Mat1501 2021 SG 2

FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS
Study Guide 2
ALGEBRA TOOLS
Prepared by Dr. Faleye Sunday

ii
CONTENTS
MODULE 2: ALGEBRA TOOLS 1
Unit 1 Algebraic Expressions 1
Outcomes 1
1.1 Introduction to Algebra 3
1.2 Basic Algebraic Operations 14
1.3 Working with Algebraic Fractions 46
Unit Summary 54
Checklist 58
Unit 2 Equations and Inequalities 60
Outcomes 60
2.1 Introduction to Equations 61
2.2 Linear Equations and Inequalities 67
2.3 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities 95
2.4 Some Other Equations 128
2.5 Systems of Equations in Two Unknowns 136
Unit Summary 151
Checklist 153
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Unit 3 Exponents and Logarithms 156
Outcomes 156
3.1 Exponents 157
3.2 Logarithms 182
3.3 Applications of Exponents and Logarithms 210
Unit Summary 243
Checklist 247
ANSWERS 249
REFERENCES 267
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MODULE 2: Algebraic Tools

UNIT 1: Algebraic Expressions
OUTCOMES
Specific Outcomes – Perform basic algebraic operations using Algebraic Tools.
General Outcomes
1.1: Introduction to Algebra
I Recognise the special words used in the language of algebra.
I Substitute numbers, variables or expressions into algebraic expressions.
I Recognise which algebraic expressions are polynomials, and identify the leading coefficient, the degree
and the constant in a polynomial.
1.2: Basic Algebraic Operations
I Add and subtract algebraic expressions.
I Multiply algebraic expressions
B using the distributive property

B using the FOIL method
B using special product formulas.
I Divide algebraic expressions
B using long division.
I Factorise algebraic expressions by
B taking out a common factor

B grouping
B standard factorisations
B recognising quadratic trinomials.
I Complete the square.

2
1.3: Working with Algebraic Fractions
I Recognise a rational expression.
I Simplify rational expressions.
I Add (subtract) rational expressions.
I Multiply rational expressions.
I Divide rational expressions.

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1.1 Introduction to Algebra

WORDS WE NEED TO USE
The word “algebra” has an Arabic origin. It is condensed from the title of a book written around 825 AD
by an Arabian mathematician al–Khowârizmî. The book was called “Hisâb al–jabr w’al–muqâbalah”. The
text of this book became known in Europe through Latin translations, and the title, shortened to “al–jabr”, or
“algebra” came to mean “the science of equations”.
Algebra has come to mean more than finding the solutions of equations. A mathematics dictionary Mathe-
matics Dictionary 3rd edition, D. van Nostrand Company, Inc. James & James (1968) defines “algebra” as
follows.
I A generalisation of arithmetic.
I A system of logic expressed in algebraic symbols.
At this stage we will consider the first meaning of this word. Although we are actually still studying numbers,
we now use symbols to represent the numbers. We usually use lower case letters of the alphabet, such as a;
b; c; x; y; z: Each of these letters represents some quantity, in a given context.
Using letters to represent numbers helps us to develop general statements, or formulas, that we can always
use in given situations, regardless of the values of the numbers.
Let us consider a formula we all know well. We have
distance D speed time
which we prefer to write more concisely as

dDs t
where
d represents distance in kilometres
s represents speed in kilometres per hour
t represents time in hours.
Note: The word “speed” here refers to average speed.
If we use this formula we can calculate any one of the values d; s or t; provided we know what the other two
are. For example, if I travel at 90 km/h for 3 hours, then the distance travelled is given by
d D 90 3
D 270
4
i.e. I have travelled 270 km. Similarly, if I travel 180 km, and it takes me 3 hours, then my average speed
must have been 60 km/h (obtained by dividing 3 into 180/: (Our study of equations will show that if d D s t
then s D dt I similarly t D ds :)
VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS
When letters represent quantities that can vary, we refer to them as variables. When they represent quantities
that do not change we call them constants. Often letters at the beginning of the alphabet, e.g. a; b; c, are used
for constants and letters at the end of the alphabet such as x; y; z; are used for variables. When we substitute
numbers for the variables we say that we assign values to the variables.
For example, consider the equation that represents a specific straight line, namely
y D mx C c:
In this equation the symbols x and y are variables, and we can assign specific values to x; and hence obtain
corresponding values for y: When we can assign values to x; we say that x is the independent variable. The
value of y depends on the value we choose for x; y is the dependent variable. For each specific line, however,
m and c each have only one value (if you are familiar with straight lines you will know that m represents the
gradient of the line; c represents the position on the y–axis where the line cuts it).
ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
An algebraic expression is a collection of variables, constants and numbers, combined by means of different
operations. For example,
ax C b; x 2 2x 3; .6x 2 y C 3y 2 /2
are all algebraic expressions. In an algebraic expression, such as
3x 2 y 2x y C 7;
we call 3x 2 y; 2x y and 7 the terms of the algebraic expression. The terms of an algebraic expression are
the parts of the expression that are separated by C: We can write the expression above as
3x 2 y C . 2x y/ C 7:
We see that a term may be a single number (constant), or variable, or it may be a combination of constants
and variables.
EXAMPLE 1.1.1
In each of the following algebraic expressions, identify the terms that made the expressions:
(a) x yCz
(b) 3x 3y C 4x y 2 3
(c) x2 3y C 3y 2 C 3x C x y
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SOLUTION
(a) We rewrite the expression as . x/ C . y/ C z. We can thus identify three terms. They are
x; y and z:
(b) There are four terms. They are

3x; 3y; 4x y 2 and 3:
(c) There are five terms. They are

x 2; 3y; 3y 2 ; 3x and x y:
COEFFICIENT
When terms consist of a combination of variables and constants we can describe the components of the terms
in various ways. For example, in the term 3x 2 y; we can consider y by itself and we then call “the rest”, i.e.
3x 2 ; the coefficient of y: Similarly we can say that 3x y is the coefficient of xI or that 3 is the coefficient of
x 2 y:
It is important to note that in the expression

x y
the coefficients of x and y are 1 and 1; respectively.
Since x y D x C . y/ we consider x y as the sum of two terms, x and y: For this reason the coefficient
of y is 1.
We always write numerical coefficients in the front of a term. For example, we write 2x y and not x2y.
LIKE AND UNLIKE TERMS
The terms in an algebraic expression may be like terms or unlike terms.
I Like terms contain the same power of the same variable.
I If terms are not like we call them unlike.
Like terms
EXAMPLE 1.1.2
(a)
x; 3x; 2x
The variables are the same (all x) and each variable is raised to the same power (they all have the
exponent 1).
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(b)
x 2 y; yx 2 ; 4x 2 y
The variables are the same (x and y) and in each case x is raised to the power 2 and y is raised to the
power 1.
Unlike terms
(a)
2x; 2y
The terms contain two different variables.
(b)
2x y; x 2 y; 3x y 2
The terms contain the same variables (all contain x and y) but the exponents of x are different (some-
times 1 and sometimes 2) and the exponents of y also differ.
You have had to understand the meaning of many different words in only a few pages. Perhaps the following
example will help to put all these words into perspective.
EXAMPLE 1.1.3
The language of algebra:
VV V VV C
## # ## #
8 x3y C 4 x2 C 2y x 3 1 V: Variable
" " "
Coefficient Coefficient Coefficient C: Constant
of x 3 y of x 2 of 2y
D . 8x 3 y/ C 4x 2 C 2yx 3 C . 1/ Algebraic expression with

four terms.
Like terms: 8x 3 y; 2yx 3
Unlike terms: 4x 2 ; 2yx 3 ; 1
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SUBSTITUTION
Consider an algebraic expression such as
3x 2 C 2x y C 5y 2 :
This expression contains variables x and y; and it represents various numbers, depending on the values we
choose for x and y: Each time we assign new values to x and y; we obtain a new number. The process of
assigning values to the variables in an algebraic expression is called substitution. For example, let x D 1
and y D 2: Then
3x 2 C 2x y C 5y 2 D 3.1/2 C 2.1/.2/ C 5.2/2

D 3 C 4 C 20
D 27:
Similarly, if we let x D 0 and y D 1; then
3x 2 C 2x y C 5y 2 D 3.0/ C 2.0/. 1/ C 5. 1/2

D 0C0C5
D 5:
We do not always replace the variables with numbers. For example, if we have the expression
7x C 2
we may choose to let x D a; in which case we have
7a C 2
or we may let x D y C 2, in which case we have
7.y C 2/ C 2 D 7y C 14 C 2 D 7y C 16:
We often use substitution to write a complicated expression in a simpler way, or to check the solution we have
obtained for an equation. We discuss this again later, in Study Units 2.1A and 2.3A respectively.
ACTIVITY 1.1.1
(a) Evaluate each of the following expressions, where we assign the given values to the variables.
(i) 5x 7 C x 3 2 xD 1
p p
(ii) 7x x 2 xD 7
(iii) y C 3y 1 C 2 y D 13
8
4x 2 2x
(iv) x D 1; y D 2; z D 1
3yz
3 4 5 1
(v) C C xD 2
x 2x 3x
3 p2 s 2 2 ps C 5s 2
(vi) pD 1; s D 2
p C 3s
x y
(vii) xD 1; y D 2
x C1
(b) Substitute x D 3a 2 into the algebraic expression x C 3 and simplify.
SOLUTION
(a) (i) For x D 1,
5x 7 C x 3 2 D 5. 1/7 C . 1/3 2
D 5. 1/ C . 1/ 2
D 5 1 2
D 8:
p
(ii) For x D 7,
p p p p
7x x2 D 7 7 . 7/2
D 7 7
D 0:
(iii) For y D 13 ,
1 1 1
y C 3y C2 D C 3. / 1 C 2
3 3
1
D C 3.3/ C 2
3
1
D C9C2
3
1
D 11 :
3
1 1
Remember that n D n
for all n 2 R, n 6D 0.
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(iv) For x D 1; y D 2 and z D 1,
4x 2 2x 4.1/2 2.1/
D
3yz 3.2/. 1/
4 2
D
6
2
D
6
1
D :
3
(v) For x D 12 ,
3 4 5 3 4 5
C C D 1
C 1
C 1
x 2x 3x 2
2. 2 / 3. 2 /
5
D .3 2/ C .2 2/ C 2
3
10
D 6C4C
3
1
D 6C4C3
3
1
D 13 :
3
(vi) For p D 1 and s D 2,
3 p2 s 2 2 ps C 5s 2 3. 1/2 .2/2 2. 1/.2/ C 5.2/2

D
p C 3s 1 C 3.2/
3.1/.4/ C 4 C 5.4/
D
1C6
12 C 4 C 20
D
5
36
D
5
1
D 7 :
5
10
(vii) For x D 1 and y D 2,

x y 1 2
D
x C1 1C1
3
D ;
0
which is undefined, hence there is no possible value of this expression when x D 1:
(b)
x C3 D .3a 2/ C 3
D 3a C 2 C 3
D 3a C 5
POLYNOMIALS IN ONE VARIABLE
The simplest algebraic expressions are those obtained using only the arithmetic operations of addition, sub-
traction and multiplication. In particular we have an algebraic expression called a polynomial of degree n in
x, i.e. an expression of the form
an x n C an 1 x n 1
C : : : C a2 x 2 C a1 x C a0 (1.1.1)
where a0 ; a1 ; : : : ; an are constants, an 6D 0 and n is a non–negative integer.
Note: “poly” means many; i.e. a polynomial is a “many–term expression”.
As is often the case in mathematics, a great deal of information is packed into very few lines. Let us analyse
the algebraic expression (1.1.1) in a little more detail.
I We say specifically that an 6D 0; since we need a term containing x n if we are to call this a polynomial
of degree n: The number an is called the leading coefficient.
I This is called a polynomial in x, i.e. x is the variable in this case.
I The coefficients of x; x 2 ; x 3 ; : : : ; x n , which we call a1 ; a2 ; a3 ; : : : ; an for convenience, have fixed val-

ues and are hence called constants. We do not have to use this notation, but writing a1 ; a2 ; : : : ; an is
easier (and usually less confusing) than writing a; b; c; d; : : : . There is then no question of ambiguity.
If we see a1 x it is clear that a1 is the constant and x the variable; if we see wx we may wonder whether
w and x are possibly both variables. Also, if we refer to a1 we immediately know it is the coefficient
of x, a2 is the coefficient of x 2 ; : : :, etc. If we use the letters a; b; c; : : :, etc., it is not immediately clear
to which term each coefficient belongs. We write x for x 1 .
In the term a j x j ; the j associated with the a is called a subscript. It tells us that the number a j belongs
to x j . The constant a j belongs to the variable x which is raised to the power j. For example, in the
polynomial 3x 4 x 3 C x C 2; we have a4 D 3; a3 D 1 , a2 D 0 (since there is no term containing
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x 2 /; a1 D 1 (since we can write x as 1x 1 ) and a0 D 2: Note that according to the notation we use for
polynomials, we have a0 as the coefficient of x 0 : We know that x 0 D 1 (see Study Unit 4.1A of Module
1) so the last term of this expression can be written as 2 1, or 2 x 0 , and hence a0 D 2:
I Although an ; an 1 ; : : : ; a0 are all called constants, only a0 is a constant that is not related to any vari-
able, and it is called the constant or the constant term.
I A polynomial is said to be in standard form if the terms are arranged so that the powers of x are in
descending order. “Descending” means from bigger to smaller. For example, (1.1.1) is in standard
form.
I The requirement that n is a non–negative integer means that an algebraic expression such as
p
3x 2 C x
is not classified as a polynomial. In this expression the exponents are 2 and 12 , which are not non–
negative integers. Remember that positive and non–negative do not have the same meaning. Check
that you can write down the meaning of each of these two words.
I When n D 0 (i.e. when the degree of the polynomial is 0), we obtain an “algebraic expression” that is
just a constant, since there are no x terms, for example
5:
I When n D 1 we obtain expressions such as
2x; 3x 2:
Such expressions are called linear expressions, since equations in which they occur, such as y D 3x 2,
describe straight lines. We study these in Unit 3 of Module 3.
3x 2 ; 4x 2 3x C 1; x 2 4:
Such expressions are called quadratic expressions, and they relate to graphs called parabolas which
we will also study in Module 3.
x 3 C 1; x 3 C 3x 2 C 3x C 1; 6x 3 :
These are known as cubic expressions. We will not study the graphs that arise from cubic expressions
in this module.
I If all coefficients an ; an 1 ; an 2 ; : : : ; a0 are non–zero, the polynomial has n C 1 terms. The number
of non–zero coefficients determines how many terms there are in the polynomial. For example, in a
polynomial of degree 4; if a4 6D 0; a0 6D 0; a3 D a2 D a1 D 0 then the polynomial has the form
a4 x 4 C a0
and thus contains only two terms.

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Some polynomials have special names that refer to the number of terms they contain.
SPECIAL POLYNOMIALS
Name Number of terms Examples
Monomial 1 2x
5
3y 4
Binomial 2 x 5
3 p2 C 4
Trinomial 3 3x 2 2x C 1
p 4
2y y2 C 2
Table 1.1.1
Before you study Example 1.1.4 try the following activity.
ACTIVITY 1.1.2
Explain in your own words what we mean when we refer to “the degree of a polynomial”.
SOLUTION
The degree of a polynomial

an x n C an 1 x n 1
C : : : C a2 x 2 C a1 x C a0
is the largest integer j such that a j 6D 0.
i.e. the degree of a polynomial is the largest exponent of a variable which occurs in the polynomial.
In the following example we consider different algebraic expressions and determine which are polynomials.
EXAMPLE 1.1.4
(a) 2x 4 C x 2 x C 3 is a polynomial since it can be written as
2x 4 C 0x 3 C x 2 C . 1/x C 3
which has the form

a4 x 4 C a3 x 3 C a2 x 2 C a1 x C a0 ;
where
a4 D 2; a3 D 0; a2 D 1; a1 D 1 and a0 D 3:
The leading coefficient is 2, the constant is 3 and the degree is 4.
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p
(b) x C 2 x C 1 is not a polynomial. It can be written as
1
1x C 2x 2 C 1
1
but this does not satisfy the requirements for a polynomial, since the term 2x 2 contains an exponent
which is not an integer.
(c) x 2 C x 1 is not a polynomial since the exponents of x are both negative integers, which contradicts
the requirement that n must be non–negative.
(d) 3x 2 C 2x C 1 is a quadratic trinomial, since it is a polynomial of degree 2; and contains three terms.
The leading coefficient is 3 and the constant is 1: We study quadratic trinomials in more detail when we
look at Factorisation (in Study Unit 1.2C of this topic), Quadratic Equations (in Unit 2 of this module)
and Parabolas (in Unit 4 of Module 3).
POLYNOMIALS IN MORE THAN ONE VARIABLE
When we have a polynomial in x, we know that x is the variable. In practice we may investigate situations
where several variables are involved. We then obtain polynomials in more than one variable. We may have a
polynomial in two variables, for example
3x 2 y 2 2x y C 1; 3x 2 2x y C y 2
or three variables, such as

8s 2r t 5sr 2 t C 2t:
In the next section, which deals with algebraic operations on polynomials, we will frequently work with
polynomials in several variables.
EXERCISE 1.1
1. Find the value of each of the following expressions, for the given values of the variables.
(a) 4x 2 3x y y2 x D 0; y D 2
2x C 1
(b) x DaCb
1 2x
16x y 2 z 2x y 2 4
(c) C x D 21 ; y D 2; z D 13 :
3x 3 x yz
2. Are there any values of x for which the following expressions are undefined? If so, state what these
values are.
x C1
(a)
xp 1
(b) 2 1 3x
1 3
(c) p C 2
x x 2
See the solution to (a)(vii) of Activity 1.1.1.

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1.2 Basic Algebraic Operations
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
Since the variables and constants in algebraic expressions represent real numbers, the properties stated in
Tables 2.2.5 and 2.2.6 of Unit 2 in Module 1 also apply when we perform operations involving algebraic
expressions. The extent to which you understood the rules that apply to the basic arithmetic operations will
determine the extent to which you will understand and be able to carry out the procedures that are used
when we perform operations involving algebraic expressions. We now state the procedures that apply to the
addition and subtraction of algebraic expressions.
ADDITION
To add two (or more) algebraic expressions, add like terms.
EXAMPLE 1.2.1
(a) Find the sum of 2s 2r t C 3sr 2 t st and 3s 2r t 2sr 2 t C t:
(b) Add x 3 2x 2 C x 1 and 2x 3 C 3x 4.
SOLUTION
(a) .2s 2r t C 3sr 2 t st/ C .3s 2r t 2sr 2 t C t/

D .2s 2r t C 3s 2r t/ C .3sr 2 t 2sr 2 t/ st C t Group like terms.
D .2 C 3/s 2r t C .3 2/sr 2 t st C t Use the distributive
property.
D 5s 2r t C sr 2 t st C t
(b) .x 3 2x 2 C x 1/ C .2x 3 C 3x 4/
D .x 3 C 2x 3 / C . 2x 2 / C .x C 3x/ C . 1 4/ Group like terms.
D .1 C 2/x 3 2x 2 C .1 C 3/x 5 Use the distributive

property.
D 3x 3 2x 2 C 4x 5
Grouping like terms is an application of the associative property for addition.

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SUBTRACTION
To subtract one algebraic expression from another replace the expression being subtracted with its “opposite”
(i.e. replace each term in the expression with its opposite) and then add like terms. Study the example below.
EXAMPLE 1.2.2
(a) Subtract 2x 3 C 3x 4 from x 3 2x 2 C x 1:
(b) From 6a 2 5 subtract 2 C a a2:
Make sure you first write down the expression that is given after the word “from”.
SOLUTION
(a) .x 3 2x 2 C x 1/ .2x 3 C 3x 4/
D .x 3 2x 2 C x 1/ C . 2x 3 3x C 4/
D .x 3 2x 3 / C . 2x 2 / C .x 3x/ C . 1 C 4/
D x 3 2x 2 2x C 3
(b) .6a 2 5/ .2 C a a 2 /
D .6a 2 5/ C . 2 a C a 2 /
D .6a 2 C a 2 / C . a/ C . 5 2/
D 7a 2 a 7
Read again Example 2.2.1(b) in Study Unit 2.2B of Unit 2 (Module 1). We noted there that a “ " before a
bracket can be regarded as
. 1/ (the expression in the brackets):
The method we have applied above reduces to multiplying the second polynomial by 1; i.e. we can drop
the brackets and change each of the signs inside the brackets. We can thus write solutions (a) and (b) more
concisely. We then have the following.
(a) .x 3 2x 2 C x 1/ .2x 3 C 3x 4/
D x 3 2x 2 C x 1 2x 3 3x C 4
D x 3 2x 2 2x C 3
(b) .6a 2 5/ .2 C a a 2 /
D 6a 2 5 2 a C a 2
D 7a 2 a 7
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ACTIVITY 1.2.1
Perform the operations that are indicated and simplify your answers as far as possible.
(a) .3x 2 y x y 2 C 3y 3 / .x 2 y C 5x y 2 9/
(b) .2yz 3y C 2z/ C .yz 5y 3z/
(c) .z 2 C 2zy C y 2 / .z 2 2zy C y 2 /
(d) Add x 2 y C 2x y; 2x y 2 C 3x y; 3x 2 y 2 2x 2 y C 4x y and x y 2x 2 y 3x y 2 :
(e) Subtract 3a b from 4a:
(f) From 6a 2 9ab C 2b2 subtract 3ab 3b2 :
(g) Find the difference between the sum of 6a C 3b and 5a 2b; and the sum of a b and a C b:
SOLUTION
(a) .3x 2 y x y 2 C 3y 3 / .x 2 y C 5x y 2 9/
D 3x 2 y x y 2 C 3y 3 x2y 5x y 2 C 9 Drop the brackets. Change

the signs of the terms in the
brackets following the “ ”.
D 2x 2 y 6x y 2 C 3y 3 C 9 Add/subtract like terms.
(b) .2yz 3y C 2z/ C .yz 5y 3z/
D 2yz 3y C 2z C yz 5y 3z We drop the brackets; signs

remain unchanged.
D 3yz 8y z Add/subtract like terms.
(c) .z 2 C 2zy C y 2 / .z 2 2zy C y 2 /
D z 2 C 2zy C y 2 z 2 C 2zy y2
D 4zy
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(d) For convenience we write these expressions one beneath the other, in such a way
that like terms are aligned. (We know from the commutative property that the
order in which we write down the terms does not change the expressions.)
x 2 y C 2x y
C3x y C 2x y 2 No sign appears before 2x y 2 ; hence we
3x 2 y 2 2x 2 y C 4x y know the sign is “C”.
2x 2 y C x y 3x y 2
3x 2 y 2 3x 2 y C 10x y x y 2 Adding each column, taking signs into
account.
(e) 4a .3a b/
D 4a 3a C b
DaCb
(f) .6a 2 9ab C 2b2 / .3ab 3b2 /

D 6a 2 9ab C 2b2 3ab C 3b2
D 6a 2 12ab C 5b2
(g) In this case we first need to calculate the two sums, then subtract. We have
.6a C 3b/ C . 5a 2b/

D 6a C 3b 5a 2b
DaCb
and
.a b/ C .a C b/
Da bCaCb
D 2a.
To find the difference between the first sum and the second, we write
.a C b/ .2a/
i.e. we have
aCb 2a
and the answer is thus
b a.
In this case you first write down the sum that is mentioned first.
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MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION
MULTIPLICATION
To multiply two algebraic expressions, for example a C b and c C d, i.e. to find .a C b/.c C d/, we do the
following.
We thus keep the second bracket intact and “break up” the first bracket.
I Open .a C b/ :
I Multiply .c C d/ by a and b i.e. a .c C d/ and b .c C d/.
I Add the products.
We thus have
.a C b/.c C d/
D a.c C d/ C b.c C a/
D ac C ad C bc C bd:
Diagrammatically we have
( a + b) ( c + d )
Note that we obtain the same answer if we keep the second bracket intact and break up the first. Do the one
that look easier.
Multiplication of algebraic expressions makes use of the distributive property, often several times. For exam-
ple
3.a C b/.c C d C e/
D 3[a.c C d C e/ C b.c C d C e/] Distributive property used

for the first time.
D 3[ac C ad C ae C bc C bd C be] Distributive property used

a second time.
D 3ac C 3ad C 3ae C 3bc C 3bd C 3be: Distributive property used

a third time.
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In the two examples we have just used to illustrate multiplication it has not been possible to simplify the
answer, since all the terms are unlike.
We now consider an example where some simplification is possible.
EXAMPLE 1.2.3
Find the product of
(a) 2x C 3 and x C 4
(b) x C 1 and x 3.
SOLUTION
(a)
.2x C 3/.x C 4/ D .2x C 3/x C .2x C 3/.4/

D .2x 2 C 3x/ C .8x C 12/
D 2x 2 C 3x C 8x C 12
D 2x 2 C 11x C 12
(b) We write this in the form .a C b/.c C d/, i.e we rewrite it so that there is a “C” between the terms inside
the brackets. We have
.x C 1/.x 3/ D .x C 1/.x C . 3//:
Now
.x C 1/.x C . 3// D .x C 1/.x/ C .x C 1/. 3/

D .x/.x/ C .1/.x/ C .x/. 3/ C .1/. 3/
D x2 C x 3x 3
2
D x 2x 3:
With pratice it becomes unnecessary to rewrite products so that they have the form .a C b/.c C d/: We
mentally attach the “–” (if it occurs) to the term immediately after it and apply the given procedure for
multiplication. In this example we then have
.x C 1/.x 3/ D .x C 1/x .x C 1/3

D x2 C x 3x 3
or
.x C 1/.x 3/ D x.x 3/ C .x 3/
2
D x 3x C x 3
and both these expressions can be simplified to give the answer we obtained above.
20
To find the product of two binomials we have a useful “recipe” called the FOIL method in which we add the
products of
F First terms
O Outer terms
I Inner terms
L Last terms.
This is shown in the diagram below.
( a x + b) ( c x + d )
F O I L
D acx 2 C ad x C bcx C bd
Applying this method in the following example, we have
( 2 x + 3) ( x - 4 )
F O I L
D .2x/x C .2x/. 4/ C 3.x/ C 3. 4/
D 2x 2 C . 8x/ C 3x C . 12/
D 2x 2 5x 12:
With practice you will soon be able to find the product of two binomials “by inspection”, i.e. mentally, using
the FOIL method. Try the following activity. Perhaps you can do the first two using all the steps, and the last
two by inspection.
ACTIVITY 1.2.2
(a) Find the product of .2x 3/ and .3x 2 4x C 1/.
(b) Simplify .x y/.3x C 4y/.
(c) Simplify .2a 2 b2 /.3a 2 C 2b2 /.
(d) Simplify .3x y C 2/.4x y 1/.

21 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
(a) .3x 2 4x C 1/.2x 3/

D .3x 2 4x C 1/2x C .3x 2 4x C 1/. 3/ Attach the “ ” to the
3: Apply the distribu-
tive property.
D .6x 3 8x 2 C 2x/ C . 9x 2 C 12x 3/ Apply the distributive
property again.
D 6x 3 8x 2 C 2x 9x 2 C 12x 3 Remove brackets.
D 6x 3 17x 2 C 14x 3 Add like terms.
(b) .x y/.3x C 4y/

D x.3x C 4y/ y.3x C 4y/ By the distributive
property.
D 3x 2 C 4x y 3x y 4y 2 By the distributive
property.
D 3x 2 C x y 4y 2 Add like terms.
(c) .2a 2 b2 /.3a 2 C 2b2 /

D 6a 4 C 4a 2 b2 C . 3a 2 b2 / C . 2b4 / Apply FOIL.
D 6a 4 C a 2 b2 2b4
(d) .3x y C 2/.4x y 1/ D 12x 2 y 2 C 5x y 2
Special product formulas
Certain types of products occur so often that you will soon become familiar with them, and should not need
to work through all the steps each time. Work out these products in the next activity. The solution gives the
answer as a table that you can refer to when necessary. Try to remember these special products.
ACTIVITY 1.2.3
Find each of the following.
(a) .a C b/2 (b) .a b/2 (c) .a C b/.a b/
(d) .a C b/3 (e) .a b/3
Remember that .a C b/2 D .a C b/.a C b/:

22
SOLUTION
SPECIAL PRODUCT FORMULAS
1. .a C b/2 D a 2 C 2ab C b2
2. .a b/2 D a 2 2ab C b2
3. .a C b/.a b/ D a 2 b2 (difference of two squares)
4. .a C b/3 D a 3 C 3a 2 b C 3ab2 C b3
5. .a b/3 D a 3 3a 2 b C 3ab2 b3
Table 1.2.1
You should try to recognise the special forms given in Table 1.2.1 even if they do not necessarily appear in
such simple terms. For example,
.3x 2 y C 2x y 2 /2
is still a product of the form .a C b/2 : In this case a is represented by 3x 2 y; and b by 2x y 2 : We analyse
.a C b/2 .
2 2 2
( a + b) = a + 2 ab + b
the square of twice the the square of

the first term plus product of plus the last term
the first
and last
terms
Thus we have
2 2 2 4 2 2 2 2 4
( 3x y + 2 xy ) = 9x y + 2 ( 3 x y) ( 2 xy ) + 4x y
the square plus plus the square

twice the
of 3x 2 y product of of 2x y 2
the terms
23 MAT0511/001
Similar analysis shows us that

2 2
(a - b ) = ( a + ( - b) )
2 2
= a + ( - 2ab) + b
{
the square the square
of the this twice the of the last
first term becomes product of term:
2 2
minus the terms ( - b) = b
(the terms
are a and - b)
i.e. .a b/2 D a 2 2ab C b2 .
Apply this analysis in the next activity.
ACTIVITY 1.2.4
Without performing all possible steps, write down the answers to
(a) .4x 2 C 2y 3 /2
(b) . 14 ab 2 2 2
3
c /:
SOLUTION
(a)
.4x 2 C 2y 3 /2 D 16x 4 C 2.4x 2 /.2y 3 / C 4y 6

