirationand Transpirationof Apple Leaves,
Plant Physiology, Vol. i6, I94I, pp. 565-583.
RATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE 6I
ing undervariouscontrolledtemperatures. Othershavedeterminedincrease

in widthof leavesandincreasein dry weightof the plant.Rateof develop-
ment of variousinsectsundercontrolledtemperature hasbeendetermined.
Thereis alwaysan optimumtemperature for growth,a temperature at which
the growth rate is highest.At lower or higher temperatures growth is
slower. The temperatureat which growth is most rapidseemsto vary
somewhatwith the materialunderstudyand with the lengthof exposure
but is alwaysnear300C. (860 F.). In his investigationof maizeseedlings
Lehenbauer7 obtainedmostrapidgrowthfor a 3-hourperiodat 290 C. and
for 9-I2 hoursat 320 C. He saysthatfor periodsof 3 hoursor longerthe
greatestratesof growth occur within the temperature range290 to 32'.
Wadley8foundthat the rate of developmentof the greenbug was most
rapidat 30?C. Similarly,thereare minimumand maximumtemperatures
beyondwhich growthdoes not occur.Theselimitsvary likewise,but the
minimumis nearo?C. andthe maximumsomewhereabove400C.
About half a centuryago Van't Hoff9 propoundedthe principlethat
the velocity of a chemicalreactiondoublesor trebleswith each rise in
temperature of IOo C. Thisis an exponentiallaw of the form
v = cat, (I)
in whicha hasthe valueI.07I8 whenvelocity,v, doubleswitha 100 rise

in temperature, and the value I.1I6i when v trebles.The Van'tHoff law
has been appliedby biologiststo physiologicalprocesses.The customary
procedureis to determinetemperaturecoefficientsfrom actual growth
measurements. The temperature coefficientis the quotientof two growth
ratesthat are separatedfrom eachotherby a IO0 intervalof temperature,
andby the Van'tHoffruleit is expectedto rangebetween2 and3. In reality,
the coefficientvariesmuchmorewidely.It exceedsIO.O in the temperature
rangebetweeno0 C. andIOo C. and fallssteadilyto valueslessthani.o,
above the optimumtemperatureat which growth and temperatureare
inverselyrelated.
Lehenbauer'0 publishedthe followingtable of temperature coefficients
for I2-hour growth ratesof shootsof maizeseedlings,forvariousIOo ranges
of temperature:
7 P. A. Lehenbauer:Growth of Maize Seedlingsin Relationto Temperature,Physiological
Researches,
Vol. I, I9I4, pp. 247-288.
8 F. M. Wadley: Development-TemperatureCorrelationin the GreenBug, Toxoptera Graminum,
Journ. of Agric. Research, Vol. 53, 1936, pp. 259-266.
9J. H. van't Hoff: Etudes de dynamique chimique, Amsterdam, I884.
IO Op. cit., p. 28I.
Temperature,'C. I2-22 I3-23 I5-25 I8-28 20-30 2I-3I 22-32 25-35 32-42 33-43
Growth rate,o.oi mm. 9-59 io-64 20-75 28-98 45-IO8 53-IO9 59-III 75-86 iii-ii ioi-6
Coefficient 9.56 6.40 3.75 3.50 2.40 2. o6 I. 88 I. I5 O. O9 o. o6
The temperaturecoefficientmust have values of oo at the temperature

minimum, I.O at the temperatureoptimum, and o at the temperaturemaxi-
mum. Only in the temperaturerange 200 to 300, where the temperature
coefficientis between 2 and 3, is the Van't Hoff law valid. Since the tem-
perature coefficient drops continuously, the coefficient a in equation (i)
must also drop. The Van't Hoff a = I.07I8 is valid at only one point on the
curve and is no more significantthan any other value of a. The fact that a
drops steadily and falls below i.oo when the optimum temperature is
reachedis far more significantthan any averagevalue of a (or of the tem-
peraturecoefficient).
There is clearly some growth-inhibiting factor that is directly pro-
portionate to temperature.It is only becauseof the accident that the tem-
peratureswhich plants ordinarily experience under natural conditions are
below the optimum, that growth is popularlyassumedto vary directlywith
temperature.At temperaturesabove 300 C. the growth-inhibiting factor
becomes greater than the growth-stimulatingfactor and the growth rate
falls with rising temperature.Since the exponentialequationv = catrequires
a continuously increasinggrowth rate with rising temperature,it does not
truly expressthe relationbetween temperatureand growth.
What the growth-inhibiting factor is, is uncertain.It may reasonably
be the operation of water deficiency in the plant tissue. The amount of
water in a plant is a balance between that absorbedby the roots and that
transpiredfrom the leaves. As the transpirationrate rises with increasing
temperature,it will presentlyexceed the rate of water absorption.Then a
suction pressure,or tension, develops in the plant, acting as a brake on
transpirationand on growth. The moisture balance in the plant is upset,
transpirationis reduced,and growth is retarded.A more satisfactoryequa-
tion of growth, therefore,is the following:
bcect
v=a (2)
(ect+b)22
in which a, b, and c are constantsand e is the base of the Napieriansystem

of logarithms.In this equationthe numeratorrepresentsthe growth-stimu-
latingfactorandthe denominatorthe growth-inhibitingfactor.The optimum
temperaturefor growth is where numeratorand denominatorare equal.
When we fit the equation to a series of Lehenbauer'sobservationson
the growth of maize seedlings,we have the following coefficients:a = I764.9,
b=-i 8.8, C = .24. The equation gives v as a percentageof the optimum

growth rate. The Lehenbauerdata and the growth curve derived from this
equation are plotted in Figure 2. Some of the computed values of v are as
follows:
Mlean aversqe growth rates of OVc
. . maize seeod7ngs al'ter Lehenbauer v
Observation period, 3 hours 0 0.36
?-? Computed growth rates
I
V 449,730.7 e-24t I 3. 88
8
V=(e-246 + 11188) 2
o
100 IeI 1 i 1 I5 I2.33
Id < 20 35.52
:80 J 25 78.30
4J, * 28 98.27
60 i 30 99.69
1 \
0 32 90 30
_______
_______ 35 64.56
Q 0 \0 40 26.32
PO
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _?PO 45 8.76
20 50 2.72
o 6- -- _I I II s,55 0-83
0?C. 10 20 30 40 50 60 6o 0.25
FIG. 2
DETERMINATION OF POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
Unfortunately, there are no comparablecontrolled experimentson the

relation of transpirationto temperature.The most reliable measurements
of transpirationand evaporation together are for long periods of time.
When only monthly or annual totals of evapotranspirationare available,
the temperaturerelationcannot be determinedprecisely.
The determinationshave shown that potentialevapotranspiration is high
in the southernpart of the United Statesand low in the northernpart and
that it varies greatly from winter to summer. From observationslike those
of Figure i, it has been found that when adjustmentsare made for variation
in day length, there is a close relation between mean monthly temperature
and potential evapotranspiration.Study of all availabledata has resultedin
a formulathat permitsthe computationof potentialevapotranspiration of a
place if its latitude is known and if temperaturerecordsare available.The
formula is given, and its use described,in the appendix.
Figure 3 shows the distributionof average annual potential evapotran-
spirationin the United States.It is basedon normalsof some 3 500 Weather
Bureau stations, revised to I930. The average annual water need in the
United Statesrangesfrom less than i8 inches in the high mountainsof the
West to more than 6o inches in three isolatedareasin the desertsof Arizona
and southem California.It is less than 2I inches along the Canadianborder
of the easternUnited Statesand more than 48 inchesin Floridaand southern
K. (9~~~~~~~.......
g
? .
(97~~.. . . .
Lii~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
-4~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~L :
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
..K . . . . . . .
C) .......... ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ '9
I V~~~~~~~~~~~~~O
Texas. Although potential evapotranspirationand precipitationare imde-

pendent climatic elements, in arid regions potential evapotranspirationis
increasedbecause of the higher daytime temperaturesdue to the absence
of clouds and rain and becauseof the small actual evapotranspiration.The
high values in the Colorado and Gila Desertsand in the lower Rio Grande
Valley are examples. In the arid section of the Columbia River Valley
between Washington and Oregon the potential evapotranspirationis more
than 30 inches,whereasit is only about 2I inches in the same latitudein the
easternUnited States.
The march of potential evapotranspirationthrough the year follows a
uniform patternin most of the country. It is negligible in the winter months
as far southas the Gulf CoastalPlainand is only 2 inchesa month in southern
Florida.It rises to a maximum in July that rangesfrom 5 inches along the
Canadianborderto 7 inches on the Gulf coast. In some mountainareasand
along the Pacific coast it does not reach 5 inchesin any month.
The marchof precipitationis highly variablefrom one region to another.
In much of the United States more than half the rain falls in the growing
season.In the Pacific Coast Statesthe distributionis reversed.In most places
the precipitationis less than the need during a part of the year. In times of
excessrainfallwater is storedin the soil. The part of this water that is within
reach of roots is used before the plants begin to suffer;therefore drought
does not begin immediately when rainfall drops below water need. The
amount of water in the root zone availableto plants varies with the soil
structureand the distributionof roots. It is, accordingly, not a constant.
However, except in areasof shallow soil the water storagecapacityavailable
to mature plants with fully developed root systems varies around a mean
that is the equivalentof about io centimetersor 4 inches of rainfall.Curves
comparing water need and precipitationat selected stationsin the United
Statesare given in Figure4.
In Brevard,N. C. (Fig. 4-A), lessthan halfan inch of water is neededin each ofthe winter
months.The needrisesrapidlyduringthe spring,reachesa highpointof morethan5 inches
in July, andfallsrapidlyduringthe autumn.The totalaverageannualwaterneedis 28.50
inches. The precipitationranges from less than 3 2 inches in November to more than 612
inchesin July and is greaterthan the need in every month. The total averageannualprecipita-
tion is 6i.o6 inches, more than twice the potential evapotranspiration.The surplusof 32.56
inches representsrunoff. In Salisbury,N. Y. (Fig. 4-B), the averageannualpotential evapo-
transpirationis 2I.8I inches and the precipitationis 48.39 inches, more than twice as much.
In no month is the precipitationless than the need. Here the surplusthat runs off amounts
to 26.58 inches.
In Bar Harbor, Maine (Fig. 4-C), the precipitationfalls to a minimum of less than 312
INCHES o-o o6efn i/
evapo,0ranspiJa*o?ion
Brevard, N.C. -eclsn Bar Harbor, Maine
-7 -37?J
-e * * * fa6er surp/us
Water deficiency
So// moilosure utaiiszaion
6i../ moin6ure recharge
Salisbury, N.Y.
oIjj 5~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
ins.
0
0
t---
7A,_~~
-326 ~~
ins. ,I ~ ~ ~ /---- -:n 26.6 ins. ~- __ ~ __
I O
I
0?i Io /________
INCHIES
North Head, , Louisville, Ky. Seattle, Wash.
7 ~W ash. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
t:.A 0ni.s
ins hs.
Io3 j2 in I
4-~ ~~ 0
1~S3.3 ins.i\
ns . 1 I T
INCHES
Canton,Miss. Willard, N.C. Madison, Wis.
-7
4.0 ins. I I
7I 7 ins 0. 4- ins 0 ins
| rEilft /iil 47 7 ff?S | | /t? ot 0.+ lfO7 In

//0.fnS.
..................
/ns.
4 lU\ -'
*4- ~II /10~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Is
Lo X?D
IIXI I f Jo OinS 0 M A M J J A N D
0 1/~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~4
jFMAM J J
AAMJJANODDJ J
J F M A M J J A S O N D J
GEOGR REvIEW, JAN. 1948
FIG, 4-March of precipitationand potentialevapotranspirationat selectedstationsin the United States.