D 16x 4 C 16x 2 y 3 C 4y 6
(b)
2
1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 2 4
ab c D a b 2 ab c C c4
4 3 16 4 3 9
a 2 b2 abc2 4c4
D C
16 3 9
DIVISION
This section on long division is given for completeness, and for those who will use the remainder theorem or
the factor theorem. You will not be expected to answer questions such as those in Example 1.2.4 or Activity
1.2.5.
24
Long division of algebraic expressions is a process much like long division of numbers. It is easier to follow
an example than to discuss the process in general.
EXAMPLE 1.2.4
(a) Divide x 3 3x 2 y C 3x y 2 y 3 by x y:
(b) Divide x 2 y 2 by x y:
(c) Divide x C 3 into 2x 2 C 5x.
SOLUTION
Before dividing make sure that both expressions are arranged in the same order, i.e. the powers are all in
ascending order, or all in descending order.
(a) x2 2x y C y 2
x y jx 3 3x 2 y C 3x y 2 y3 Divide x 3 by x to give x 2 .
x3 x2y Multiply x y by x 2 .
2x 2 y C 3x y 2 Subtract x 3 x 2 y from x 3 3x 2 y and bring
down 3x y 2 .
Divide x into 2x 2 y to give 2x y.
2x 2 y C 2x y 2 Multiply x y by 2x y.
x y2 y3 Subtract 2x 2 y C 2x y 2 from 2x 2 y C
3x y 2 to give x y 2 and bring down y 3 . Di-
vide x into x y 2 to give y 2 .
x y2 y3 Multiply x y by y 2 .
0 Subtract x y 2 y 3 from x y 2 y 3 . The re-
mainder is 0.
Thus
.x 3 3x 2 y C 3x y 2 y3/ .x y/ D x 2 2x y C y 2
or
x3 3x 2 y C 3x y 2 y 3 D .x y/.x 2 2x y C y 2 /:
a
We know that if b
D c, then a D b c.
(b) We note that x 2 y 2 is a polynomial in two variables and has the form
a2 x 2 C a1 x y C a0 y 2
where a2 D 1; a1 D 0 and a0 D 1: If any of the terms in the dividend are “missing” we “put them
into” the expression by giving them coefficients of zero. The dividend is the number we are dividing
into; the number we are dividing by is called the divisor.
25 MAT0511/001
xCy
x y jx 2 C 0x y y2 Divide x 2 by x to obtain x.
x2 xy Multiply x y by x.
xy y2 Subtract and bring y 2 down.
Divide x into x y to get y.
xy y2 Multiply x y by y.
0 Subtract. Remainder 0.
Thus
x2 y2
DxCy
x y
or
x2 y 2 D .x C y/.x y/:
(c) Note that 2x 2 C 5x is the dividend and x C 3 is the divisor.
2x 1
x C 3 j2x 2 C 5x C 0 Divide 2x 2 by x to obtain 2x.
2x 2 C 6x Multiply x C 3 by 2x.
x C0 Subtract. Bring down 0. Divide x into x
to get 1.
x 3 Multiply x C 3 by 1.
3 Subtract. Remainder 3.
Thus
2x 2 C 5x D .x C 3/.2x 1/ C 3
i.e.
2x 2 C 5x 3
D 2x 1C :
x C3 x C3
"
Note:
It is important to remember that the remainder
is always expressed as a fraction, and its
denominator is the divisor.
In (a) and (b) there was no remainder, but there is a remainder in (c). Note how the remainder is
expressed.
We note that the remainder is not a polynomial. This remainder is an example of an algebraic fraction,
or a rational expression, which we discuss in Section 1.3.
ACTIVITY 1.2.5
(a) Divide 3x 3 C 2y 3 C x y 2 C 2x 2 y by y C x.
26
(b) Divide 2x 2 C 1 into 3x 4 8.
SOLUTION
(a) It makes no difference whether we arrange the terms according to ascending powers of x and descend-
ing powers of y, or vice versa, but we must order the terms before we can divide. We choose to order
the terms in descending powers of y and ascending powers of x. Thus we now have to find
.2y 3 C x y 2 C 2x 2 y C 3x 3 / .y C x/:
We carry out the division as follows.
2y 2 x y C 3x 2
y C x j2y 3 C x y 2 C 2x 2 y C 3x 3
2y 3 C 2x y 2
x y 2 C 2x 2 y
x y2 x 2 y
3x 2 y C 3x 3
3x 2 y C 3x 3
0
Thus
.2y 3 C x y 2 C 2x 2 y C 3x 3 / .y C x/ D 2y 2 x y C 3x 2 :
(b) In this case the exponents in the terms of both the dividend and the divisor are in the same order, but
there are many “missing” terms in the dividend. We can rewrite the problem as follows.
.3x 4 C 0x 3 C 0x 2 C 0x 8/ .2x 2 C 1/
Now we have
3 2 3
2
x 4
2x 2 C 1 j3x 4 C 0x 3 C 0x 2 C 0x 8 3 2 D 32 . Thus 23 x 2 2x 2 D 3x 4 .
3x 4 C 32 x 2
3 2 3 3 1 3
2
x C 0x 8 2
2D 2 2
D 4
3 2 3
2
x 4
7 41 8 . 43 / D 7 14
This is the remainder.
Thus
.3x 4 8/ .2x 2 C 1/
3 3 . 71/
D . x2 /C 2 4 The remainder is expressed as a fraction, in
2 4 2x C 1
which the denominator is the divisor.
6x 2 3 29
D . After simplifying.
4 4.2x 2 C 1/
Once again the remainder is an example of a rational expression.
27 MAT0511/001
FACTORISATION
In Module 1 we discuss factors of numbers, and specifically prime factors. We also show how to
I factorise a number into a product of its prime factors
I find the HCF of several numbers
I find the LCM of several numbers
and in Study Unit 2.2 of Module 1 we show how these concepts are used to carry out arithmetic operations.
The rules that apply to performing the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and divi-
sion of numbers can be generalised so that they apply in exactly the same way to operations with algebraic
expressions. Thus, in order to carry out these operations we need to look at factorisation of algebraic expres-
sions.
To factorise a number means to write it as a product of its factors, for example
120 D 40 3 Written as a product of two factors.
or
120 D 2 2 2 3 5: Written as a product of prime factors.
To factorise an algebraic expression means to write the expression as a product of a number and an algebraic
expression, or as a product of simpler algebraic expressions. If you are asked to factorise an algebraic
expression completely, you need to write the expression as a product of factors, where each factor cannot
be factorised further. (We can compare this with prime factorisation of natural numbers.) We interpret the
instruction “factorise” to mean “factorise completely”. Factorisation of algebraic expressions is the reverse
process of multiplication of algebraic expressions. Thus, when you read the special product formulas in
Table 1.2.1 from right to left you are in fact factorising the expressions on the right–hand side.
COMMON FACTOR
The simplest factorisation procedure is taking out a common factor. When we take out a common factor we
usually take out the highest common factor (HCF). For example, the HCF of 4x 2 y 3 and 6x 3 y is 2x 2 y since
4x 2 y 3 D 2 2 x x y y y
and
6x 3 y D 2 3 x x x y .
28
EXAMPLE 1.2.5
Factorise the following.
(a) 4x 2 y 3 6x 3 y
(b) 2.x 1/y 2 8.x 1/
(c) 3.x y/z C 15.y x/
SOLUTION
(a)
4x 2 y 3 6x 3 y D 2x 2 y.2y 2 3x/
(b)
2.x 1/y 2 8.x 1/ D 2.x 1/.y 2 4/

D 2.x 1/.y 2/.y C 2/ By 3 of Table 1.2.1.
(c) When we look at the expression

3.x y/z C 15.y x/
it may at first seem that the only common factor is 3, since we know that x y 6D y x: However, we
can rewrite this expression in the following way.
3.x y/z C 15.y x/

D 3.x y/z C 15[ .x y/]
D 3.x y/z 15.x y/:
Now we can factorise this expression fully. The HCF is 3.x y/ and we have
3.x y/z C 15.y x/ D 3.x y/.z 5/:
USEFUL HINT
Any expression in the form a b can be replaced by .b a/ when it is convenient to do so.
In Example 1.2.5, we have two different types of common factors. In (a) the highest common factor is a
single term, i.e. 2x 2 y: In (b) the HCF is a binomial, x 1: Try the following activity, and note how different
the HCF is in each case.
29 MAT0511/001
ACTIVITY 1.2.6
(a) x 3 y 8x 3 y 2 C 4x 6 y 3
(b) 3.x y 2/ 5y.2 x y/
(c) 2.x C y/.x 2 C x y y2/ 12.x C y/.x 2 C x y y 2 /.x 2 y/
SOLUTION
You may need to revise the rules for exponents. See Table 4.1.1 in Study Unit 4.1, Module 1.
(a) The HCF is a single term, namely x 3 y: Thus
x3y 8x 3 y 2 C 4x 6 y 3 D x 3 y.1 8y C 4x 3 y 2 /:
Note: Do not make the mistake of leaving out 1 as the first term inside the bracket.
(b) The HCF is a binomial, namely x y 2: We have
3.x y 2/ 5y.2 x y/ D 3.x y 2/ 5y. .x y 2//

D 3.x y 2/ C 5y.x y 2/
D .x y 2/.3 C 5y/:
(c) The HCF is 2.x C y/.x 2 C x y y 2 /; and we have
2.x C y/.x 2 C x y y2/ 12.x C y/.x 2 C x y y 2 /.x 2 y/

2 2 2
D 2.x C y/.x C x y y /[1 6.x y/]
D 2.x C y/.x 2 C x y y 2 /.1 6x 2 C 6y/:
These examples illustrate that factorising an expression means that we begin with an expression in which
“C”, “ ”, appear between the brackets, and we end with an expression in which all “C”, “ ”, are contained
inside brackets. Hence
ab.1 C a/ C a.b 1/ “C” between the brackets
is not factorised, while
a.b.1 C a/ C .b 1// “C”, “ ”, all contained inside brackets
is factorised. Although this last expression is factorised, it has not yet been simplified: when we simplify we
obtain
a.b C ab C b 1/ D a.2b C ab 1/:
30
GROUPING
At first glance it may appear that some algebraic expressions of four or more terms cannot be factorised
because there is no common factor. However, sometimes we are able to group the terms into two or more
algebraic expressions which can be factorised. This method is known as grouping.
EXAMPLE 1.2.6
Factorise 2ax 2 x2 C y 2ay:
SOLUTION
2ax 2 x 2 C y 2ay
D .2ax 2 x 2 / C .y 2ay/ Group.
D x 2 .2a 1/ C y.1 2a/ Take out common factors.
D x 2 .2a 1/ y.2a 1/ Note: 1 2a D .2a 1/: See Example 1.2.5 (c).
D .2a 1/.x 2 y/ Take out the HCF (which is now 2a 1/:
There are sometimes different possible ways of grouping terms in order to factorise an expression. In Example
1.2.6 we can also follow an alternative method. We have
2ax 2 x 2 C y 2ay
D .2ax 2 2ay/ .x 2 y/ Note that x2 C y D .x 2 y/:
D 2a.x 2 y/ .x 2 y/
D .x 2 y/.2a 1/. Do not leave out the 1: Remember
that .x 2 y/ means 1.x 2 y/:
We thus obtain the same answer, although we begin with a different grouping.
STANDARD FACTORISATIONS
When we work from right to left in Table 1.2.1 we obtain the factorised form of several quadratic and cu-
bic polynomials. As is the case with special product formulas, there are certain factorisations that occur
often, and you should try to recognise them, and memorise them. For easy reference we give these standard
factorisations in the following table.
STANDARD FACTORISATIONS
1. a 2 C 2ab C b2 D .a C b/2
2. a 2 2ab C b2 D .a b/2
3. a 2 b2 D .a b/.a C b/
4. a 3 b3 D .a b/.a 2 C ab C b2 /
5. a 3 C b3 D .a C b/.a 2 ab C b2 /
Table 1.2.2
31 MAT0511/001
“Quadratic” refers to expressions of degree 2; “cubic” refers to expressions of degree 3.
Note that 3 in the table gives the factorisation for a difference of squares.
From 1 and 2 in the table it is clear that in general
.a C b/2 6D a 2 C b2
and
.a b/2 6D a 2 b2
where a 2 R and b 2 R.
To reinforce this, try using several different numbers for a and b; and check for yourself that you obtain
different answers for .a b/2 and a 2 b2 ; and for .a C b/2 and a 2 C b2 :
In the table, 4 and 5 give the standard factorisation for the difference of cubes and the sum of cubes, respec-
tively.
As in the case of multiplication (Study Unit 1.2B) we need to recognise these forms even when they occur in
more complicated expressions than those given in Table 1.2.2.
ACTIVITY 1.2.7
For each of 1 to 5 in Table 1.2.2, write out a more complicated expression that still satisfies the form of the
standard factorisation given.
SOLUTION
Obviously we cannot know what your answers are. This solution gives some possible examples.
1. (a)
x 4 y 2 C 4x 2 y C 4 D .x 2 y C 2/2
(b)
16.x C 1/2 C 40.x C 1/.y 1/ C 25.y 1/2 D .4.x C 1/ C 5.y 1//2

D .4x C 5y 1/2
2. (a)
x 6 y4 z2 6x 3 y 2 z C 9 D .x 3 y 2 z 3/2
(b)
1 4.x 1/ C 4.x 1/2 D .1 2.x 1//2

D .3 2x/2
32
3. (a)
100a 2 b2 c2 D .10ab c/.10ab C c/
(b)
x4 y 4 D .x 2 y 2 /.x 2 C y 2 /
D .x y/.x C y/.x 2 C y 2 /
(c)
25a 2 .b C 3c/2 D .5a .b C 3c//.5a C .b C 3c//

D .5a b 3c/.5a C b C 3c/
4. (a)
8x 6 y 3 27z 9 D .2x 2 y 3z 3 /.4x 4 y 2 C 6x 2 yz 3 C 9z 6 /
(b) .a b/3 .c C d/3

D ..a b/ .c C d//..a b/2 C .a b/.c C d/ C .c C d/2 /
5. (a)
1 C .x C y/3 D .1 C .x C y//.1 .x C y/ C .x C y/2 /
(b) This is not immediately a sum of cubes. We first need to take out the HCF, which is 2.
16a 3 b3 C 2c3 D 2.8a 3 b3 C c3 /

D 2.2ab C c/.4a 2 b2 2abc C c2 /
In 5(b) above you encountered for the first time a combination of two different types of factorisation, namely
taking out a common factor and applying one of the standard factorisations. In practice, there may be several
types of factorisation which need to be applied in the same problem. Have a look at the following example.
EXAMPLE 1.2.7
Factorise
4x 2 8x C 4 9y 2 18y 9:
SOLUTION
We can write
4x 2 8x C 4 9y 2 18y 9
as
4x 2 8x C 4 .9y 2 C 18y C 9/:
33 MAT0511/001
We recognise that 4x 2 8x C 4 and 9y 2 C 18y C 9 both have standard factorisations.
We have
.4x 2 8x C 4/ .9y 2 C 18y C 9/ Grouping.
D 4.x 2 2x C 1/ 9.y 2 C 2y C 1/ Taking out the HCF in each set

of brackets.
D 4.x 1/2 9.y C 1/2 Using the standard factorisa-
tions 1 and 2 in Table 1.2.2.
D [2.x 1/ 3.y C 1/][2.x 1/ C 3.y C 1/] Applying the difference of
squares (3 in Table 1.2.2).
D .2x 2 3y 3/.2x 2 C 3y C 3/ Simplifying using the distribu-
tive property.
D .2x 3y 5/.2x C 3y C 1/:
FACTORISING QUADRATIC TRINOMIALS
The next type of factorisation we look at is factorisation of quadratic trinomials, i.e. trinomials of the form
ax 2 C bx C c When only one variable is involved.
or, for example
ax 2 y 2 C bx yz C cz 2 : When more than one variable is involved.
We discussed quadratic trinomials in Study Unit 1.1A.
In these two expressions a; b and c are constants, and depending on their values we may be able to factorise
the expressions. Note that in the first case the exponent of the variable in the middle term is half the exponent
of the variable in the first term. In the second case the exponent of each variable in the middle term is half
the exponent of the corresponding variable in the first or last term. Only quadratic trinomials such as these
can be factorised according to the method described here.
In order to factorise quadratic trinomials, we often use a trial–and–error method. For example, suppose we
need to factorise x 2 x 12: We need to find numbers a and b; such that
x2 x 12 D x 2 C . 1/x C . 12/ D .x C a/.x C b/:
Since .x C a/.x C b/ D x 2 C .a C b/x C ab; this means that we must find a and b such that ab D 12 and
a C b D 1: Table 1.2.3 gives possible values of a C b that correspond to ab D 12:
34
a b aCb
1 12 11
1 12 11
2 6 4
2 6 4
3 4 1
3 4 1
Table 1.2.3
Note that in Table 1.2.3 we have not considered the cases a D 12 and b D 1, a D 12 and b D 1; a D
6 and b D 2 , etc. The reason for this is that for each pair a and b; if we interchange the values of a and
b; we obtain the same value for a C b: For example if a D 12 and b D 1 then a C b D 11; which is the
answer we obtain when a D 1 and b D 12. Thus we do not need to consider any values of a and b other
than those in the table.
From Table 1.2.3 we see that a D 3 and b D 4 satisfy the conditions ab D 12 and a C b D 1: Hence
x2 x 12 D .x C 3/.x 4/:
We now look at a slightly more difficult example. We consider a quadratic trinomial of the form ax 2 C bx C c:
If it can be factorised we will have
ax 2 C bx C c D . px C r /.q x C s/:
Since
. px C r /.q x C s/ D pq x 2 C .rq C ps/x C r s
we must try to find numbers p; q; r and s such that
pq D a; r s D c and .rq C ps/ D b:
Let us try to factorise 3x 2 C 11x 4: If this expression factorises at all we would guess that
3x 2 C 11x 4 D .3x C r /.x C s/;
i.e. we have p D 3 and q D 1: We must still find r and s such that
rs D 4 and r C 3s D 11:
Note: The only factors of 3 are 3 and 1.

35 MAT0511/001
We use the following table which gives us possible values of r C 3s that correspond to r s D 4.
r s r C 3s
1 4 11
1 4 11
2 2 4
2 2 4
4 1 1
4 1 1
Table 1.2.4
We see that r C 3s D 11 when r D 1 and s D 4: Hence
3x 2 C 11x 4 D .3x 1/.x C 4/:
You can check this answer by multiplying the factors.
With practice you will not have to set up tables as we have done so far. You will be able to find the factors
mentally.
EXAMPLE 1.2.8
(a) 5x 2 C 14x 3
(b) 10y 4 C 3y 2 4
(c) x 2 y 4 2x y 2 C 1
SOLUTION
(a) Since the only factors of 5 are 1 and 5 we know that we will have
5x 2 C 14x 3 D .5x C ?/.x C ?/:
We write this in a more manageable form as
.5x C a/.x C b/:

36
If we apply the FOIL method to this we have
( 5 x + a) ( x + b )
F O I L
D 5x 2 C 5xb C ax C ab
D 5x 2 C .5b C a/x C ab:
Thus we need to find numbers a and b such that
ab D 3 and 5b C a D 14:
We can find a and b by means of a table, or mentally.
a b a C 5b
1 3 14
1 3 14 ab D 3I a C 5b D 14
3 1 2
3 1 2
Thus a D 1 and b D 3; and we have
5x 2 C 14x 3 D .5x 1/.x C 3/:
(b) It is important that you recognise that some expressions of even degree can be written as quadratic
expressions. In a trinomial, if the exponent(s) of the variable(s) in the middle term is/are half the
exponent(s) of the variable(s) in the first or last term, we can try to factorise it as we have been doing
so far. Let us consider, for example, 10y 4 C 3y 2 4: This expression in y can possibly be factorised
since it has the form a X 2 C bX C c; where X D y 2 : Note all quadratic trinomials can be factorised.
In this case the coefficient of y 4 is 10; and we have two possible ways of factorising 10, either
10 D 10 1 or 10 D 5 2:
Once again, only considerable practice helps us to recognise which of these might be the best option to
try first. Suppose we try the second of these. Then we have
10y 4 C 3y 2 4 D .5y 2 C m/.2y 2 C n/

D 10y 4 C .2m C 5n/y 2 C mn
and we need to find m and n such that
2m C 5n D 3 and mn D 4:
37 MAT0511/001
From the following table
m n 2m C 5n
4 1 3 We find what we need in the first step, so
4 1 there is no need to go on.
1 4
1 4
we have m D 4 and n D 1; and hence
10y 4 C 3y 2 4 D .5y 2 C 4/.2y 2 1/:
(c)
x 2 y4 2x y 2 C 1 D .x y 2 /2 2.x y 2 / C 1
D .x y 2 1/.x y 2 1/
D .x y 2 1/2
or let X D x y2
x 2 y4 2x y 2 C 1 D X 2 2x C 1 D .X 1/ .X 1/
2
D .X 1/2 D x y 2 1
We mentioned earlier that it often happens that several different types of factorisation need to be applied in
the same problem. The first step in any factorisation involves looking for a common factor.
We may have an expression that appears not to be factorisable by any of the methods we have discussed, but
taking out a common factor enables us to recognise how to factorise the expression further. For example in
the trinomial
x 2 y 4x y C 4y
we see that y is common to each term, and we thus have
x2y 4x y C 4y D y.x 2 4x C 4/
D y.x 2/.x 2/
2
D y.x 2/ :
The same principle applies when the coefficient of the first term is negative. Look at the following example.
38
EXAMPLE 1.2.9
Factorise x 2 C 3x C 10:
SOLUTION
We take out 1 as the common factor.
x 2 C 3x C 10 D .x 2 3x 10/
D .x C 2/.x 5/
Before you try the next activity, look at the signs inside the brackets, and note the following (assume a; b and
c are all positive).
I ax 2 C bx C c D .?C?/.?C?/ Both signs “C”
I ax 2 bx C c D .? ?/.? ?/ Both signs “ ”
I ax 2 C bx c D .?C?/.? ?/ Opposite signs
I ax 2 bx c D .?C?/.? ?/ Opposite signs
Note also that in cases where the quadratic trinomial is an expression in more than one variable, it may have
various different forms.
For extra practice, factorise these. (Answers are given at the end of the solution to Activity 1.2.8.)
I All variables are in descending order, such as

x 2 y2 5x y 6
or all variables are in ascending order, such as
1 C 4ab2 5a 2 b4 .
I One variable is in ascending order while the other is in descending order, for example
3a 2 C 10ab 8b2 a is in descending order
b is in ascending order
or
3z 2 11x 3 y 2 z C 10x 6 y 4 . z is in descending order

x and y are in ascending order
39 MAT0511/001
ACTIVITY 1.2.8
(a) 20 C 6x 2x 2
(b) x 2 C 2x y C y 2 z4
(c) p 2 8 pq 4 C 16q 8
(d) 6x 4 y x2 C 1 6y
SOLUTION
(a) 20 C 6x 2x 2
D 2.10 C 3x x 2 / Take out the HCF.
D 2.5 x/.2 C x/ Quadratic trinomial.
(b) x 2 C 2x y C y 2 z 4
D .x 2 C 2x y C y 2 / z 4 Group.
D .x C y/2 z 4 Standard factorisation.
D .x C y z 2 /.x C y C z 2 ) Difference of squares.
(c) p2 8 pq 4 C 16q 8
D .p 4q 4 /2 Standard factorisation.
(2 in Table 1.2.2, with
a D p and b D 4q 4 :)
(d) 6x 4 y x 2 C 1 6y
D .6x 4 y 6y/ .x 2 1/ Group. Note the effect
of the “ ” before the bracket.
D 6y.x 4 1/ .x 2 1/ Take out the HCF in the first
set of brackets.
D 6y.x 2 1/.x 2 C 1/ .x 2 1/ x 4 1 is a difference of squares.
D .x 2 1/[6y.x 2 C 1/ 1] x 2 1 is a common factor.
D .x 1/.x C 1/.6yx 2 C 6y 1/ x 2 1 is a difference of squares.
Simplify inside brackets where
possible.
Extra practice (answers):
x 2 y2 5x y 6 D .x y 6/.x y C 1/
1 C 4ab2 5a 2 b4 D .1 C 5ab2 /.1 ab2 /
3a 2 C 10ab 8b2 D .3a 2b/.a C 4b/
3z 2 11x 3 y 2 z C 10x 6 y 4 D .3z 5x 3 y 2 /.z 2x 3 y 2 /
40
The examples and activities we have given which deal with quadratic trinomials may give the impression that
all quadratic trinomials in the required form can be factorised with integer coefficients. This is not the
case. For example
x 2 4x C 1
cannot be factorised with integer coefficients, since it is impossible to write this as
.x C a/.x C b/
such that ab D 1 and a C b D 4 where a 2 Z and b 2 Z: Similarly,
3x 2 7x 11
cannot be written in the form

.3x C b/.x C c/; b 2 Z and c 2 Z
because there are no integers b and c for which bc D 11 and b C 3c D 7:
COMPLETING THE SQUARE
In cases such as these we do not want to waste time trying to factorise. However, we may be able to manipulate
more easily a quadratic trinomial of the form
ax 2 C bx C c (1)
where
a; b; c 2 R; a 6D 0 and b 6D 0
if we can write it in the form

a.x h/2 C k (2)
where
a; h; k 2 R; a 6D 0 and h 6D 0:
Take note of the main difference between the expressions (1) and (2).
ax 2 C bx C c a.x h/2 C k
" " "
Two terms One x term,
containing x contained inside
a “square”
41 MAT0511/001
The process of changing

ax 2 C bx C c
to
a.x h/2 C k
is called completing the square. The expression in which there are two different powers of x (i.e. x 2 and x/
is changed into an expression which collects these two different powers of x into one “square” of the form
.x h/2 :
Note that in this case we have not yet factorised the expression, since the form a.x h/2 C k consists of
the sum of terms and not the product of terms.
For example, how should we change x 2 8x in order to write this expression as .x h/2 C k? In order to
convert x 2 8x to a perfect square we must add 16 since
x2 8x C 16 D .x 4/2 :
We cannot arbitrarily “add 16” since this changes the value of the given expression. However, if we “add 16”
and “subtract 16 ”, nothing has changed, since C16 16 D 0.
Thus we have
x2 8x D x2 8x C 16 16
D .x 4/2 16
which is of the form a.x h/2 C k, where a D 1, h D 4 and k D 16.
p 2
In general, if we have x 2 C px then we must add and subtract 2
( i.e. the square of half the coefficient of
x/ in order to convert x 2 C px to a perfect square since
p 2 p 2
xC D x 2 C px C :
2 2
This is a purely manipulative technique, but the method is a useful one, and you will come across it again in
future. Work through the next example to make sure you understand the different steps. We then apply the
same process to the general case ax 2 C bx C c:
Note how many concepts you need to understand to make sense of this statement. For example, you need to
understand the meaning of “square”, “half the coefficient” and “perfect square”.
42
EXAMPLE 1.2.10
Write each of the following in the form a.x h/2 C k:
(a) x 2 4x C 1
(b) 2x 2 C 3x 2
SOLUTION
(a) x 2 4x C 1
D .x 2 4x C 4 4/ C 1 Add and subtract the square of half
the coefficient of x. The coefficient
of x is 4. Hence we add and sub-
tract . 2/2 :
D .x 2 4x C 4/ 4C1
D .x 2/2 3
(b) 2x 2 C 3x 2
D .2x 2 C 3x/ 2 Group the x 2 and x terms together.
3
D 2.x 2 C x/ 2 Take out the coefficient of x 2 (i.e. 2).
2
Divide the coefficient of x by that
number (i.e. we obtain 32 x inside the
brackets).
3 3 3
D 2.x 2 C x C . /2 . /2 / 2 Inside the bracket, add and subtract
2 4 4
the square of half the coefficient of x:
3 3 3
D 2.x 2 C x C . /2 / 2 . /2 2 Take . 43 /2 out of the bracket. Re-
2 4 4
member to multiply this by 2 since the
bracket is multiplied by 2:
3 2 9
D 2.x C /2 2
4 16
3 9
D 2.x C /2 2 Simplify.
4 8
3 25
D 2.x C /2
4 8
3 2 25
We can write this as 2.x . 4
// C. 8
/: We see that this has the form a.x h/2 C k; where a D 2,
h D 34 and k D 25 8
:
We now consider the general quadratic expression
ax 2 C bx C c
43 MAT0511/001
and write this in the form

a.x h/2 C k:
ax 2 C bx C c
b
D a x2 C x Cc Group ax 2 and bx and take a out of
a
! the bracket. Divide b by a.
2 2
b b b
D a x2 C x C Cc Inside the brackets, add and subtract
a 2a 2a
the square of half the coefficient of x,
b 2
! i.e. add and substract . 2a /:
2 2
b b b b 2
D a x2 C x C a Cc Take . 2a / out of the bracket and
a 2a 2a
multiply it by a:
2
b b2
Da xC Cc Simplify.
2a 4a
2
b b2
Da xC Cc
2a 4a
2
b 4ac b2
Da xC C
2a 4a
b 4ac b2
This is of the form a.x h/2 C k; where h D and k D :
2a 4a
ACTIVITY 1.2.8
Follow the procedure given in Example 1.2.10 and write
px 2 C q x C r
in the form
p.x h/2 C k:
44
SOLUTION
px 2 C q x C r
q
D p x2 C x Cr Group px 2 and q x and take p out of
p
! the bracket. Divide q by p.
2 2
q q q
D p x2 C x C Cr Inside the brackets, add and subtract
p 2p 2p
the square of half the coefficient of x,
i.e. add and substract . 2qp /2 :
!
2 2
q q q
D p x2 C x C p Cr Take . 2qp /2 out of the bracket and
p 2p 2p
multiply it by p:
2
q q2
Dp xC Cr Simplify.
2p 4p
2
q q2
Dp xC Cr
2p 4p
2
q 4 pr q 2
Dp xC C
2p 4p
q 4 pr q 2
This has the form p.x h/2 C k; where h D and k D :
2p 4p
EXERCISE 1.2
1. Perform the operations indicated and simplify.
(a) .8x 2 y 7x y 2 C 2y 3 / .x 2 y C 2x y 2 4/
(b) .2yz 2y C z/ C .yz y 8z/
(c) .3z 2 C 2zy C 4y 2 / .z 2 zy C 5y 2 /
(d) .3x 4/2
(e) .2x C y/.x 5y/
(f) .2a 3b/.2a C 3b/
(g) .3r s 5/2
p p
(h) . 7x C 2y/. 7x 2y/
(i) .x y/.x 2 C y 2 / x y.2x 3y/
(j) ab.x 1/2 C x.a C b/2
2. (a) Divide x 2 3x C 1 by x C 2 and give your answer in the form

r
ax C b C :
x C2
45 MAT0511/001
(b) Divide x 3 C 2x 2 by x 1 and write your answer in the form

r
ax 2 C bx C c C :
x 1
3. Factorise each of the following over the integers (i.e. allow only integer coefficients in your answers).
(a) x 3 x2
(b) x 4 x2
(c) y 2 y 12
(d) 10z 2 13z 3
(e) 5x 2 C 14x 3
(f) 6y 2 5y 6
(g) 5x 2 C 5x 10
(h) ab2 a3
(i) 2x 2 C 5x y 3y 2
(j) 3y 2 2yz z2
(k) 8x 3 27y 3
(l) x 4 y4
(m) x 8 C x 4 6
(n) .x C 2y/2 C 3.x C 2y/ 4
(o) 10y 4 C 3y 2 4
(p) ax 2 ab2
(q) x 3 C x 2 4x 4
(r) 3bx C 3x C 2b C 2
(s) x 2 x 6 C ax C 2a
4. Use the method of completing the square to write each of the following in the form a.x h/2 C k:
(a) x 2 C 4x C 3
(b) x 2 x 3
(c) 2x 2 C 6x C 9
(d) 2x 2 C 9x 5
1 2
(e) 5
x C 2x 1
1 2
(f) 2
x 4x 9
46
1.3 Working with Algebraic Fractions

RATIONAL EXPRESSIONS
In Study Unity 2.2C of Module 1 we looked at the rules that apply to operations on fractions. In Study Unit
1.1A of Module 1 we introduced rational numbers, and saw that a fraction such as 52 is an example of a
rational number. With this background knowledge, we already know quite a bit about rational expressions.
Definition 1.3.1
A rational expression is the quotient of two polynomials.
It is defined for all values of the variables such that the
denominator is not equal to zero.
For example
x C1
I is a rational expression if x 1 6D 0
x 1
2x 2 C 9
I is a rational expression if 3x 3 2x 2 4x 6D 0
3x 3 2x 2 4x
p
x C1 p
I 2 is not a rational expression, since x C 1 is not a polynomial
x C1
1 1
x2 Cx 2 1 1
I is not a rational expression since x 2 C x 2 is not a polynomial.
3x
Rational expressions are the “algebraic extensions” of rational numbers and so the rules for operations with
rational numbers (as discussed in Study Unit 2.2C of Module 1) can be extended to rational expressions.
We give the rules below. For each rule we give an example with rational numbers and then one with rational
expressions so that you can compare the procedures involved. In each case, we exclude values of the variables
for which the denominator of the rational expression is zero.
SIMPLIFICATION
At times we need to simplify rational expressions. As is the case with numbers simplification usually means
I factorise the numerator and the denominator
I cancel factors that appear in both.
Hence we have:
Rule:
ac a
D Cancel factors where possible.
bc b
47 MAT0511/001
EXAMPLE 1.3.1
Rational numbers:
20 5 4 5
D D Factorise numerator and denomina-
12 3 4 3
tor. Then cancel factors.
Rational expression:
x2 1 .x 1/.x C 1/ x C1
2
D D First factorise. Then cancel factors.
x Cx 2 .x 1/.x C 2/ x C2
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
When we add or subtract rational expressions they may have the same denominator, or they may have
different denominators. We consider the two cases separately.
Same denominator
When the denominators are the same
I write down the denominator
I add or subtract the numerators
I simplify if possible.
Hence we have:
Rule:
a c aCc
C D Addition
b b b
a c a c
D Subtraction
b b b
EXAMPLE 1.3.2
Rational numbers:
4 3 7
C D
9 9 9
4 3 1
D
9 9 9
48
Rational expressions:
(a)
x2 2x C 1 x 2 C 2x C 1
C D
x2 1 x2 1 x2 1
.x C 1/.x C 1/ Numerator and denominator

D
.x C 1/.x 1/ both factorise.
x C1 After cancelling.
D
x 1
(b)
It is important that you in-
x2 2x 1 x2 .2x 1/
D clude the brackets when
x2 1 x2 1 x2 1
you subtract.
x2 2x C 1
D
x2 1
.x 1/.x 1/
D Factorise and cancel.
.x 1/.x C 1/
x 1
D
x C1
Different denominators
When the denominators are different
I find the LCM of the denominators
I find an “equivalent fraction” for each rational expression, using the LCD as denominator in each frac-
tion
I write down the denominator (LCD) and add or subtract the numerators
Remember that the LCD is the LCM of the denominators.
We have:
Rule:
a c ad bc ad C bc
C D C D Addition
b d bd bd bd
a c ad bc ad bc
D D Subtraction
b d bd bd bd
49 MAT0511/001
EXAMPLE 1.3.3
Rational numbers:
3 2 5 3C4 2 15 C 8 23
C D D D The LCM of 4 and 5 is 20.
4 5 20 20 20
7 1 7 4 3
D D The LCM of 8 and 2 is 8.
8 2 8 8
(a)
1 x 2 .1 x/.x C 1/ C 2.x 2 C 2x/ The LCM of x 2 C 2x

2
C D
x C 2x x C1 .x 2 C 2x/.x C 1/ and x C 1 is
.x 2 C 2x/.x C 1/:
1 x 2 C 2x 2 C 4x
D
x.x C 2/.x C 1/
x 2 C 4x C 1 The numerator cannot

D
x.x C 2/.x C 1/ be factorised.
(b)
1 x 1 2.1 x/ x.x C 1/
D
x.x C 1/2 2.x C 1/ 2x.x C 1/2
2 2x x 2 x
D
2x.x C 1/2
x 2 3x C 2
D
2x.x C 1/2
.x 2 C 3x 2/ The numerator cannot

D
2x.x C 1/2 be factorised further.
.x 2 C 3x 2/
D
2x.x C 1/2
Note that in the last example, the LCD of

1 x 1
2
and is 2x.x C 1/2 ; since
x.x C 1/ 2.x C 1/
x.x C 1/2 D x .x C 1/ .x C 1/
50
and
2.x C 1/ D 2 .x C 1/ :
Note: If we multiply the two denominators, we obtain 2x.x C1/3 . Using this as a common denominator
will still “work”, but because it is not the lowest common denominator more simplification will be
needed at the end.
Note that it is easier to find the LCD when each denominator is completely factorised. You will understand
this better if you work through the next example.
EXAMPLE 1.3.4
Simplify
3x 1 2x
:
x2 9 2x 2 5x 3
SOLUTION
x2 9 D .x 3/.x C 3/
2
2x 5x 3 D .x 3/.2x C 1/
LCM D .x 3/.x C 3/.2x C 1/
Note that we do not multiply these factors. Leave the LCM in its factorised form. At the end of the process
you may be able to cancel – provided the numerator and denominator are both factorised. For this reason we
keep the LCM in factorised form. Now
3x 1 2x
x2 9 2x 2 5x 3
3x 1 2x
D
.x 3/.x C 3/ .x 3/.2x C 1/
.3x 1/.2x C 1/ 2x.x C 3/

D
.x 3/.x C 3/.2x C 1/
6x 2 C x 1 2x 2 6x
D
.x 3/.x C 3/.2x C 1/
The numerator cannot be

4x 2 5x 1
D : factorised further. Hence no
.x 3/.x C 3/.2x C 1/
simplification is possible.
51 MAT0511/001
MULTIPLICATION
Multiplication of rational expressions is probably the simplest operation to perform. All we need to do is to
I multiply numerators
I multiply denominators
Hence we have:
Rule:
a c ac
D
b d bd
EXAMPLE 1.3.5
Rational numbers:
3 5 15
D This cannot be simplified.
2 7 14
x C1 x
x 2 x2 C 2x C 1
x.x C 1/
D
.x 2/.x 2 C 2x C 1/
x.x C 1/
D Factorise where possible.
.x 2/.x C 1/2
x
D Cancel.
.x 2/.x C 1/
DIVISION
To divide one rational expression by another
I invert the divisor

Note:
Remember that the divisor is the expression (or number) that comes after the symbol.
I multiply as above
52
We thus have:
Rule:
a c a d ad
D D
b d b c bc
EXAMPLE 1.3.6
Rational numbers:
2 3 2 4 8
D D This cannot be simplified.
7 4 7 3 21
x2 4 x 2 C 4x C 4
x C3 x2 9
x2 4 x2 9
D
x C3 x 2 C 4x C 4
.x 2 4/.x 2 9/
D
.x C 3/.x 2 C 4x C 4/
.x 2/.x C 2/.x 3/.x C 3/

D Factorise where possible.
.x C 3/.x C 2/2
.x 2/.x 3/
D Cancel.
.x C 2/
These rules are exactly the same as the ones that apply to arithmetic fractions, so you should have no problems
in carrying out these operations. The only “tricky” parts are sometimes finding the lowest common denom-
inator, and simplifying at the end. These require a thorough understanding of factorisation. This illustrates
again how mathematical understanding develops in much the same way as building a house. If the foundation
is shaky, the walls will crack!
ACTIVITY 1.3.1
Perform the indicated operations and simplify.
2 x
(a) C
x 2 x2 Cx 6
1 1
(b)
x2 Cx 2 x2 3x C 2
x 4 2.x 1/
(c)
x2 1 x 2 4x
3.x C 2/ x2 4
(d)
x2 1 2x .x C 1/
53 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
(a)
2 x
C
x 2 x2 Cx 6
2 x
D C It is easier to find the LCD if the
x 2 .x C 3/.x 2/
denominators are first factorised
completely.
2.x C 3/ C x
D LCD D .x C 3/.x 2/:
.x C 3/.x 2/
2x C 6 C x
D
.x C 3/.x 2/
3x C 6
D
.x C 3/.x 2/
3.x C 2/
D
.x C 3/.x 2/
(b)
1 1
x2 Cx 2 x2 3x C 2
1 1
D
.x C 2/.x 1/ .x 2/.x 1/
x 2 .x C 2/
D Remember to keep x C 2 inside
.x C 2/.x 2/.x 1/
brackets here: it helps us to
remember the effect of the “ ”.
x 2 x 2
D
.x C 2/.x 2/.x 1/
4
D
.x C 2/.x 2/.x 1/
(c)
x 4 2.x 1/
x2 1 x 2 4x
x 4 2.x 1/
D It is easier to simplify if each
.x 1/.x C 1/ x.x 4/
expression is first factorised.
2
D
x.x C 1/
54
(d)
3.x C 2/ x2 4
x2 1 2x.x C 1/
3.x C 2/ 2x.x C 1/ Factorise.

D
.x C 1/.x 1/ .x C 2/.x 2/ Invert and multiply.
6x
D
.x 1/.x 2/
EXERCISE 1.3
1. Perform the operations indicated and simplify.
x3 3x 2 C 3x 1 x C1
(a) C
1 x x 1
x3 3x 2 10x x 2x 10
(b)
x2 9 3Cx x 3
8a 3 C 125b3 4a 2 25b2 2a C 5b a 2 b ab2
(c)
4a 2 25b2 4a 2 C 20ab C 25b2 1 2a 2 b C ab C 5ab2
x 12 3x 2 C 5
2. Simplify 2 x .
2x 5 3x C 2
1Ca 1Cb ACB

3. If A D and B D ; find the value of .
1 a 1 b 1 AB
UNIT SUMMARY
Correct use of the language of algebra
Concept Example
variable x; x 2
constant 7
algebraic expression 3x C 4
55 MAT0511/001
Concept Example
terms 2x C 3y 1
D . 2x/ C .3y/ C . 1/
three terms:
they are: 2x, 3y, 1.
x3
like terms x and 3xI 4
and 2x 3
unlike terms x and x yI x 2 and x 3
coefficient 3 is the coefficient of x in the term 3x;

4x is the coefficient of y in the term
4x y.
Substitution
Replace variables with numbers, other variables or algebraic expressions
Polynomials of degree n in x, i.e. an x n C an 1 x n 1

C : : : C a1 x C a0 ; an 6D 0
B have at most n C 1 terms, e.g. if n D 4: a4 x 4 C a3 x 3 C a2 x 2 C a1 x C a0

| {z }
5 terms
B have at least 1 term, e.g. if n D 4: a4 x 4

|{z}
1 term: a3 Da2 Da1 Da0 D0
B have special names in certain cases:

a monomial has 1 term
a binomial has 2 terms
a trinomial has 3 terms
Addition (subtraction) of algebraic expressions
add (subtract) like terms
Remember:
.x y/ D xCy
Multiplication of algebraic expressions
( a + b) ( c + d )
F O I L
56
Special product formulas
.a C b/2 D a 2 C 2ab C b2
.a b/2 D a 2 2ab C b2
.a C b/.a b/ D a 2 b2
.a C b/3 D a 3 C 3a 2 b C 3ab2 C b3
.a b/3 D a 3 3a 2 b C 3ab2 b3
Division of algebraic expressions
! no remainder
Long division as for numbers, yielding
! a remainder that can be
expressed as a fraction in
which the denominator is
equal to the divisor
Factorisation
Method of factorisation Example
Common factor 3x y 2 6x y 3
D 3x y 2 .1 2y/
Grouping 2a 1 C b 2ab
D .2a 2ab/ .1 b/
D 2a.1 b/ .1 b/
D .1 b/.2a 1/
Remember that .b 1/ may be

written as .1 b/ if necessary.
For example:
3 3b 2b2 C 2b
D 3.1 b/ 2b.b 1/
D 3.1 b/ 2b. .1 b//
D 3.1 b/ C 2b.1 b/
D .1 b/.3 C 2b/
57 MAT0511/001
Standard factorisations
B perfect square trinomials a 2 C 2ab C b2 D .a C b/2

a 2 2ab C b2 D .a b/2
B difference of squares a2 b2 D .a b/.a C b/
B difference of cubes a3 b3 D .a b/.a 2 C ab C b2 /
B sum of cubes a 3 C b3 D .a C b/.a 2 ab C b2 /
Quadratic trinomials
B reverse of FOIL 5a 2 C 14ab 3b2

D .5a b/.a C 3b/
Completing the square

Example
3x 2 2x C 4
2
D 3.x 2 x/ C 4
3
2 1 1
D 3 x2 x C . /2 . /2 C 4
3 3 3
1 2 1
D 3 .x / C4
3 9
1 2 1
D 3.x / C4
3 3
1 2 2
D 3.x / C3
3 3
Rational expressions
B definition: the quotient of two polynomials such that the denominator is not zero
B simplification by factorising and cancelling
B addition (and subtraction) of like terms
a c aCc
C D
b b b
a c a c
D
b b b
58
B addition (and subtraction) of unlike terms

a c ad C bc
C D
b d bd
a c ad bc
D
b d bd
B multiplication
a c ac
D
b d bd
B division
a c a d ad
D D
b d b c bc
CHECKLIST
Now check that you can do the following.
1.1 Introduction to Algebra
1. Recognise the special words used in the language of algebra.

Examples 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3
2. Substitute numbers, variables or expressions into algebraic expressions.

Activity 1.1.1
3. Recognise which algebraic expressions are polynomials, and identify the leading coeefficient, the de-
gree and the constant in a polynomial.
Example 1.1.4
1.2 Basic Algebaic Operations
1. Add and subtract algebraic expressions.

Examples 1.2.1, 1.2.2; Activity 1.2.1
2. Multiply algebraic expressions
B using the distributive property

Example 1.2.3; Activity 1.2.2(a)
B using the FOIL method
Activity 1.2.2 (b), (c), (d)
B using special product formulas.
Table 1.2.1; Activity 1.2.4
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3. Divide algebraic expressions
B using long division.

Example 1.2.4; Activity 1.2.5
4. Factorise algebraic expressions by
B taking out a common factor

B grouping
Example 1.2.6
B standard factorisations
Table 1.2.2, Example 1.2.7
B recognising quadratic trinomials.
5. Complete the square.

1.3 Working with Algebraic Fractions
1. Recognise a rational expression.

Definition 1.3.1
2. Simplify rational expressions.

Example 1.3.1
3. Add (subtract) rational expressions.

Examples 1.3.2, 1.3.3, 1.3.4; Activity 1.3.1(a), (b)
4. Multiply rational expressions.

Example 1.3.5; Activity 1.3.1 (c)
5. Divide rational expressions.

Example 1.3.6; Activity 1.3.1 (d)
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UNIT 2: Equations and Inequalities

OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.
2.1: Introduction to Equations
I Determine whether a specific number is a solution of an equation.
2.2: Linear Equations and Inequalities
I Solve a linear equation using the addition, subtraction, multiplication, division or symmetric properties
of equality.
I Solve word problems by setting up and solving linear equations.
I Solve a linear inequality using the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division properties of in-
equality.
I Solve word problems by setting up and solving linear inequalities.
2.3: Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
I Solve quadratic equations by factorising.
I Solve quadratic equations by substituting.
I Solve quadratic equations by finding square roots.
I Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.
I Solve quadratic equations by using the quadratic formula.
I Determine the discriminant of a quadratic equation and apply it to problems dealing with the nature of
the roots of the equation.
I Solve word problems by setting up and solving quadratic equations.
I Solve quadratic inequalities by means of factorisation and the following properties.

AB > 0 , .A > 0 and B > 0) or .A < 0 and B < 0/
AB < 0 , .A > 0 and B < 0/ or .A < 0 and B > 0/
I Solve quadratic inequalities by means of factorisation and the split–point method (table of signs).
I Solve word problems by setting up and solving quadratic inequalities.

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2.4: Some Other Equations
I Solve equations by squaring both sides.
I Change the subject of a formula.
2.5: Systems of Equations in Two Unknowns
I Solve a system of linear equations using the method of elimination.
I Solve a system of linear equations using the method of substitution.
I Solve word problems by setting up and solving a system of linear equations.
I Solve a system of one linear and one quadratic equation using the method of substitution.
I Solve word problems by setting up and solving a system of one linear and one quadratic equation.
2.1 Introduction to Equations

SOME TERMINOLOGY OF EQUATIONS
What are equations and why do we need to study them? Equations can be useful tools for solving real–life
problems. We often express real–life relationships by means of equations. The solutions of the equations
then provide the answer to the original problem.
For example, suppose I have R400 in R100 notes in my petty cash which I wish to exchange at the bank for
R10 and R20 notes, and R5 coins. I need the same number of R10 and R20 notes and twice as many R5 coins.
How many of each should I ask for at the bank? We can use an equation to solve this problem. However, we
must first state what we mean by an “equation”.
EQUATION
An equation is a statement that two algebraic expressions are equal. For example, the following are all
equations. For the definition of an algebraic expression see Topic 1.
3 C 5 D 10 2
2x C 1 D 5 x
x2 4D x C2
x 2 C y2 D 4
62
Note that an equation always contains an equality sign, “D”. Make sure that you can see the difference
between x 2 4 x 2 and x 2 4 D x C 2: Note that x 2 4 x 2 does not contain an equality sign and
is thus an expression, whereas x 2 4 D x C 2 is an equation. In the equation
x2 4D x C2
the expression x 2 4 is called the left–hand side (LHS) of the equation, and x C 2 is called the right–hand
side (RHS) of the equation.
SOLUTION OF AN EQUATION
A certain value of a variable, say x; is said to satisfy an equation or to be a solution of the equation if this
value makes the equation a true statement. This means that when we substitute this value for x into an
equation, we find that the LHS is equal to the RHS.
It is important to remember that an equation can usually be solved. An expression can only (sometimes) be
simplified. Do not make the mistake of changing expressions into equations (for example by setting them
equal to zero) and then trying to“solve” them.
We now return to the petty cash problem stated on the previous page. We begin by letting the number of R10
notes be x. Then the number of R20 notes will be x and the number of R5 coins will be 2x. The equation
.10 x/ C .20 x/ C .5 2x/ D 400
then represents the information. Solving this equation provides the answer to the question.
Note:
A solution of an equation is sometimes called a root of the equation. Do not confuse the use of this word
with other uses, such as the n th root of a real number. We have for example
I the roots of an oak tree
I the square root of 9
I the roots of the equation x 2 4 D 0:
Once again the same English word has a variety of meanings.
EXAMPLE 2.1.1
Show that x D 3 is a solution, but that x D 2 is not a solution, of the equation
x2 4 D x C 2: (2.1.1)
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SOLUTION
Substitute x D 3 into equation (2.1.1). Then
LHS D 32 4D9 4D5

and
RHS D 3 C 2 D 5:
Hence LHS D RHS and thus x D 3 is a solution of the equation.
Now substitute x D 2 into the equation. We obtain
LHS D 22 4D4 4D0

and
RHS D 2 C 2 D 4:
Since 0 6D 4 we have LHS 6D RHS and hence x D 2 is not a solution of the equation.
Now try the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.1.1
Find out whether x D 2 is a solution of the equation
x2 4 D x C 2:
SOLUTION
We substitute x D 2 into the equation and we obtain
LHS D . 2/2 4D4 4D0

and
RHS D 2 C 2 D 0:
Hence LHS D RHS and so x D 2 is a solution of the equation.
Note that the following is not a correct way of writing down the solution to Activity 2.1.1.
x2 4 D x C2
2
. 2/ 4 D 2C2 This is the incorrect step. You do not
know that LHS D RHS so you cannot
state that they are equal.
4 4 D 2C2
0 D 0
64
In the second line you are assuming that x D 2 is a solution. You cannot state as true something that you
still need to show is true. Please set out your solutions in a similar way to our solution for Activity 2.1.1.
When equations only contain numbers we can immediately see whether they are true or false. For example
3 C 4 D 11 4
is always true since both the LHS and RHS are equal to 7: This equation is called an identity.
However, the equation

7 4D4 7
is always false since the LHS is equal to 3 whereas the RHS is equal to 3 and 3 6D 3:
Equations in which variables appear fall into three categories. Consider an equation that contains one vari-
able, say x: We have the following possibilities.
I The equation is only true for certain values of x: For example, we have shown that x D 3 and x D 2
both satisfy x 2 4 D x C 2; but that x D 2 does not satisfy the equation.
In fact x D 3 and x D 2 are the only solutions of this equation.
I The equation is true for all values of the variable for which it is defined. For example, the equation
.x C 1/2 D x 2 C 2x C 1
is true for all values of x. An equation of this type is called an identity.
I The equation is always false, i.e. no value of the variable satisfies the equation. For example,
x D x C 20
is always false because the number on the right–hand side is always 20 more than the number on the
left–hand side. We say the equation has no solution.
SOLUTION SET
We dealt with sets in Module 1.
To solve an equation means to find all the solutions of that equation. We often write all the solutions of an
equation in a set. This set is known as the solution set of the equation. If there is no solution of an equation
then the solution set is the empty set, which we denote by ;.
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We have to take care when we use the words “a” and “the”. A number of languages do not differentiate
between these two words or have no word for either “a” or “the”. We now look at an example to illustrate the
use of “a” and “the”.
In Example 2.1.1 and Activity 2.1.1 we saw that x D 3 and x D 2 are solutions of the equation
x2 4 D x C 2:
We also noted that these are the only solutions of the equation. We say that x D 3 is a solution of x 2 4 D xC2
(or that x D 2 is a solution of the equation). We use the word “a” since there is more than one solution but
we are only referring to one of them.
On the other hand, the equation,

x 1D0
has only one solution, namely x D 1:
Since this solution is unique, i.e. it is the only one, we say that x D 1 is the solution of x 1 D 0:
Since a solution set is always unique we speak about the solution set. For example we say f 2; 3g is the
solution set of the equation x 2 4 D x C 2 and f1g is the solution set of x 1 D 0:
Note that we should not write “x D 3 is the solution of x 2 4 D x C 2" as this incorrectly implies that it is
the only solution.
EQUIVALENT EQUATIONS
Two equations are called equivalent if they have the same solution set. One method of solving an equation is
to rewrite it as a simpler equivalent equation which is easier to solve than the original one. We now consider
some techniques we can use to find simpler equivalent equations.
As an illustration let us think of an equation as a balanced pair of scales.
Figure 2.1.1
66
Suppose we have a packet of sweets and all the sweets have the same weight. The sweets are either red or
green. If we place 12 red sweets in the left pan and 12 green sweets in the right pan then the scales will be
balanced. You can easily see that if you now add 2 sweets to the left pan you must also add 2 sweets to the
right pan in order for the scales to remain balanced. Similarly if you take 4 sweets out of the left pan then you
will have to take 4 sweets out of the right pan in order for the scales to stay balanced. This is an illustration
of the following fact.
An equivalent equation is produced by adding or subtracting

the same number on both sides of an equation.
Now suppose that instead of putting 12 red sweets into the left pan we put in four times as many, i.e. 4 12
red sweets. To maintain the balance we must also put 4 times as many green sweets, i.e. 4 12 green sweets,
into the right pan.
In the same way, instead of putting 12 red sweets into the left pan we may decide to put one–third of this
number, i.e. (12 3/, into the pan. We must also put one–third of this number, i.e. (12 3/ green sweets, into
the right pan so that the scales balance. This illustrates the following fact.
An equivalent equation is produced by multiplying or dividing

both sides of an equation by a non–zero number.
It makes no difference whether we write
the weight of 12 red sweets D the weight of 12 green sweets
or
the weight of 12 green sweets D the weight of 12 red sweets.
For example, 7 D 4 C 3 is the same as 4 C 3 D 7 and 2x C 3 D 1 is the same as 1 D 2x C 3: This is known

as the symmetric property of equality.
The statements made above about producing equivalent equations can be generalised to adding, subtracting,
multiplying by or dividing by an algebraic expression instead of a number. We do not prove these statements.
For convenience we summarise these statements in the following table.
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EQUIVALENT EQUATIONS
(PROPERTIES OF EQUALITY)
Suppose A; B and C are algebraic expressions.

Then the equation
ADB
is equivalent to each of the following
1. ACC D B CC Addition property

2. A CDB C Subtraction property
3. C A D C B; C 6D 0 Multiplication property
A B
4. D ; C 6D 0 Division property
C C
5. BDA Symmetric property
Table 2.1.1
We shall use these properties in the next study unit to solve linear equations.
EXCERCISE 2.1
1. In each of the following check whether the indicated number is a solution of the given equation.
(a) 2x 1 D 4I x D 2
(b) x 2 4x D 4I x D 2
1 1
(c) 2
z C 8
D 41 I z D 1
4
(d) 2s C 1 D s 2 1I s D 1
2.2 Linear Equations and Inequalities

LINEAR EQUATIONS
These are the simplest kinds of equations.
Definition 2.2.1
A linear or first degree equation in one variable
is an equation which can be written in the form
ax C b D 0; where a; b 2 R.
The equation is called linear because y D ax C b defines a graph which is a straight line. It is called first
degree because the highest power of the variable is 1:
68
We deal with straight lines in Module 3.
You will notice that in the definition a is any real number. However, we usually consider linear equations in
which a 6D 0:
At this stage it may not be obvious to you that the equation
5x 1 D 3x C 2
is a linear equation. However, we can use the properties given in Table 2.1.1 to rewrite this equation as
2x 3 D 0:
Now this has the form ax C b D 0; where a D 2 and b D 3; and it is clearly a linear equation.
The following example shows how we apply the properties in Table 2.1.1 to solve various linear equations.
EXAMPLE 2.2.1
Solve each of the following equations.
(a) 3x C 4 D 0
(b) 5x 1 D 3x C 2
(c) 3.x C 1/ C 4 D 5 3.x 2/
5 1 5
(d) xC D x
9 3 6
2 3
(e) D for x 6D 1 and x 6D 2
x 1 x C2
SOLUTION
Our aim is to reduce each of the given equations to an equivalent equation of the form nx D c; n 6D 0: We
can then divide both sides of nx D c by n and obtain the answer x D nc : This means that we need to collect
all terms containing the variable on the LHS, and all the constants on the RHS.
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(a)
3x C 4 D 0
, 3x C 4 4D0 4 Subtract 4 from both sides.
, 3x D 4 Simplify.
3x 4
, D Divide both sides by 3:
3 3
4
, xD Simplify.
3
4 4
We now check whether x D 3
satisfies the original equation. If we substitute x D 3
into 3x C4 D 0
we obtain
4
LHS D 3 . 3
/ C4D 4 C 4 D 0 D RHS.
4 4
Thus x D 3
satisfies the original equation and is the solution. The solution set is f 3
g:
Note:
In most solutions of equations you will notice that the steps are linked by means of the symbol “,”.
This symbol implies that the next step is equivalent to the previous step, i.e. both steps have the same
solution.
(b)
5x 1 D 3x C 2
, 5x 3x 1 D 3x 3x C 2 Subtract 3x from both sides.
, 2x 1D2 Simplify.
, 2x 1C1D2C1 Add 1 to both sides.
, 2x D 3 Simplify.
2x 3
, D Divide both sides by 2:
2 2
3
, xD Simplify.
2
70
3 3
Since x D 2
satisfies the original equation (check this for yourself), x D 2
is the solution of the
equation.
(c) When we have brackets in a linear equation we normally simplify both sides of the equation as far as
possible before trying to solve it.
3.x C 1/ C 4 D 5 3.x 2/
, 3x C 3 C 4 D 5 3x C 6 Distributive Property (Module 1)
, 3x C 7 D 11 3x Simplify.
, 3x C 3x C 7 D 11 3x C 3x Add 3x to both sides.
, 6x C 7 D 11 Simplify.
, 6x C 7 7 D 11 7 Subtract 7 from both sides.
, 6x D 4 Simplify.
6x 4
, D Divide both sides by 6.
6 6
2
, xD Simplify.
3
2
If you check you will find that x D 3
satisfies the original equation.
2
Hence x D 3
is the solution.
(d) When we have fractions in a linear equation we often first simplify both sides by multiplying both sides
by the LCD. In this case the LCD is 18:
Hence
5 1 5
xC D x
9 3 6
5 1 5
, 18. x C / D 18. x/ Multiply both sides by 18.
9 3 6
5 1 5
, 18 x C 18 D 18 x Distributive Property (Module 1)
9 3 6
, 10x C 6 D 15x Simplify.

71 MAT0511/001
, 10x 10x C 6 D 15x 10x Subtract 10x from both sides.
, 6 D 5x Simplify.
, 5x D 6 Interchange the two sides of

the equation (Symmetry Pro-
perty, Table 2.1.1).
5x 6
, D Divide both sides by 5.
5 5
6
, xD : Simplify.
5
6
Since x D 5
satisfies the original equation it is the solution of the equation.
Instead of subtracting 10x as we did in the fourth step above in order to avoid a negative coefficient of
x; we can also subtract 15x from both sides. We then obtain
10x 15x C 6 D 15x 15x
, 5x C 6 D 0
, 5x D 6
5x 6
, D
5 5
6
, xD :
5
Both methods give the same solution.
(e) At a first glance this does not look like a linear equation. However, if we multiply both sides of the
equation by the LCD, i.e. by .x 1/.x C 2/; we will obtain an equivalent linear equation.
Note: .x 1/.x C2/ 6D 0 since we are told that x 6D 1 and x 6D 2: Thus we can apply the Multiplication
Property of Table 2.1.1.
72
Hence
2 3
D
x 1 x C2
2.x 1/.x C 2/ 3.x 1/.x C 2/

, D
.x 1/ .x C 2/
, 2.x C 2/ D 3.x 1/ Cancel.
, 2x C 4 D 3x 3 Remove brackets.
(Distributive Property, Module 1,
Study Unit 2.2B).
, 2x 2x C 4 C 3 D 3x 2x 3C3 Subtract 2x from and add 3 to
both sides.
, 7Dx Simplify.
, x D 7: Interchange the two sides of

the equation.
Since x D 7 satisfies the original equation (check this yourself) it is the solution of the equation.
In Example 2.2.1 we have given all the individual steps in solving each linear equation. As you become more
familiar with solving these types of equations, you can use “shortcuts”. However, you must make sure that
your solution is logically set out and that it can be understood by someone else who reads it.
For example, we can set out the solution to Example 2.2.1(c) as follows.
3.x C 1/ C 4 D 5 3.x 2/
, 3x C 3 C 4 D 5 3x C 6
, 3x C 7 D 11 3x
, 3x C 3x D 11 7
, 6x D 4
2
, xD
3
73 MAT0511/001
Note that you do not have to state what you are doing in each step as we have done in Example 2.2.1.
Now try to solve the equations in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.2.1
Find the solution set of each of the following equations.
1 2
(a) aC D0
7 3
2p 1 pC3 7p C 1
(b) C D
3 2 6
2 1 1
(c) D ; y 6D
.3y 1/ 3 3
(d) x C 1 .3x 1/ C 2.x 1/ D 0
(e) ax C bx D c, where a; b and c are constants and a 6D b
Note: The variable need not be denoted by x.
SOLUTION
(a)
1 2
aC D0
7 3
1 2 2
, aD Subtract from both sides.
7 3 3
2
, aD 7 Multiply both sides by 7.
3
14
, aD
3
14
By substituting a D 3
into the original equation we obtain
1 14 2 2 2
LHS D C D C D 0 D RHS.
7 3 3 3 3
14 14
Thus a D 3
is the solution and hence the solution set is f 3
g:
74
(b)
2p 1 pC3 7p C 1
C D
3 2 6
6.2 p 1/ 6. p C 3/ 6.7 p C 1/
, C D Multiply both sides by LCD.
3 2 6
, 2.2 p 1/ C 3. p C 3/ D .7 p C 1/ Simplify.
, 4p 2 C 3p C 9 D 7p C 1
, 7D1 Subtract 7 p from each side.
The last equation is false. Since the original equation is equivalent to the last equation it follows that it
has no solution and thus ; (the empty set) is the solution set of the original equation.
(c)
Since y 6D 13 ;
2 1
D
.3y 1/ 3
, 2 3D1 .3y 1/ By cross multiplication.

(See the useful hint that
follows this activity.)
, 6 D 3y 1
, 6 C 1 D 3y
, 5 D 3y
, 3y D 5
5
, yD :
3
Since y D 53 satisfies the original equation it follows that y D 5

3
is the solution of this equation and
that f 35 g is the solution set.
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(d)
x C1 .3x 1/ C 2.x 1/ D 0
, x C1 3x C 1 C 2x 2D0
, x 3x C 2x C 1 C 1 2D0
, 0x C 0 D 0
, 0x D 0
We can see that no matter what value we substitute for x; 0x will always be 0; and thus the last equation
is valid for all values of x: Thus this is also true for the original equation and the solution set of the
equation is R:
(e)
ax C bx D c
, .a C b/ x D c Take x out as a common factor on the LHS.
c
, x D :
aCb
c
Thus the solution set is f aCb g.
Useful Hint
A C
Cross multiplication is a shortcut for multiplying both sides of an equation of the form D by the
B D
common denominator B D where A, B, C and D are algebraic expressions and B 6D 0 and D 6D 0. We see
that by multiplying both sides by B D,
A C
D
B D
is equivalent to
A.B D/ C.B D/
D
B D
Note:
Cross multiplication means multiplying on the diagonal.
A = C
B D
76
which is the same as

AB D CBD
D ;
B D
A C
which after cancelling gives AD D C B. Thus D is equivalent to AD D C B, provided B 6D 0 and
B D
D 6D 0.
In the table on the next page we summarise the steps we use to solve linear equations.
SOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS
1. Remove fractions or rational expressions by multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD.
If the equation has the form BA D CD then cross multiply. Simplify as far as possible on both sides.
2. Multiply out brackets and simplify both sides where possible.
3. By using the addition and subtraction properties, collect variable terms on one side and constants
on the other side of the equality sign. Simplify to obtain an equation of the form nx D c:
4. In the equation nx D c; if
I n D 0 and c 6D 0; then there is no solution and the solution set is ;:
I n D 0 and c D 0; then every real value of x is a solution and the solution set is R:
I n D 1; then the solution is x D c and the solution set is fcg:
I n 6D 1 and n 6D 0, then the solution is x D nc and the solution set is f nc g: (Here we apply
the division property to obtain the solution.)
5. Check the solution by substituting it into the original equation.
Table 2.2.1
SOLVING WORD PROBLEMS USING LINEAR EQUATIONS
In Study Unit 2.2A you learnt how to solve linear equations. In order to solve word problems you need to
translate language statements into mathematical statements. You then need to set up the appropriate equations
and solve them.
We start by solving a simple word problem, taking you through the various steps.
Problem
The length of a rectangle is 3 cm less than twice the width. The perimeter of the rectangle is 24 cm. Find the
lengths of the sides of the rectangle. The perimeter of a rectangle is the total length of all of its sides.
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Steps
1. Read the problem and try to visualise the situation described. Then read the problem carefully
and take note of all the relevant information stated in the problem. Write down the important
pieces of information.
The length is 3 cm less than 2 times the width. The perimeter is 24 cm.
2. Identify what you are asked to find. Introduce a suitable letter or some other symbol to represent
the quantity to be found. Make sure that you write down exactly what the symbol represents.
Let the width be x cm.
3. Read each sentence again and express all quantities mentioned in the problem in terms of the
symbol that you have introduced. You may find a diagram or table useful.
Since the width is x cm, the length is .2x 3/ cm.
The following diagram represents the information.
2x _ 3
x x
2x _ 3
Now the perimeter is the sum of the lengths of all the sides. Hence the perimeter is .2x C 2.2x 3//
cm, i.e. .6x 6/ cm.
4. Find a fact in the problem that links the information you have used so far with additional infor-
mation given. Set up an equation to express this link in algebraic form.
Since the perimeter is 24 cm we have 6x 6 D 24:
5. Solve the equation.

Since 6x 6 D 24 we have 6x D 30; i.e. x D 5:
6. Return to the original problem and see whether the answer found in step 5 makes sense. Make
sure that you have answered the question stated in the problem.
According to step 5 the width of the rectangle is 5 cm and by substituting x D 5 into .2x 3/ we find
that the length is 7 cm. This does make sense since the numbers are positive (we know lengths must be
positive), and the numbers seem reasonable, since they are both less than the perimeter.
7. Check that your answer satisfies the original word problem.