INCHES
Centennial, Wyo.
o-o
.---.
Potental
Precipitation
evapotranspira6ion
___Manhattan, Pullman Wash.
-7 Wa&er surolus -Manhattan,
L=I Water deficiency Kans.
/6l Scoi/nisture /2
S S-/z tl/on 0\
S-_ I I +. o inS
\4.0 /nS, / f , \ 1 r f,
1. In6 / /| ns ins.
/0'9
4.0 ins n5.7 " .\t.0 ins.
---\
2
/
7 / , '7 2'.3ins __1 i.
in
-,....j4 5 ins 40 ins\?~~~~,j2.3
N--T 4,5ins *'\e 74Oins.7k

.0 -I I I I I II I.. .I
INCHES
San Francisco, Calif. Dalhart, Tex. Helena,Mont.
-7
4.0 Ins. / , . ..90ins-'

, ,< l/s s 7ns. ,3
0 ~ ~ ~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ 4L.0 I.ns<C' >..19 ins. 63. 7in V?
0 I t1 I1 t i I I I t 1_
INCHES
Santa Fe, N. Mex. Los Angeles, Calif. Grand Junction, Colo.
-7
-6_ _ _ _ _ _
S~~~~~~~
/85i's.i20.0ins.
0~/0 Szins . n /,,0 . 2
2O /ns \ *01 S. 4in
2 IAs I I I . .. 1 .F ._ _ X
J&?FMitIll|AMJJSN<\DJ JF M AMJ JA S O ND JFMM.JJAON\

GEOGR. REVIEW, JAN. 948
inchesin eachof the 3 summermonths,at exactlythe timewhen potentialevapotranspira-

tion risesabove4 inches.Currentrainfallislessthanneed,butthedifference is madeup from
waterin storagein the soil. In North Head,Wash. (Fig.4-D), the precipitation exhibits
markedseasonalvariation:it is morethan7 inchesa monthin November,December,and
Januaryand lessthan i inch in July and August.Althoughwaterneed is not largein any
month,theJulymaximumbeingonly 3.6 inches,it is in excessof rainfallduringS months,
from May throughSeptember. Thereis too muchrainin winterandtoo littlein summer.
In lateSeptember, asthe daysgrowcoolerandshorter,waterneedfallsbelowprecipitation.
Fora whilethe rainfallnot immediatelyneededgoesto replacestoredsoilmoisturethathas
beenusedup. Fromthenon, the surpluswateris lost so farasplantgrowthis concerned.It
raisesground-water levelsandproducessurfaceandsubsurface runoff.But it is of no benefit
to plantsandaddsnothingto atmospheric moisture.In spring,as the dayslengthenandbe-
come warmer,plantgrowth accelerates, and both transpiration and evaporationincrease
rapidly.By midspringwaterneedexceedsprecipitation. Thereafter, untilmidsummer,the
excessdemandsfor wateraresatisfiedfromthe soil-moisture reserves.When thesereserves
are exhausted,the vegetationmust rely solely on currentrainfall.And currentrainfallis
not enough.Wateruse fallsbelow waterneed;the plantssuffer,andgrowthis retarded.
In Louisville,Ky. (Fig. 4-E), rainfallis fairlyuniformthroughthe year-between 3.5
and4 inchesa monthexceptin autumn,whenit fallsbelow3 inches.Sincepotentialevapo-
transpiration is not uniform,however,thereis a surplusof waterin winteranda deficiency
in summer,just as in North Head(Fig.4-D) and Seattle(Fig.4-F).
Althoughannualprecipitationin Canton,Miss. (Fig. 4-G), is nearlySo inchesand
summerrainfallaverages3.75 inches,the summerpotentialevapotranspiration is so large
thatthereis a waterdeficiencyof nearly8.o inches,almostthe sameas in Seattle.
In someplacesmonthlyprecipitation andwaterneedarenearlyequal.Forexample,in
Manhattan,Kans.(Fig. 4-K), winter rainfallis only a little greaterthanpotentialevapo-
transpiration andsummerrainfallis only littleless.Watersurplusandwaterdeficiencyare
a
bothsmall.In Madison,Wis. (Fig.4-I), thereis a maximumof rainfallin summer,buteven
so rainfalldoesnot equalneed;thereis a smallwaterdeficiencyin summeranda considerable
watersurplusin winterandspring.In Willard,N. C. (Fig.4-H), potentialevapotranspira-
tion and precipitationare nearlythe samein all the growing-season months.Rainfallis
muchgreater than need in winter,however, and thereis a water surplusof nearlyI4 inches.
In Dalhart, Tex. (Fig.4-N), on the other hand, is
rainfall equal to waterneedin winterbut
in
fallsfarshort summer, and there is a waterdeficiency of IO inches.
In GrandJunction,Colo. (Fig.4-R),rainfallis slightthroughoutthe year.Watersupply
satisfieslessthanone-thirdof waterneed,anddeficiencyis verylarge.The climateis arid.
The curvesof SanFrancisco, Calif.(Fig.4-M), andCentennial,Wyo. (Fig.4-J),show
that in both placesprecipitation failsaboutequallyto providethe waterneededin June,
July, and August.Waterdeficiencies,in inches,forJune,July, and Augustare as follows:
San Francisco2.87, 3.07, 2.87; Centennial 2.48, 2.75, 2.44. But there is a vast difference in
the relativearidityof the two places.WhereasJuly rainfallin Centennialprovidesabout
I S inchesof a needed4.5 inches,in SanFrancisco thereis no rainat all inJuly.In one place
the waterdeficiencyofJuly amountsto 62 percentof the need,in theotherto IOOpercent.
The aridityof a placein a givenperiodof time dependsnot on the numericalamountof
the waterdeficiencybut ratheron the relationof thisdeficiencyto the waterneed.
TABLE I-COMPARATIVE MOISTURE DATA OF SEATTLE, WASH., AND MANHATTAN, KANS.
In centimeters
ITEM J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Y
Seattle, Wash.
Potential evap. 1.3 I.8 3.1 4.9 7.6 9.6 11.4 10.5 7.4 4.7 2.5 i.6 66.4
Precipitation I2.3 9.7 7.8 6.o 4.7 3 .4 1.5 1.7 4.3 7.1 12.3 13.9 84.7
Storage change 0 0 0 0 -2.9 -6.2 --.9 0 0 2.4 7.6 0
Storage I0.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 7.1 0.9 0 0 0 2.4 10.0 10.0
Actual evap. 1.3 I.8 3.1 4.9 7.6 9.6 2.4 1.7 4.3 4.7 2.5 i.6 45.-
Water deficiency 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.0 8.8 3.I 0 0 0 20.9
Water surplus I1.0 7.9 4.7 I.I 0 0 0 0 0 0 2.2 I2.3 39.2
Runoff* 8.9 8.4 6.5 3.8 1.9 1.0 0.5 0.2 0.1 0.I I.I 6.7 39.2
Moistureratio 8.47 4.38 1.52 0.22 -.38 -.65 -.87 -.84 -.42 0.54 3.92 7.68
Manhattan,Kans.
Potentialevap. 0.0 0.0 1.9 5.1 9.3 13.9 I6.4 15.0 10.I 5.2 I.4 0.0 78.3
Precipitation 2.0 3.0 3.8 7.1 II.1 11.7 11.5 9.5 8.6 5.8 3.8 2.2 80.I
Storage change 2.0 2.8 0 0 0 -2.2 -4.9 -2.9 0 o.6 2.4 2.2
Storage 7.2 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 7.8 2.9 0 0 o.6 3.0 5.2
Actual evap. 0.0 0.0 1.9 5.1 9.3 13.9 I6.4 I2.4 8.6 5.2 1.4 0.0 74.2
Water deficiency 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.6 1.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 4.I
Watersurplus 0.0 0.2 1.9 2.0 I.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 5.8
Runoff* 0.0 O.I I.0 1.5 I.6 o.8 0.4 0.2 0.1 0.I 0.0 0.0 5.8
Moisture ratio ?? oo I .00 0.39 0. I9 -. I6 -.30 -.37 -.15 0.11 1.71 ??
*Assuming that 5o per cent of the water available for runoff in any month is held over until the following month. In
watershedsof less than ioo squaremiles the percentage is probably smaller.
A moisture ratio that expressesthe relative humidity or aridity of a

month may be obtained by dividing the differencebetween precipitation
and potentialevapotranspirationby potentialevapotranspiration,
p-e p
or - - I. (3)
e e
Positive values of the ratio mean that the precipitationis excessive,negative

values that it is deficient. A ratio of zero means that water supply is equal
to water need.
WATER SURPLUS AND WATER DEFICIENCY
Numerical values of water surplusand water deficiencymay be obtained

as a simple bookkeeping procedure, precipitationbeing treated as income
and potential evapotranspirationas outgo, and soil moisture as a reserve
that may be drawn upon as long as it lasts.Samplecomputationsfor Seattle,
Wash., and Manhattan,Kans., are given in Table I.
The distributionof averageannualwater deficiencyin the easternUnited
Statesis shown in Figure 5. Deficienciesrise sharplyto the west in the Great
Plains States and are in excess of io inches in most of Texas. Deficiencies
CL
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TABLE II-COMPARATIVE DATA ON IRRIGATED VALLEYS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES
OBSERVED POTENTIAL
VALLEY WEATHER STATION WATER USE EVAPOTRANS. DIFF. DIFF.
cm. cm. Cm. %
New Fork Pinedale, Wyo. 46.6 45.4 -I.2 2.6

Michigan and Illinois Walden, Colo. 45.7 46.9 I - 2.6
Southwest Area, San Luis San Luis, Colo. 53 .0 5I.8 -I.2 2.4
West Tule Lake Tule Lake, Calif. 67.7 57.9 -9.8 14.5
Garland Div., Shoshone Lovell, Wyo. 6i.6 59.3 -2.3 3 .7
North Platte Torrington, Wyo. 6o .4 6o .7 0.3 0.5
Mason Creek and Boise Caldwell, Idaho 66. I 66.5 0.4 0. 6
Uncompahgre Delta, Colo. 68.3 67.5 -o.8 I.2
Mesilla Agr. College, N. M. 83 .2 84.0 o.8 0.9
GreenfieldsDiv., Sun River Great Falls,Mont. 6o .3 6o.2 -0. I 0.2
Pecos River near Carlsbad Carlsbad,N. M. 89.6 9I-7 2.I 2.3
Lower Rio Grande Del Rio, Tex. II5.8 II7.0 I.2 I.0
Barahona,Dominican Repub. Barahona I47-3 I46.3 -I.0 0.7
are surprisinglylarge in various areasof high precipitationin the Southern

States-more than 6 inches in the Alabama Black Belt and in the lower
MississippiValley.
The distributionof average annual water surplusin the easternUnited
States is shown in Figure 6. It is more than Io inches in most of the East
and Southeastbut falls rapidlywestwardand is less than i inch in the Great
Plains States. In various centers in the Appalachiansthe water surplus is
more than 35 inches.
RELIABILITY OF COMPUTED POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
We can test the accuracy of the computed values of potential evapo-

transpirationin a number of ways. In Table II above the observationsof
annualwater use in irrigatedvalleys publishedby Lowry andJohnson'"are
compared with computations of annual potential evapotranspiration.Al-
though the computations refer to points of weather observation and the
observationsto irrigationprojectsdifferingin area, in only one place, West
Tule Lake, Calif, is there a significantdifferencebetween computed and
observedpotentialevapotranspiration.
There are no comparabledirectobservationsof potentialevapotranspira-
tion in the eastern United States. There are, however, measurementsof
runoff from a great many streamsfor many years,which may be compared
with computed values of water surplus. Observed mean annual runoff in
I24 minor watershedsin the TennesseeValley comparedwith water surplus
II Op. cit., pp. I253 andI301.

computedfrom dataof temperature and precipitation at WeatherBureau

stations"2 especiallynoteworthybecausethe
showsa close correspondence,
data of the Valley
Tennessee refer
Authority to areasrangingin sizefrom a
few squaremilesto nearlytwo thousandandarefor a uniformperiodfrom
I920 to I942, whereasthe computationsweremadefrom averagesof tem-
peratureand precipitationfor periodsof variouslengths ending in I930 and
refer to the points of weather observation. Computed water surplus and
measuredrunoff are equally close together in Ontario and Mexico, where
potential evapotranspirationis respectivelymuch smallerand much larger.
The National ResourcesBoard in its report of December i, I934, gives a
map of averageannualrunoffin the United States,which may be compared
with the map of water surplus,Figure 6. The correspondenceis generally
close, though there are discrepancies,some of which are due to admitted
errorsin the original runoff map.
From theseand other testsit appearsthatthe computedvaluesof potential
evapotranspirationare of the right order of magnitude throughoutmost of
the United States. They are, nevertheless,only approximate.More exact
determinationsmust await further study and the development of a more
rationalequation. Whether or not the formula can be used without modi-
fication to determine potential evapotranspirationin equatorialand polar
regions is uncertain.This questionalso requiresfurtherstudy.
ESSENTIALS OF A CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION

When the various climatic elements, such as temperatureand precipita-
tion, are plotted on maps, the values grade regularlyexcept where gradients
steepen on mountain slopes or along seacoasts.Nothing distinguishesany
one value in the series from the others; hence divisions of the scales are
arbitraryand frequently owe their origin to arithmeticalor cartographical
convenience. Divisions appearingon maps, selectedperhapsto conform to
a particularcolor scheme, gradually assume the role of climatic regions;
for example, the io-inch isohyet as the limit of agriculture.
Koppen made a significant advance in climatic classificationwhen he
undertook, first to identify the climatic regions and locate their boundaries
from studiesof the distributionof vegetation, and then to select numerical
climatic values for the boundaries.Penck, De Martonne,and Thornthwaite
employed the same method but used data of hydrology and soils to supple-
12
See Figure 3 (p. 69I) in H. G. Wilm, C. W. Thornthwaite, and others: Report of the Committee
on Transpiration and Evaporation, 1943-44, Amer. Geophys. Union Trans. of 1944, Part 5, Washington.
1945, pp. 683-693.
ment those of vegetation in locating the boundariesof climatic regions.

Although this method representsa step forward in that the climatic bound-
ariesare not arbitrary,it is still empirical.
In orderto achievea rationalquantitativeclassificationof climate,definite
and distinctivebreakpoints must be discoveredin the climatic seriesthem-
selves. No such break points exist in the data either of precipitationor of
potential evapotranspiration.Both run in continuous seriesfrom very low
values to very large ones. But when they are taken together, there are some
distinctivepoints, and we have the beginningsof a rationalclassification.
The primary climatic factorsrelate to moisture and heat. We are inter-
ested in whether a climate is moist or dry and warm or cold. We also need
to know whether there is seasonalvariation-whether the climate is moist
in one seasonand dry in another.
THE MOISTUREFACTOR
We cannot tell whether a climate is moist or dry by knowing precipita-

tion alone; we must know whether precipitationis greater or less than
potential evapotranspiration.Ignoranceof the magnitudeof water need has
led to the development of a number of moisture indices, which attempt to
evaluatethe effectivenessof precipitation.It is recognizedthat water utiliza-
tion or water loss, that is, evaporationand transpiration,must be relatedto
precipitationsomehow. Accordingly,a few of the indicesmake use of com-
puted or measuredvalues of evaporationusually from free water surfaces,
lakesand reservoirs,or from evaporationpans.
In I905 Transeau'3produced an index of precipitationeffectiveness,by
using the quotientof total annualmeasuredprecipitationand annualevapora-
tion as computed by Russell'4for a year for about i50 stations,and made a
map of the precipitation-evaporationratio in the easternUnited States. In
I933 Isozaki'5 computed ratiosfor 99 stationsin Japan,using averageannual
precipitationand annualevaporationfrom pans, and made a moisture map
oftheJapaneseEmpire.Trumble,"6makinguse of measurementsof evapora-
tion from pans in South Australia,derived an empirical equation relating
13 E. N. Transcau: Forest Centers of Eastern America, Amer. Naturalist, Vol. 39, I905, pp. 875-889.
'4 Thomas Russell: Depth of Evaporation in the United States, Monthly Weather Rev., Vol. i6,
i888, pp. 235-239.
's Masaru Isozaki: Thornthwaite's New Classification of Climate and Its Application to the Climate
ofJapan, Journ.of Geogr., Tokyo Geographical Society, Vol. 45, I933, pp. 234-245 (inJapanese).
I6 H. C. Trumble: The Climatic Control of Agriculture in South Australia, Trans. and Proc. Royal
Soc. of South Australia, Vol. 6i, I937, pp. 4I-62; idem: Climatic Factors in Relation to the Agricultural
Regions of Southern Australia, Trans. Royal Soc. of South Australia, Vol. 63, I939, pp. 36-43.
monthlyevaporationto vapor-pressure deficit,which he computedfrom

temperature values.He determinedempiricallythatwaterneedof a month
exceedswatersupplywhen computedevaporationis more thanthreetimes
precipitation.His map of southernAustraliashowsthe numberof months
of the yearwhen precipitation is lessthanwaterneed.Wilson'7produceda
moistureindex by dividing evaporationfrom a Livingstonporous cup
atmometerby annualprecipitation and madea moisturemap of Ohio.
Numerousinvestigators, recognizingthattemperature is the majorcon-
trol of evaporation,have substitutedtemperature for evaporationin their
moistureindices.The Langrainfactor,I = P/T, indicatesthatthe'effective-
nessvariesdirectlywith precipitation and inverselywith temperature. De
Martonne's indexof aridity,I= P/ (T + io), is a slightrefinement of Lang's.
Koppen'sthreeformulaefor delimitingthedryclimates,I= 8P/ (5 T + I20),
I = 2P / (T + 33), and I = P / (T + 7), presentedin I91 8, I923, and I928
respectively,aresimilarto thoseof LangandDe Martonne.All use annual
valuesof precipitationandtemperature givenin the metricsystem.
In I93I Thomthwaite'8utilizedevaporationdatafrom the continental
UnitedStatesandderivedan empiricalequationby whichthe precipitation-
evaporationratiocould be determinedfrom monthlyvaluesof precipita-
tion and temperature. He used this moistureindex in makinga climatic
mapof NorthAmericaanda laterone of the earth.I9
In I936 Angstr5m20 suggesteda modificationof De Martonne'sindex
of aridity.He foundthatthe indexof ariditywasproportionate to duration
of precipitation,which was in turn directlyproportionateto amountof
precipitationand inverselyproportionateto an exponentialfunction of
temperature. His humiditycoefficientis I= P/(I.O7), in which the de-
nominatorof the fractiondoubleswith eachriseof IO1 C. in temperature,
in accordancewith Van'tHoff's law. Angstrompublishedmapsof north-
westernEuropeshowingthe humiditycoefficientin JanuaryandJuly. In
I939 Churchand Gueffroy2' usedthe Angstromformulato make similar
maps of the United States.In I946 Setzer22 utilized Van't Hoff's law in the
I7J. D. Wilson and J. R. Savage: An Evaporation Survey of Ohio, Ohio Agric. Exper. Sta. Bull.
564, I936.
I8 C. W. Thornthwaite: The Climates of North America According to a New Classification,
Geogr. Rev., Vol. 2I, I93I, pp. 633-655.
I9 Idem:The Climates of the Earth, Geogr.Rev., Vol. 23, I933, pp. 433-440.
20
Anders Angstr6m: A Coefficient of Humidity of General Applicability, Geografiska Annaler,
Vol. i8, I936, pp. 245-254.
21 P. E. Church and E. M. Gueffroy: A New Coefficient of Humidity and Its Application to the
United States, Geogr. Rev., Vol. 29, I939, pp. 665-667.