We note that the length of 7 cm is 3 cm less than twice the width and that the perimeter of a rectangle
with these measurements is 24 cm.
8. Lastly, state your solution in terms of the appropriate units of measurement.

Hence the width of the rectangle is 5 cm and the length is 7 cm.
78
We summarise the steps involved in problem solving in Figure 2.2.1.
When solving a problem it is not necessary to write each separate step as in the example above. Some steps
can be carried out mentally and not written down, such as making a note of relevant information and checking
that the solution satisfies the original problem.
Read the problem.

If necessary list the
given information.
Identify what is to be found.

Introduce a symbol.
State what the symbol represents.
Express all quantities in terms

of the quantity to be determined.
Represent the information in
a diagram or table if possible.
Set up an equation.
Solve the equation.
Ensure the answer makes sense

and that you have answered the
question stated in the problem.
Check that your answer satisfies

the original problem.
State the solution to the

problem using suitable units
of measurement where appropriate.
Figure 2.2.1
EXAMPLE 2.2.2
A mother divides R900 between her 3 children. Kagiso gets twice as much as his sister Dikeledi, who gets
R100 less than her brother Thabo. How much does each child receive?
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SOLUTION
At a first glance this looks rather complicated. However, let us take this step by step.
Suppose Thabo receives Rx: Then Dikeledi receives Rx R100, i.e. R(x 100/; since she receives R100
less than Thabo. Since Kagiso gets twice as much as Dikeledi he receives 2 R(x 100/ which we write as
R2.x 100/: Therefore, together they get
Rx C R(x 100/ C R2.x 100/:
This amount must be equal to R900.
Hence we must solve the equation
x C .x 100/ C 2.x 100/ D 900:
Note that we “drop” the rand symbol in the equation.
Now
x C .x 100/ C 2.x 100/ D 900
, xCx 100 C 2x 200 D 900
, 4x 300 D 900
, 4x D 1200
, x D 300:
Hence Thabo receives R300, Dikeledi receives R300 R100, i.e. R200; and Kagiso receives 2 R200, i.e.
R400.
When we check we see that Dikeledi receives R100 less than Thabo and that Kagiso receives twice as much
as Dikeledi. Also, if we add the amounts that each one receives we see that these add up to R900.
In Figure 2.2.1, eight steps in the problem solving process are identified. Read through the solution of
Example 2.2.2 again. Whenever one of the steps 1 to 8 occurs, underline it and number it, to see how we have
put this process into practice. For example, the solution begins with the statement “Suppose Thabo receives
R x”. At this point you should underline this statement and label it 2 . Try, if possible, to identify all eight
steps.
Now study the following example in which we look at distance, speed and time.
80
EXAMPLE 2.2.3
Towns A and B are 300 km apart. Nkopodi travels from A to B at a speed of 80 km/h. Paul leaves 15 minutes
after Nkopodi and travels from A to B; along the same road at a speed of 100 km/h. How far from A will
they be when Paul overtakes Nkopodi?
In this case speed means average speed.
SOLUTION
Let Paul overtake Nkopodi x km from A: Let us call this point C: A diagram is useful.
80 km/h
Nkopodi
C
A B
x km
100 km/h
Paul
We use the fact that

distance D speed time,
i.e. we use the formula

dDs t:
We first tabulate the information we have
Distance Speed Time

km km/h h
Nkopodi x 80
Paul x 100
Note that we measure time in hours since speed is expressed in kilometres per hour.
We complete the table by finding the time it takes Nkopodi and Paul to travel to C: In order to find the missing
information, time, we “solve” the equation d D s t for t; i.e. we divide both sides by s and we obtain t D ds :
A unit check (see Module 1, Study Unit 5.1B) shows us that this is correct:
km h
D km D h.
km/h km
x x
Thus it takes Nkopodi 80
hours and Paul 100
hours to travel x km. We enter these two values in the table on
81 MAT0511/001
the previous page and obtain the table below.
Distance Speed Time

km km/h h
x
Nkopodi x 80
80
x
Paul x 100
100
Note: We must change minutes to hours.
Now Nkopodi and Paul reach C at the same time. Since Paul leaves 15 minutes after Nkopodi, Paul travels
for less time than Nkopodi. Paul travels 15 minutes, i.e. 41 hour, less than Nkopodi. Thus the time 100 x
hours
1 x x 1 x
is 4 hour less than 80 hours, i.e. the number 100 is 4 less than 80 : This is the information given in the problem
that links the other items. Hence we can write
x x 1
D
100 80 4
and we now solve this equation.
Since the LCM of 4; 80 and 100 is 400 we multiply both sides of the equation by 400. Thus
x x 1
D
100 80 4
, 4x D 5x 100
, xD 100
, x D 100:
Thus Paul overtakes Nkopodi 100 km from A:
We now check our answer.
100 5
Nkopodi travels 100 km in 80
h, i.e. in 4
h, i.e. in 1 41 h.
100
Paul travels 100 km in 100
h, i.e. in 1 h.
1
If Paul leaves A 4
hour after Nkopodi then they will be 100 km away form A when Paul overtakes Nkopodi.
Note:
I You should have noticed that we did not use the fact that A and B are 300 km apart. We do not need
this information to the solve the problem. We call this redundant information.
82
I In the solution to Example 2.2.3 you can also reason as follows.

x x 1 x x
Since 80
is larger than 100
we can add 4
to 100
to get 80
: Thus we can also write
x 1 x
C D
100 4 80
which is equivalent to the equation
x 1 x
D :
80 4 100
ACTIVITY 2.2.2
Two 25 ` containers A and B are filled with diluted orange juice. The percentage of orange concentrate in
container A is 4% and in container B it is 8%. We want to make up 15 ` of juice which contains 5% of orange
concentrate. How much of each of the two different mixtures must we use?
Hint: In problems of this nature we apply the concept of percentage in the following way.
0 1 0 1
percentage of ! volume of
B C volume of B C
@ substance present A D @ substance present A
solution
in solution in solution
For example, the solution in container A contains

4
25 ` of orange concentrate, i.e. 1 ` of orange concentrate.
100
SOLUTION
Suppose we use x ` from container A: Since we want to make 15 ` of diluted orange juice we will use
.15 x/ ` from container B:
We use a table to summarise the information.
Percentage of Volume of diluted Volume of orange

orange concentrate orange juice .`/ concentrate .`/
4x
Container A 4 x
100
8.15 x/
Container B 8 15 x
100
5 15
New mixture 5 15
100
The volume of orange concentrate in the new mixture is the sum of the volumes of the concentrate in the
mixtures taken from containers A and B:
83 MAT0511/001
Hence
4x 8.15 x/ 5 15
C D :
100 100 100
Now
4x 8.15 x/ 5 15
C D
100 100 100
, 4x C 8.15 x/ D 5 15
, 4x C 120 8x D 75
, 4x D 45
45
, xD
4
1
, x D 11 :
4
Thus we must use 11 14 ` from container A and .15 11 41 / `; i.e. 3 34 `, from container B:
We now check this answer.
11 41 ` of the mixture from container A contains .11 41 100

4
/ ` of orange concentrate and 3 34 ` of the mixture
from container B contains .3 43 100 8
/ ` of orange concentrate.
The total volume of orange concentrate in the new mixture is thus

1 4 3 8
.11 C3 /`
4 100 4 100
i.e.
45 4 15 8
. C /`
4 100 4 100
i.e.
45 30
. C /`
100 100
i.e.
75
`
100
i.e.
0; 75 `:
0;75
This amount of concentrate is contained in 15 `: Thus the percentage of orange concentrate is 15
100%; i.e.
75
15
%; i.e. 5%:
84
This confirms our answer.
In certain problems the initial equation that we set up does not look linear, but becomes linear after some
manipulation. This is the case in the following example.
EXAMPLE 2.2.4
Suppose Peter and Paul working together can sand a floor in 3 hours. If Peter works alone it takes him 5
hours to sand the same floor. How long will it take Paul to sand this floor if he works alone?
SOLUTION
Suppose it takes Paul x hours to sand the floor if he works alone. We tabulate the information we have been
given as follows.
Time taken to Fraction of floor

sand floor (h) sanded in 1 h
1
Peter 5
5
1
Paul x
x
1
Together 3
3
In 1 hour Peter sands 15 of the floor and Paul sands x1 of the floor. Thus, together, they sand 15 C x1 of the floor
in one hour. We already know that it takes 3 hours to sand the floor together. Thus, in 1 hour they can sand
1
3
of the floor. Hence
1 1 1
C D :
5 x 3
We multiply both sides by the LCD, 15x: We obtain
3x C 15 D 5x
which we now recognise as a linear equation. Hence
3x C 15 D 5x
, 2x D 15
15
, xD :
2
Thus it takes Paul 7 12 hours to sand the floor if he works alone.

85 MAT0511/001
We check this answer.
If Paul takes 7 21 hours to sand the floor alone then in 1 hour he will sand 1
7 21
of the floor.
1
Peter sands 5
of the floor in 1 hour.
1 1
Thus in 1 hour, working together, they sand 7 21
C 5
of the floor.
Now
1 1 1 1
1
C D 15
C
72 5 2
5
2 1 Division by a fraction is the same as

D 1 C
15 5 multiplication by its reciprocal.
2 1
D C
15 5
2C3
D
15
5
D
15
1
D :
3
Thus they sand 13 of the floor in 1 hour and hence they will sand the whole floor in 3 hours, which agrees with
the given information. Hence the answer is correct.
Some of the manipulations of the numbers in problems such as these can be puzzling. For example, how
can we say that Paul sands 711 of the floor in 1 hour? Let us look at a similar situation. Suppose William
2
and Wilson dig a hole together. (We assume they each dig at a uniform pace.) If they take 4 hours to dig a
complete hole, then in 1 hour, i.e. in a quarter of the total time of 4 hours, they can dig 41 of the hole. Suppose
Rufus and Roger take 3 hours to dig a hole together. Then in 1 hour they can dig 13 of the hole.
1
We can also reason “in reverse”: suppose Matthew and Moses dig 5
of a hole in 1 hour, then they will dig the
complete hole in 5 times as much time, i.e. in 5 hours.
Can you see a pattern developing here? In general we can say that
I if it takes m hours to dig a complete hole then in 1 hour 1

m
of the hole will be dug
I if 1
n
of a hole can be dug in 1 hour, then the complete hole can be dug in n hours.
You do not need to memorise this. If you understand the reasoning you will be able to apply it to any problem.
86
In these cases it is clear that m and n are not zero, and that m and n are always positive. Note that m and n do
not have to be whole numbers. We can reason in exactly the same way if m and n are fractions. For example,
consider the following.
Suppose 72 of the hole is dug in 1 hour. How long will it take for the complete hole to be dug? A diagram
may help us.
_2 _4 _6
7 7 7
After 1 hour After 2 hours After 3 hours
We can see that if 27 of the hole can be dug in 1 hour (60 minutes) then 17 of the hole will be dug in half that
time (i.e. 30 minutes). It follows that the complete hole ( 77 D 7 17 / will be dug in .7 30) minutes, i.e. in
210 minutes, which is 3 hours and 30 minutes, or 3 12 hours, i.e. 72 hours.
If you look at the numbers carefully you can identify a similar pattern to the pattern we identified earlier. In
general we can say that
I if it takes p
q
hours to dig a hole, then in 1 hour q
p
of the hole will be dug
I if m
n
of a hole can be dug in 1 hour, then the complete hole can be dug in n
m
hours.
You can use this reasoning to help you do the next activity and to answer questions 8 and 9 in Exercise 2.2.
ACTIVITY 2.2.3
Working together, Peter and Sam can paint a room in two–thirds of the time that it takes Sam to paint it by
himself. Sam takes 8 hours to paint the room alone. How long does it take Peter to paint the room by himself?
SOLUTION
Suppose it takes Peter x hours to paint the room by himself.
1
Thus in 1 hour Peter will paint x
of the room.
1
Now Sam takes 8 hours to paint the room by himself. Thus in 1 hour he will paint 8
of the room.
1 1 8Cx
Thus working together, in 1 hour they will paint C of the room, i.e. of the room.
x 8 8x
8Cx 8x
Since of the room is painted in 1 hour it follows that the whole room will be painted in hours.
8x 8Cx
87 MAT0511/001
2
Since this time is 3
of the time that Sam takes to paint the room by himself we have the following equation.
8x 2 16
D 8D
8Cx 3 3
Now
8x 16
D
8Cx 3
, 3 8x D 16.8 C x/ Cross multiply.
, 24x D 128 C 16x
, 8x D 128
128
, xD
8
, x D 16:
Thus it takes Peter 16 hours to paint the room by himself.
1
In 1 hour Peter will paint 16 of the room and Sam will paint 81 of the room. Together, in 1 hour, they will paint
1
16
C 18 of the room, i.e. 16
3
of the room. Thus they will paint the complete room in 16
3
hours.
2 2 16
Now 3
of 8 hours is 3
8 hours, which is 3
hours. Thus we see that our answer is correct.
LINEAR INEQUALITIES
INTRODUCTION
Inequalities and inequality signs were first introduced in Study Unit 1.1C of Module 1 when order of numbers
was discussed. In Study Unit 1.1D sets of numbers satisfying inequalities were represented geometrically by
means of intervals on a number line. You may find it useful to revise these study units again.
We now summarise some of the properties of inequalities that refer to numbers and then generalise them to
algebraic expressions. Suppose a; b; c 2 R:
I If a > b then
a C c > b C c and a c>b c:
88
For example, 3 > 1 and so

3 C 2 > 1 C 2 and 3 2>1 2:
Similar properties hold if > is replaced by ; < or :
I If a > b and c > 0 then

a b
ca > cb and > :
c c
For example, 7 > 2 and 3 > 0 and so
7 2
3 7>3 2 and > :
3 3
When c > 0 similar properties hold if > is replaced by ; < or :
I If a > b and c < 0 then

a b
ca < cb and < :
c c
Note the change in direction of the inequality sign.
For example, 2 > 1 and 3 < 0 and so
2 1
. 3/.2/ < . 3/. 1/; and < :
3 3
When c < 0 similar properties hold if > is replaced by ; < or :
TAKE NOTE THAT MULTIPLICATION OR DIVISION BY A NEGATIVE NUMBER REVERSES

THE DIRECTION OF THE INEQUALITY SIGN.
We also noted in Study Unit 1.1C of Module 1 that we can write each of the inequalities a < b, a b, a > b
and a b in two different ways. For example, we can write b > a instead of a < b.
Definition 2.2.2
A linear or first degree inequality in one variable is one
which can be written in the form ax C b < 0, or ax C b 0,
or ax C b > 0, or ax C b 0, where a; b 2 R.
We solve linear inequalities using basically the same methods we use to solve linear equations.
Table 2.2.2 gives the properties of inequality which are used to produce equivalent inequalities, i.e. inequal-
ities that have the same solution set as the original inequality. These properties are based on those given for
89 MAT0511/001
real numbers at the beginning of this study unit.
EQUIVALENT INEQUALITIES
(PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITY)
Suppose A; B and C are algebraic expressions.
Then the inequality A > B is equivalent to each of the following.
1. ACC > B CC Addition Property
2. A C>B C Subtraction Property
3.(i) C A > C B if C > 0 Multiplication Property

(ii) C A < C B if C < 0
A B
4.(i) > if C > 0 Division Property
C C
A B
(ii) < if C < 0
C C
5. B<A
Similar properties can be stated for ; < and : Note the reversal of
the direction of the inequality sign in 3(ii) and 4(ii).
Table 2.2.2
We now use these properties to solve the linear inequalities given in the following example. We do not name
each property when we use it.
EXAMPLE 2.2.5
Solve each of the following inequalities and sketch the solution set on a number line.
(a) 3x C 1 > 5x 2
(b) 1 2x C 3 < 4
(c) 2x C 1 < x 4 3x C 7
90
SOLUTION
(a)
3x C 1 > 5x 2
, 2x C 1 > 2 Subtract 5x from both sides.
, 2x > 3 Subtract 1 from both sides.
3
, x< 2
Divide both sides by 2.
Note the change in direction of the
inequality sign.
The solution set is fx 2 R : x < 32 g; i.e. . 1, 32 /:
_3
2
(b) 1 2x C 3 < 4 is equivalent to the two inequalities
1 2x C 3 and 2x C 3 < 4:
In this case we do not need to consider two separate inequalities, but we work directly with 1
2x C 3 < 4 since only the middle expression contains the variable x:
Now
1 2x C 3 < 4
, 4 2x < 1 Subtract 3 from each expression in the inequality.
, 2 x < 21 : Divide each term by 2:
Note:
)
2x C 3 1
We can also solve the system of inequalities .
2x C 3 < 4
This just means that we must find the values of x that satisfy both the inequalities.
Therefore the solution set is [ 2; 21 /:
_2 _1
2
91 MAT0511/001
(c) We again have two inequalities, i.e. 2x C 1 < x 4 and x 4 3x C 7: Since all three expressions
in 2x C 1 < x 4 3x C 7 involve the variable x; it is impossible to solve directly as we did in (b).
We solve the two inequalities 2x C 1 < x 4 and x 4 3x C 7 separately. We must thus find the
values of x that satisfy both inequalities.
We want x to move away from the RHS and 1 to move away from the LHS.
Now
2x C 1 < x 4
, x< 5: Subtract x and 1 from both sides.
Also
x 4 3x C 7
, 11 2x Subtract x and 7 from both sides.
, 2x 11 A B is equivalent to B A:
11
, x 2
: Divide both sides by 2:
11 11 11
Thus the solution is x < 5 and x 2
; i.e. 2
x< 5: The solution set is [ 2
; 5/:
_ 11
_ _
2
5 0
Now try to solve the inequalities in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.2.4
Solve each of the following inequalities and sketch the solution set on a number line.
(a) 2<5 3x 3
(b) x 3 2x C 1 9 x
SOLUTION
(a) We work directly with 2<5 3x 3 since only the middle expression contains the variable x:
92
2<5 3x 3
, 7< 3x 2 Subtract 5 from each expression.
7 2
, 3
>x 3
Divide each term by 3.
Note the change in direction of the
inequality signs:
2 7 7 7
, 3
x< 3 3
> x is equivalent to x < 3
and
2 2
x 3
is equivalent to 3
x: Hence
7 2 2
3
>x 3
is equivalent to 3
x < 37 :
The solution set is [ 23 ; 73 /:
_2 _7
3 3
(b) Since all three expressions in x 3 2x C 1 9 x contain the variable x; we solve separately the
two inequalities
x 3 2x C 1 and 2x C 1 9 x:
From
x 3 2x C 1
we obtain
4 x Subtract x and 1 on both sides.
and from
2x C 1 9 x
we get
3x 8 Add x and subtract 1 on both sides.
i.e. we have
8
x 3
: Divide both sides by 3.
8 8
Hence we have 4 x and x 3
; i.e. 4 x 3
: Thus the solution set is [ 4; 38 ]:
_ _8
4 3
93 MAT0511/001
Now let us look at a real–life example in which we use inequalities.
EXAMPLE 2.2.6
Mpho is trying to obtain a B grade for his mathematics. He has already obtained 75%, 69% and 73% for 3
out of 4 tests. Find the range of possible marks (as percentages) that he can obtain on the last test so that he
will obtain a B grade. An average mark from 70% to 79% (including 70% and 79%) results in a B grade.
SOLUTION
In order to find the average mark for a series of tests you must add all the marks together and divide by the
number of tests written.
Let x% be the mark for the fourth test. Then the average for the 4 tests will be
75 C 69 C 73 C x
%
4
i.e.
217 C x
%:
4
In order to obtain a B grade this average must be greater than or equal to 70% and less than or equal to 79 %.
Hence we must solve

217 C x
70 79:
4
Note
Notice that we drop the % sign during the calculation.
Now
217 C x
70 79
4
, 280 217 C x 316
, 280 217 x 316 217
, 63 x 99:
Now we state the answer in terms of %.
If Mpho obtains any mark between 63% and 99%, including these two marks, he will obtain a B grade for his
mathematics.
Now try a selection from the exercise below.

94
EXERCISE 2.2
1. Solve each of the following linear equations. Check that your solution is correct.
(a) 3x C 5 D 1
(b) 2.x 1/ D 3
(c) 3.x C 2/ D 4.2 x/
(d) 2.y 1/ 3.y C 1/ D 4.3y C 7/
x x C1
(e) D ; x 6D 12 and x 6D 23
2x C 1 2x 3
2x x 4 1
(f) D 0; x 6D 3 and x 6D 2
2x C 1 x C3
2. Suppose 7 less than four–fifths of a number is 5: What is the number?
3. Suppose the length of a rectangle is 4 cm more than one and a half times the width. Find the dimensions
(width by length) of the rectangle if the perimeter of the rectangle is 38 cm.
4. At present a father is 3 years older than 5 times his son’s age. In 10 years time the father will be 7 years
younger than three times his son’s age then. How old are the son and the father now?
5. A and B are two towns 425 km apart. A man travels from A to B in a truck at 80 km/h whereas a
woman travels from B to A in a car at 100 km/h. If the woman starts her journey 15 minutes after the
man does, how far from A will they pass each other?
6. The tuition and residence fees at a certain university come to R14 000 for the year. The residence fee
is R2 750 more than half the tuition fee. Calculate the tuition fee and the residence fee.
7. Beer A contains 3; 5% alcohol and beer B contains 6% alcohol. What volume of each of the beers
should be used to produce 100 ` of beer which contains 5% alcohol?
8. Makhaya and Joseph each have a lawnmower. Working together they can mow a lawn in three–fifths
of the time that it takes Makhaya to mow it by himself. Makhaya takes 4 hours to mow the lawn by
himself. How long does it take Joseph to mow the lawn by himself?
9. Suppose that two pipes (pipes A and B/ can be used to fill a swimming pool. If both pipes are used
simultaneously (i.e. together) then it takes 25 hours to fill the pool. If only pipe A is used then it takes
40 hours to fill the pool. How long will it take if only pipe B is used?
10. Solve each of the following inequalities and sketch the solution set on a number line.
(a) 3x 1 < 5x C 3
(b) 2 < 3x 1 6
(c) x 1 < 2x C 1 x C2
(d) x 2x C 1 3x 2
(e) x C 2 < 2x 1 x 3
95 MAT0511/001
11. You obtain 60%, 65%, 58% and 70% for four English tests. Find the range of possible marks (as
percentages) that you can obtain on a fifth test so that you obtain a C grade. An average mark from
60% to 69% (including 60% and 69%) results in a C grade.
12. A plumber charges a call–out fee of R80; plus R120 per hour to do a job. How many hours must he
work in order to earn more than R560 for a specific job?
2.3 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
Not all real–life situations can be modelled using linear equations. For example, if a ball is thrown vertically
upwards, its height h (measured in metres) after a time of t (measured in seconds) is given by the formula
h D ut 5t 2 ; (2.3.1)
Note: The word velocity is used to describe speed in a specified direction. For our purposes you can think of
velocity as speed. If you study physics you will learn the difference between the two terms.
where u is the initial speed (velocity) of the ball in m/s. The initial speed is the speed at which the ball is
moving when it leaves your hand, and it depends on how hard you throw the ball. The immediately obvious
difference between the equations we have been studying (linear equations) and equations such as (2.3.1) is
that the variable t in (2.3.1) is raised to the power 2, whereas the highest power of the variables in linear
equations is 1.We now study equations of this form.
Definition 2.3.1
A quadratic or second degree equation in one variable
is an equation which can be written in the form
ax 2 C bx C c D 0 where a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0:
The equation is called a second degree equation because the highest power of the variable is 2. It is called
quadratic because “to quadrate” means “to make square”. We shall see later that a quadratic equation can be
written in the form
.x h/2 D q
by “completing the square”.
Note
The word “quadratic” comes from the Latin word “quadrare”, which means “to square”.
We interpret the above equation as “the square of a binomial is equal to a constant”.
In Definition 2.3.1 we assume a 6D 0 since if a D 0 then ax 2 C bx C c D 0 becomes bx C c D 0; which is a

linear equation.
96
The following are examples of quadratic equations.
2x 2 C x 15 D 0
z 2 C 9z D 0
3.s 2/2 C 1 D 0
Note
It may not be immediately obvious that 3.s 2/2 C 1 D 0 is a quadratic equation; but 3.s 2/2 C 1
D 3.s 2 4s C 4/ C 1
D 3s 2 12s C 13:
Certain equations can be converted to quadratic equations by suitable substitutions. For example,
.z 2/4 C 6.z 2/2 C 4 D 0
can be written as
[.z 2/2 ]2 C 6.z 2/2 C 4 D 0:
Now if we use the substitution .z 2/2 D k; we have a quadratic equation, namely
k 2 C 6k C 4 D 0:
Also
p
2x x D0
can be rewritten as
p p
2. x/2 . x/ D 0:
p
If we use the substitution x D y; we have the quadratic equation
2y 2 y D 0:
There are several important features that help us to identify an equation that can be converted to a quadratic
equation:
non-zero m = 2n a constant
m n
aX + bX + c = 0
X is an algebraic expression
There are a number of methods that we can use to solve quadratic equations. We can use factorisation,
substitution, completing the square or the quadratic formula. We discuss these methods now.
97 MAT0511/001
FACTORISATION
In order to use factorisation to solve quadratic equations we use the equality properties which are stated in
Table 2.1.1 in Study Unit 2.1A as well as the zero–product property which is stated below.
ZERO–PRODUCT PROPERTY
For any real numbers a and b; if ab D 0 then

a D 0 or b D 0, and if a D 0 or b D 0 then ab D 0.
We use the “inclusive” meaning of “or”, i.e. we mean a D 0, or b D 0, or both a and b may be zero.
This property can be expressed more concisely as follows.
For any real numbers a and b, ab D 0 , a D 0 or b D 0.
Expressed in words, we say that

the product of two factors is zero if and only if at least one of the factors is zero.
Note that the zero–product property does not apply to any real number other than zero, i.e. we have
ab D c if and only if a D c or b D c ONLY when c D 0:
Thus, for example,

ab D 8 ; a D 8 or b D 8:
Study the following example to see how we apply factorisation and the zero–product property to solve certain
types of quadratic equations.
EXAMPLE 2.3.1
Solve the equation 2x 2 C x D 15:
SOLUTION
2x 2 C x D 15
, 2x 2 C x 15 D 0 Subtract 15 from both sides to
, .2x 5/.x C 3/ D 0 Factorise.
, 2x 5D0 or x C3D0 Use the zero–product property.

Note the use of the word “or”.
We now have two linear equations to solve.
, 2x D 5 or x D 3
5
, xD or xD 3:
2
98
You will find that each of these values of x satisfies the original equation. In fact, unless you have made a
mistake, each solution that you find when solving a quadratic equation will satisfy the equation. Thus the
checking process is only necessary to find out whether you have made a mistake in any of the steps.
5
Thus in this case the solutions are x D 2
and x D 3 and the solution set is f 3; 25 g.
Now practise the factorisation method in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.3.1
(a) x 2 D 9x
(b) x.x C 2/ D 8
SOLUTION
(a)
x2 D 9x
, x 2 9x D 0 NB! RHS = 0
, x.x 9/ D 0
, x D0 or x D9
Thus the solutions are x D 0 and x D 9 and the solution set is f0; 9g:
Did you obtain both solutions or did you only obtain x D 9? If you divide the original equation by x
then you will obtain only the one solution x D 9: If you do this, you have to assume x 6D 0 and then
consider the case x D 0 separately, i.e. you must check whether x D 0 is possibly also a solution. It is
easy to “lose” a solution if you divide by x and then forget to check whether x D 0 is also a solution.
Thus it is safer to use the method of factorisation as we have done. See the Division Property, Table
2.1.1.
In general terms we have the following.
In the equation ax 2 C bx C c D 0; if the constant c D 0 then x is always a common factor and
x D 0 will always be a solution.
We have
ax 2 C bx D 0
, x.ax C b/ D 0
, x D0 or ax C b D 0
b
, x D0 or xD ; since a 6D 0.
a
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(b) We must first rewrite this equation in the form
.ax C b/.cx C d/ D 0
since the zero–product property only applies to equations where the right–hand side is zero. See the
comment just above Example 2.3.1.
x.x C 2/ D 8
, x 2 C 2x 8D0
, .x C 4/.x 2/ D 0
, x C 4 D 0 or x 2D0
, xD 4 or x D 2
Thus the solution set is f 4; 2g:
SUBSTITUTION
We mentioned earlier that certain equations can be converted to quadratic equations by means of substitution.
These can then be solved by factorisation or some other suitable method.
EXAMPLE 2.3.2
Solve the equation .x 2 x/2 8.x 2 x/ D 12:
SOLUTION
You may be tempted to expand the expression by removing the brackets. However, this will lead to a 4th
degree equation which will be difficult to solve. If we let x 2 x D k and substitute, we obtain k 2 8k D 12
which is a quadratic equation which we can solve by factorisation. We have
.x 2 x/2 8.x 2 x/ D 12
, k2 8k D 12; where k D x 2 x
, k2 8k C 12 D 0 NB! RHS = 0
, .k 2/.k 6/ D 0 NB! RHS = 0

100
, k 2 D 0 or k 6D0
, k D 2 or k D 6
This is not yet the answer because we must solve for x and not only for k: We now have two quadratic
equations to solve, once again by factorisation.
, x2 x D 2 or x 2 x D6
, x2 x 2 D 0 or x 2 x 6D0 NB! RHS = 0
, .x 2/.x C 1/ D 0 or .x 3/.x C 2/ D 0 NB! RHS = 0
, x 2 D 0 or x C 1 D 0 or x 3 D 0 or x C 2 D 0
, x D 2 or x D 1 or x D 3 or x D 2:
Check for yourself that all these values satisfy the original equation.
Hence the solution set is f 2; 1; 2; 3g:
We do not necessarily have to state the solution set each time. You may specifically be asked to “find the
solution set for the following equation” or you may be asked to “solve the following equation”. If you are
just required to “solve the equation”, giving your answer in the form “Thus x D : : : " is acceptable. If you
are asked for the solution set then you must give the answer as a set.
ACTIVITY 2.3.2
2 7
Solve the equation 2
C 4 D 0; y 6D 0:
y y
SOLUTION
1
If we substitute k D ; y 6D 0; we obtain 2k 2 C 7k 4 D 0.
y
Now
2k 2 C 7k 4D0
, .2k 1/.k C 4/ D 0 NB! RHS = 0

101 MAT0511/001
, 2k 1 D 0 or k C 4 D 0
, 2k D 1 or k D 4
1
, kD or k D 4
2
1 1 1 1
, Cross multiply . D or D 4; since k D
y 2 y y
1
, y D 2 or y D :
4
1
Thus the solution set is f 4
; 2g:
FINDING SQUARE ROOTS
An equation of the form

x 2 D p 2 ; where p is a constant
is a quadratic equation and is easy to solve by factorisation, since the equation can be rewritten as
x2 p 2 D 0: See Table 1.2.2.
You should recognise that the left–hand side of this equation is the difference of two squares and it can thus
be factorised. We have
x2 p2 D 0
, .x p/.x C p/ D 0
, x p D 0 or x C p D 0
, x D p or x D p:
Thus the solutions of x 2 D p 2 are x D p and x D p:
Now consider the equation

x 2 D q; where q is a constant and q 0:
p
How will you solve an equation like this? Look at the way in which we solved x 2 D p 2 : If we put p D q
then p 2 D q and the equation
102
p
Note: q exists since q 0:
x2 D q
becomes
x 2 D p2
p
which has the solutions x D p and x D p: If we substitute p D q the equation
x2 D q
p p
has the solutions x D q and x D q. We note that if q < 0 then the equation x 2 D q has no solution.
We apply the above reasoning in the following example.
EXAMPLE 2.3.3
Find the solution set of .x 3/2 2 D 0:
This equation has the form X 2 D 2; where X D .x 3/:
SOLUTION
.x 3/2 2D0
, .x 3/2 D 2
p p
, x 3D 2 or x 3D 2
p p
, x D3C 2 or x D 3 2
p p
Hence the solution set is f3 2; 3 C 2g:
This is the first time that you have found an irrational solution to a quadratic equation.
From Example 2.3.3 we see that the method for solving an equation of the form x 2 D q can be extended
to solving an equation of the form A2 D q; where A is an algebraic expression containing x: Now try the
following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.3.3
Find the solution set of .3z 1/2 D 12:

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SOLUTION
.3z 1/2 D 12
p p
, 3z 1D 12 or 3z 1D 12
p p p p
, 3z 1D 4 3 or 3z 1D 4 3
p p
, 3z 1 D 2 3 or 3z 1D 2 3
p p
, 3z D 1 C 2 3 or 3z D 1 2 3
p p
1C2 3 1 2 3
, zD or z D
3 3
p p
1 2 3 1C2 3
Thus the solution set is f ; g:
3 3
COMPLETING THE SQUARE
You will probably have realised that it is unlikely that we can solve all quadratic equations by factorisation.
In Study Unit 1.2C we see that we can write a quadratic trinomial of the form ax 2 C bx C c in the form
a.x h/2 C k by completing the square.
Similarly we can complete the square and write a quadratic equation of the form
ax 2 C bx C c D 0; a 6D 0 (2.3.2)
in the form
a.x h/2 C k D 0; a 6D 0:
This form can be rewritten as

a.x h/2 D k
from which it follows that

k
.x h/2 D ; a 6D 0:
a
This equation now has the form

.x h/2 D q
which can be solved by using the method given in Example 2.3.3 and Activity 2.3.3.
104
See the comment just below Definition 2.3.1.
We can also apply completing the square in the following way. We first rewrite (2.3.2) in the form
b c
x2 xD :
a a
We then complete the square on the LHS by adding a suitable constant. We add this constant on the RHS as
well to balance the equation. We now have an equation of the form
.x h/2 D q
which we solve in the same way as in Example 2.3.3 and Activity 2.3.3. We illustrate this method in the
following example.
b 2
In order to complete the square on the LHS we add . 2a / on both sides of the equation. We discuss this
further when we derive the quadratic formula a little further on.
EXAMPLE 2.3.4
Solve the following equations by completing the square.
(a) x 2 4x C 1 D 0
(b) 2x 2 C 3x D 2
SOLUTION
(a) We write x 2 4x C 1 D 0 as x 2 4x D 1: We add the square of half the coefficient of x; namely

. 2/2 ; to both sides of the equation.
Remember that the terms of an algebraic expression are separated by C; thus we write x 2 4x C 1 as
x 2 C . 4x/ C 1:
Hence
x2 4x D 1
, x2 4x C 4 D 1C4
, .x 2/2 D 3
p p
, x 2D 3 or x 2D 3
p p
, x D2C 3 or x D2 3:
p p
Thus the solutions are x D 2 3 and x D 2 C 3:
105 MAT0511/001
(b)
2x 2 C 3x D 2
3
, x2 C x D 1 Divide both sides by 2:
2
3 3 3 3
, x 2 C x C . /2 D 1 C . /2 Add . /2 to both sides.
2 4 4 4
3
Note that is half the coefficient of x.
4
3 9
, .x C /2 D 1C
4 16
3 16 C 9
, .x C /2 D
4 16
3 25
, .x C /2 D
4 16
r r
3 25 3 25
, xC D or xC D
4 16 4 16
3 5 3 5
, xD C or xD
4 4 4 4
3C5 3 5
, xD or xD
4 4
1
, xD or x D 2
2
Thus the solutions are x D 2 and x D 12 :
ACTIVITY 2.3.4
Find the solution set of 2x 2 C 6x D 3 by completing the square.
SOLUTION
2x 2 C 6x D 3
3
, x 2 C 3x D
2
3 3 3
, x 2 C 3x C . /2 D C . /2 Add the square of half of 3; namely . 32 /2 , to both sides of the equation.
2 2 2
106
3 3 9
, .x C /2 D C
2 2 4
3 6C9
, .x C /2 D
2 4
3 15
, .x C /2 D
2 4
r r
3 15 3 15
, xC D or x C D
2 4 2 4
p p
3 15 3 15
, xD C or x D
2 2 2 2
p p
3 C 15 3 15
, xD or x D
2 2
p p
3 15 3 C 15
Thus the solution set is f ; g:
2 2
THE QUADRATIC FORMULA
When we cannot easily solve quadratic equations by factorisation we can express the roots by means of
a formula. Remember that we sometimes use the term “roots” of an equation instead of “solutions” of an
equation. We consider the general quadratic equation given by
ax 2 C bx C c D 0; a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0: (2.3.2)
When we complete the square to solve this equation, we obtain a formula (known as the quadratic formula)
which we can use to solve any quadratic equation. We derive the formula as follows. Do not memorise this
proof. Just try to follow the steps involved.
Since a 6D 0 we can divide both sides of equation (2.3.2) by a.
Thus
ax 2 C bx C c D 0
b c
, x2 C xC D0
a a
2 b c c
, x C xD We subtract from both sides.
a a a
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2 2 2
b 2 b c b b
, x C xC D C We add the square of half of the coefficient of x; namely ;
a 2a a 2a 2a
to both sides:
2
b c b2
, xC D C 2
2a a 4a
2
b b2 4ac
, xC D
2a 4a 2
r
b b2 4ac
, xC D Instead of writing x D d or x D d we can write x D d.
2a 4a 2
p
b b2 4ac
, xC D
2a 2a
We thus have the following formula.
THE QUADRATIC FORMULA
The solutions or roots of the quadratic equation

ax 2 C bx C c D 0; where a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0, are
p
b b2 4ac
xD : (2.3.3)
2a
EXAMPLE 2.3.5
Use the quadratic formula to solve the equation 2x 2 3x 4 D 0: Leave your answer in surd form.
Remember that
2x 2 3x 4
D 2x 2 C . 3x/ C . 4/:
SOLUTION
In the equation 2x 2 3x 4 D 0 we have a D 2; b D 3 and c D 4: Hence by using equation (2.3.3) we

get
108
p
3 . 3/2 4.2/. 4/
x D
4
p
3 9 C 32
D
4
p
3 41
D :
4
p p
3C 41 3 41
Thus the solutions are x D and x D :
4 4
Now apply the quadratic formula in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.3.5
Solve each of the following equations by using the quadratic formula.
(a) 4x 2 C 12x C 9 D 0
(b) 4x 2 C 11x C 9 D 0
SOLUTION
(a) Comparing 4x 2 C 12x C 9 D 0 with ax 2 C bx C c D 0 we have a D 4; b D 12 and c D 9: By using

the quadratic formula (equation (2.3.3)) we obtain
p
12 122 4.4/.9/
x D
2.4/
p
12 144 144
D
8
p
12 0
D
8
12
D
8
3
D :
2
109 MAT0511/001
Note that we can also solve (a) by factorisation.
4x 2 C 12x C 9 D 0
, .2x C 3/2 D 0
, 2x C 3 D 0
3
, xD 2
3
Thus the only solution is x D 2
:
(b) In 4x 2 C 11x C 9 D 0 we have a D 4; b D 11 and c D 9: Thus, by using equation (2.3.3) we obtain

p
11 112 4.4/.9/
x D
2.4/
p
11 132 144
D
8
p
11 12
D :
8
p
Since there is no real number equal to 12 it follows that there is no value of x which is a real number
and satisfies the equation. Hence there is no real solution.
DISCRIMINANT
We have seen that a quadratic equation may have
I two different solutions (Example 2.3.5)
I only one solution (Activity 2.3.5(a))
I no real solution (Activity 2.3.5(b)).
The number of solutions of the equation ax 2 C bx C c D 0 depends on the value of b2 4ac: The expression
b2 4ac is called the discriminant of the equation ax 2 C bx C c D 0 and is denoted by 1: Thus the
discriminant determines the number of solutions a quadratic equation has; we sometimes also speak about
“the nature of the roots” of quadratic equations since the solutions of equations are also called the roots of
the equation.
Nature of roots
p
I If b2 4ac > 0 then b2 4ac > 0, and we see from (2.3.3) that there are two different solutions,
i.e. two different roots.
110
p
I If b2 4ac D 0 then b2 4ac D 0, and there are two equal solutions, or rather only one solution,
b
namely x D , i.e. only one root.
2a
p
I If b2 4ac < 0 then b2 4ac does not exist in the real number system, and there is thus no solution;
we say that the equation has no real roots.
EXAMPLE 2.3.6
Use the discriminant of the equation 4x 2 C kx C 9 D 0 to find the value(s) of k for which the equation has
exactly one solution, i.e. two equal roots.
SOLUTION
Comparing 4x 2 C kx C 9 D 0 with ax 2 C bx C c D 0 we have a D 4; b D k; c D 9: Hence
1 D b2 4ac
D k2 4.4/.9/
D k2 144:
For the equation to have exactly one solution we require 1 D 0:
Thus
k2 144 D 0
, k 2 D 144
p
, kD 144
, k D 12 or k D 12:
Thus the equation has only one solution when k D 12 and when k D 12:
Checking:
If k D 12 then the equation is 4x 2 C 12x C 9 D 0 and we saw in (a) ofActivity 2.3.5 that this equation has
only one solution, namely x D 32 .
3
If k D 12, the equation is 4x 2 12x C 9 D 0, i.e. .2x 3/2 D 0, so that x D 2
is the only solution.

111 MAT0511/001
ACTIVITY 2.3.6
Use the discriminant of the equation x 2 C kx C 2k D 0 to find the value(s) of k for which the equation has
exactly one root.
SOLUTION
In the equation x 2 C kx C 2k D 0 we have a D 1; b D k and c D 2k: Hence
1 Db2 4ac D k 2 8k:
For the equation to have exactly one root we require 1 D 0:
Now
k2 8k D 0
, k.k 8/ D 0
, k D 0 or k D 8:
Thus the equation has exactly one root when k D 0 and when k D 8: FS
In Study Unit 2.3C, when we deal with quadratic inequalities, we will consider problems such as
“Determine the values of k for which the equation 4x 2 C kx C 9 D 0

has two different solutions (or no real solutions)”
because we will then need to solve the inequalities 1 > 0 (for two different solutions) or 1 < 0 (for no real
solution).
SOLVING WORD PROBLEMS USING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
We stated at the beginning of the previous study unit that quadratic equations can be used to solve certain real–
life problems. We often obtain two different solutions of a quadratic equation. Although both are solutions
of the equation, they may not both be solutions of the real problem. We must thus consider the solutions with
regard to the original problem. This may lead us to discard any solutions which do not make sense for the
real problem.
Before studying the next two examples look again at Figure 2.2.1 in Study Unit 2.2B which summarises the
steps involved in solving a word problem.
EXAMPLE 2.3.7
The sum of an integer and the square of the following integer is equal to 71. Determine the two integers.
112
SOLUTION
Suppose the one integer is x: Then the following integer is x C 1: The square of x C 1 is .x C 1/2 : The sum
of x and .x C 1/2 is written as x C .x C 1/2 . We are told that the sum of these two expressions is 71. Hence
x C .x C 1/2 D 71.
Now
x C .x C 1/2 D 71
, x C x 2 C 2x C 1 D 71
, x 2 C 3x 70 D 0
, .x C 10/.x 7/ D 0
, x C 10 D 0 or x 7D0
, xD 10 or x D 7:
If x D 10 then x C 1 D 9; and if x D 7 then x C 1 D 8:
Let us check whether both pairs of answers satisfy the problem.
We note that 10 and 9 are consecutive integers.

Also, 10 C . 9/2 D 10 C 81 D 71:
The numbers 7 and 8 are also consecutive integers.

We have 7 C 82 D 7 C 64 D 71:
Hence both pairs of numbers satisfy the problem and hence the pairs of integers are 10 and 9; or 7 and 8:
(Note, the problem has two solutions.)
Is the answer in Example 2.3.7 different if we consider natural numbers instead of integers? It is, because we
would then have to exclude the numbers 10 and 9, since they are not natural numbers.
EXAMPLE 2.3.8
I travelled 100 km from Pretoria to Witbank. My return trip from Witbank to Pretoria along the same road
took 15 minutes longer since I travelled 20 km/h more slowy. Determine the speed at which I travelled from
Pretoria to Witbank.
113 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
Let my speed from Pretoria to Witbank be x km/h. Now consider the table on the next page. You will recall
that
distance D speed time
and hence
distance d
time D ; i.e. t D :
speed s
Speed Distance Time

km/h km h
100
Pretoria ! Witbank x 100
x
100
Witbank ! Pretoria x 20 100
x 20
Note that my speed from Witbank to Pretoria was 20 km/h less than that from Pretoria to Witbank and was
thus .x 20/ km/h.
Since the speed is given in terms of the number of kilometers travelled per hour, our unit of time is hours,
and the time of 15 minutes must be expressed as 15
60
hour, i.e. 14 hour.
Since the travelling time from Witbank to Pretoria is 41 hour longer than the time from Pretoria to Witbank, it
100 100
follows that the time of hours is 14 hour more than the time of hours. Hence
x 20 x
100 100 1 100
D C : Note: is the
x 20 x 4 x 20
bigger number.
Therefore
100 100 1
D C
x 20 x 4
100 400 C x
, D
x 20 4x
, 100.4x/ D .400 C x/.x 20/
, 400x D x 2 C 380x 8 000
, x2 20x 8 000 D 0
114
, .x 100/.x C 80/ D 0
, .x 100/ D 0 or .x C 80/ D 0
, x D 100 or x D 80:
The answer x D 80 is not applicable since speed cannot be negative. Thus my speed from Pretoria to
Witbank was 100 km/h. (You can check the answer by determining the time taken for both trips.)
We now return to the type of problem mentioned in the opening paragraph of Study Unit 2.3A.
ACTIVITY 2.3.7
When Simon kicks a rugby ball into the air, the height h (in metres) above the ground after t seconds is given
by
h D 15t 5t 2 :
Determine how long it takes the ball to reach heights of
(a) 10 m (b) 11 41 m (c) 15 m (d) 0m
above ground level.
Try to give a physical interpretation of the answers you obtain.
SOLUTION
(a) If h D 10; then 10 D 15t 5t 2 .
Now
10 D 15t 5t 2
, 5t 2 15t C 10 D 0
, t2 3t C 2 D 0
, .t 1/.t 2/ D 0
, t D 1 or t D 2:
Thus after 1 second and again after 2 seconds the ball is 10 m above the ground.
115 MAT0511/001
(b) If h D 11 14 , then 11 14 D 15t 5t 2 .
Now
1
11 D 15t 5t 2
4
45
, 5t 2 15t C D0
4
, 20t 2 60t C 45 D 0
, 4t 2 12t C 9 D 0
, .2t 3/.2t 3/ D 0
, 2t 3D0
3
, tD :
2
Thus it takes 1 12 seconds for the ball to be 11 14 m above the ground. (Note that there is only one solution
for t in this case, i.e. the ball is at this height at only one moment in time.)
(c) If h D 15; then 15 D 15t 5t 2 .
Now
15 D 15t 5t 2
, 5t 2 15t C 15 D 0
, t2 3t C 3 D 0:
We cannot factorise the LHS and so we use the quadratic formula. In this case a D 1; b D 3 and
c D 3: Hence
p
3 . 3/2 4.1/.3/
t D
2
p
3 9 12
D
2
p
3 3
D :
2
p
Thus there is no real solution since 3 is not a real number. Hence the ball never reaches a height of
15 m above ground.
116
Alternatively we can reason as follows.
t2 3t C 3 D 0
, t2 3t D 3
3 3
, t2 3t C . /2 D 3 C . /2
2 2
3 2 9
, .t / D 3C
2 4
3 2 3
, .t / D :
2 4
Since the last equation has no solution it follows that the ball never reaches a height of 15 m above
ground.
(d) If h D 0; then 0 D 15t 5t 2 .
Now
0 D 15t 5t 2
, 5t 2 15t D 0
, t2 3t D 0
, t .t 3/ D 0
, t D 0 or t D 3:
Thus the ball is 0 m above ground, i.e. at ground level, at 0 seconds and at 3 seconds.
What does “at 0 seconds” mean? This is the moment before the ball is kicked, i.e. before we begin to
measure the time that the ball is in the air.
Do the answers to Activity 2.3.7 make sense? How did you interpret them? We know that when we kick a
ball up into the air it first travels upwards to a certain maximum height and then travels downwards towards
the ground. Thus the ball can be at a certain height at two different times, the first time as it travels upwards
and the second time as it travels downwards. This is how we interpret the answer to (a), i.e. after 1 second,
as the ball is travelling upwards, it is 10 m above the ground and after 2 seconds, as the ball is travelling
downwards, it is again 10 m above the ground.
117 MAT0511/001
The ball reaches its maximum height at only one moment in time. If we look at the answer to (b) we see
that the ball is 11 14 m above the ground only once, after 1 21 seconds. This means that 11 14 m is the maximum
height that the ball reaches and that after 1 12 seconds the ball begins to travel downwards.
Since the maximum height reached by the ball is 11 41 m, the ball can never reach higher than this. This is
why we can find no solution to the equation in (c).
In (d) we obtain t D 0 or t D 3; i.e. the ball is at ground level at 0 seconds (i.e. just as it is being kicked into
the air), and it returns to the ground after 3 seconds.
If we look at the answer to (b) we see that the ball reaches its maximum height at 1 12 seconds. This is exactly
half the time it takes from when the ball is first kicked until it returns to the ground. Also from (a) it follows
that the ball is 10 m above the ground 1 second after it is kicked upwards, and 1 second before it reaches the
ground again.
We can represent these answers by the following figure.
15
1
_
Height 11 4
above 10
ground
in
metres
ground level 0
1
1 1 _2 2 3
Time in seconds after the
ball has been kicked
Figure 2.3.1
ACTIVITY 2.3.8
Dhaya has a rectangular piece of ground measuring 8 m by 10 m. He wants to lay a gravel path which has a
uniform width around the edge of the ground and plant grass in the middle of the rectangle. He has enough
gravel to cover 17 m2 of path. How wide will his path be if he uses all the gravel?
118
SOLUTION
Suppose the path is x m wide.
We show the information in the following diagram.
10 m
xm
(10 _ 2x) m
(8 _ 2x) m 8m
xm xm
xm
The area of the path, i.e. the area of the shaded region, is equal to the area of the large rectangle minus the
area of the small rectangle.
Remember that Area D length breadth.
The length of the small rectangle
D length of large rectangle 2 width of path See the diagram.

D .10 2x/ m.
Similarly, the breadth of the small rectangle D .8 2x/ m.
Thus the area of the path
D 10 8 m2 .10 2x/.8 2x/ m2

D 80 m2 .80 36x C 4x 2 / m2
D .80 80 C 36x 4x 2 / m2
D .36x 4x 2 / m2 :
If Dhaya uses all the gravel then
36x 4x 2 D 17:
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Now
36x 4x 2 D 17
, 4x 2 C 36x 17 D 0
, 4x 2 36x C 17 D 0
, .2x 1/.2x 17/ D 0
, 2x 1 D 0 or 2x 17 D 0
, 2x D 1 or 2x D 17
1 17 1
, xD or x D D8 :
2 2 2
Remember that we must consider the solutions of an equation with regard to the original problem.
1
Only the solution x D 2
makes sense, since the diagram shows us that it is physically impossible to have a
path 8 12 m wide.
1
Hence Dhaya must make a path that is 2
m wide.
QUADRATIC INEQUALITIES
Definition 2.3.2
A quadratic or second degree inequality in one variable has the
form, or can be written in the form,
ax 2 C bx C c < 0; where a; b; c 2 R; and a 6D 0:
The inequality sign can be replaced by >; or :
In order to solve quadratic inequalities we use the properties of inequality given in Table 2.2.2 in Study Unit
2.2C as well as two properties which we discuss on the next page.
Think back to your study of positive and negative numbers and their products. Recall that
I the product of two positive numbers is positive, e.g. 4 3 D 12

120
I the product of two negative numbers is positive, e.g. . 4/ . 3/ D 12
I the product of a positive and a negative number is negative, e.g.

4. 3/ D 12 or . 4/.3/ D 12:
From this we can deduce the following for any two real numbers a and b.
I ab > 0 , .a > 0 and b > 0/ or .a < 0 and b < 0/
I ab < 0 , .a > 0 and b < 0/ or .a < 0 and b > 0/
The above properties also hold for algebraic expressions. We give these properties in Table 2.3.1.
FURTHER PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITY
Suppose A and B are algebraic expressions.
1. AB > 0 , .A > 0 and B > 0/ or .A < 0 and B < 0/
2. AB < 0 , .A > 0 and B < 0/ or .A < 0 and B > 0/
Table 2.3.1
We now study an example in which we illustrate two different methods we can use to solve a quadratic
inequality. (You will find a third method in Module 3, Section 4.4.)
EXAMPLE 2.3.9
Solve the inequality

x 2 C 2x > 3
and sketch the solution set on a number line.
SOLUTION
We rewrite the inequality as

x 2 C 2x 3 > 0:
The left side factorises to give

.x C 3/.x 1/ > 0:
121 MAT0511/001
Method 1 (Property of inequality)
In this method we make use of Property 1 of Table 2.3.1. Thus we have the possibility that x C 3 > 0 and
x 1 > 0; which we call Case I, or the possibility that x C 3 < 0 and x 1 < 0; which we call Case II. We
have to find values of x that satisfy Case I or Case II. We now investigate these two cases separately.
Case I
When x C 3 > 0 and x 1 > 0 we have x > 3 and x > 1, and hence x > 1:
Case I
-3
Case II
When x C 3 < 0 and x 1 < 0 we have x < 3 and x < 1; and hence x < 3:
Case II
-3
Combining both cases we have x > 1 or x < 3; and hence the solution set is
fx 2 R : x < 3 or x > 1g; i.e. . 1 3/ [ .1; 1 /: Builder notation
We can describe the solution either by means of set builder notation or interval notation.
_3 1 Interval notation
Method 2 (Split–point method)
The equation
.x C 3/.x 1/ D 0
has only two solutions, namely x D 3 and x D 1: These are the only two values for which the expression
.x C 3/.x 1/ can be equal to zero. Thus the expression can only change sign, i.e. move from being positive
to negative, or vice versa, before or after these two numbers. The numbers 3 and 1 divide the real line into
three intervals, namely . 1; 3/ ; . 3; 1/ and .1; 1/: The numbers 3 and 1 are called different names
by different authors. They are called split–points, boundary points, cut points and critical points. We call
122
them split–points. We determine the signs of the factors .x C 3/ and .x 1/ in each of the intervals. If
the factor is negative we enter a minus sign in Table 2.3.2 and if it is positive we enter a plus sign. For each
column the sign in the second last row is obtained by multiplying the entries in the two rows above it.
Note: Numbers on a number line are also called points on the number line.
Split points 3 1
Intervals j . 1; 3/ j . 3; 1/ j .1; 1/
x C3 j j C j C
x 1 j j j C
.x C 3/.x 1/ j C j j C
Interpretation: j .x C 3/.x 1/ > 0 j .x C 3/.x 1/ < 0 j .x C 3/.x 1/ > 0
Table 2.3.2
To find the sign of a factor in a specific interval we need only find the sign at one point in that interval because
the factor will have the same sign in the entire interval. For the interval . 1; 3/ we choose, for example,
x D 4: Both x C 3 < 0 and x 1 < 0 when x D 4 and we enter minus signs next to x C 3 and x 1 in
the column below . 1; 3/. When we multiply two negative numbers we obtain a positive number and we
thus enter a plus sign in the second last row of the column. We proceed in the same way for each of the other
intervals. From Table 2.3.2 it follows that we have a plus sign for .x C 3/.x 1/ when x < 3 or x > 1, i.e.
.x C 3/.x 1/ > 0 when x < 3 or x > 1. Thus we see that we have obtained the same answer as we did
using Method 1.
If we had been asked to solve .x C3/.x 1/ 0 instead of .x C3/.x 1/ > 0 then we would include x D 3
and x D 1 in the intervals because we would be looking for values of x for which the product .x C 3/.x 1/
is either positive or zero. In this case the solution would be x 3 or x 1 and the solution set would be
. 1 3] [ [1; 1/:
There is a third convenient method we can use to solve quadratic inequalities. To solve the inequality
x 2 C 2x 3 > 0 we can sketch the graph of y D x 2 C 2x 3, and determine all the values of x for which
y > 0. We will discuss this method when we deal with graphs in Module 3. You can now practise the
property of inequality and the split–point method in the next activity.
ACTIVITY 2.3.9
Use Method 1 of Example 2.3.9 to solve the inequality x 2 < 3; and Method 2 to solve x 2 16:
SOLUTION
x2 < 3
, x2 3<0
123 MAT0511/001
p
Use the substitution p D 3: Then x 2 3 becomes x 2 p2 :
i:e: x 2 p 2 < 0
p p
, .x 3/.x C 3/ < 0
p p p p
, .x 3 > 0 and x C 3 < 0/ or .x 3 < 0 and x C 3 > 0/
p p p p
, .x > 3 and x < 3/ or .x < 3 and x > 3/:
p p p p
3 is positive and 3 is negative. Thus on a number line 3 lies to the left of 3 and to the left of zero.
_
3 0 3
p p
We can easily see that there is no value of x which is greater than 3 and smaller than 3 at the same
p p
time. Thus there is no value of x that satisfies x > 3 and x < 3:
p p p
We can also see that the values of x which are smaller than 3 and greater than 3 lie between 3 and
p p p p
3; excluding both these values. Thus we can write the statements x < 3 and x > 3 as 3<x <
p
3: Thus the solution of
x2 < 3
is
p p
3<x < 3:
We now use the split–point method to solve the inequality x 2 16; i.e. we solve
x2 16 0:
If x 2 16 D 0 then .x C 4/.x 4/ D 0:
Thus the equation x 2 16 D 0 has the solutions x D 4 and x D 4: (Read the section “Finding square roots”
just above Example 2.3.3 in Study Unit 2.3A.) The split–points are thus x D 4 and x D 4: We now set up a
table of signs.
Split points 4 4
Intervals j . 1; 4/ j . 4; 4/ j .4; 1/
x C4 j j C j C
x 4 j j j C
x2 16 j C j j C
2 2 2
Interpretation: j x 16 > 0 j x 16 < 0 j x 16 > 0
Table 2.3.3
124
Did you find it difficult to determine the signs in Table 2.3.3? If so, read the next paragraph.
For the interval . 1; 4/ we can choose, for example, x D 5 as a test point. For this value of x; x C 4
becomes 5C4; i.e. 1 which is negative, and x 4 becomes 5 4; i.e. 9 which is also negative. We thus
enter “ ” next to x C 4 and next to x 4; and hence “C” next to x 2 16 in the column below . 1; 4/.
For the interval . 4; 4/ it is convenient to choose x D 0 as the test point. Thus x C 4 becomes 4; which is
positive and x 4 becomes 4; which is negative. Thus x 2 16 is also negative. For the interval .4; 1 /
we choose, for example, x D 5 as a test point. You will find that both x C 4 and x 4 are positive when
x D 5: Hence .x C 4/.x 4/ is also positive and we write “C” next to x 2 16 in the last column.
Now try going over the above reasoning using test points different from the ones we have suggested here.
From Table 2.3.3 we see that x 2 16 > 0 when x < 4 or when x > 4: We also have x 2 16 D 0 for x D 4
or x D 4: Thus the solution of
x2 16
is
x 4 or x 4:
We can generalise the results obtained in Activity 2.3.9. The solutions of x 2 < a; x 2 a; x 2 > a and
x2 a; where a 2 R and a > 0, can easily be deduced from the solutions found in Activity 2.3.9. We
summarise the results in Table 2.3.4 so that we can easily refer to them.
Inequality Solution Solution Set

(expressed as an interval
or union of intervals in R)
Suppose a 2 R and a > 0:
p p p p
x2 < a a<x< a . a; a/
p p p p
x2 a a x a [ a; a]
p p p p
x2 > a x< a or x > a . 1; a/ [ . a; 1 /
p p p p
x2 a x a or x a . 1; a] [ [ a; 1 /
Table 2.3.4
We are now able to solve problems such as those stated at the end of Study Unit 2.3A. We look at one of these
in the next activity.
ACTIVITY 2.3.10
Use the discriminant of the equation 4x 2 C kx C 9 D 0 to find all the values of k for which the equation has
no solution.
125 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
In Example 2.3.6 we found that

1 D k2 144:
For the equation to have no solution we require 1< 0:
Now
k2 144 < 0
, k 2 < 144
p p
, 144 < k < 144 From Table 2.3.4.
, 12 < k < 12:

Thus the equation has no solution for all values of k such that 12 < k < 12:
We now look at a real–life problem.
ACTIVITY 2.3.11
Consider Activity 2.3.7 in Study Unit 2.3B.
(a) From (d) of Activity 2.3.7 we know that the ball is in the air for t seconds, where 0 < t < 3. Now
deduce these values of t by solving an inequality.
(b) Now find the time periods for which the ball is above ground but below 6 41 m.
SOLUTION
The formula given in Activity 2.3.7 is h D 15t 5t 2 .
(a) If the ball is above the ground then h > 0.

Now
h>0
, 15t 5t 2 > 0
, 5t .3 t/ > 0
, t .3 t/ > 0
126
, .t > 0 and 3 t > 0/ or .t < 0 and 3 t < 0/
, .t > 0 and t < 3/ or .t < 0 and t > 3/
, 0<t <3
Thus the ball is above the ground when 0 < t < 3.
(b) To find out when the ball is below 6 41 m we need to determine t so that h < 6 14 :
Now
1
15t 5t 2 < 6
4
1
, 5t 2 C 15t 6 <0
4
1
, 5t 2 15t C 6 > 0
4
Multiplication by a negative number changes the direction of the inequality sign.

25
, 5t 2 15t C >0
4
, 20t 2 60t C 25 > 0
, 4t 2 12t C 5 > 0
, .2t 1/.2t 5/ > 0
, .2t 1 > 0 and 2t 5 > 0/ or .2t 1 < 0 and 2t 5 < 0/
1 5 1 5
, .t > and t > / or .t < and t < /
2 2 2 2
5 1
, t> or t < :
2 2
From (a) we know that the ball is above the ground when 0 < t < 3: Hence it is above ground but
below 6 14 m when 0 < t < 3 and t < 12 , or when 0 < t < 3 and t > 52 ; i.e. when 0 < t < 21 or
5
2
< t < 3:
127 MAT0511/001
Hence the ball is above the ground but below 6 14 m for 12 second after being kicked into the air and then
again for the period from 52 seconds to 3 seconds after being kicked into the air.
EXERCISE 2.3
1. Solve each of the following equations by
(i) factorisation
(ii) completing the square
(iii) using the quadratic formula.
(a) 4x 2 C 9x C 5 D 0
(b) 2x 2 C 7x D 4
(c) 6x 2 13x D 5
(d) 2x 2 11x C 12 D 0
2. Use the discriminant to find out whether each of the following equations has exactly one solution, two
solutions or no solution.
(a) 4x 2 12x C 9 D 0
(b) x 2 3x C 4 D 0
(c) 6x 2 17x 14 D 0
3. Use the discriminant to determine the value(s) of k for which each of the following equations has
exactly one root.
(a) 4x 2 C 4kx k2 D 0
(b) 4x 2 C 4kx C k 2 D 0
(c) x 2 .k 1/x C .k C 2/ D 0
(d) x 2 C kx C .k 2/ D 0
4. The sum of the squares of two consecutive even positive integers is 100. Determine the two integers.
5. The sum of two numbers is 2 and their product is 63: Find the two numbers.
6. A stone is dropped down a 20 m deep borehole. The formula for the distance d travelled by the stone
after t seconds is given by
d D 5t 2 :
Find how long it takes the stone to drop

(a) 5m (b) to the bottom of the borehole.
We know that 20 m is 4 5 m. Can we say that the time taken for the stone to drop 20 m is four times
the time taken to drop 5 m?
128
7. A rectangular garden is 3 metres longer than it is wide. Its area is 180 m2 : Find the width and length of
the garden.
8. A man walked a distance of 30 km. A woman cycled the same distance. She took 6 hours less time
than the man did because she travelled 16 km/h faster than the man did. Find each of their speeds.
9. Solve each of the following inequalities and write down the solution set using set builder notation.
(a) 5x 2 C 14x 3<0

(b) 6x 2 5x 6 0
10. Determine the value(s) of k for which the equation

x
(a) x 2 C C 4 D 0 has no real solution
k
(b) x 2 .k 1/x C .k C 2/ D 0 has real solutions.
11. Write down a quadratic inequality with solution set . 1; 1/.
12. Suppose a stone is dropped down an old mine shaft. The formula for the distance d travelled by the
stone after t seconds is given by
d D 5t 2 :
When will the stone be between 125 m and 320 m below ground?
2.4 Some Other Equations

SOLVING EQUATIONS BY SQUARING BOTH SIDES
Throughout this topic we have been solving equations by converting them to equivalent equations which are
easier to solve. One conversion process that is useful, but that does not always yield equivalent equations,
is the operation of squaring. If we square both sides of an equation in order to solve it we may introduce
extraneous solutions, i.e. solutions to the new equation that do not satisfy the original equation.
Remember:
Equivalent equations have the same solution set.
For example, the solution of 2x D 2 is x D 1: However, if we square both sides of the equation 2x D 2 we
obtain 4x 2 D 4.
Now
4x 2 D 4
, x2 D 1
, xD 1:
129 MAT0511/001
Thus x D 1 and x D 1 are both solutions of 4x 2 D 4; but x D 1 does not satisfy the original equation
2x D 2: Thus by squaring we have a value of x which does not satisfy 2x D 2. We call this “solution” an
extraneous solution.
EXAMPLE 2.4.1
Solve
p
x2 3x D 2: (2.4.1)
SOLUTION
We write
p
x2 3x D 2
as
p
x 2 D 3x C 2
so that the square root expression is by itself on one side of the equation. We square both sides and obtain
x 2 D .3x C 2/2 .
Now
x 2 D .3x C 2/2
, x 2 D 9x 2 C 12x C 4
, 8x 2 C 12x C 4 D 0
, 2x 2 C 3x C 1 D 0
, .2x C 1/.x C 1/ D 0
, 2x C 1 D 0 or x C 1 D 0
1
, xD 2
or x D 1:
1
When we substitute x D 2
into (2.4.1) we obtain
s
1 2 1 1 3
LHS D 3 D C D 2 D RHS
2 2 2 2
1
and hence x D 2
is a solution of the original equation. Testing x D 1 in (2.4.1) we find
p
LHS D . 1/2 3. 1/ D 1 C 3 D 4 6D RHS
130
1
and thus x D 1 is not a solution of the original equation. Thus x D 2
is the only solution of the original
equation.
We do not always obtain extraneous solutions when we square both sides of an equation. Suppose
p
.2x 1/2 D 3: (2.4.2)
If we square both sides then

p 2
.2x 1/2 D 32 :
Now
p 2
.2x 1/2 D 32
, .2x 1/2 D 9
, 4x 2 4x C 1 D 9
, 4x 2 4x 8D0
, x2 x 2D0
, .x 2/.x C 1/ D 0
, x D 2 or x D 1:
Both x D 2 and x D 1 satisfy the original equation (2.4.2) and thus they are both solutions.
However, since the possibility exists that you may introduce extraneous solutions when you square,
always CHECK your final answers by substituting into the original equation.
ACTIVITY 2.4.1
Solve the equation

p p
6Cx D1C 7 x:
Hint: You will have to square twice.