22JOse Setzer: A New Formula for Precipitation Effectiveness, Geogr. Rev., Vol. 36, 1946, pp.
247-263.
developmentof a moistureindex. Although developedindependently,

Setzer'sindex is identicalwith Angstrom's.Setzerpublisheda map of the
moistureindexin the stateof SaoPaulo,Brazil.
Angstram23 has ably explainedwhat the investigatorwishesto accom-
plishwith moistureindices:
Especiallywith geographical, geological,or biologicalproblemsin view, [one has] tried
to expressthe humidityor aridityof a climatethroughsome kind of coefficientwhich is
expectedto be a measureon conditionsof humiditynot in the simplephysicalsense,but
involvingan indicationof the climatictendencyto a surplusor deficiencyof waterwith
consequences of the ground,theexistenceof rivers,floods,lakesor deserts
uponthe structure
etc. It is evidentthatthe humidityof the soilis herebya primefactor,andasthiselementis
moreseldomdirectlymeasuredit seemsjustifiedto try to replaceit by some kindof co-
efficientdeducedfrom the currentmeteorologicaldata.
A MOISTURE INDEX
It is now apparentthat the actualevaporationand transpiration from

the soil is not whatmustbe comparedwith precipitation in orderto obtain
a moistureindex, but, rather,the potentialevapotranspiration. Where
precipitation is exactlythe sameas potentialevapotranspiration
all the time
and wateris availablejust as needed,thereis neitherwaterdeficiencynor
waterexcess,andthe climateis neithermoistnor dry. As waterdeficiency
becomeslargerwith respectto potentialevapotranspiration, the climate
becomesarid;as watersurplusbecomeslarger,the climatebecomesmore
humid.Wherethereis a watersurplusandno waterdeficiency,the relation
betweenwater surplusand waterneed constitutesan index of humidity.
Similarly,wherethereis a waterdeficiencyand no surplus,the ratio be-
tween water deficiencyand water need constitutesan index of aridity.
Expressedas percentages thesetwo indicesare:
IOOS and Ia= I (4)
whereIh and Ia are indicesof humidityandaridityrespectively, s is water

surplus,d is waterdeficiency,andn is waterneed.The ultimatein the scale
of aridityis wherethereis no precipitationandthe waterdeficiencyis con-
sequentlyequalto the waterneed, makingIa equalto ioo per cent. As
precipitationandpotentialevapotranspiration areindependentof eachother,
the index of humiditydoes not reacha limit where water surplusequals
waterneed,thatis, whereprecipitation is twicepotentialevapotranspiration,
but continuesabove ioo percent.
Sincewater surplusand waterdeficiencyoccurat differentseasonsin
23
Op. cit., p. 245.
most places,both must enter into a moistureindex, the one affectingit

positively,the other negatively.Althougha water surplusin one season
cannotpreventa deficiencyin anotherexceptas moisturemay be storedin
the soil,to a certainextentone maycompensate for theother.Watersurplus
meansseasonaladditionsto subsoilmoistureand groundwater. Deeply
rootedperennialsmay makepartialuse of subsoilmoistureand thusmini-
mize the effectof drought.Transpiration proceeds,but at reducedrates.
For this reason,a surplusof only 6 inchesin one seasonwill counteracta
deficiencyof iO inchesin another.Thusin an over-allmoistureindexthe
humidityindex has more weight than the aridityindex: the latter has
only six-tenthsthe valueof the former.The moistureindexis:
Iioos- 6od
Im = Ih - .6Ia or Im = (5)
Moistclimateshavepositivevaluesof 'm; dry climateshavenegativevalues.

Figure7 showshow climatictypesare separatedin termsof the moisture
index,Im,andmakesclearhow they arerelatedto watersurplusandwater
deficiency.Thevariousclimatictypestogetherwiththeirlimitsareasfollows:
CLIMATIC TYPE MOISTURE INDEX
A Perhumid ioo and above

B4 Humid 8o to IOO
B3 Humid 60 to 8o
B2 Humid 40 to 6o
BI Humid 20 to 40
C2 Moist subhumid 0 to 20
CI Dry subhumid -20 to 0
D Semiarid -40 to -20
E Arid -6o to -40
The indexvalues-6o, o, and IOOareentirelyrationallimitsof moisture
regions.That the othersarealso may be seenin the nomogramsof Figure
7. Thesedefinitionsof moistureregionsappearto be in finalform.Further
work is neededto improvethe meansfor determiningpotentialevapo-
transpiration,moisturesurplus,and moisturedeficiency.This may lead to
revisionof the locationof the moistureregionsbut will not changethe
definitionof them.
Theseclimatictypesarethe same,andhave the samemeaning,as those
However,whereasthe limits
proposedin an earlierclimaticclassification.24
in the previousclassificationwere determinedempiricallyby study of
vegetation,soils,drainagepatterns,and so on, theselimitsare rationaland
24Thornthwaite,The Climates of North America (op. cit.).
60 2100 100\0 20\4 600 100
1f40 140 140 8o
1J20~ 120 120 60
%100
100
'4
"~~~~~~~~~~~~~100 4.0
F80 \ toist u80 20r 80
60 0
K0 \ 0G
t 40 40e i b to t
P-E=.8I +4. (-60

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Wat-er de-P/clency as 7. of' wa;6er need~
FIG.7-Delineation of moisture regions on basis of water surplusand water deficiency.
are establishedsolely in terms of the relation between potential evapo-

transpirationand precipitation.It is possibleto convert the presentmoisture
index, s,to the old P-Eidex by means of the following equation:
P-E = .81 ? 48. (6)
The distributionof the moisture regions of the United Statesis shown

in Plate I A. The moist climates of the East and the dry climates of the
West are separatedby moistureindex o, in a line that extendsfrom western
Minnesotasouthwardto the Gulf of Mexico. This is a very importantlInme,
since it separatesregions of prevailing water surplusfrom those of water
deficiency. Although dry climates predominate in the western United
States, there is a belt of moist climates along the Pacific coast as far south
as the San Franciscopeninsula.Moist climates appearalso as islandsin the
western mountains.
Perhumid climates are not extensive in the United States. They occur
along the coasts of Washington, Oregon, and northern Californiaand on
the western slopes of the Cascadesand the Sierras.There is a single small
islandin the high Rockies of Colorado, and other islandson high elevations
in the Appalachians.A narrow belt along the Maine coast is perhumid.
Humid climates are most extensive in the East, but they occur adjacentto
perhumid climates on the Pacific coast and on high areaselsewhere in the
West. Subhumid climates are most extensive in the Middle West, wide
belts of moist subhumidand dry subhumid extending from the Canadian
border in Minnesota and North Dakota to the Gulf coast of Texas. Much
of the Floridapeninsulais moist subhumid. Smaller subhumidareasoccur
in the West, mostly as belts along the lower mountain slopes. The Great
160
Plains and much of the
intermountainregion are
semiarid. Arid climate is
most extensive in the
Southwest. There are,
120_ however, small arid areas
in Washington, Oregon,
s .E M 2 Idaho, Montana, Wyo-
Kloo - ming,Utah,andColorado.
Ng t > a Most of the San Joaquin
480W: g t W 0 ValleyofCaliforniais arid.

SEASONAL VARIATION
OF EFFECTIVE MOISTURE
60
It is importantto know
whether a place is contin-
4-0 - S % / _uously wet or continu-
$ or Ws Lariye ously dry, or whether it
/ seasonal water s'U"us is wet in one seasonand
2C / / _ dryin another.The mois-
/S or w Aloderae seasonal water s ture index can indicate
/i Small or no seasonal wafer sur/us how humid or how arid
0 20 40 60 80 tooa climateis, but it can-
Water de/fciency as Y of water need
FIG. 8-Nomogram to determine seasonal regime of moisture. ti s-
notashelsame
tmnguish climateswith sea-
sonal moisture variation from those without it. In the moist climates, if
there is a dry season,we need to know how dry it is; in the dry climates,
how wet the wet seasonis if one occurs. In moist climateswater deficiency
may be large, moderate, small, or nonexistent. In dry climates the same is
true of water surplus (see Fig. 8).
By definition, a large water deficiencyor surplusis an amount sufficient
to make the climate one grade drier or moister than it would be otherwise.
For example, in San Franciscothe water surplusof 6.68 inches (24.6 per
cent of the water need) makes the climate less dry, changing it from semi-
arid (D) to dry subhumid (CI). Los Angeles, with a somewhat largerwater
deficiency and a smallerwinter surplus,remainssemiarid (D). A moderate
water surplusor deficiency will, by defmnition,change the climate one-half
grade.
The symbols s and s5 indicate respectivelymoderate and large seasonal
variationof moisture,with the drierseasonoccurringin summer;w andw2

are used similarlywhere the drierseasonoccursin winter.Where water
need and precipitationmarchthroughthe year approximately parallelto
each other,therewill be little or no seasonalvariationof moisture.Here
the symbolsr and d are used,the firstto designatethe areaswith little or
no water deficiencyin moist climates,and the secondlittle or no water
surplusin dry climates.The climaticsubdivisionsare definedin termsof
the humidityandaridityindicesas follows:
MOIST CLIMATES (A, B, C2) ARIDITY INDEX
r little or no water deficiency o - i6.7

s moderate summer water deficiency i6.7 - 33 3
w moderate winter water deficiency i6.7 - 33 .3
S2 large summer water deficiency 33 . 3+
w2 large winter water deficiency 33 . 3+
DRY CLIMATES (CI, D, E) HUMIDITY INDEX
d little or no water surplus 0 - IO
s moderate winter water surplus IO - 20
w moderate summer water surplus IO - 20
S2 large winter water surplus 20+
w2 large summer water surplus 20+
The symbols s, s2,w, and w2 have the same meaning in both moist and
dry climatesin spiteof the factthatthey aredefineddifferently.They refer
to the seasonwhen rainfallis mostdeficient.
The winter dry, w and w2, types do not occur in the United States.In
fact,thesetypesaremuchlesswidelydistributed overthe earththanwould
be deducedfroma studyof the seasonalmarchof precipitation. Waterneed
is naturallylargerin summerthanin winter;andin manyareasof maximum
summerrainfall,waterneedandprecipitation areessentially
togetherthrough
the year,and thereis neithersummerwatersurplusnor winterwaterde-
ficiency.For example,in Nanking,China,the averageprecipitation of the
threesummermonthsis 55.o centimetersand of the wintermonthsonly
I2.0; but sincewaterneed varieseven more widely betweenwinterand
summer,the climateis not of the w type. The watersurplusoccursin late
wmterandspring,not in summer.
In Figure9 representative
stationsare groupedaccordingto whether
of
the seasonalrange effectivemoistureis small,moderate,or large.Those
in whichprecipitation most nearlyparallelspotentialevapotranspiration
and
both watersurplusand waterdeficiencyare smallare Ames, Iowa (C2r),
Alexandria,Minn. (C2r),aridGrafton,N. Dak. (C1d).
The distribution
in the United Statesof the climaticsubtypesbasedon
Br1evard, NC Ar
North Hlead,Wash.A r
Corry, Pa. B4r
Lenoir, N. C. B3 r
Canton, Ohio B2 r
Louisvl/le, Kly. Bzr
iaadison, Wils.B,r
Ames, Iowa C2r
Alexandria, AMnn.C2r
_ 1:$ Dak. Ci at
NV.
Gr~61afteon,
1: : . -:. . NorthPla/,tte, N1ebr. C, d
F7 . ... /Las Animnas,Co/o. L d
. . . . . : . : a Zos Angeles, CaliPfD d
- -- - . . *
. -.unup . 0To7ah,Hev. Ed
Olym1pia, Wash. As
N'ewberg, Oreg. B4s
Portland, Oreg.w 63 |.
Sea-ttle, Wash. B2s I
Canton, 4iss. Bi s
Dal/as, Tex. C2s
r - z gr Otah3 Ci,s
~~~Oqden,
| . . . .. - '. *'F.rmlngti/oWS Caln' Ds
Ruth, Ca/n1' A s2
Coldl Run, Ca/if1 84 s2
Orleans, a/if
H52 3S
h'ealdsbur , Calif B2 2 .
Santa Rosa, Calif S1S2
Santa Cruz, Calif C2 2s
Berkeley, Cal/,f C2 S L .... //////fM
.. Sn Fr'r.77cisc5
CO, Cl S2
. : : .. ////// qSan Afa&eq, Ca/MOCl S2
|4rrowhead Springs, Ca//D Os2 GEOGR. REVfEW}
100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

Aridity index Humidity index
FIG. 9-Seasonal regime of moisture at selected stations.
seasonal variation of effective moisture is shown in Plate I B. Types r and

d, representing small seasonal variation, are most extensive. Types s and s2
prevail in the Pacific-coast region, where precipitation comes mainly in
winter; s2 does not occur except where the march of precipitation is opposite
to that of water need and for this reason has its most extensive development
in California. Type s may occur as well in regions of prevailing summer
rain if summer water need sufficiently exceeds it. There are several areas of
s climate in the southern United States and a few isolated stations in the
Northeast. Canton, Miss. (B1s), and Dallas, Tex. (C2s), are examples. A
large s area extends from eastern Texas and central Oklahoma eastward into
Arkansas and Louisiana. A smaller area occupies the lower Mississippi
Valley, and another crosses Alabama from Georgia to Mississippi along the
well-known Black Belt.
The existence of the s type in the southeastern United States is surprising.
Summer rainfall is fairly large, and it is not generally realized that water
need is larger. Summer drought is serious in much of the eastern United
States, even in the r type climates. In the s type summer drought is chronic.
Supplementary irrigation becomes an important need.
AN INDEX OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Potentialevapotranspirationis an index of thermalefficiency.It possesses

the virtue of being an expressionof day length as well as of temperature.
It is not merely a growth index but expressesgrowth in terms of the water
that is needed for growth. Given in the same units as precipitationit relates
thermalefficiencyto precipitationeffectiveness.
In equatorialregions, where mean monthly temperaturedoes not vary
appreciablythroughthe year, a mean annualtemperatureof 230 C. (73.40 F.)
is a reasonableboundarybetween megathermaland mesothermalclimates.
Away from the equator,where there is a seasonalvariationof temperature,
mean annual temperature at the boundary is lower, 2I.50 C. (70.70 F.),
becausethe reduced growth and water need of winter are more than offset
by an acceleratedgrowth and an increasedwater need of summer. Where
the mean temperatureof every monch is 230, and if the station is directly
on the equator, so that there is no variation in day length, the potential
evapotranspirationis II4.0 centimeters (44.88 inches). This may be taken
as the index that separatesmegathermaland mesothermalclimates. Other
boundariesin the seriesare in a descendinggeometricprogression(p. 82).
Climatic regions based on temperatureefficiencyare analogousto those
derived from the moisture index and are designated by similar symbols.
Microthermal(C') and mesothermal (B') climates are subdividedlike the
subhumid (C) and humid (B) climates.25The distributionof the thermal
regions in the United States is shown in Plate I C. Mesothermal (B')
climates are most extensive. Microthermal(C') climatesoccur along most
of the Canadianborderand extend southwardalong the Rocky Mountains
in a continuous belt to southern New Mexico. There are three areas of
megathermal (A') climate: southern Florida, southernTexas, and the arid
parts of southernCaliforniaand southwesternArizona. Only small isolated
areasof tundra (D') occur, in the high Sierrasof California,the northern
Rockies of Wyoming and Montana, and the central Rockies of Colorado.
There are no instrumentalrecords of frost (E') climate in the United
States,and it does not appearon the map.
The megathermal (A') climates of the United Statesare differentfrom
those of equatorialregions. Summer days are longer and hotter, and winter
days are shorter and colder. Temperatureand day length work together
25 Although the symbols are the same as those
used in the original classification, the climatic limits
differ considerably from the old ones. Consequently, the symbols have different meanings. For example,
in the original scheme tundra was E' and frost climate F'. Mesothermal climates are more extensive
than previously shown.
to bringabout seasonalvariationsin potentialevapotranspiration or tem-

peratureefficiency.The differenceis illustratedin Figureio-A. Whereasat
Belem, Brazil, the range is only from IO.3 to I 3.I centimeters,at Barahona,
Dominican Republic, it is from 8.2 to I6.2 centimeters,and at Miami, Fla.,
from 5.2 tO I7.8 centimeters.At the mesothermalborder the mean tem-
TE INDEX CLIMATIC TYPE
cm. in.
E' Frost
I4.2 5.6I
D' Tundra
28.5 II.22
C'1
42 7 i6. 83 - Microthermal
C'2
57.0 22 44 -_-
B'1
7I .2 28.05
B'2
85 .5 33.66 Mesothermal
B'3
99.7 39 27
B'4
II4.0 44.88
A' Megathermal
peratureof the coldest month is as low as 500 F. in some stations.Freezing
temperaturesmay occur almost annually, whereas in equatorial stations
frosts are entirely unknown. For this reasoncertainplants popularlyassoci-
ated with tropical climates do not grow in the megathermal climates of
the United States. However, plant growth continues, although at reduced
rates,throughout the winter.
The mesothermal(B') climates occupy a wide range of latitudesin the
easternand centralUnited States.Summertemperaturesfall off slowly from
south to north: the meanJuly temperaturein the lower Rio GrandeValley
of Texas is 850 F., and it is above 700 F. in the Yellowstone Valley of Mon-
tana. Day length, on the other hand, increasesfrom south to north-about
I4 hoursin southemTexasand i6 hoursin northernMontana.Consequently,
averageJuly potential evapotranspirationdecreasesslowly: it is about i 8
centimetersin southernTexas and I5 centimetersin Montana.The fact that
winter temperaturesand day length both decreasefrom south to north has
less influence because potential evapotranspirationis small even on the
southern margin of the climatic zone. However, the growing season be-
comes shorter,and the northernedge of the zone, where annual potential
evapotranspirationis only 50 per cent of the maximum for the climatic
type, is reached near the Canadianborder. The four subdivisionsof the
INCHES Three macrotherml s5tat/ons Two warm microtherfla/f (C2 statIons
/ \
7-
I- g.-.*. f4ueinado, N. Rex. 21. 81 >7S.

elev. 6600 /6.
:1 \. A'/espe//, Aont 2.85h7s.
Y.
r X \ < W ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~eie
273 /6.
. 1!~~~~~~~~~~~~ee.Z031~
i // Be/em, ins \
nrazi1 57721,s. /-
/ arahon, I76O
orn/oca 760ns
a-wi / 181?7 /1.5/z2.2 /17s /\
I- I~ ~ ~ il ~~ II ~ ~ \i\~ ~ 00
I..-~ i
Two cold mncrothermal f(Cl) SatIons

Corona, Co/lo/ 77 os coper Rine, N. W Terr. \
4_ elev /660 ft. .,Wgon WheelGao Colo- - C,nvda 1/.38 ins. \t dmbr1daegBy.YW en
O I I L \ [ L L _ ,~~~~~~~~~nD
J F M A M J J A S O N D J J F M A M J J A S O N D J
GEOGn p REoVIEW, JAN. 1948
FIG. IOMarCh of potential evaporation. FOr macrothermalread megathermal (a preferable form,

suggested by Mr. A. B. Hoen).
mesothermalclimatesarppearto have real validity, but since no appropriate

names for them have been found, they are identified only by subscriptsI
to 4 following symbol B '.
Microthermal (C') climates extend continuously from the Canadian
borderin Montanato within 200 miles of the Mexicanborderin New
Mexico. They are at high elevationsin the southernpart of their range and
descendto lower elevationsin the north. Quemado, N. Mex., and-Kalispefll
Mont., have the sameannualpotentialevapotranspirationand are both warm
microthermal (C,'2); the first is 66oo feet above sea level, the second only
2973 feet. Figure io-B shows the march of potential evapotranspiration in
these two stations. Spring and summer temperatures are considerably lower
in Kalispell. The growing season is shorter, but since summer days are
longer, higher rates of water use and more rapid growth compensate for
shorter time of plant activity.
The colder type of microthermal climates (C/I) is not areally important
in the United States.26 The two most extensive areas are in Wyoming and
Colorado, though smaller areas are found in several western states. Wagon
Wheel Gap, Colo., is near the warm limit of the type, and Corona, Colo.,
is near the cold limit (Fig. io-C). Although the temperatures of the warmest
months are low (Corona mean July temperature, 48:80 F.; Wagon Wheel
Gap, 56.2? F.), the potential evapotranspiration is surprisingly large, nearly
io centimeters (4 inches). Annual precipitation is in excess of water need
in both places, but summer rainfall is less than summer potential evapo-
transpiration. At Wagon Wheel Gap summer water deficiency amounts to
2.2 inches. Short growing season and low summer temperature do not
prevent droughts.
No currently reporting Weather Bureau station in the United States
has tundra (D') climate. However, it undoubtedly occurs in various isolated
high areas, mostly in the West. The summit of Mt. Washington, in New
Hampshire, has an annual water need of I2.9 inches, which places it on
the tundra margin. Figure io-D shows the march of potential evapotran-
spiration in two stations in the far north of Canada. Both are very near
the microthermal-tundra boundary; Coppermine is just above the line, and
Cambridge Bay just below. Although the mean temperature of July, the
warmest month, is only about 5o0 F. in both places, the water need is as-
tonishingly high, being above io centimeters (4 inches). Average annual
potential evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation in both places, and sum-
mer drought is a characteristic feature of the climate. In southern and eastern
Greenland, on the other hand, precipitation greatly exceeds evapotranspira-
tion, and there is a large water surplus, a part of which nourishes the ice-
cap, and a part of which runs off in summer.
In the climate of perpetual frost (E') temperatures need not remain con-
tinuously below the freezing point. Although frost effectively prevents
vegetation growth, and thus transpiration, nevertheless some water passes