SOLUTION
We square both sides of
p p
6Cx D1C 7 x (2.4.3)
and get
p p
. 6 C x/2 D .1 C 7 x/2 :
131 MAT0511/001
Remember:
.a C b/2 D a 2 C 2ab C b2 :
We thus have
p p
6Cx D 1C2 7 x C . 7 x/2 :
p
, 6Cx D 1C2 7 x C7 x
p
, 2x 2 D 2 7 x
p
, x 1 D 7 x:
We still have a square root expression, hence we square both sides of this equation.
Hence
p
.x 1/2 D . 7 x/2
, x 2 2x C 1 D 7 x
, x2 x 6 D 0
, .x 3/.x C 2/ D 0
, x D3 or x D 2:
We substitute x D 3 and then x D 2 into (2.4.3). For x D 3
p p
LHS D 6 C 3 D 9 D 3
and
p p
RHS D 1 C 7 3D1C 4 D 1 C 2 D 3:
Hence LHS D RHS.
For x D 2
p p
LHS D 6 2D 4D2
and
p p p
RHS D 1 C 7 . 2/ D 1 C 7 C 2 D 1 C 9 D 1 C 3 D 4:
Hence LHS 6D RHS.
Thus x D 3 is the only solution of the original equation.
CHANGING THE SUBJECT OF A FORMULA
A formula is an equation connecting several variables. It gives us a relationship between the different variables
and a way for us to calculate the value of one variable if we know the values of the other variables. The plural
of formula is formulae or formulas. For example,
pDs c (2.4.4)
is a formula which gives profit p in terms of selling price s and cost price c: This formula is known as an
explicit formula since it explains how to calculate p when we are given s and c: Here p is called the subject
of the formula since p is written in terms of the other variables.
132
Not all formulas are as simple as this one. For example, in physics we have the formula
1 1 1
C D (2.4.5)
v u f
which connects f (the focal length of a lens) with u (the distance between an object and the lens) and v
(the distance between the lens and the image produced). It is not important that you understand the physics
terminology here.
This is called an implicit formula. Here the relationship between f; u and v is implied and not directly stated.
At times we need to rearrange a formula in order to
I change the subject of an explicit formula, or to
I produce an explicit formula from an implicit one by making one of the variables the subject of the
formula.
For example, suppose we bought the following items at the prices indicated.
T–shirt R30; 50
pair of shorts R40; 99
shirt R37; 75
jacket R149; 99
Suppose we want to sell these items and make a profit of R15; 00 on each item. We have the cost price and
profit for each item. We can substitute these values into formula (2.4.4) to determine the selling price. For
example, for the T–shirt we have
15 D s 30; 50
i.e. we have
15 C 30; 50 D s
i.e. we have
s D 45; 50:
Thus the selling price for the T–shirt must be R45; 50. We can do this for each article to find out its selling
price. However, if we first rewrite the formula so that we have s (i.e. the selling price) as the subject, then
less work is involved in calculating the various selling prices.
When we rewrite formula (2.4.4) so that s becomes the subject of the formula we work as though the other
133 MAT0511/001
two variables are numbers. Thus from
pDs c
we write
pCc Ds Add c to both sides.
and we have
s D p C c: By the symmetry property, Table 2.1.1.
It is now easier to calculate the various selling prices by substituting into the last formula.
We have just looked at a very simple example. Now look at formula (2.4.5). Physics students may be asked
to do an experiment in which they have to work out the focal lengths of different lenses by measuring the
distance between an object and a lens (u cm) and the distance between the lens and the image .v cm).
Substituting different values for u and v in (2.4.5) and finding the corresponding value of f in each case
involves a lot of calculation. However, less work will be required if we first write f in terms of u and v to
produce an explicit equation with f as the subject.
Suppose
1 1 1
C D :
u v f
Then
vCu 1
D Use a common denominator
uv f
on the LHS.
which gives us
f .v C u/ D uv Cross multiply.
and thus
uv
f D : Divide by .v C u/:
vCu
For each known u and v we can now determine f using this last formula instead of formula (2.4.5).
These two examples illustrate that it is useful to rewrite a formula so that the variable you require is written
in terms of the other variables.
In the following example, activity and exercise we do not give you the physical interpretation and the units of
the variables that occur in the formulas. We just give some basic formulas so that you can practise changing
the subject of a formula. We assume that the values of the variables are such that the formulas are defined,
i.e. denominators are non–zero and numbers under square root signs are non–negative.
134
EXAMPLE 2.4.2
Suppose
nE
I D :
R C nr
Solve for r in terms of the other variables.
SOLUTION
nE
I D
R C nr
, .R C nr /I D n E Multiply by R C nr:
, R I C nr I D n E By the distributive rule.
, nr I D n E RI Subtract R I:
nE RI
, rD Divide by n I:
nI
ACTIVITY 2.4.2
Suppose s
l
T D2 :
g
Solve for g in terms of the other variables.
SOLUTION
s
l
T D2
g
s
T l
, D Divide by 2 :
2 g
s !2
2
T l
, D Square both sides.
2 g
s
T l
We can use “ , ” here since both and are positive.
2 g
135 MAT0511/001
T2 l
, 2
D
4 g
, T 2g D 4 2
l Cross multiply.
4 2l
, gD Divide by T 2 :
T2
EXERCISE 2.4
1. Solve each of the following equations.

p
(a) x2 x 3D0
p
(b) x2 4x 5 D 0
p
(c) .x 1/2 2 D 0
p
(d) .x 1/2 C 2 D 0
p
(e) .x 1/2 C x D 1
p p
(f) 2x C 4 C x C 3 D 1
p p
(g) 3x C 6 C 2x C 5 D 1
2. Solve each of the following for the indicated variable in terms of the other variables.
(a) F D 59 C C 32 for C
(b) s D ut C 12 at 2 for a
1
(c) V D r 2 h for r , where r > 0
3
nE
(d) I D for n
R C nr
r
D f Ca
(e) D for a
d f a
1 1 1
(f) D for r
v u r
mv 2
(g) F D mg C for m
r
(h) A D 2 r 2 C 2 r h for h
136
2.5 Systems of Equations in Two Unknowns

SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS
The equations we have dealt with so far have contained only one variable (or unknown). Even when we
changed the subject of a formula, we considered the formula as though it had one unknown (the subject) and
treated the other variables as constants.
In practice we often encounter more than one variable or unknown. To find values for these unknowns we
usually require more than one equation. We then deal with systems of equations.
The simplest system of equations involving two variables is a system of linear equations, for example
)
2x yD 4
:
5x C 3y D 1
We define a linear equation in two unknowns as follows.
Definition 2.5.1
An equation of the form ax C by C c D 0, where a; b; c 2 R, is
called a linear or first degree equation in two variables.
SOLVING A SYSTEM
Solving a system of equations in two variables x and y means finding all the values of x and y that satisfy
both equations.
EQUIVALENT SYSTEMS
In order to solve the system above we reduce it to an equivalent system, i.e. a system that has the same
solution set, which is easier to solve. We produce equivalent systems by applying the rules for transforming
an equation to an equivalent equation given in Table 2.1.1 as well as the following rule.
In order to transform a system of linear equations to an equivalent sys-

tem we may add one equation to another (or subtract one equation from
another).
SOLVING BY ELIMINATION AND/OR SUBSTITUTION
We can solve a system of linear equations by using the method of elimination or substitution. We illustrate
these methods in the following two examples.
137 MAT0511/001
EXAMPLE 2.5.1
METHOD OF ELIMINATION
Use the method of elimination to solve each of the following systems of equations.
)
2x y D 7
(a) (2.5.1)
2x C 3y D 5
)
x C 3y D 2
(b) (2.5.2)
2x 3y D 5
)
2x C 3y D 7
(c) (2.5.3)
5x 2y D 27
SOLUTION
(a) We note that the coefficient of x is the same in both equations. We can therefore eliminate, i.e. “get
rid of”, the x–term in the second equation by subtracting the first equation from the second equation.
After we have done this we obtain the equivalent system
)
2x y D 7
:
4y D 12
We solve the last equation and get y D 12 4

; i.e. y D 3: We now substitute this value into either of the
original equations. We substitute into the first one.
Thus
2x 3D 7
Note:
, 2x D 7C3 In the method of elimination we also use
substitution to obtain the final answer.
, 2x D 4
, xD 2:
Thus the solution is x D 2 and y D 3: As a check you should see whether x D 2 and y D 3 satisfy
the second equation in system (2.5.1).
138
(b) In this case we note that we have 3y in the first equation and 3y in the second equation, i.e. the
coefficient of y in the second equation, namely 3; is the negative of the coefficient of y in the first
equation. Thus we can eliminate the y–term in the second equation by adding the two equations.
We obtain the equivalent system )
x C 3y D 2
:
3x D 3
We solve 3x D 3 to get x D 1I we then substitute x D 1 into the first equation to obtain y D 1:

By solving this system we obtain x D 1 and y D 1: You can check that this solution satisfies the
original system (2.5.2).
(c) We note that we cannot eliminate the x–term or the y–term immediately by adding or subtracting the
equations since in both equations the coefficients of the x–terms and the y–terms are not the same, as
they are in (a), neither are they numerically equal but with opposite sign, as they are in (b). We must
first multiply each of the equations by a suitable number to bring the two equations to the stage where
we can eliminate one of the variables by adding or subtracting equations. We are using property 3 of
Table 2.1.1.
We consider the x–terms. We see that if we multiply the first equation by 5 and the second equation
by 2 then the two x–terms will have the same coefficient, namely 10: After multiplying we obtain the
equivalent system )
10x C 15y D 35
:
10x 4y D 54
Now we subtract the first equation from the second and obtain the system
)
10x C 15y D 35
:
19y D 19
From the last equation we get y D 1: We substitute this into the first equation of system (2.5.3) and
get
2x 3 D 7:
Hence we obtain
2x D 10
and thus
x D 5:
Thus the solution is x D 5 and y D 1: As a check, see whether x D 5 and y D 1 satisfy the second
equation of system (2.5.3).
Note that in (c) we can decide to eliminate y instead of x. In this case we can multiply the first equation by 2
and the second equation by 3: This will produce an equivalent system which has 6y in the first equation and
6y in the second equation. We can thus eliminate the y–term by adding the equations.
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METHOD OF SUBSTITUTION
In (a) and (b) of Example 2.5.1 we see that we can eliminate either the x–term or the y–term immediately by
adding or subtracting the two equations. In (c) we first have to multiply each equation by a suitable number
before we can eliminate either the x–term or y–term. In cases such as (c) it is sometimes easier to use the
method of substitution.
In this method we
I first use one of the equations to solve for one variable in terms of the other
I then substitute into the other equation to find the actual value of the one variable
I finally substitute this known value into the equation we used first, to solve for the other variable.
This sounds very involved, but the process is easy to follow if you work through an example.
EXAMPLE 2.5.2
Solve
)
2x C 3y D 7
(2.5.3)
5x 2y D 27
by the method of substitution.
SOLUTION
We solve the first equation for x:
2x C 3y D 7
, 2x D 7 3y
7 3y
, xD :
2
We substitute this into the second equation and obtain
7 3y
5 2y D 27:
2
140
Now
7 3y
5 2y D 27
2
, 5.7 3y/ 4y D 54 Multiply both sides by 2:
, 35 15y 4y D 54
, 19y D 19
, yD 1:
We now substitute y D 1 into the first equation and obtain
2x 3D7
i.e. we have
2x D 10
and thus
x D 5:
Thus the solution is x D 5 and y D 1 which is the answer we obtained in Example 2.5.1(c).
ACTIVITY 2.5.1
Solve the system )

2x y D 4
(2.5.4)
5x C 3y D 1
using
(a) the method of elimination
(b) the method of substitution.
SOLUTION
(a) We note that we cannot eliminate either the x–term or the y–term directly. We consider the y–terms
and see that if we multiply the first equation by 3 we will be able to find a new system in which we can
eliminate the y–term from the second equation. We proceed as follows.
141 MAT0511/001
System (2.5.4) is equivalent to

)
6x 3y D 12
: Multiply the first equation by 3:
5x C 3y D 1
This is equivalent to the system

)
6x 3y D 12
: Add the first equation to the second.
11x D 11
From the last equation we have x D 1: We substitute x D 1 into one of the two original equations
to obtain the value for y: If we substitute into the first equation we obtain
2. 1/ yD 4
i.e. we obtain
2 yD 4
and hence
y D 2:
Thus the solution is x D 1 and y D 2: (Check that x D 1 and y D 2 satisfy the second equation of
the original system.)
Note that we can also eliminate the x–term instead of the y–term. This involves more manipulation,
since we need to multiply the first equation by 5 and the second equation by 2: We prefer to eliminate
the y–term since we only need to multiply one of the equations.
(b) In system (2.5.4) we solve the first equation for y: We have y D 2x C 4: We substitute this into the
second equation and obtain 5x C 3.2x C 4/ D 1.
Now
5x C 3.2x C 4/ D 1
, 5x C 6x C 12 D 1
, 11x D 11
, xD 1:
Now substitute x D 1 into the first equation.

We obtain
2 yD 4
and hence
y D 2:
Thus the solution is x D 1 and y D 2:

142
Systems of two linear equations in two unknowns can be extended to systems of three linear equations in
three unknowns, and so on. However, in this module we restrict ourselves to systems of two linear equations
in two unknowns.
We now look at a real–life situation. When we solve real–life problems using a system of equations in two
unknowns we still follow the method summarised in Figure 2.2.1 in Study Unit 2.2B. However, we now have
to introduce two variables, and set up two equations which must be solved.
EXAMPLE 2.5.3
At present a father is one year older than 9 times his son’s age. In seven years time the son will be 3 years
older than one–fifth of his father’s age then. How old are the father and son now?
SOLUTION
Let the father’s age now be x years and the son’s age now be y years. Since the father is one year older than
9 times his son’s age we have x is 1 more than 9 y; i.e.
x D 9y C 1:
In seven years time the father will be .x C 7/ years old and the son will be .y C 7/ years old. Since the
son will then be 3 years older than 51 of the father’s age we have .y C 7/ is 3 more than 15 .x C 7/; i.e.
y C 7 D 51 .x C 7/ C 3. Remember that “of” means multiply.
Now
1
y C 7 D .x C 7/ C 3
5
, 5.y C 7/ D .x C 7/ C 5 3 Multiply each term by 5:
, 5y C 35 D x C 7 C 15
, x 5y D 13:
Thus we must solve the system
)
x D 9y C 1
: (2.5.5)
x 5y D 13
143 MAT0511/001
We substitute the first equation into the second equation. We obtain
9y C 1 5y D 13
and hence
4y D 12
so that
y D 3:
We substitute y D 3 into the first equation of system (2.5.5). We get
x D9 3 C 1 D 28:
Hence at present the father is 28 years old and his son is 3 years old.
At present the father is 28 years old and his son is 3 years old. Since
28 D 9 3C1
we see that the father is 1 year older than 9 times his son’s age.
In 7 years time the father will be 35 years old and the son 10 years old. Since
10 D 51 .35/ C 3
1
it follows that the son’s age will be 3 years more than 5
of his father’s age. Thus our answer satisfies the
conditions of the problem.
Now try the next problem.
ACTIVITY 2.5.2
I have a packet containing toffees and chocolates. The ratio of the number of toffees to chocolates is 2 : 3:
If I eat 4 of the chocolates then the ratio of the number of remaining chocolates to toffees will be 5 : 4: How
many toffees and how many chocolates were originally in the packet?
SOLUTION
Suppose I have x toffees and y chocolates in the packet. Since the ratio of the number of toffees to chocolates
144
is 2 : 3 we have the ratio of x to y is 2 : 3.
Hence
x 2
D
y 3
, 3x D 2y Cross multiply.
, 2y D 3x:
If I eat 4 of the chocolates then there will be .y 4/ chocolates and x toffees in the packet. If the ratio of the
number of chocolates to toffees is then 5 : 4 we have the ratio of .y 4/ to x is 5 : 4.
Hence
y 4 5
D
x 4
, 4.y 4/ D 5x
, 4y 16 D 5x
, 4y 5x D 16:
Thus we must solve the system )

2y D 3x
: (2.5.6)
4y 5x D 16
From the equation 2y D 3x we get

3
yD x:
2
We substitute this into the second equation of system (2.5.6).

3
4 x 5x D 16
2
, 6x 5x D 16
, x D 16
By substituting x D 16 into y D 23 x we get
y D 32 .16/ D 24:
145 MAT0511/001
Thus the packet originally contained 16 toffees and 24 chocolates.
Check: The ratio of 16 toffees to 24 chocolates is 1624

; which is 32 : If 4 chocolates are eaten, there will be 20
20
chocolates. The ratio of 20 chocolates to 16 toffees is 16 ; which is 54 : Thus the answer satisfies the conditions
of the problem.
Sometimes a problem which we solve using a linear equation in one unknown can also be solved using a
system of linear equations in two unknowns. For example, go back to Activity 2.2.2 in Study Unit 2.2B. We
can also approach the problem as follows.
Suppose we use x ` from container A and y ` from container B: Since we want to make 15 ` of a new mixture
we can write
x C y D 15:
We summarise the information in the following table.
Percentage of Volume of orange Volume of orange

orange concentrate juice (`/ concentrate (`/
4x
Container A 4 x
100
8y
Container B 8 y
100
5 15
New mixture 5 15
100
Hence
4x 8y 5 15
C D
100 100 100
and thus
4x C 8y D 75:
Thus we must solve the system )

x C y D 15
:
4x C 8y D 75
We use the method of elimination. We multiply the first equation by 4 and obtain the equivalent system
)
4x C 4y D 60
:
4x C 8y D 75
146
Now we subtract the first equation from the second equation.
Hence
4y D 15
15
, yD
4
, y D 3 34 :
By substituting y D 3 43 into x C y D 15 we get x D 15 3 43 D 11 14 :
Thus we must use 11 41 ` from container A and 3 34 ` from container B: This answer is the same as the answer
we obtained in Activity 2.2.2.
SYSTEMS OF LINEAR AND QUADRATIC EQUATIONS
We must first define a quadratic equation in two variables.
Definition 2.5.2
An equation of the form ax 2 C bx y C cy 2 C d x C ey C f D 0, where
a, b, c, d,e, f 2 R and where the constants a, b and c are not
all zero, is called a quadratic or second degree equation
in two variables.
The following is an example of a system of equations consisting of a linear and a quadratic equation in two
variables. )
xCyD1
x 2 C 2y 2 D 2
We solve systems of this kind using the method of substitution. We
I use the linear equation to solve for one of the variables in terms of the other
I then substitute into the quadratic equation to give a quadratic equation in one variable from which we
can find the value(s) of that variable
I find the value(s) of the other variable by substitution as before.
Once again, this is much easier to understand if we illustrate the method by means of an example.
147 MAT0511/001
EXAMPLE 2.5.4
Solve the system )

xCyD1
: (2.5.7)
x C 2y 2 D 2
2
SOLUTION
In system (2.5.7) we solve the first equation for y: We have
yD1 x:
We substitute this into the second equation.
Hence
x 2 C 2.1 x/2 D 2
, x 2 C 2.1 2x C x 2 / 2D0
, x2 C 2 4x C 2x 2 2D0
, 3x 2 4x D 0
, x.3x 4/ D 0
4
, x D0 or x D :
3
We substitute x D 0 and then x D 43 into the first equation, and we obtain y D 1 and y D 31 : Hence there
are two pairs of solutions, namely x D 0; y D 1 and x D 43 ; y D 13 : You should check that both these pairs
satisfy the original system.
We have solved a system of equations in two unknowns where both equations are linear, and where one
equation is linear and the other quadratic. You will have noticed that in the first case we obtained one pair
of solutions, whereas in the second case we obtained two pairs of solutions. We usually obtain two pairs of
solutions when we solve a system cosisting of a linear and a quadratic equation. Now see how many pairs of
solutions you obtain in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 2.5.3
Solve the system )
x C 2y D 3
:
xy D 2
Note that x y D 2 is also a quadratic equation. See Definition 2.5.2.

148
SOLUTION
From the first equation we obtain

x D3 2y:
We substitute x D 3 2y into the second equation.
Hence
.3 2y/y D 2
, 3y 2y 2 D 2
, 2y 2 C 3y C 2 D 0
, 2y 2 3y 2D0
, .2y C 1/.y 2/ D 0
, 2y C 1 D 0 or y 2 D 0
1
, yD or y D 2:
2
1
We substitute y D 2
and then y D 2 into x D 3 2y:
1
For y D 2
we get x D 3 C 1 D 4 and for y D 2 we get x D 3 4D 1:
1
Thus the pairs of solutions are x D 4; y D 2
and x D 1; y D 2:
You should check that the two pairs satisfy the original system.
We now look at a word problem.
EXAMPLE 2.5.5
Suppose the sum of two numbers is 28 and their product is 96. Find the two numbers.
SOLUTION
Let the two numbers be x and y:
Then
x C y D 28
149 MAT0511/001
and
x y D 96:
From x C y D 28 we have
y D 28 x:
We substitute this into x y D 96.
Hence
x.28 x/ D 96
, 28x x 2 D 96
, x2 28x C 96 D 0
, .x 4/.x 24/ D 0
, x 4 D 0 or x 24 D 0
, x D 4 or x D 24:
We substitute into y D 28 x:
For x D 4 we get y D 28 4 D 24 and for x D 24 we get y D 28 24 D 4:
Thus we have x D 4; y D 24 and x D 24, y D 4 as solutions.
Thus the two numbers are 4 and 24:
EXERCISE 2.5
1. Solve the following systems of equations.
(a) )
2x 3y D 2
2x C y D 2
(b) )
x C 4y D 1
2x C 4y D 2
150
(c) )
2x y D 4
3x C 5y D 7
(d) )
x C 2y D 2
3
4
x yD9
(e) 9
2 3 >
C D 14 >
>
x y >
=
>
>
1 3 >
D 11 >
;
x y
1 1
Hint: Let u D and v D :
x y
(f) 9
1 1
C D 1 >
>
>
>
x y =
>
>
2 3 >
>
D 13 ;
x y
2. The sum of two integers is 2 and their difference is 20: Find the two integers.
3. You deposit R500 in the bank in a mixture of R20 and R10 notes. If there were 29 notes how many of
each type of note was deposited?
4. If Susan gives Simon one of her one rand coins, then Simon has half the number of one rand coins that
Susan has. On the other hand, if Simon gives Susan one of his one rand coins then Susan has five times
as many one rand coins as Simon has. How many one rand coins did each have initially?
5. Answer the following questions from Exercise 2.2 using a system of two linear equations in two vari-
ables.
(a) Question 4
(b) Question 6
(c) Question 7
6. At present Nadine is 2 years older than 8 times her daughter’s age. In 12 years time the daughter will
be 4 years younger than half the age her mother is then. Find the ages of Nadine and her daughter now.
7. There are 4 less red cricket balls than white cricket balls in a box. If I take one–third of the white balls
out of the box then the ratio of the number of red cricket balls to the number of white cricket balls in
the box is 5 : 4: How many red balls and how many white balls were originally in the box?
151 MAT0511/001
8. At a certain school in Gauteng the boys play either soccer or cricket. At the beginning of the term 20
more boys played soccer than cricket. In the middle of the term 10 boys stopped playing cricket and
started playing soccer. After the 10 boys changed from cricket to soccer the ratio of the number of
boys playing soccer to those playing cricket was 5 to 4. How many boys played soccer and how many
played cricket at the beginning of the term?
9. Solve the following systems of equations.

) )
xCyD0 2x C 3y D 2
(a) (c)
x 2 C y2 D 4 x 2 2x y D 12
) )
2x y D 1 3x C y D 2
(b) (d)
x 2 y2 D 5 xy D 1
10. The sum of a certain number and twice another number is 11. The sum of the squares of these numbers
is 58. Find the two numbers.
UNIT SUMMARY
An equation is a statement that two expressions are equal.
An identity is an equation which is true for all values of the variable(s) for which it is defined.
The solution set of an equation is the set of all solutions of the equation.
Two equations are equivalent if they have the same solution set.
An equation can be solved by rewriting it as an equivalent equation which is easier to solve.
If A; B and C are algebraic expressions then the equation A D B is equivalent to each of the following
equations.
B ACC D B CC
B A CDB C
B C A D C B; C 6D 0
A B
B D ; C 6D 0
C C
B BDA
A linear or first degree equation in one variable is an equation which can be written as
ax C b D 0; where a; b 2 R:
A linear equation can be reduced to nx D c; and if
B n D 0 and c 6D 0 then there is no solution and the solution set is ;

152
B n D 0 and c D 0 then every real value of x is a solution and the solution set is R
B n 6D 0 then the solution is x D c
n
and the solution set is f nc g:
A linear or first degree inequality in one variable is one that can be written in the form
ax C b < 0; where a; b 2 R:
The inequality sign can be replaced by , or > :
If A; B and C are algebraic expressions then the inequality A > B is equivalent to each of the following
inequalities.
B ACC > B CC
B A C>B C
B C A > C B if C > 0; C A < C B if C < 0
A B A B
B > if C > 0 I < if C < 0
C C C C
B B<A
Similar properties can be stated for the inequalities A B; A < B and A B:
A quadratic or second degree equation in one variable is an equation which can be written in the
form
ax 2 C bx C c D 0 where a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0:
A quadratic equation can be written as

.x h/2 D q:
Quadratic equations can be solved by
B factorisation and the zero–product property (ab D 0 , a D 0 or b D 0)

B substitution, factorisation and the zero–product property
B finding square roots
B completing the square
B using the quadratic formula: p
b b2 4ac
xD :
2a
The nature of the roots of a quadratic equation ax 2 C bx C c D 0 is given by the discriminant 1 D

b2 4ac:
B If 1 > 0; then there are two different real roots.

B If 1 D 0 then there is one real root.
B If 1 < 0 then there is no real root.
153 MAT0511/001
A quadratic or second degree inequality in one variable is an inequality which can be written in the
form
ax 2 C bx C c < 0 where a; b; c 2 R and a 6D 0:
The inequality sign can be replaced by >; or :
The following properties are used to solve quadratic inequalities. Suppose A and B are algebraic
expressions.
B AB > 0 , .A > 0 and B > 0/ or .A < 0 and B < 0/

B AB < 0 , .A > 0 and B < 0/ or .A < 0 and B > 0/
If a 2 R and a > 0 then the solution of

p p
B x 2 < a is a<x< a
p p
B x 2 a is a x a
p p
B x 2 > a is x < a or x > a
p p
B x 2 a is x a or x a:
Squaring both sides of an equation may introduce extraneous solutions. Always check that the final
answers are solutions of the original equation.
Changing the subject of a formula means solving for one variable in terms of the others.
A linear equation in two variables x and y has the form
ax C by C c D 0 where a; b; c 2 R:
A quadratic equation in two variables x and y has the form
ax 2 C bx y C cy 2 C d x C ey C f D 0
where a; b; c; d; e; f 2 R and a; b and c are not all zero.
A system of two linear equations in two unknowns can be solved by the methods of elimination or
substitution.
A system of one linear and one quadratic equation in two unknowns, can be solved by the method of
substitution, and usually has two pairs of solutions.
CHECKLIST
2.1 Introduction to Equations

154
1. Determine whether a specific number is a solution of an equation.

Example 2.1.1, Activity 2.1.1
2.2: Linear Equations and Inequalities
1. Solve a linear equation using the addition, subtraction, multiplication, division or symmetric properties
of equality.
2. Solve word problems by setting up and solving linear equations.

Examples 2.2.2, 2.2.3, 2.2.4; Activities 2.2.2, 2.2.3
3. Solve a linear inequality using the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division properties of in-
equality.
4. Solve word problems by setting up and solving linear inequalities.

Example 2.2.6
2.3: Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
1. Solve quadratic equations by factorising.

2. Solve quadratic equations by substituting.

3. Solve quadratic equations by finding square roots.

4. Solve quadratic equations by completing the square.

5. Solve quadratic equations by using the quadratic formula.

6. Determine the discriminant of a quadratic equation and apply it to problems dealing with the nature of
the roots of the equation.
Example 2.3.6; Activities 2.3.6, 2.3.10
7. Solve word problems by setting up and solving quadratic equations.

Examples 2.3.7, 2.3.8; Activities 2.3.7, 2.3.8
8. Solve quadratic inequalities by means of factorisation and the following properties.

AB > 0 , .A > 0 and B > 0) or .A < 0 and B < 0/
AB < 0 , .A > 0 and B < 0/ or .A < 0 and B > 0/
155 MAT0511/001
9. Solve quadratic inequalities by means of factorisation and the split–point method (table of signs).
10. Solve word problems by setting up and solving quadratic inequalities.

Activity 2.3.11
2.4 Some Other Equations
1. Solve equations by squaring both sides.