into the atmosphere by evaporation or sublimation. At the outer limit ol
the frost climate potential evapotranspiration is I4.2 centimeters (5.6I
26 This type is equivalent to taiga (D') in the previous classification.
RATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF CLiMXrE 85
inches). It is evident that even in the frost climate moisture differentiation

is important, because if precipitationexceeds potential evapotranspiration,
ice will accumulateand a glacierwill develop. On the other hand, if precipi-
tation is less than this criticalvalue, ice accumulationis impossible.It is not
certainthat true frost (E') climate exists anywhere in the United States.A
snow line or mountain glacierdoes not necessarilyindicatea frost climate.
SUMMER CONCENTRATION OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY
At the equator, where day length is the same throughout the year and
where temperatureis also uniform, seasonalvariation of potential evapo-
transpirationwill be small. With no variationno seasoncan be called sum-
mer, and the potential evapotranspirationof any consecutive three months
will constitute 25 per cent of the annual total. On the other hand, in the
Polar Regions, where the growing seasonis entirely within the three sum-
mer months, the potential evapotranspirationof these months will consti-
tute ioo per cent of the total. Between these extremes, as potential evapo-
transpirationfalls from that characteristicof megathermal(A') climates to
that of frost (E') climates,the part that is concentratedin summergradually
rises from 25 per cent to ioo per cent. This rise resultsfrom an increasing
length of midsummer days, and an increasein the length of winter, with
increasein latitude.
The astronomicalmotions of the earth tend to produce a certain fixed
relation between the summer index of thermal efficiency and the annual
index. This relation has been approximatelydetermined from a series of
stationsin the interior low plains of North America. The summer concen-
tration appearsto be inverselyproportionateto the logarithm of the annual
index. The relationis describedby the equation
S = I57.76 - 66.44 log E, (7)
in which s is summerconcentrationin percentagesand E is potentialevapo-
transpiration m inches.
But there are a numberof meteorologicalsituationsin which the relation
is modified or altered and is, in consequence,abnormal. On small oceanic
islandsand seacoastsdominated by onshore winds in middle and high lati-
tudes summer temperaturesare less warm, and winter temperaturesless
cold, than elsewherein theselatitudes.The summerconcentrationof thermal
efficiencyis lower than it should be for the latitude. In mountainsthere is
a more or less uniform reduction of temperaturethroughout the year.
Annual and summer thermal-efficiencyindices are both reduced, but not in
the same proportion. Here, too, the summer concentration of thermal
.. ---0_ o N+_+s N
N_cs -O D - _ N
c0 V D D ..OD cDD.O.O ..O..O
D O
_V rJ
q -N gj -
N r M; ; N N -4 _ _ _ _ _
U U C mc -q N
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UN N N ~ *.0N C
O-O
C), N oO Q\ N N 00 00\0 \ O N N 'C

CE NS ee 000O0
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'.1-
000 N~~OOO\~o0 ,00 0CO Noon
t i.t 0OO. .
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Wr O O O en +% boo t O O V- u~~ o 0 0
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v00C0 0O O O'0 COON OQo
'0'0'o'0 t O' t\0NO
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tN 'O 000 O 00 ON
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t H N li )H +9D to +
E3 to~00 en cr -qo
H 00 t
: X 9Dvn+I+dw
9D
Vrn 0 en \0 OC \0 eN (7
0 0 t 0 \I es+onven CE0f
dHH+N
en
v0 m 000 0 0
oN 000
' l
?C O\0 N0 \ O
to.ooo\ooo N- O
000-000 0 C.J
CC 1 X'C > Ci Cdo N N
U V 00~~~~~C
NOON
'0C~~~~ d~~'0'~00
CO'OC C N - 0o 000 00 0 \N
0 00 00~~0~00O 0'Cl C)'0
'0 U c'
N~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ )d V
CC~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
efficiencyis abnormally
low. On the otherhand,in someregionsthe normal
seasonal march of temperature is exaggerated. Summer temperatures are
increased by advection of hot tropical air, and winter temperatures are
lowered by advection of cold polar air. In these regions the summer con-
centration is abnormally high.
POTENTIAL TEMPERATURE- SUMMER SUMMER
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION EFFICIENCY TYPE CONCENTRATION CONCENTRATION
Ins. Cms. Percentage Type
A' a'
44.88 II4.0 48.0
B'4 b'4
39-27 99.7 - i .9
B '3 b '8
33.66 85.5- 56.3
B'2 b'2
28.05 7I.2 6i.6
B'i b'1
22.44 57.0 68.o
C'2 c'2
I6.83 42.7 76.3
C'1 c'1
II.22 28.5 88.o
5 . 6I I42 ---.2
E'
The extent to which the summer-concentration percentage fails to meet

the above requirements is a measure of its abnormality. San Francisco, for
example, has a potential evapotranspiration of 27.09 inches and a summer
concencration of 33.3 per cent. Thus summer concentration is that of fill
megathermal (a') climate, though the temperature-efficiency type is
actually only first mesothermal (B'I). San Francisco is an example of a
so-called "marine" climate.
Summer concentration of thermal efficiency in the United States is
shown in Plate I D. The displacement of the various zones from the com-
parable ones of thermal efficiency (P1. I C) is a measure of oceanity or
continentality.
The abnormality of the summer-concentration percentage deserves special
study, but it will be more profitable on a world basis than for the United
States alone.
ELEMENTS OF THE CLASSIFICATION
Four symbols used together give a complete description of a climate.

The necessary data for classifying the stations in Figure 4 are presented in
Table III. Water need, in the first column, is, of course, potential evapo-
transpiration. The second colunm gives the percentage that summer po-
tential evapotranspiration is of the annual total. The column labeled "Sur-
plus as percentage of need" gives the humidity index, and that labeled
"Deficiency as percentage of need" the index of aridity. The moisture index
is obtained by subtracting six-tenths of the latter from the former.
The various subdivisions of mesothermal, microthermal, and humid
climatic types do not have individual names but can be referred to only
by symbol. Thus we can say first, second, third, or fourth mesothermal.
Brevard, N. C. (AB'2rb'4), is perhumid, second mesothermal, with no
season of water deficiency, and a temperature-efficiency regime normal to
fourth mesothermal. San Francisco, Calif (CIB 'is2a'), is dry subhumid, first
mesothermal, with large winter water surplus, and a temperature-efficiency
regime normal to megathermal.
Superficially the present system is similar to its predecessor27in that the
same factors are enmployed;namely a moisture factor, a heat factor, and the
seasonal variation of the two. Actually, the two systems are fundamentally
different. In the earlier classification, climatic types were identified, and
boundaries were located, empirically, through study of the distribution of
vegetation, soils, drainage features, and so on. In the present classification,
climates are defined rationally, and boundaries are determined by the data.
The difference may be illustrated by the change in point of view respect-
ing vegetation. The earlier study adopted K6ppen's position that the plant
is a meteorological instrument which integrates the various factors of climate
and which, with experience, can be "read" like a thermometer or a rain
gauge. In the present study, vegetation is regarded as a physical mechanism
by means of which water is transported from the soil to the atmosphere; it
is the machinery of evaporation as the cloud is the machinery of precipitation.
Climatic boundaries are determined rationally by comparing precipita-
tion and evapotranspiration. The subdivisions of the older classification were
justly criticized as being vegetation regions climatically determined. The
present climatic regions are not open to this criticism, since they come from
a study of the climatic data themselves and not from a study of vegetation.
This classification can be improved. A first step will be to develop better
means of determining potential evapotranspiration. Additional observations
are needed, particularly in the tropics and in high latitudes. With new data
available, the present formula can be revised, or perhaps a new and more
rational formula can be devised. A truly rational method of delimiting the
temperature-efficiency regions has not yet been developed. A relation be-
27 Thomthwaite, The Climates of North America (op. cit.).
tween the heat factorand the moisturefactormay exist that will provide
the rationalbasis.So farit hasnot beendiscovered.
Thereis an encouragingprospectthatthis climaticclassification
which
is developedindependentlyof other geographicalfactorssuch as vegeta-
tion,soils,andlanduse,may providethe key to theirgeographical distribu-
tion.
Soil-formingprocessesare relatedto water surplusesand water de-
ficiencies;so are hydrologicalregimesand drainagepatterns.The problem
of the originof the prairiesmay comenearsolutionin an analysisof annual
frequencyof waterdeficiencyand water surplus.Furthermore, much can
be learnedregardingsoil productivityand bestlandusethrougha studyof
magnitudeand frequencyof water deficiency.Finally,we have a better
understanding than ever beforeof the qualitiesof a climatewhen we are
ableto comparethe potentialevapotranspiration throughthe yearwith the
precipitation.
APPENDIX I
THE DETERMINATION OF POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
The relationbetweenmean monthly temperatureand potentialevapotranspiration

adjustedto a standardmonth of 30 days, each having I2 hours of possible sunshine,in four
selectedareasis shown in Figure ii. In each areathe relationshipwithin the rangeof tempera-
ture involved is well expressedby an equation of the form
e= cta, (8)
in which e is monthly evapotranspirationin centimetersand t is mean monthly temperature

in 'C. From these observationsit is seen that there is no simple relationshipbetween monthly
evapotranspirationand monthly temperature.The coefficientsc and a vary from one place
to another. Thus an equation having coefficientsderived from observationsmade in a warm
climate does not yield correct values of potential evapotranspirationfor an area having a
cold climate, and vice versa.In Figure I2 the lines showing the relationshipbetween tempera-
ture and evapotranspirationin severalareastend to converge where potentialevapotranspira-
tion is I3.5 centimetersand temperatureis 26.5' C. At lower temperaturesthere is increasing
divergence in potential evapotranspiration.
In a general equation constants c and a must be allowed to vary with a factor that is
small in cold climatesand large in hot climates. Mean annualtemperatureis not satisfactory
becausein some places it is affectedby below-freezing temperatures.A specialequation was
developed for the purpose. A monthly index is obtained from the equation i = (t /)1- 514.
Summation of the I2 monthly values gives an appropriateheat index, L. While this index
variesfrom o to i6o, the exponent a in the above equationvariesfrom 0 to 4.25. The relation
between the two is closely approximatedby the expression
a= 0.000000675 13 - 0.000077II2+0.0I792I+0.49239. (9)
The coefficientc in equation (8) above variesinverselywith I. From these relationsa general
equation for potential evapotranspirationwas obtained. It is
e = i.6 (Iot /I)a, (Io)
in which a has the value given in equation (9).
The formula gives unadjustedratesof potential evapotranspiration.Since the number of
RELATION BETWEEN MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE AND
POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN SELECTED AREAS
30 K _ ___ - -
20 _ _ _ ___ ___ - - _
Kissimmee River Bosin,F loridol _ _ Me illa .Valley, New Mexico
tO21
-C...... _ :- -_ l1 -
5C == - == - o___
, - === - 1 - 1 1
I ,0 l I / - - ; ' /
30 '_ 11111 1.1 _ _ -
sC .. - 1- - - e - - 11 1 - 1
__. __ H__ X a -o ___ __ _
SIkunk River Basin, Iowna ____ Lysimneter Y iol B, Coshocton, Ohio,
I2 3 4 5 6 76 8 0 I5 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 0t 15,
Potential evapotranspiration in centimeters
FIG. I I
days in a month rangesfroM 2 8 to 31I (nearly i i per cent) and the number of hours in the
day between sunrise and sunset, when evapotranspirationprincipally takes place, varies