2. Change the subject of a formula.

2.5 Systems of Equations in Two Unknowns
1. Solve a system of linear equations using the method of elimination.

2. Solve a system of linear equations using the method of substitution.

3. Solve word problems by setting up and solving a system of linear equations.

4. Solve a system of one linear and one quadratic equation using the method of substitution.
5. Solve word problems by setting up and solving a system of one linear and one quadratic equation.
Example 2.5.5
156
UNIT 3: Exponents and Logarithms
OUTCOMES
After studying this topic you should be able to do the following.
3.1: Exponents
I Define powers with rational exponents and apply the definitions.
I Know and apply the exponential rules.
I Use a calculator to find the values of expressions containing powers.
I Change the base of an exponent.
I Solve equations containing exponents where the unknown is in the base.
I Solve exponential equations using the properties of a x for a > 0 and a 6D 1:
3.2: Logarithms
I Define a logarithm to the base a:
I Change from exponential form to logarithmic form and vice versa.
I Know what common and natural logarithms are. Know and apply various properties of logarithms to
find values of certain expressions containing logarithms.
I Know and apply the laws of logarithms.
I Know how to write loga x; a 6D 10; a 6D e in terms of log and ln : Use a calculator to find the values of
expressions containing log; ln or loga ; where a 6D 10 and a 6D e:
I Know and be able to apply the change of base formula for logarithms.
I Solve logarithmic equations.
3.3: Applications of Exponents and Logarithms
I Know and apply the two compound interest formulas A D P.1 C r t

100
/ and A D P.1 C r
100n
/nt .
I Know and apply the formulas for appreciation and depreciation.
I Know and apply the formula for population growth using the doubling–time model.
157 MAT0511/001
I Know and apply the formula for radioactive decay using the half–life model.
I Apply the general formulas for exponential growth and decay.
3.1 Exponents
RATIONAL EXPONENTS
In Study Unit 4.1A of Module 1 we defined integral (integer) exponents. We now extend this concept to
rational exponents. We apply the definition of the principal n th root (Definition 4.2.3 of Study Unit 4.2,
Module 1) and certain rules of integral exponents (Table 4.1.1 of Study Unit 4.1 of Module 1).
1
We know what a n means when n is an integer. Now we first need to give meaning to a n ; where n 2 and
n 2 Z, in such a way that the rules that apply to integral (integer) exponents will also apply to powers of the
1
form a n : Note: Z is the set of all integers.
1 1
Let us consider the power a 2 : If we let a 2 obey the rules of integral (integer) exponents then we can write
p
We assume a 0 so that a exists.
1 1 1 1
a2 a 2 D a. 2 C 2 / Rule 1 of Table 3.1.1.
D a1
D a:
Now from the definition of the principal square root (Definition 4.2.1, Study Unit 4.2A of Module 1) we have
p p
a a D a:
1 1 p p 1 p
Since we want a 2 a 2 D a and we have a a D a, it makes sense to define a 2 to be a:
1 p
n 1
We now consider a n ; where n > 2 and n 2 Z. We assume a exists. If we let a n obey the rules of integral
(integer) exponents we will have
1 1
n
C n
C : : : C n1
1 1 1
| {z }
a| n a n {z : : : a n} D a n terms Rule 1 of Table 3.1.1.
n factors
D a1
D a:
From the definition of the principal n th root we have

pn pn p
n
a a ::: a D a:
| {z }
n factors
158
n factors n factors
z }| { zp }| {
1 1 n p
n 1
We see that a n ::: a DaD a
n ::: a : Thus it makes sense to define a n in the following way.
Definition 3.1.1
Suppose a is a real number, n is an integer and n 2:
p
n
Then, if a exists, we define
1 p
n
a n D a:
p
n
Note that this definition requires that a exists.
From Definition 3.1.1 we have, for example

1 p
42 D 4 D 2
1 p
7
.37/ 7 D 37
1 p
3
.27/ 3 D 27 D 3:
1 m
Now that we know what we mean by a n , we can give meaning to a n ; where m and n are integers and n 2:
m
We first look at some examples before giving the general definition of a n :
4
What meaning can we give to 2 3 ? By applying Rule 5 of Table 4.1.1 of Module 1 and Definition 3.1.1 above
we can write
4 1 1 p3
2 3 D 24 3 D .24 / 3 D 24
or
4 1
4 1 p
3
23 D 23 D .2 3 /4 D . 2/4 :
Thus we conclude that

4 p
3 p
3
23 D 24 D . 2/4 :
2
Now let us look at 2 5 . We can write
2 1 1 p
5
2
2 5 D2 5 D .2 2 / 5 D 2 2
or
2 1
2 1
2
p
5
2 5 D 25 D .2 5 / D . 2/ 2 :
2 1 1 1
We do not write 5
as 2 5
since we want to use the definition of a n ; and we have defined a n only for n 2.
Hence we conclude that

2 p
5 p
5
2 5 D 2 2 D . 2/ 2 :
159 MAT0511/001
2
If we want to write 2 5 in terms of positive exponents we write
2 1 1 1
2 5 D 2
D p
5
D p
5
:
25 22 . 2/2
m
We now consider a n , where m and n are integers and n 2:
We have
m 1 1 p
n
a n D am n D .a m / n D am
or
m 1
m 1 p
n
a n D an D .a n /m D . a/m :
Hence we have
m p
n p
n
an D a m D . a/m :
We will now understand that Definition 3.1.2 provides a meaningful definition for rational exponents.
Definition 3.1.2
Suppose a is a non–zero real number.
m
I If mn 2 Q; n 2; and mn is in its simplest form then a n is defined by
m 1 1 By simplest form, we mean that m and n have no factors in
a n D .a m / n D .a n /m
common other than 1:
i.e.
m pn pn
a n D a m D . a/m
p
n
provided a exists.
p
I If p
q
2 Q; q 2; and p
q
is not in its simplest form then a q is defined to
m p m m
be equal to a n , where q
D n
and n
is in its simplest form.
Note: Q is the set of all rational numbers.
For example, according to Definition 3.1.2,

4 2 p
3 p
3 p
3
a6 D a3 D a 2 D . a/2 if a exists.
As you study mathematics, you will see how important it is to read every word or symbol in a definition
carefully, and make sure that you understand why certain conditions apply. For example, in Definition 3.1.2
pn
you will notice that we require a to exist.
p
n
Why do we not also state that a m must exist?
p
n
Remember that m and n are both integers and a is a non–zero real number, i.e. a > 0 or a < 0. Suppose a
exists. Since n 2 Z; n is either even or odd.
160
p p
2 p2
I If n is even, then in order for a to exist, a must be positive. (For example, 4 exists but
n
4 is
m
pn
m
undefined.) Hence a > 0 and thus a exists.
p p
3 p3
I If n is odd, then a exists for any non–zero real number a: (For example, 27 and
n
27 both exist.)
m
p
n
m
Since a is a non–zero real number for all non–zero real numbers a, it follows that a exists.
p
n p
n
This enables us to see that if a exists and a 6D 0 then a m automatically also exists. Thus in the definition
pn
we only need to state that a must exist.
Also, why do we restrict a to be non–zero?
If a D 0 then we know that

p
n
p
n
a D 0 D 0:
However,
I 00 is undefined
I 0m is undefined if m is a negative integer.
For example
2 p
3 2 1 1 1
03 D 0 0 D 0 but 0 3 D 2
D p
3
D , which is undefined.
03 0 0 0
When you read Definition 3.1.2 did you question why we considered two cases?
p
Why did we not define a q as follows:
p 1 1
a q D .a p / q D .a q / p (3.1.1)
p
even if q
is not in simplest form?
In order for the second statement in Definition 4.1.2 to be meaningful we must have
a r D a s , r D s; for r; s 2 Q:
The following activity helps to clarify the definition.
ACTIVITY 3.1.1
2
(a) Use Definition 4.1.2 to find the value of . 1/ 3 .
(b) Show that

p6 2
(i) . 1/4 is equal to . 1/ 3
p6
(ii) . 1/4 does not exist.
161 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
p
3
(a) Since 1 exists we can apply the definition and we obtain
2 p
3
. 1/ 3 D . 1/2 D . 1/2 D 1
or
2 p
3 p
3
. 1/ 3 D . 1/2 D 1 D 1:
p
6 p6
(b) (i) . 1/4 D 1 D 1
p
6 p
6
(ii) Since 1 does not exist it follows that . 1/4 does not exist.
p
n
Activity 4.1.1 shows why we have the condition that a must exist. We cannot state that
4 p6 p6
. 1/ 6 D . 1/4 D . 1/4 ;
p
6
since . 1/4 does not exist.
We had no difficulty finding the answer to (a) of Activity 3.1.1. Now, since 46 D 23 , since 46 is not in its
4 2
simplest form, whereas 23 is in its simplest form. we would like . 1/ 6 to be equal to . 1/ 3 . Thus we define
4 2
. 1/ 6 to be equal to . 1/ 3 .
The above discussion shows why we consider two cases in Definition 3.1.2.
m
From now on, when we write a n we assume mn to be in its simplest form.
USEFUL HINT
pn m
From Definition 3.1.2 you will see that if a 6D 0 and a exists we can find the value of a n either by finding
p
n p
n p
n
a m or . a/m : In numerical work it is normally easier to use the form . a/m :
For example,
4 p
5 p
5
32 5 D . 32/4 D . 25 /4 D 24 D 16
whereas
4 p
5 p
5
32 5 D .32/4 D 1 048 576 D 16:
In the second calculation we need a calculator whereas in the first one we do not.
m
Therefore, if it is easy to find the n th root of a, then determine a n by taking the root first.
m
From Definition 3.1.2 it follows that a n is the real number b (if one exists) such that
bn D a m (3.1.2)
In the next study unit we shall use (3.1.2) to solve certain equations that contain exponents.
We assume, without proof, that the rules given for integral (integer) exponents in Table 4.1.1 of Module 1 are
also valid for rational exponents.
In this module we will not define or work with irrational exponents. However, you may assume that irrational
exponents and consequently real exponents also obey the rules given for integral exponents.
162
For convenience we state the rules for real exponents in the table below.
EXPONENTIAL RULES
a; b; x and y are all real numbers such that each expression
is defined, and m and n are integers with n 2:
Description Rule
1. Multiplication of powers having the ax a y D a xCy

same base
ax
2. Division of powers having the same D ax y
ay
base
3. Raising a power to another power .a x / y D a x y
4. Raising a product of terms to a .ab/x D a x b x

power
a x ax
5. Raising a quotient to a power D
b bx
6. Raising to the power zero a0 D 1
x 1 1
7. Raising to a negative exponent a D or a x D x
ax a
p
n 1
8. Finding the principal root (i) a D a n
p
n p
n
(ii) . a/m D a m
m
Dan
Table 3.1.1
Now apply the rules from Table 3.1.1 in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.1.2
(a) Simplify each expression if possible.
.3x 2 /2 .2x/3
(i)
6x 5
. 2/3 C 32
(ii)
23 32
163 MAT0511/001
(b) Simplify each expression, writing the answer in terms of positive exponents.
.x 2 y 3 /5
(i)
.x 3 y 2 /3
.x C 3y/ 3
(ii)
.x C 3y/2
(iii) 3.x 2 2x/ 5 .x 2/
(c) Calculate each of the following, if possible.
1
(i) . 16/ 4
1
(ii) . 8/ 3
1 1
(iii) .25/ 2 C . 27/ 3
(d) Each of the following statements is INCORRECT. Identify the mistakes that should have been avoided,
and in each case change the expression on the right side of the equation to make the statement true.
1 1 1
(i) x 2 Cy 2 Dp for x > 0 and y > 0
xCy
p
(ii) x 16 D x 4
p3 p p 6
(iii) a a D a for a 0
(e) Choose any value for a to illustrate that
a3 a 4 D a 3C4 ; but .3 C 4/a 6D 3a C 4a :
SOLUTION
(The rules referred to are those in Table 4.1.1.)
(a) (i)
.3x 2 /2 .2x/3 9x 4 8x 3
D By Rules 3 and 4.
6x 5 6x 5
72x 7
D By Rule 1.
6x 5
D 12x 2 By Rule 2.
(ii)
. 2/3 C 32 8C9
3 2
D D 1
2 3 8 9
164
(b) (i)
.x 2 y 3 /5 x 10 y 15
D By Rules 3 and 4.
.x 3 y 2 /3 x9y 6
y 6 y 15
D By Rule 7.
x 10 x 9
y 21
D By Rule 1.
x 19
(ii)
.x C 3y/ 3 1
2
D By Rule 7.
.x C 3y/ .x C 3y/ .x C 3y/2
3
1
D By Rule 1.
.x C 3y/5
Note that it is simpler to leave the answer in this form than to expand the denominator.
(iii)
3.x 2 2x/ 5 .x 2/ D 3[x.x 2/] 5 .x 2/
5
D 3x .x 2/ 5 .x 2/ By Rule 4.
3.x 2/
D By Rule 7.
x 5 .x 2/5
3
D By Rules 2 and 7.
x 5 .x 2/4
(c) (i)
1 1
. 16/ 4 D 1
By Rule 7.
. 16/ 4
1 1
But . 16/ 4 2
= R; since even roots of negative numbers are undefined in R: Thus . 16/ 4 is not
a real number.
165 MAT0511/001
(ii)
1 1
. 8/ 3 D 1
By Rule 7.
. 8/ 3
1
D p
3
By Rule 8(i).
. 2/3
1
D
2
1
D
2
(iii)
1 1 p p
3
.25/ 2 C . 27/ 3 D 25 C 27 By Rule 8(i).
p
2 p
3
D 52 C . 3/3
D 5 C . 3/
D2
1 1 1
(d) (i) x 2 Cy 2 6D p
xCy
Mistake:
The sum of the reciprocals of the square roots of two terms is not equal to the reciprocal of the
square root of the sum of the separate terms.
Correct statement:
We have x > 0 and y > 0. Hence
1 1 1 1
x 2 Cy 2 Dp Cp By Rules 7 and 8(i).
x y
p p
yC x
D p
xy
p p p
since x y is the lowest common denominator of x and y:
p
6 x4
(ii) x 16 D
Mistake:
The square root of a power is not found by calculating the square root of the exponent.
166
Correct statement:
p 16
x 16 D x 2 By Rule 8(ii).
D x8
p
3 p p
6
(iii) a a 6D a
Mistake:
Incorrect application of Rule 1. We have
p
3 p 1 1
a a D a3 a2 By Rule 8(i).
1 1 1 1 1 p
6
and according to Rule 1 this becomes a 3 C 2 and not a 3 2 D a6 D a:
Correct statement:
For a 0
p
3 p 1 1
a a D a 3C2
2C3
Da 6
5
D a6
p
6
D a5:
(e) Choose for example a D 2: Then
23 24 D 8 16 D 128 D 27 D 23C4
but
.3 C 4/2 D 72 D 49 6D 25 D 32 C 42 :
In the problems we have considered so far we have not needed to use a calculator. However, there are times
when we need a calculator. There are a number of keys which we can use to find the values of powers.
USING THE CALCULATOR
m
To find: a n
5
For example: 6 7 D?
Keying sequence:
DAL calculator:
p
7 x
6 yx 5 D
167 MAT0511/001
1
Remember that each of the keys p p 1
x ; y ; yx and x y performs the same operation of finding a
root. Also, each of the keys x y and y x performs the same operation of raising a base to a power.
Non–DAL calculator:
1
y
6 xy 7 x 5 D
or
1
y
6 x 5 xy 7 D
Display shows: 3:5960218
5
Hence 6 7 3; 596 correct to 3 decimal places.
ACTIVITY 3.1.3
3 2
Find the value of 9 2 C 5 8 3
(a) without using a calculator
(b) by using a calculator.
SOLUTION
(a)
3 2 3 5
92 C 5 8 3 D 92 C 2
83
p 5
D . 9/3 C p
3
. 8/2
5
D 33 C
22
5
D 27 C
4
1
D 27 C 1
4
1
D 28
4
D 28; 25
168
(b) DAL calculator:
p p
2 x
9 yx 3 C 5 3 x
8 yx C= 2 D
1 1
y y
9 xy 2 x 3 C 5 8 xy 3 x 2 C= D
or
1 1
y y
9 x 3 xy 2 C 5 8 x 2 C= xy 3 D
In each case the display shows 28:25; i.e.

3 2
92 C 5 8 3 D 28; 25:
3 2
Although it is not necessary to use a calculator in Activity 3.1.3 to find the value of 9 2 C 5 8 3 ; this
problem gives you an opportunity to check that you are using your calculator correctly. Unfortunately, you
cannot always check your calculator answers in this way, and therefore it is important that you know how to
use it correctly.
In the next activity you need a calculator to obtain the value of the expression.
ACTIVITY 3.1.4
3 3
Find the value of . 4; 6/ 5 4.5; 3/ 4 correct to 3 decimal places.
SOLUTION
DAL calculator:
p p
5 x
C= 4:6 yx 3 4 4 x
5:3 yx 3 D
1 1
y y
4:6 C= xy 5 x 3 4 5:3 xy 4 x 3 D
or
1 1
y y
4:6 C= x 3 xy 5 4 5:3 x 3 xy 4 D
In each case the display shows 34:907728 and hence

3 3
. 4; 6/ 5 4.5; 3/ 4 34; 908
correct to 3 decimal places.

169 MAT0511/001
THE BASES 10 AND e
You will notice that your calculator has another two keys marked with powers. They are 10x and e x . The
bases of the powers are 10 and e respectively. Since these bases occur frequently in the Natural Sciences
there are specific keys for them. We have already seen the importance of the base 10 in Module 1 when we
discussed the decimal system and scientific notation.
The irrational number e
The letter e denotes an irrational number 2; 7182818284590452353 : : : . We can approximate e to a given

number of decimal places. For example
e 2; 72:
The notation e was chosen by the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler (1707–1783), presumably because
it is the first letter of the word “exponential”. Real–life situations measuring the rate of exponential growth
or decay involve measurements of various quantities at specific moments in time. Methods used in Calculus
(which some of you may study later) enable us to model these situations and they give rise to formulas
involving e x : For this reason we shall consider powers with base e in this module although we do not show
you how e is derived.
We first see how to use the 10x and e x keys.
USING CALCULATOR
To find: 10x
For example: 10 3;4 D?
Keying sequence:
DAL calculator:
10x C= 3:4 D
3:4 C= 10x
The display shows: 0:0003981
3;4
Thus 10 0; 0003981 correct to 4 significant digits.
Note:
In stead of 10x one can
use the 10 y x keys.
To find: e x
1
For example: e 3 D?
Keying sequence:
170
DAL calculator:
ex . 1 3 / D
1 3 D ex
1
Hence e 3 1; 396 to 4 significant digits.
Note:
I If you use the following keying sequence on a DAL calculator:
ex 1 3 D
e1 1
you obtain the display 0:9060939 which gives the approximate value of 3
and not of e 3 :
I If you use the following keying sequence on a non–DAL calculator:
1 3 ex D
1 1
you obtain the display 0:0497871 which gives the approximate value of e3
and not e 3 :
These two points show how important it is to use the correct keying sequence.
Now try the next activity.
ACTIVITY 3.1.5
2
Find the value of 3.10/2;3 4e 3 correct to 2 decimal places.
SOLUTION
DAL calculator:
3 10x 2:3 4 ex . C= 2 3 / D
3 2:3 10x 4 . 2 3 C= / ex D
2
Hence 3.10/2;3 4e 3 596; 53 correct to 2 decimal places.
171 MAT0511/001
CHANGING THE BASE OF A POWER
When we solve equations involving exponents (which we do in the next study unit) there are times when we
need to write a given power as a power with a different base. For example we may need to write 93 ; which is
a power with base 9; as a power with base 3:
EXAMPLE 3.1.1
(a) Express 93 as a power of 3:

3
(b) Express 2 7 as a power of 16:
1
(c) Express 9
as a power of
1
(i) 3 (ii) 27
.
SOLUTION
(a)
93 D .32 /3
D 36 Rule 3 of Table 3.1.1.
(b) We know that 16 D 24 : Hence

3 3
27 D .21 / 7
1 3 1
D .24 4 /7 We write 21 as 24 4 since
we want 24 as the base.
1 3
D .24 / 4 7 Rule 3 of Table 3.1.1.
3
D .16/ : 28
1 1
(c) (i) D 2 D3 2
9 3
(ii) Since 27 D 33 we write
1 1
D
9 32
1
D
.31 /2
1
D 1
.33 3 /2
1
D 1
Rule 3 of Table 3.1.1.
.33 / 3 2
172
2
13
D 2
1x D 1 for all x 2 R:
27 3
2
1 3
D : Rule 5 of Table 3.1.1.
27

ACTIVITY 3.1.6
2
Express 8 5 as a power of
(a) 21 (b) 16 (c) 1
32
(d) 4.
SOLUTION
1
(a) We know that 2
D 2 1 : Hence
2 2
8 5 D .23 / 5
6
D 25
6
D .21 / 5
6
1 1 1
D .2 /5 We want 2 as base.
Also 1 D 1 1:
6
D .2 1 / 1 5
6
D .2 1 / 5
1 6
D . / 5:
2
(b) Since 16 D 24 we write

2 6
85 D 25 From (a).
1 6
D .24 4 /5
1 6
D .24 / 4 5
3
D .16/ 10 :
(c) We have
1 1
D 5 D 2 5:
32 2
Hence
2 6
85 D 25 From (a).
5 1 6 1
D .2 5 /5 Since 5 D 1:
5
1 6
D .2 5 / 5 5
1 6
D. / 25 :
32
173 MAT0511/001
(d) Since 4 D 22 we write

2 6
85 D 25 From (a).
1 6
D .22 2 / 5
1 6
D .22 / 2 5
3
D 45 :
EQUATIONS CONTAINING EXPONENTS
EQUATIONS WITH THE UNKNOWN IN THE BASE
There are two types of equations which contain rational exponents. We first consider equations where the
4
unknown is in the base, for example 2x 3 D 32: There are a number of skills that we have learnt so far that
we can use to solve equations of this type. We give two examples to show how to solve such equations.
EXAMPLE 3.1.2
4
(a) 2x 3 D 32
1
(b) x 3x 2 10 D 0
SOLUTION
(a)
4
2x 3 D 32
4
, x 3 D 16 Divide both sides by 2:
, x 4 D 163 By (3.1.2). Comparing the equation with (3.1.2)

we have a D x; m D 4; n D 3 and b D 16:
4 4 3
, x D .2 / 16 D 24 :
, x 4 D 212
p
4
, xD 212 If n is an even integer and a > 0 then x n D a
pn
has two solutions, namely x D a as well as
pn
xD a:
174
12 12
, x D24 or x D 24
, x D 23 or x D 23
, x D 8 or x D 8
Thus the solutions are x D 8 and x D 8. Check that both of these satisfy the original equation.
(b) We notice that the equation is of the form
ax n C bx m C c D 0
where n D 2m and thus this equation can be converted to a quadratic equation. We substitute k for
1
x 2 . Then
1 1
k2 3k 10 D 0 Note: x D x 2 2
D .x 2 /2 :
, .k 5/.k C 2/ D 0
, k D 5 or k D 2
1 1
, x 2 D 5 or x 2 D 2:
1 1
By definition x 2 0 (i.e. the principal square root, if it exists, is non–negative) and thus x 2 D 2 is
not valid. Hence
1
x 2 D 5:
By squaring both sides we obtain

1
.x 2 /2 D 52 :
Hence
x D 25:
Thus the solution is x D 25 since it satisfies the original equation.
Now you can try the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.1.7
(a) 27x 3 C 8 D 0
2 1
(b) x 3 C x 3 6D0
175 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
(a)
27x 3 C 8 D 0
, 27x 3 D 8
8
, x3 D
27
1
8 3
, xD If n is odd and a 2 R then x n D a has only
27
p
n 1
one real root, namely x D a D an:
1
. 8/ 3
, xD 1
.27/ 3
p
3
8
, xD p
3
27
2
, xD
3
2
Hence the solution is x D 3
.
1
(b) This equation can be converted to a quadratic equation using the substitution x 3 D k. We substitute k
1
for x 3 . Then
2 1 1
k2 C k 6D0 Note: x 3 D x 3 2
D .x 3 /2 .
, .k C 3/.k 2/ D 0
, kD 3 or k D 2
1 1 1 p
3
, x3 D 3 or x 3 D 2 Note: x 3 D x can be negative
or positive.
1 1
, .x 3 /3 D . 3/3 or .x 3 /3 D 23
Thus the solutions are x D 27 and x D 8:

176
EQUATIONS WITH THE UNKNOWN IN THE EXPONENT
We now consider equations where the unknown is in the exponent, for example 82xC1 D 128: An equation of
this form is called an exponential equation. The general definition of an exponential equation is as follows.
Definition 3.1.3
An equation containing terms of the form a x , where x 2 R; a 2 R,
a > 0 and a 6D 1, is called an exponential equation.
Why do we specify a > 0 and a 6D 1? To answer the question we consider the cases a < 0; a D 0 and a D 1:
I For a < 0; we look briefly at one example, namely a D 2; and consider x 2 Q: Let x D 12 . Then
1 p
a x D . 2/ 2 D 2
3
which is undefined. Similarly, for x D 4
we have
3 p
4
a x D . 2/ 4 D 8
which is also undefined. There are thus many values of x for which a x is undefined if a < 0:
I If a D 0 then a x becomes 0x : This is equal to the constant 0 for all x except x D 0. It is undefined for
x D 0: Thus when a D 0, a x reduces to a constant, or is undefined.
I If a D 1; then a x D 1x D 1 for all real values of x: In this case a x reduces to the constant 1:
Therefore we exclude a 0 and a D 1 in the definition of an exponential equation.
In order to solve exponential equations we need to take note of the following facts.
For reasons which will become clear later (when we study functions, in Module 3), we may say that
if x D y then a x D a y : (3.1.3)
We also use the following one–to–one property.
THE ONE–TO–ONE PROPERTY OF a x

x 2 R; a 2 R; a > 0; a 6D 1
If a x D a y then x D y. (3.1.4)
If we combine (3.1.3) and (3.1.4) then we have
x D y , ax D a y: (3.1.5)
Before we solve exponential equations, we note four other important properties of a x for a 2 R, a > 0 and
a 6D 1:
177 MAT0511/001
I a x is defined for all real values of x:
I The value of a x is positive for all real values of x: (This follows from the fact that a > 0.)
I a x > 1 for x > 0 (remember a 0 D 1/:
I 0 < a x < 1 for x < 0:
Property (3.1.5) gives us a strategy for solving exponential equations. If we can write the expression on both
sides of an equation so that they appear as powers with the same base, then we can use this property to equate
the exponents.
EXAMPLE 3.1.3
Solve the following equations.
(a) 82xC1 D 128
2 Cx
(b) 3x D9
SOLUTION
(a)
82xC1 D 128
, .23 /2xC1 D 27
, 26xC3 D 27
, 6x C 3 D 7 By (3.1.5).
, 6x D 4
2
, xD
3
Hence the solution is x D 23 :

178
(b)
2 Cx
3x D9
2 Cx
, 3x D 32
, x2 C x D 2 By (3.1.5).
, x2 C x 2D0
, .x C 2/.x 1/ D 0
, xD 2 or x D 1
Since a x is defined for all real values of x when a > 0 and a 6D 1 it follows that x D 2 and x D 1 are
both solutions of the equation.
Some equations look a little more involved than the ones in Example 4.1.3, but they may be reduced to
quadratic form and then solved.
EXAMPLE 3.1.4
Solve the equation 32x C 3:3x 4 D 0:
Remember that . is used as a symbol for multiplication, so that a:b D a b.
SOLUTION
We rewrite
32x C 3:3x 4D0
as
.3x /2 C 3:3x 4D0 (3.1.6)
which is of the form

a X 2 C bX C c D 0; where X D 3x :
Thus the original equation can be converted to a quadratic equation using the substitution 3x D k: If we
substitute k for 3x in (3.1.6) we obtain k 2 C 3k 4 D 0.
179 MAT0511/001
Now
k 2 C 3k 4D0
, .k 1/.k C 4/ D 0
, k D 1 or k D 4
, 3x D 1 or 3x D 4:
Since the values of 3x are positive for all values of x we know that 3x 6D 4: Thus we consider only
3x D 1:
In order to solve this equation we must write 1 as a power with base 3: We recall that a 0 D 1 for all non–zero
values of a and thus we write 1 D 30 and hence
3x D 30 :
Hence, by (3.1.5), x D 0:
We end this study unit with one further activity for you to try.
ACTIVITY 3.1.8
Solve the following equations.
1
(a) D 32
21 x
(b) 3:9xC1 D 27 2xC3
(c) 22x 2x 12 D 0
SOLUTION
(a) We rewrite the equation so that the terms on both sides of the equation are powers with base 2: By 7 of
1
Table 3.1.1 we can write 1 x as 2 .1 x/ :
2
180
We have
1
D 32
21 x
.1 x/
, 2 D 25
, .1 x/ D 5 By (3.1.5).
, 1Cx D5
, x D 6:
Thus the solution is x D 6:
(b) We rewrite the equation so that the terms on both sides of the equation are powers with base 3:
3:9xC1 D 27 2xC3
, 3:.32 /xC1 D .33 / 2xC3
, 31 :32xC2 D 3 6xC9
, 32xC3 D 3 6xC9
, 2x C 3 D 6x C 9 By (3.1.5).
, 8x D 6
3
, xD
4
Hence the solution is x D 34 .

181 MAT0511/001
(c)
22x 2x 12 D 0
, .2x /2 2x 12 D 0
, k2 k 12 D 0 Substitute 2x D k.
, .k 4/.k C 3/ D 0
, .2x 4/.2x C 3/ D 0
, 2x D 4 or 2x D 3
We do not consider 2x D 3 since 2x > 0 for all x: We thus only consider 2x D 4:

Now
2x D 4
, 2x D 22
, x D 2: By (3.1.5):
Hence the solution of the equation is x D 2:
EXERCISE 3.1
1. Calculate the following.

1 1
125 3 1 3
(a)
8 64
q
3 p
3
(b) 512
2. Let x > 0, y > 0 and z > 0. Simplify and express all answers in terms of positive exponents.
2 1
(a) 3
.x 3 6x 2 / 3 .3x 2 18x/
1 1
x2y 2 z 3
(b) 1
x 3 y0z 3
182
3. Use a calculator to find each of the following correct to 3 decimal places.

1 2
(a) .3; 7/ 2 C .4; 5/ 5
2
(b) 3e .10/1;3
3
4. Express 9 4 as a power of
1 1
(a) 3
(b) 3 (c) 81
(d) 27:
5. Identify and correct any false statements.
(a) Suppose n is an even integer and a is a positive real number.

1
If x n D a then x D a n :
(b) Suppose n is an odd integer and a 2 R:
1
If x n D a then x D a n :
p
3
(c) If x 2 D 64; then x D 2:
1 1 1
(d) 3a 3 2a 2 D 6a 6 :
3
(e) If x 2 D 8 then x D 4:
2
(f) If x 3 D 4 then x D 8:
6. Solve each of the following equations.

1 1
(a) 2x 2 C x 4 6D0
(b) 3x :3xC1 D 27
(c) .0; 01/x D 1 000
(d) 2:32x 5:3x 3D0
7. This question is based on your knowledge of geometric sequences, solving systems of equations using
substitution and solving equations containing exponents, where the unknown is in the base.
Suppose 81 is the third term of a geometric sequence and 3 is the sixth term. Find
(a) the common ratio r

(b) the first term a
(c) the eighth term.
3.2 Logarithms
DEFINITION AND SOME PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS
In Study Unit 2.4 we discussed changing the subject of a formula (or equation). For example, if y D x C 2
then we obtain x by subtracting 2 from both sides of the equation and obtain x D y 2I if y D 3x then we
p
obtain x by dividing both sides of the equation by 3 and obtain x D 3y and if y D x then we obtain x by
183 MAT0511/001
squaring both sides of the equation and obtain x D y 2 : Now, if y D a x how do we write x in terms of y?
The following definition gives us the answer.
Definition 3.2.1
Suppose a is any positive real number with a 6D 1:
If y D a x then x D loga y: (3.2.1)
We call x the logarithm of y to the base a:
Notice that (3.2.2) is the converse of (3.2.1).
Just as y D x C 2 and x D y 2 are equivalent equations so y D a x and x D loga y are equivalent equations.
Thus it follows that
if x D loga y then y D a x : (3.2.2)
If we combine (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) we have
y D ax , x Dloga y (3.2.3)
It is important to be able to write expressions given in
exponential form, i.e. y D a x
in
logarithmic form, i.e. x D loga y
and vice versa. Since it does not matter which letters of the alphabet we use to denote variables we often
write loga x instead of loga y. Thus if
y D loga x then x D a y :
We can easily see why we exclude a D 1 in Definition 4.2.1. Suppose a D 1. Then
log1 x D y , 1 y D x:
Now 1 y D 1 for all y 2 R, and hence x D 1.
The equation log1 x D y thus becomes log1 1 D y. Thus log1 x is undefined when x 6D 1, and is equal to any
real number when x D 1. Definitions must be valid in general, and we exclude cases such as these which
lead to ambiguities.
We first practise changing from exponential form to logarithmic form and vice versa.
EXAMPLE 3.2.1
(a) Change the following to logarithmic form.
1 3
(i) 23 D 8 (ii) 10 3
D 1 000
(iii) 9 2 D 27
184
(b) Change the following to exponential form.
(i) log4 1 D 0 (ii) log3 81 D 4 (iii) log10 100 D 2
SOLUTION
(a) By using (3.2.1) we obtain
1 3
(i) log2 8 D 3 (ii) log10 1 000
D 3 (iii) log9 27 D 2
(b) By using (3.2.2) we obtain
(i) 40 D 1 (ii) 34 D 81 (iii) 102 D 100
Now try to apply (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.2.1
(a) Change the following to logarithmic form.
1
(i) 51 D 5 (ii) 2 4
D 16
(iii) ar D s
(b) Change the following to exponential form.
1 1
(i) log8 2 D 3
(ii) log2 4
D 2 (iii) loga p D q
SOLUTION
1
(a) (i) log5 5 D 1 (ii) log2 16
D 4 (iii) loga s D r
1 1
2
(b) (i) 83 D 2 (ii) 2 D 4
(iii) aq D p
We now deduce some properties of loga x by using
I the definition of logarithm
I the one–to–one property of a x
I the rules for exponents given in Table 3.1.1 (Study Unit 4.1A).
185 MAT0511/001
EXAMPLE 3.2.2
(a) Find the value of
(i) loga 1 (ii) loga a:
(b) Show that
(i) loga a x D x (ii) a loga x D x:
SOLUTION
(a) (i) To find the value of loga 1 we begin by letting y D loga 1, and we then find the value of y:
Suppose y D loga 1:
Then
a y D 1: Change to exponential form.