with the seasonand with latitude, it becomes necessaryto reduce or increaseth uajsed
rates by a factor that varies with the month and with latitude.
This mathematicaldevelopment is far from satisfactory.It is empirical, and the general
equation does not accord with the newly developed law of growth. Furthermore,the equa-
tion is completely lacking in mathematical elegance. It is very complicated and without
nomograms and tables as computing aids would be quite unworkable.The chief obstacleat
presentto the developmentof a rationalequationis the lack of understandingof why potential
RATIONAL CLASSIFICATIONOF CLIMATE 91
evapotranspirationcorrespondingto a given temperatureis not the same everywhere. Not

until this matter is understoodwill a rationalmethod be possible.
In spite of the lack of a theoreticalfoundation, this method makes it possible to arrive
at values of potential evapotranspirationthat are approximately correct and that give an
entirely new approachto the problems of climatic classification.
RANGE OF MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE AND POTENTIAL
T?C EVAPOTRANSPIRATION IN SELECTED AREAS
6 iij4 ' - I
3 0
3 4 5 .6 .7 .8 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 SO 10.0 15.0 2 0.0
Potential evapotranspiration in centimeters
FIG. 12
In order to determinepotentialevapotranspiration,mean monthly valuesof temperature

must be available,and the latitude of the station must be known. Three steps are involved
in the computation, and all three are accomplishedby means of a nomogram and tables.
The firststep is to obtain the heat index, L.Table IV gives monthly valuesof i correspond-
ing to monthly mean temperatures.Summationof the I2 monthly values gives the index, L.
The next step is to determine unadjustedvalues of potential evapotranspirationfrom
the nomogram in Figure 13 28 Since there is a linear relation between the logarithm of
temperatureand the logarithm of unadjustedpotential evapotranspiration,straightlines on
the nomogram define the relationship.All lines pass through the point of convergence at
28 A table has been prepared for this step. but it is too long to publish here. It will be placed on file
at the American Geographical Society.
92 rHE GEOGRAPHICAL REVIEW
TABLE IV
T?C .0 .I .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9
0 .0I .0I .02 .03 .04 .05 .o6 .07

I .09 .IO .I2 .I3 .I5 .i6 .i8 .20 .2I .23
2 .25 .27 .29 .3I *33 .35 .37 .39 .42 .44
3 .46 .48 .5I .53 .56 .58 .6i .63 .66 .69
4 *7I .74 .77 .80 .82 .85 .88 .9I .94 .97
5 I.00 I.03 i.o6 I.09 I.I2 I.i6 I.I9 I.22 I.25 I.29
6 I.32 I.3 5 I.39 I.42 I.45 I.49 I.52 I.56 I.59 I.63
7 i.66 I.70 I.74 I.77 i.8i i.85 I.89 I.92 I.96 2.00
8 2.04 2.o8 2.I2 2.I5 2.I9 2.23 2.27 2.3I 2.35 2.39
9 2-44 2.48 2.52 2.56 2.60 2.64 2.69 2.73 2.77 2.8I
IO 2.86 2.90 2.94 2.99 3.03 3.o8 3.I2 3.I6 3.2I 3.25
II 3.30 3-34 3 39 3-44 3.48 3-53 3.58 3.62 3.67 3.72

I2 3.76 3.8I 3.86 3.9I 3.96 4.00 4.05 4.10 4.I5 4.20
I3 4.25 4.30 4.35 4.40 4.45 4.50 4-55 4.60 4.65 4.70
I4 4.75 4.8I 4.86 4.9I 4.96 5-0I 5.07 5.I2 5.I7 5.22
I5 5.28 5.33 5.38 5.44 5.49 5 55 5.60 5.65 5.7I 5.76
i6 5.82 5.87 5.93 5.98 6.04 6.io 6.I5 6.2I 6.26 6.32
I7 6.38 6.44 6.49 6.55 6.6i 6.66 6.72 6.78 6.84 6.90
i8 6.95 7-0I 7.07 7.I3 7.I9 7.25 7-3I 7.37 7.43 7.49
I9 7.55 7.6I 7-67 7.73 7 79 7.85 7-9I 7.97 8.03 8.io
20 8.i6 8.22 8.28 8.34 8.4I 8.47 8.53 8.59 8.66 8.72
2I 8.78 8.85 8.9I 8.97 9.04 9.I0 9.I7 9.23 9.29 9.36
22 9.42 9.49 9.55 9.62 9.68 9.75 9.82 9.88 9.95 IO.OI
23 io.o8 IO.I5 IO.2I IO.28 IO.35 IO.4I IO.48 IO.55 IO.62 io.68
24 IO.75 IO.82 IO.89 IO.95 II.02 II.09 II.i6 II.23 II.30 II.37
25 II.44 II.50 II.57 II.64 II.7I II.78 II.85 II.92 II.99 I2.06
26 I2.I3 I2.2I I2.28 I2.35 I2.42 I2.49 I2.56 I2.63 I2.70 I2.78
27 I2.85 I2.92 I2.99 I3.07 I3.I4 I3.2I I3.28 I3.36 I3.43 I3.50
28 I3.58 I3.65 I3.72 I3.80 I3.87 I3.94 I4.02 I4.09 I4.I7 I4.24
29 I4.32 I4.39 I4.47 I4.54 I4.62 I4.69 I4.77 I4.84 I4.92 I4.99
30 I5.07 I5.I5 I5.22 I5.30 I5.38 I5.45 I5.53 I5.6i I5.68 I5.76
3I I5.84 I5.92 I5.99 I6.07 I6.I5 I6.23 I6.30 I6.38 I6.46 I6.54
32 I6.62 I6.70 I6.78 I6.85 I6.93 I7.0I I7.09 I7.I7 I7.25 I7.33
33 I7.4I I7.49 I7.57 I7.65 I7.73 I7.8I I7.89 I7.97 I8.05 I8.I3
34 I8.22 I8.30 I8.38 I8.46 I8.54 I8.62 I8.70 I8.79 I8.87 I8.95
35 I9.03 I9.II I9.20 I9.28 I9.36 I9.45 I9.53 I9.6I I9.69 I9.78
36 I9.86 I9.95 20.03 20.1I 20.20 20.28 20.36 20.45 20.53 20.62
37 20.70 20.79 20.87 20.96 2I.04 2I.I3 2I.2I 2I.30 2I.38 2I.47
38 2I.56 2I.64 2I.73 2I.8I 2I.90 2I.99 22.07 22.I6 22.25 22.33
39 22.42 22.5I 22.59 22.68 22.77 22.86 22.95 23.03 23.I2 23.2I
40 23.30
t = 26.50 C. and PE = I3.5 cm. The slope of the line is determined by the heat index of the
station. For example, the heat index of Brevard, N. C., is 56.o, and the line ruled on the
nomogram representsthe relationshipbetween potentialevapotranspirationand temperature
at that place. At a mean temperatureof IO1 C. (5oo F.) the unadjustedpotentialevapotranspi-
ration is 3.6 centimeters.29Knowing the index (I) of the station, one sets a straightedgein
29 For accurate computation it is desirable to make a nomogram on a larger scale on logarithm paper
that is commercially available. Keuffel and Esser No. 359-I I2L (logarithmic, 2 x 3 cycles) is satisfactory.
The point of convergence and the heat-index scale are easily added. A transparent rule may be used.
TABLE V-MEAN POSSIBLF. DURATION OF SUNLIGHT IN THE NORTHERN AND SOUTHERN HEMISPHERES
EXPRESSED IN UNITS OF 30 DAYS OF 12 HOURS EACH
N. LAT. J F M A M J J A S 0 N D
0 1.04 .94 I.04 I.01 1.04 I.OI 1.04 I.04 I.01 1.04 1.01 I.04
5 I.02 .93 I.03 I.02 i.o6 I.03 i.o6 1.05 1.01 1.03 .99 I.02
10 1.00 .9I 1.03 1.03 i.o8 i.o6 I.08 1.07 1.02 1.02 .98 .99
15 .97 .9I 1.03 I.04 I.II I.08 I.I2 I.08 1.02 I.OI .95 .97
20 .95 .90 I.03 I.05 I.I3 I.II I.I4 I.II I.02 I.00 .93 .94
25 .93 .89 I.03 i.o6 I.15 I.14 I.I7 I.I2 I.02 .99 .9I .91
26 .92 .88 1.03 i.o6 I.15 I.15 I.17 I.I2 I.02 .99 .91 .9I
27 .92 .88 1.03 I.07 i.i6 I.J5 i.i8 I.13 I.02 .99 .90 .90
28 .9I .88 1.03 I .07 ioi6 i.i6 i.i8 I.I3 I.02 .98 .90 .90
29 .9I .87 1.03 I.07 I.17 i.i6 I.I9 I.I3 I.03 .98 .90 .89
30 .90 .87 1.03 i.o8 i.i8 I.I7 I.20 I.14 I.03 .98 .89 .88
3 *90
. .87 1.03 I.08 i.i8 I.I8 I.20 I.14 I.03 .98 .89 .88
32 .89 .86 1.03 i.o8 I.I9 I.I9 I.2I IJ.5 I.03 .98 .88 .87
33 .88 .86 I.03 I.09 I.I9 I.20 I.22 I.I5 I.03 .97 .88 .86
34 .88 .85 1.03 I.09 I.20 I.20 I.22 i.i6 I.03 .97 .87 .86
35 .87 .85 1.03 1.09 I.2I I.2I 1.23 i.i6 I.03 .97 .86 .85
36 .87 .85 1.03 I.10 I.21 1.22 I.24 i.i6 I.03 .97 .86 .84
37 .86 .84 I.03 I.10 I.22 I.23 1.25 I.17 I.03 *97 .85 .83
38 .85 .84 I.03 I.IO I.23 I.24 I.25 I.17 I.04 .96 .84 .83
39 .85 .84 1.03 I.11 I.23 I.24 I.26 i.i8 I.04 .96 .84 .82
40 .84 .83 I.03 I.II I.24 I.25 I.27 i.i8 I.04 .96 .83 .8I
41 .83 .83 I.03 I.II I.25 I.26 I.27 I.I9 I.04 .96 .82 .80
42 .82 .83 I.03 I.I2 I.26 1.27 I.28 I.19 1.04 .95 .82 .79
43 .8i .82 I.02 I.I2 I.26 I.28 1.29 I.20 I.04 .95 .8i .77
44 .8I .82 I.02 I.13 I.27 I.29 I.30 I.20 I.04 .95 .8o .76
45 .8o .8i I.02 I.13 I.28 I.29 I.3I I.2I 1.04 .94 .79 .75
46 .79 .8i 1.02 I.13 I.29 I.3 I I.32 I.22 1.04 .94 .79 .74
47 .77 .80 1.02 I.14 1.30 I.32 I.33 I.22 I.04 .93 .78 *73
48 .76 .8o I.02 I.14 I.31 I.33 I.34 I.23 I.05 .93 '77 .72
49 .75 .79 I.02 I.14 I.32 I.34 I.3 5 I.24 I.05 *93 .76 .7I
50 .74 .78 1.02 I.I5 I.33 I.36 I.37 I.25 i.o6 .92 .76 .70
S. LAT.
5 I.06 *95 I.04 1.00 I.02 .99 I.02 I.03 I.00 I.05 I.03 i.o6
IO i.o8 .97 I.05 .99 1.0I .96 I.00 I.OI I.00 i.o6 I.05 I.IO
I5 I.12 .98 I.05 .98 .98 .94 .97 I.00 I.00 I.07 I.07 I.12
20 I.14 I.00 I.05 *97 .96 .9I .95 .99 I.00 i.o8 I.09 I.15
25 I.I7 I.OI I.05 .96 .94 .88 .93 .98 I.O IJ.O III i.i8
30 I.20 I.03 i.o6 .95 .92 .85 .90 .96 I.00 I.I2 I.I4 I.2I
35 I.23 I.04 i.o6 .94 .89 .82 .87 *94 I.00 I.3 I.17 I.25
40 I.27 i.o6 I.07 .93 .86 .78 .84 .92 I.00 I.5 I.20 1.29
42 I.28 I.07 I.07 .92 .85 .76 .82 .92 I.00 i.i6 I.22 I.3 I
44 I.30 i.o8 I.07 .92 .83 .74 .8i .9I .99 I.17 I.23 I.33
46 I.32 I.IO I.07 .9I .82 .72 .79 .90 .99 I.I7 I.25 I.35
48 I.34 I.Ii i.o8 .90 .80 .70 .76 .89 .99 i.i8 I.27 I.37
50 I.37 I.I2 I.08 .89 .77 .67 *74 .88 .99 I.I9 I.29 1.41
the appropriatepositionon the nomogram and readspotential evapotranspiration

correspond-
ing to the given mean temperatureof the month. The nomogram is usedonly when tempera-
T%c
4'
T.?C. PE
30 26.5 13.50
_07 n S0/C/7cncce 27.0 I2 95
27 .5 I4.37
20 28.0 1 4.78
28. 5 Is517
- -- ~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~29.0
I5.54
, I scale 29.5 15. 89
0/o20
-
0 loo 7a
30.0 16.21
10 ' -
o c' 30.5 i6.52
0080 31.0 i6,8o
0 70 31 .5 I7.07
0 60 32.0 I7.3I
_ - -32. 5
5 0 50 I7.53
33.-0 17.72
4____ __
_0 -33.5 _ -- I7.90
34.0 i8.o5
3 _ 30 -
o 345 I8
35.0 18.29
2- ---'-?-- -0-
0- 35.5 18 .37
36.0 18 .43
36. 5 18.47
37.0 I8 49
37. 5 i8.5o
.o 2.o 3.0 4.0 S.o 6.0 7.0 8.0 9,010. 15.0 2. 0 3
cm.
Poben&ix/ eovo,oo6rarsv&ra&on,
FIG. I3-Nomogram for determining potential evapotranspirationand table for use at higher
temperatures.
ture is 26.50 C. or less. (The accompanying table gives potential evapotranspirationcorre-

sponding to the higher temperatures).Twelve values are obtained for the 12 months.
These are unadjustedvalues for months of 30 days of I2 hours each.
Finally, these values of potential evapotranspirationare adjusted for day and month
length. Table V gives correctionfactorsby which the unadjustedpotentialevapotranspiration
of each month must be multiplied. The corrections must be the appropriateones for the
latitude of the station. The correctionfactor for 50? N. latitude will be used for all stations
farther north. The same limitation applies in the Southem Hemisphere. Potential evapo-
transpirationis in centimeters. Summation of the I2 monthly values gives annual potential
evapotranspirationin centimeters. The computationsfor Brevard, N. C., follow:
J F M A M J J A S 0 N D Y
t.?C. 0.9 I.I 4.7 9.2 I3.3 I7.3 I8.8 I8.4 i6.i I0.3 4.7 I.2 9.7
I 0.07 0.I0 0.9I 2.52 4.40 6.55 7.43 7.I9 5.87 2.99 0.9I O.I2 39.o6
Unadj. PE 0.2 0.4 2.0 4.2 6.3 8.4 9.2 9.0 7.2 4.7 I.9 0.4
Adj. PE 0.2 0.3 2.I 4.6 7.6 I0.2 II.4 I0.4 7.4 4.6 i.6 0.3 60.7
The American Geograohical Socieey of /New York
0?
B1-B4oB,t $ ?N0
0
MOISTURE REGIONS IN 1
undfiA`erentl;qtead _ S _ /J s
. _r ,, ... ... ... ....... Xt .; . \.~~~...

,y,,.,.SiX,.Xj,
.................................
,,^ ........
,20 . . . |~~~~~~2 \
CiAti Pen/umid
4/??s/l B4 Humid X J
q
t60 gB2 Hfumid
4 40 t ;B1 Htumid \ | /
S ol_ ~C2 1oise subumid
s Si
.
o-20l C, Dry su6humid
\ t,12
t; E
;-60 ~~~~~~~Aroid tosetre ,ndex =surpl/us-. 6 defY ciencWy
rS IN THE UNITED STATES
0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~0
.. .........,,,,
......
, .),/
..........................
,0.0
o>:
................
''0,',0Az:.................
z ............
d
~~~~~~~~~~~~................'iS-nI
40~~~~~~~~~~48
.........
S ........~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..
~~~~~~~~~. ....... .....,,,,,,.,,,,,,,
40~~~~~~~80
0 ) 3 rs~~~~~~~~
/ * / : *1
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~......................... .IN ...||/CHES
'}.,,,..
} .....
~~~....................
-20 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~2
1 6.83
( n j3 /1.22
5 61
AVERAGE ANNUAL THE:
no
33.66~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........
Fr I I _ _ t .,,,; b a ..~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......
T fiinytp
2Xcohermal
T~~~~ lcohermal
ffcecytp
44.88
//.22B'
/1.22 MesC
Xcot.hermal
D' AsThndrma
Alestera
33~) .61
';^'~~~~~'
EReCOCENTRTION
2B'SUM
28.05 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :
The Georapohica/ Review, Vol. )XK VIII, No.l, RI.1
L THERM'AL EFFICIENCY
..............,-''''''''''''''....
., . S;"
, '. S. fi r X X
~~~~~~~~~....................
05
............. .......
..88
44.887
TION OF
~60 -
Bz Humid
40 ; #m+?
-
/
g 20 ,..
CO Moist subhumida
. C, Dry subhumid / -20

-20 l%
D Semiarid
.Q-40 surJ
JI:)E AriduAoiseure index splus- 6 defYciency
60 17~~~~~~~~~~~~~~eea'
SEASONAL VARIATION OF I
A_s .'.f..-
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
............. ,.,,, -,~~~~~~~~~.............
W X,.0 ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~~..........
~~~~~~
1 I
r~~~ 1 '''@% ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........
s ............. ..
s~, ...
,
w ^ W
t ;,,,~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..i.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .,. . .,,.........
.. , -. .
, ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~..-,-.,,,,-,.,-,.,
rZittle or no waeer defliciency h7 any season

I -~-f j occurs on/, In ol:5t _
cllrnabes)
Moderat;e seasonal -moistuwre varia-tion with summer ,

sthe odriest season (summer watelr def"iclenqw /nm/s
ellmates; wh7ber water sur,o/us h7 dlry c/&ma6es)
Zarge seasonal Imoistulre variafbon wi6h sammer -the\

s_ c(rlest season (suinmer water def/c15/1enqyin 17oISt
39.27
33.66
20 ~~~~~~
(>2o 1 AV
\,o16.83
/24 < : 1 ~~~~~~
.. .?(A) 5.61
N OF EFFECTIVE MOISTURE
....
.. -Af- -x
....... , ..
=_ga;Ff=~~~~~~~~~C--;~AC Sv- -
.. =, ...,
_ N8
. .. .. . . . - ... .. . ....7..-...r
.... .. .. -- _
i_ e = = <
Nt.,:~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~T,
~~~~0
1EE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1.
-- = ~~~~~~~~~~~
7 , E~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~6.
......
.''...................................
39.27
B'3 Alesothermal
33.66
B'2 Aleso6hermal
28.05
B' Alesothermal _ 44.88
22. 4
16.83 C'2 licrothermal

C, Alicrothermal
D' Tundra
5.61
03
SUMMER CONCENTRATION 0
9~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~........................
.. .. .. ..
.. .. . .. .. .. .. ..
.. .. .. .. .. .. .
C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.......
Thermal~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.........
efficiecy.typ
PERCENT~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~............
a~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.....
18.0~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~.....
6830 4
418.0 100
bC'2
44.88
7
4.88
7o
TION OF THERMAL EFFICIENCY
4-0
51.9
SCALE: 1: 16,ooo, 000

An Approach Toward A Rational Classification of Climate

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An Approach Toward A Rational Classification of Climate

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American Geographical Society

An Approach toward a Rational Classification of Climate

[With separatemap, P1. I, facing p. 941

THE directionthat the modernstudyof climatehas takenhas been

streamsand riversand flows backto the sea. In otherplaces,monthafter

The vegetationof the desertis sparseanduseslittlewaterbecausewater

methods of plant physiology. Nevertheless, evapotranspirationrepresents

1929 1930 1931

results.For exarmple,in a German study transpirationfrom an oak wood-

Works, Division of WaterResourcesBull. No. 50, I942.

mainly to the plant. Both transpirationand growth are relatedto tempera-

ing undervariouscontrolledtemperatures. Othershavedeterminedincrease

in whicha hasthe valueI.07I8 whenvelocity,v, doubleswitha 100 rise

The temperaturecoefficientmust have values of oo at the temperature

in which a, b, and c are constantsand e is the base of the Napieriansystem

b=-i 8.8, C = .24. The equation gives v as a percentageof the optimum

DETERMINATION OF POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

Unfortunately, there are no comparablecontrolled experimentson the

Texas. Although potential evapotranspirationand precipitationare imde-

| rEilft /iil 47 7 ff?S | | /t? ot 0.+ lfO7 In

FIG, 4-March of precipitationand potentialevapotranspirationat selectedstationsin the United States.

4.0 ins n5.7 " .\t.0 ins.

-,....j4 5 ins 40 ins\?~~~~,j2.3

N--T 4,5ins *'\e 74Oins.7k

4.0 Ins. / , . ..90ins-'

0~/0 Szins . n /,,0 . 2

2O /ns \ *01 S. 4in

J&?FMitIll|AMJJSN<\DJ JF M AMJ JA S O ND JFMM.JJAON\

inchesin eachof the 3 summermonths,at exactlythe timewhen potentialevapotranspira-

A moisture ratio that expressesthe relative humidity or aridity of a

Positive values of the ratio mean that the precipitationis excessive,negative

Numerical values of water surplusand water deficiencymay be obtained

TABLE II-COMPARATIVE DATA ON IRRIGATED VALLEYS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES

New Fork Pinedale, Wyo. 46.6 45.4 -I.2 2.6

are surprisinglylarge in various areasof high precipitationin the Southern

RELIABILITY OF COMPUTED POTENTIAL EVAPOTRANSPIRATION

We can test the accuracy of the computed values of potential evapo-

II Op. cit., pp. I253 andI301.

computedfrom dataof temperature and precipitation at WeatherBureau

ESSENTIALS OF A CLIMATIC CLASSIFICATION

ment those of vegetation in locating the boundariesof climatic regions.

We cannot tell whether a climate is moist or dry by knowing precipita-

monthlyevaporationto vapor-pressure deficit,which he computedfrom

United States, Geogr. Rev., Vol. 29, I939, pp. 665-667.

developmentof a moistureindex. Although developedindependently,

It is now apparentthat the actualevaporationand transpiration from

whereIh and Ia are indicesof humidityandaridityrespectively, s is water

most places,both must enter into a moistureindex, the one affectingit

Moistclimateshavepositivevaluesof 'm; dry climateshavenegativevalues.

A Perhumid ioo and above

60 2100 100\0 20\4 600 100

1f40 140 140 8o

1J20~ 120 120 60

F80 \ toist u80 20r 80

P-E=.8I +4. (-60

FIG.7-Delineation of moisture regions on basis of water surplusand water deficiency.

are establishedsolely in terms of the relation between potential evapo-

The distributionof the moisture regions of the United Statesis shown

480W: g t W 0 ValleyofCaliforniais arid.

variationof moisture,with the drierseasonoccurringin summer;w andw2

r little or no water deficiency o - i6.7

100 80 60 40 20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140

. H X a -o _ __ _