Hence
a y D a0: By definition of a 0 :
Thus
y D 0: By (3.1.5):
Hence
loga 1 D 0:
(ii) Let y D loga a.
Then
a y D a: Change to exponential form.
Hence
a y D a1:
Thus
y D 1: By (3.1.5).
Hence
loga a D 1:
(b) (i) To show that loga a x D x we begin by letting y D loga a x ; and we then show that y D x: Suppose
y D loga a x :
Then
a y D ax : Change to exponential form.
Thus
y D x: By (3.1.5).
186
Hence
loga a x D x: By substitution.
(ii) To show that a loga x D x we begin by letting y D loga x, and we then show that a y D x:
Suppose
y D loga x:
Then
x D ay: Change to exponential form.
Thus
x D a loga x : By substitution.
In Table 3.2.1 we summarise the results obtained in Example 3.2.2. We have shown how these results are
obtained, but you do not need to remember these proofs.
PROPERTIES OF loga x
x 2 R; x > 0I a 2 R; a > 0 and a 6D 1
1. loga 1 D 0
2. loga a D 1
3. loga a x D x
4. a loga x D x
Table 3.2.1
COMMON AND NATURAL LOGARITHMS
In study unit 3.1 after Activity 3.1.4 we mentioned exponents with base 10 and with base e:
Two special cases of logarithms are
I logarithms to the base 10; called common logarithms
I logarithms to the base e; called natural logarithms.
Until recently, common logarithms for which tables were available were used extensively for arithmetic
calculations, and it thus became customary to write
log10 x as logx:
187 MAT0511/001
Hence if we read y D log x then we understand y D log10 x and hence x D 10 y :
Since calculators have become more readily available and are capable of processing large numbers quickly,
the use of common logarithms has become less important. However, certain physical quantities are measured
using logarithmic scales which are based on common logarithms.
Examples of such logarithmic scales include
I the decibel scale which measures the loudness of sounds
I the Richter scale which measures the intensity of earthquakes
I the pH scale which measures the acidity (or hydrogen ion concentration) of a solution.
Natural logarithm
However, natural logarithms are important since they arise in mathematical descriptions of certain natural
phenomena. Instead of denoting the natural logarithm by loge ; we use ln; i.e. we usually write
loge x as lnx:
Hence if y D lnx then ey D x: loge x is defined since e 2; 72 and thus e > 0 and e 6D 1:
The symbol ln is the abbreviation for logarithmus naturalis and we say “ln" as the girl’s name “Lynn”.
ACTIVITY 3.2.2
Set up a table similar to Table 3.2.1 using a D e: Remember to write ln for loge :
SOLUTION
PROPERTIES OF ln x
x 2 R; x > 0
1. ln 1 D 0 because 1. loge 1 D 0
2. ln e D 1 2. loge e D 1
3. ln e x D x 3. loge e x D x
4. eln x D x 4. eloge x D x
Table 3.2.2
188
In the next example we apply the definition of a logarithm and the properties given in Tables3.2.1 and 3.2.2
to perform various calculations.
EXAMPLE 3.2.3
Calculate each of the following without using a calculator.
(a) log2 32 (e) ln e 2

(b) log3 . 19 / (f) log 0; 001
(c) log7 7 (g) log3 .ln e)
(d) eln 3 (h) log9 27
SOLUTION
(a)
log2 32 D log2 25
D5 By 3 of Table 3.2.1.
(b)
1 1
log3 . / D log3 . 2 /
9 3
D log3 3 2
D 2 By 3 of Table 3.2.1.
(c)
log7 7 D 1 By 2 of Table 3.2.1.
(d)
eln 3 D 3 By 4 of Table 3.2.2.
(e)
2
ln e D 2 By 3 of Table 3.2.2.
(f)
3
log 0; 001 D log 10
D 3 By 3 of Table 3.2.1. Remember
log denotes log10 :
(g)
log3 .ln e/ D log3 1 By 2 of Table 3.2.2.

D0 By 1 of Table 3.2.1.
189 MAT0511/001
(h)
Let
y D log9 27:
Then
9 y D 27: Change to exponential form.
Hence
.32 / y D 33
, 32y D 33
, 2y D 3 By (3.1.5).
3
, yD :
2
Hence
3
log9 27 D :
2
ACTIVITY 3.2.3
Calculate each of the following without using a calculator.

p
(a) log3 3 (d) log.ln e/
(b) log11 .11/3 (e) log4 8
(c) eln e (f) log8 . 14 /
SOLUTION
p 1
(a) log3 3 D log3 3 2
1
D 2
By 3 of Table 3.2.1.
(b) log11 .11/3 D 3 By 3 Table 3.2.1
(c) eln e D e By 4 of Table 3.2.2
(d) log.ln e/ D log 1 By 2 of Table 3.2.2.
D 0 By 1 of Table 3.2.1.
In (e) and (f) we are dealing with very simple logarithmic equations.
190
(e)
Let
y D log4 8:
Then
4 y D 8: Change to exponential form.
Hence
.22 / y D 23
, 22y D 23
, 2y D 3 By (3.1.5).
3
, yD :
2
Hence
3
log4 8 D :
2
(f)
Let
1
y D log8 . /:
4
Then
1
8y D : Change to exponential form.
4
Hence
1
.23 / y D
22
, 23y D 2 2
, 3y D 2 By (3.1.5).
2
, yD :
3
Thus
1 2
log8 . / D :
4 3
191 MAT0511/001
You will notice that your calculator has a key for log and for ln but no key for loga . In the next study unit
you will see how you can write loga x in terms of log x or ln x: You will also see how to use your calculator
to find a numerical value for loga x; for example for log2 6; 7: We explain the use of the log and ln keys then.
Before ending this study unit we consider some properties of loga x, where a > 0 and a 6D 1: These
properties are related to the properties for a x ; where a > 0 and a 6D 1; given just before Example 3.1.3 in
Study Unit 4.1.
When we study functions later (in Module 3) we will learn that
if x D y then loga x Dloga y. (3.2.4)
We now use this fact, as well as the following one-to-one property of logarithms.
THE ONE–TO–ONE PROPERTY OF loga x

x 2 R; x > 0I a 2 R; a > 0; a 6D 1
If loga x D loga y then x D y. (3.2.5)
If we combine (3.2.4) and (3.2.5) we have
x D y , loga x D loga y (3.2.6)
We also know that

y D loga x and x D a y are equivalent equations.
Two of the properties of a y given above Example 4.1.3 state that
I a y is defined for all real values of y; i.e. for all y 2 R
I the value of a y is positive for all real values of y:
Note that here we are considering a y whereas the properties are given for a x :
We now translate these properties into properties for loga x for a > 0 and a 6D 1 and state them below.
I The value of loga x is a real number.
I loga x is only defined for positive values of x.
In the next study unit we discuss other properties of logarithms required to solve certain equations containing
logarithms (called logarithmic equations).
192
LAWS OF LOGARITHMS AND THE CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA
From the definition of loga x given in Study Unit 4.2 we were able to deduce certain properties of loga x (see
Table 3.2.1). In this study unit we investigate some other properties of loga x: We then use all these results to
simplify expressions involving logarithms.
Since logarithms are defined in terms of exponents (see Definition 3.2.1) we use the rules of exponents given
in Table 3.1.1 to prove the following additional properties of logarithms.
LAWS OF LOGARITHMS
If x; y and a are positive real numbers with a 6D 1; and r is any real

number, then
1. loga .x y/ D loga x C loga y

x
2. loga D loga x loga y
y
3. loga .x r / D r loga x
Table 3.2.3
In words we interpret these laws as follows.
1. The logarithm of the product of two numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the individual
numbers.
2. The logarithm of the quotient of two numbers is equal to the logarithm of the numerator minus the
logarithm of the denominator.
3. The logarithm of the r th power of a number is equal to r times the logarithm of that number.
The proofs of these three laws are given in the next example and in the activity that follows it. These proofs
are given to help you understand the validity of the laws, but you are not expected to memorise them.
EXAMPLE 3.2.4
Prove that loga .x y/ D loga x C loga y; where x; y and a are positive real numbers with a 6D 1:
SOLUTION
Let loga x D b and loga y D c:
Then by (3.2.2) we have

a b D x and a c D y:
193 MAT0511/001
Hence
x y D ab a c D a bCc : By Rule 1 of Table 3.1.1.
Thus
loga .x y/ D b C c D loga x C loga y: By Definition 3.2.1.
As an activity, try to prove the other two laws.
ACTIVITY 3.2.4
Prove that if x; y and a are positive real numbers with a 6D 1; and r is any real number, then
x
(a) loga D loga x loga y
y
(b) loga .x r / D r loga x:
SOLUTION
(a) Let loga x D b and loga y D c:
Then
a b D x and a c D y:
Hence
x ab
D c D ab c: By Rule 2 of Table 3.1.1.
y a
Hence
x
loga Db c
y
D loga x loga y:
(b) Let loga x D b:
Then
a b D x:
Hence
x r D .a b /r D a r b : By Rule 3 of Table 3.1.1.
Thus
loga .x r / D r b
D r loga x:
194
CAUTION!!
Make sure that you apply the laws of logarithms correctly. Note that, in general,
I loga .x C y/ 6D loga x C loga y
I loga .x y/ 6D loga x loga y
I loga .x y/ 6D loga x loga y

x loga x
I loga . / 6D
y loga y
I .loga x/ p 6D p loga x.
For example,
log2 .2 C 4/ 6D log2 2 C log2 4
log5 10 10
6D log5 . /
log5 2 2
.ln x/2 6D 2 ln x:
Now apply the properties stated in Table 3.2.3 in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.2.5
(a) Calculate each of the following without using a calculator.
(i) log2 16
p3
(ii) log4 4
(b) Rewrite the expression

.x C y/3
loga p 2
xy
as an expression containing the sum and difference of logarithms.
(c) Simplify the expression

2 ln x C ln.y 1/ 3 ln y:
SOLUTION
(a) (i) log2 16 D log2 24
D 4 log2 2 By Law 3.
D4 1 Property 2, Table 3.2.1.
D4
195 MAT0511/001
p
3 1
(ii) log4 4 D log4 .4/ 3
1
D log4 4 By Law 3.
3
1
D Property 2, Table 3.2.1.
3
.x C y/3
(b) loga p 2
xy
p
D loga .x C y/3 loga . x y 2 / By Law 2.
p
D 3 loga .x C y/ .loga x C loga y 2 / By Laws 3 and 1.
1
D 3 loga .x C y/ loga x loga y 2
2
1
D 3 loga .x C y/ loga x 2 loga y By Law 3.
2
(c) 2 ln x C ln.y 1/ 3 ln y
D ln x 2 C ln.y 1/ ln y 3 By Law 3.
D ln.x 2 .y 1// ln y 3 By Law 1.
x 2 .y 1/
D ln By Law 2.
y3
In Study Unit 3.2 we noted that calculators have keys for log and for ln : Thus we can calculate log or ln of a
certain number by using the appropriate key. But how do we find, for example, log3 5 using a calculator?
There is no key for the function log3 : However, if we can write log3 5 as an expression involving either log
or ln; then we can use a calculator to calculate log3 5: We reason as follows.
Let y D log3 5:
We rewrite this equation in exponential form as 3 y D 5.
We now apply ln to both sides and obtain
ln 3 y D ln 5
i.e. we have
y ln 3 D ln 5
and hence
ln 5
yD :
ln 3
If we apply log instead of ln we find that

log 5
yD :
log 3
We can now use the ln or log key on a calculator to find log3 5:

196
It is very important that you understand what we mean when we “apply ln " or “apply log " to both sides of
an equation.
Do you remember the idea that an equation can be compared to a scale that must remain balanced. We thus
have the principle that whatever process we carry out on one side of an equation must be repeated on the other
side. For example, if we solve
3x 2 D 5x C 1
we subtract 1 from both sides to obtain
3x 2 1 D 5x C 1 1
i.e.
3x 3 D 5xI
we add 3 to both sides to obtain
3x 3 C 3 D 5x C 3
i.e.
3x D 5x C 3I
we subtract 5x from both sides to obtain
3x 5x D 5x C 3 5x
i.e.
2x D 3I
we divide both sides by 2 and obtain the final solution

2x 3
D
2 2
i.e.
3
xD :
2
In the case of the equation 3 y D 5 we “apply ln” to both sides and obtain
ln.3 y / D ln 5:
Note: “Apply ln to both sides” does not mean “multiply by ln on both sides”. In fact, ln 5 has no meaning,
whereas ln 5 is a real number. Similarly log 3 y has no meaning, whereas log.3 y / has a real value.
Similarly, when we “apply log ” to both sides we obtain
log.3 y / D log 5:
Remember that ln and log are the notations we use to denote specific mathematical processes. This is the
main operational point involved in the concept of a function which we discuss in Module 3. Neither “ ln "
197 MAT0511/001
nor “ log " represent numbers or variables, so for example it is impossible to interpret ln 5 as ln 5. When we
apply ln (or log/ to 5; we are calculating the natural logarithm (or common logarithm) of the number 5:
USING CALCULATOR
To find: ln x
For example: ln 3; 27 D?
Keying sequence:
DAL calculator:
ln 3:27 D
3:27 ln
Thus ln 3; 27 1; 185 correct to 3 decimal places.
To find: log x
For example: log 3; 27 D?
Keying sequence:
DAL calculator:
log 3:27 D
3:27 log
Thus log 3; 27 0; 515 correct to 3 decimal places.
EXAMPLE 3.2.5
Calculate log3 5; correct to 3 decimal places, using the ln key on your calculator.
SOLUTION
From the discussion that follows Activity 4.2.5 we have
ln 5
log3 5 D :
ln 3
We now use the following keying sequence.
DAL calculator:
ln 5 ln 3 D
198
5 ln 3 ln D
Thus, correct to 3 decimal places, we have
log3 5 1; 465:
ACTIVITY 3.2.6
Calculate log3 5, correct to 3 decimal places, using the log key on your calculator.
SOLUTION
We have
log 5
log3 5 D :
log 3
Keying sequence:
DAL calculator:
log 5 log 3 D
5 log 3 log D
Hence log3 5 1; 465 correct to 3 decimal places.
We have seen how we can write logb x; b 6D 10 and b 6D e; in terms of ln or log : There are also times when
we need to write logb x in terms of logarithms to some other base.
For example, suppose that y D logb x, and that we need to express this in terms of a logarithm with base a,
where a > 0 and a 6D 1. We rewrite y D logb x in exponential form as
b y D x:
By applying loga to both sides of the equation we obtain
loga b y D loga x
i.e.
y loga b D loga x By Law 3.
i.e.
loga x
yD :
loga b
199 MAT0511/001
Note: It is important to remember this formula (3.2.7) together with the three laws of logs in table 3.2.3.
This will enable you to simplify log expressions and to solve log equations (See the following activities and
examples.)
By replacing y with logb x in the last equation we obtain the following formula.
THE CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA
loga x
logb x D (3.2.7)
loga b
We can obtain a special form of (3.2.7) by substituting x D a: If x D a; then

loga a
logb a D :
loga b
By applying 2 of Table 3.2.1 we obtain the following result.
SPECIAL CASE OF THE CHANGE OF BASE FORMULA
1
logb a D (3.2.8)
loga b
EXAMPLE 3.2.6
Write log3 x in terms of logarithms
(a) to the base 5

1
(b) to the base 3
(c) to the base x:
SOLUTION
(a) By the change of base formula (3.2.7) we have

log5 x
log3 x D :
log5 3
200
(b) By formula (3.2.7)
log 1 x
3
log3 x D
log 1 3
3
log 1 x
3
D By Rule 7, Table 3.1.1.
log 1 . 31 1 /
3
log 1 x
3
D By Rule 5, Table 3.1.1:
log 1 . 13 / 1
3
1 1
. 31 / D 1
3 1 D 3
1
1 :
log 1 x
3
D By Law 3, Table 3.2.3.
log 1 . 13 /
3
log 1 x
3
D By 2 of Table 3.2.1.
1
D log 1 x:
3
(c) By formula (3.2.8)

1
log3 x D :
logx 3
OR
(c) By formula (3.2.7)
log3 3
log3 x D
log3 x
1
D
log3 x
We end this study unit with one more activity for you to do.
ACTIVITY 3.2.7
Write log 1 x in terms of logarithms to the base 2: Then simplify the answer so that it contains only one
8
logarithm to the base 2.
SOLUTION
By the change of base formula
log2 x
log 1 x D
8 log2 18
log2 x
D
log2 . 213 /
log2 x
D
log2 2 3
201 MAT0511/001
log2 x
D
3 log2 2
log2 x
D :
3
LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS
In this study unit we look at ways of solving logarithmic equations as well as certain exponential equations
which must first be converted to logarithmic equations before we can solve them. We use the following:
I conversion from logarithmic form to exponential form and vice versa
I the fact that loga x is defined for x > 0
I the properties given in Tables 3.2.1 and 3.2.2
I property (3.2.6)
I the laws of logarithms given in Table 3.2.3
I the change of base formula.
EXAMPLE 3.2.7
Solve each of the following.
(a) ln 5 2 ln 3 C 3 ln 2 D 2 ln x
(b) log2 .x 3/ C log2 .x 4/ D 1
(c) log3 x 2 logx 3 D 1
(d) e1 4x
D 4 (give your answer correct to 3 decimal places)
(e) 22xC1 D 5x (give your answer correct to 3 decimal places)
SOLUTION
(a) We first note that the equation is defined only for x > 0 since ln x is only defined for x > 0: Since
we begin our solution in this way it is implied in each step that x > 0:
202
Hence for x > 0,

ln 5 2 ln 3 C 3 ln 2 D 2 ln x
, ln 5 ln 32 C ln 23 D ln x 2 By Law 3.
5 23
, ln D ln x 2 By Laws 1 and 2.
32
40
, ln D ln x 2
9
40
, x2 D By (3.2.6).
9
p
2 10
, xD
3
p p
2 10 2 10
, xD or x D :
3 3
p
2 10
Since we have x > 0 it follows that the only solution is x D 3
:
(b) We first note that log2 .x 3/ is only defined if x 3 > 0; i.e. if x > 3: Similarly log2 .x 4/ is
only defined if x 4 > 0; i.e. if x > 4: Thus the equation is defined for x > 3 and x > 4; i.e. for
x > 4: From what you learnt about inequalities (see Module 1, Section 1.2) you should remember that
if x > 3 and x > 4, then x > 4:
Thus for x > 4,
log2 .x 3/ C log2 .x 4/ D 1
, log2 .x 3/.x 4/ D 1 By Law 1.
, .x 3/.x 4/ D 21 Change to exponential form.
, x2 7x C 12 2D0
, x2 7x C 10 D 0
, .x 2/.x 5/ D 0
, x D 2 or x D 5:
203 MAT0511/001
However, x D 2 is not applicable since x must be greater than 4: Thus the solution is x D 5:
(c) We note that log3 x is only defined if x > 0 and that 2 logx 3 is only defined if x > 0 and x 6D 1 (the
base of a logarithm is a positive number, not equal to one). The equation is thus defined for x > 0 and
x 6D 1:
In this problem we must use the change of base formula so that the two logarithms have the same
base.
For x > 0 and x 6D 1,
log3 x 2 logx 3 D 1
log3 3
, log3 x 2 D1 By the change of base formula.
log3 x
2
, log3 x D1 By 2 of Table 3.2.1.
log3 x
2
, k D1 Let k D log3 x: Note log3 x 6D 0 since x 6D 1:
k
, k2 2Dk Multiply both sides by k since k 6D 0:
, k2 k 2D0
, .k 2/.k C 1/ D 0
, k D 2 or k D 1
, log3 x D 2 or log3 x D 1
, x D 32 or x D 3 1
Change to exponential form.
1
, x D 9 or x D :
3
Both answers are valid, and thus the solution set is f 13 ; 9g:
(d) This is an example of an exponential equation which we cannot solve using the methods discussed in
study Unit 4.1, since we cannot write 4 as an exponent with base e: However, we are now able to solve
the equation if we use the definition of logarithm and change the exponential form to logarithmic form.
We first note that the equation is defined for all x 2 R since e x is defined for all x 2 R:
204
Now
e1 4x
D4
, 1 4x D loge 4 Change to logarithmic form.
, 1 4x D ln 4 By definition of ln :
, 4x D 1 ln 4
1 ln 4
, xD :
4
Hence
x 0; 097: By using a calculator.
Thus the solution is x 0; 097 correct to 3 decimal places.

The equation can also be solved by applying ln to both sides. We have
e1 4x
D 4
, ln e1 4x
D ln 4
, 1 4x D ln 4
1 ln 4
, x D :
4
Thus
x 0; 097:
(e) We have an exponential equation but both sides are expressed in terms of different bases. In cases like
this we must apply ln or log to both sides of the equation. We note that the equation is defined for all
x 2 R:
Now
22xC1 D 5x
, ln 22xC1 D ln 5x
, .2x C 1/ ln 2 D x ln 5
, 2x ln 2 C ln 2 D x ln 5
205 MAT0511/001
, 2x ln 2 x ln 5 D ln 2
, x.2 ln 2 ln 5/ D ln 2
, x.ln 22 ln 5/ D ln 2
, x.ln 4 ln 5/ D ln 2
4
, x.ln / D ln 2
5
ln 2 4
, xD : Since D 0; 8:
ln 0; 8 5
Hence
x 3; 106: By using a calculator.
Thus the solution is x 3; 106 correct to 3 decimal places.
From the previous example you can see that we use a number of different techniques to solve logarithmic
equations and certain exponential equations. Now practise these techniques in the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.2.8
(a) log 1 x D 4
2
(b) log 2x C log.x 4/ D 1
(c) 10 logx e ln x D 3 (leave your answer in terms of e/
(d) e x D 2x 1
(leave your answer in terms of ln/
SOLUTION
(a) The equation is only defined for x > 0:

For x > 0;
log 1 x D 4
2
4
1
, xD Change to exponential form.
2
206
, x D .2 1 / 4
, x D 24
, x D 16:
Thus the solution is x D 16:
(b) Since log 2x is only defined for x > 0 and log.x 4/ is only defined for x > 4; the equation is defined
for x > 4.
Thus for x > 4;
log 2x C log.x 4/ D 1
, log.2x.x 4// D 1 By Law 1.
, 2x.x 4/ D 101 Change to exponential form.
, 2x 2 8x D 10
, 2x 2 8x 10 D 0
, x2 4x 5D0
, .x 5/.x C 1/ D 0
, x D 5 or x D 1:
Since the equation is defined for x > 4; the only solution is x D 5:
(c) The equation is only defined for x > 0 and x 6D 1: Note that x occurs as a base.
For x > 0 and x 6D 1;
10 logx e ln x D 3
ln e
, 10 ln x D 3 By the change of base formula.
ln x
10
, ln x D 3
ln x
207 MAT0511/001
10
, kD3 Let k D ln x: Note ln x 6D 0 since x 6D 1:
k
, 10 k 2 D 3k Multiply both sides by k since k 6D 0:
, k 2 C 3k 10 D 0
, .k C 5/.k 2/ D 0
, kD 5 or k D 2
, ln x D 5 or ln x D 2
5
, x De or x D e2 :
5
Thus the solutions are x D e and x D e2 since e 5
> 0 and e 5
6D 1; e2 > 0 and e2 6D 1.
(d) The equation is defined for all x 2 R:
e x D 2x 1
, ln e x D ln 2x 1
Apply ln to both sides.
, x D ln 2x 1
By 3 of Table 3.2.2.
, x D .x 1/ ln 2 By Law 3.
, x D x ln 2 ln 2
, x x ln 2 D ln 2
, x.1 ln 2/ D ln 2
ln 2
, xD Note that 1 ln 2 6D 0: Thus we may
1 ln 2
divide both sides by 1 ln 2:
208
ln 2
, xD
.1 ln 2/
ln 2
, xD :
ln 2 1
ln 2
Thus the solution is x D :
ln 2 1
ln 2
You may also give your answer as x D .
1 ln 2
Now try a selection of problems from the following exercise.
EXERCISE 3.2
1. Change the following to logarithmic form.

1 1 1
(a) 5 3 D (b) . /3 D (c) am D n
125 3 27
2. Change the following to exponential form.
1 1
(a) log 1 2 D 3
(b) log3 3
D 1 (c) logv u D w
8
3. Find the value of each of the following without using a calculator.

(a) log5 125 (b) ln.log7 7e /
(c) log2 . 18 / (d) ln e
(e) ln. e12 / (f) eln
(g) log 10 (h) log8 4
(i) log 0; 1 (j) log4 . 18 /
(k) 33log33 2 (l) log25 125
(m) ln e5
4. In each of the following find the value of the expression without using a calculator.
(a) log 4 C log 25

(b) log3 54 log3 2
(c) log3 920
(d) 55 log5 2
(e) 5 log4 2 C log4 3 log4 6
5. In the following use the Laws of Logarithms to rewrite each expression in a form that contains only the
sum and difference of logarithms.
s
3 a2b
(a) log
aCb
p
(b) log3 x 3 C 1
209 MAT0511/001
p
(c) log3 .x C 1/3
p p
(d) ln a b
x 5 5x
(e) log5
.x C 1/4 .x 4 C 1/
6. In the following rewrite the expression as a single logarithm.
1
(a) 2
log x C 14 log y C 81 log z
(b) log2 .a 2 C b2 / log2 .a C b/ log2 .a b/
1
(c) 2 ln x C ln y 2
3 ln z
(d) 2 C 3 log3 x
(e) p loga x C q loga y r loga z
7. In the following use the change of base formula and a calculator to find the value correct to 2 decimal
places.
(a) log2 5
(b) log 1 5
2
(c) log3 7
8. Solve the following equations.
(a) 2 log x D log 8 C log 2

(b) log x 2 D log 8 C log 2
(c) 2 log x log 3 2 log 5 C log 4 D 0
(d) log3 .2x C 1/ log3 .x 1/ D 2
(e) log2 x log2 .x C 1/ D 1
(f) log2 .2x C 1/ C log2 .x 1/ D 1
(g) ln.x C 5/ C ln.x 2/ D ln 8
(h) log2 x 6 logx 2 D 1
(i) 2 log3 x 9 logx 3 C 3 D 0
(j) 2 log 1 x D 1
4
(k) 1 log5 x D 0
(l) log2 .x 3/ C log2 .x 4/ 1D0
(m) ln.x C 5/ C ln.x 2/ D ln 8
2x 1 3x
(n) 3 D2 (leave the answer in terms of ln/
(o) e xC1 D 2x 1
(leave the answer in terms of ln/
(p) . 12 /x 2
D . 13 /xC1 (leave the answer in terms of ln/
210
3.3 Applications of Exponents and Logarithms

INTRODUCTION
Suppose you and a friend are playing chess or draughts, or some other game which requires a board with 64
squares. Suppose that your friend places 1 cent on the first square, 2 cents on the second square, 4 cents on
the third and so on, i.e. she keeps doubling the number of cents placed on each successive square. Before
carrying on for too long, she asks you whether you would prefer to receive R1 000 000, or all the money that
she puts on the last square of the board. What would you choose?
One’s initial reaction is to choose R1 000 000 since intuitively one feels that the amount of money on the last
square will not add up to much – possibly a few thousand cents. However, let us take a closer look at this
problem. We tabulate the information.
Square number Number of cents

1 1 D 20 D 21 1
2 2 D 21 D 22 1
3 4 D 22 D 23 1
4 8 D 23 D 24 1
:: ::
: :
k 2k 1
:: ::
: :
64 264 1 D 263
Do you see the pattern here? You will also see that the number of cents on successive squares form a geometric
sequence.
So the amount of money on the last square should be
263 cents 9; 22 1018 cents

D R9; 22 1016 :
Do you see why the expression representing the number of cents contains 1018 ; and the expression represent-
ing the number of rands contain 1016 ?
Clearly the amount of money on the last square is far greater than R1 000 000 since R1 000 000 DR1 106 :
This phenomenon, i.e. the increase in the amount of money on each successive square, is an example of the
kind of rapid growth which we call exponential growth. We illustrate this phenomenon for the first six
blocks by giving the following graph. “Exponential” indicates that we are dealing with powers. Graphs will
be discussed in the next module.
211 MAT0511/001
32
28
24
Number of 20
cents on
the block 16
12
1 2 3 4 5 6
Block number
Figure 3.3.1
From Figure 3.3.1 it is easy to see how rapidly the number of cents increases as the block number increases.
In the chess board example we can say that the number of cents on block k, where 1 k 64 is ca k 1 ,
where c D 1 and a D 2:
When real–life situations can be modelled by formulas containing powers of the form ca p ; where a > 1 and
c > 0; we are dealing with exponential growth. Examples of such situations are investment growth when
interest is compounded (we explain the meaning of this word a little further on), population growth, bacteria
growth, the growth in the number of persons with AIDS etc. The increase in growth depends on the value of
a: The bigger the value of a, the more rapid the growth is.
Just as there are situations where rapid growth occurs there are also situations where rapid decline occurs.
Such situations can be modelled by formulas containing powers of the form ca p ; where 0 < a < 1 and
c > 0: The fact that 0 < a < 1 implies decline.
Suppose we have a pond that contains 729 fish on the first day. We assume that no eggs hatch and that no fish
die. On the second and each successive day we remove two-thirds of the fish, i.e. we leave one-third of the
fish in the pond. We tabulate the number of fish that are in the pond on each day.
212
Day Number of fish in the pond
1 729
1
2 729 3
D 243
1
3 243 3
D 729 . 13 /2 D 81
1
4 81 3
D 729 . 13 /3 D 27
1
5 27 3
D 729 . 13 /4 D 9
1
6 9 3
D 729 . 13 /5 D 3
1
7 3 3
D 729 . 13 /6 D 1
Here we have that the number of fish in the pond on the k th .1 k 7/ day is ca k 1
where c D 729 and
a D 13 :
You will see that the number of fish in the pond on successive days forms a geometric sequence.
We illustrate on the following graph the number of fish that the pond contains each day.
800
700
600
Number 500
of
fish 400
300
200
100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Day number
Figure 3.3.2
213 MAT0511/001
In Figure 3.3.2 you can see the sharp decline in the number of fish at the beginning and how the decline tapers
off as the days increase.
Real–life examples of exponential growth and decline are discussed in the next two study units. In Study
Unit 3.3 we discuss problems dealing with compound interest, appreciation and depreciation. In Study Unit
3.3 we consider other examples of exponential growth and decay.
COMPOUND INTEREST, APPRECIATION AND DEPRECIATION
COMPOUND INTEREST
The expression compound interest is often used, but perhaps not everyone understands what it means. If
money is invested, for example in a bank, the bank pays interest on the money, according to whatever interest
rate it currently applies. When the money is invested, the investor knows what the interest rate is, and the
time period over which interest is to be calculated. For example, he could be told that the interest rate is 10%
per annum (i.e. per year). Suppose that the interest due at the end of an investment period is added to the
amount that was originally invested. (We say the interest is reinvested.) When the interest is next calculated,
the process involves calculating interest on the original amount and on the first interest as well. When this is
done we say the interest is compounded.
To eliminate confusion, we use certain words in compound interest formulas, and the words are usually
represented by the symbols given in the following table.
Term used Symbol
Initial amount, i.e. the amount originally invested Principal P
Interest calculated on principal and previous interest Compount interest I
Percentage applied to calculate interest Interest rate r%
Period in years over which the money is invested Investment period t

(in years)
Number of times per year interest is compounded e.g. annually, quarterly, n

monthly
Amount finally obtained when the investment is realised Amount A

(i.e. taken out of the savings institution)
Table 3.3.1
214
Also take note of the meaning of the following words:
annually – yearly, i.e. once a year

bi–annually – six monthly, i.e. twice a year
quarterly – three monthly, i.e. four times a year
monthly – once a month, i.e. twelve times a year.
We first look at a specific example involving interest which is compounded annually. We then use our knowl-
edge of geometric sequences to develop a general formula which will give A in terms of P; r and t:
EXAMPLE 3.3.1
Suppose that a principal of R1 000 is invested with a bank paying interest at a rate of 8% per annum,
compounded annually. How much will the investment be worth after
8
Remember that 8%D 100
:
(a) 1 year (b) 2 years (c) 3 years?
SOLUTION
We assume A and I are in terms of rands.
(a) The interest at the end of the first year is
8
I D .1 000/:
100
Thus after 1 year the investment is worth
8
A D 1 000 C .1 000/
100
8
D 1| {z
000} .1 C /
100
common factor
D 1 000.1 C 0; 08/
D 1 000.1; 08/
D 1 080
i.e. the investment is worth R1 080:

215 MAT0511/001
(b) At the beginning of the second year the amount invested is
8
R1 080 D R1 000.1 C /:
100
At the end of the second year the interest is
8
I D .1 080/
100
8 8
D [1 000.1 C /]:
100 100
Thus after two years the investment is worth
8 8 8
A D 1 000.1 C /C [1 000.1 C /]
100 100 100
8 8
D 1 000.1 C /.1 C /
| {z 100 } 100
common factor
8 2
D 1 000.1 C /
100
D 1 000.1; 08/2
D 1 166; 40
i.e. the investment is worth R1 166; 40:
(c) At the beginning of the third year the amount invested is
8 2
R1 166; 40 D R1 000.1 C /:
100
At the end of the third year the interest is
8
I D .1 166; 40/
100
8 8 2
D [1 000.1 C / ]:
100 100
216
Thus after three years the investment is worth

8 2 8 8 2
A D 1 000.1 C / C [1 000.1 C /]
100 100 100
8 2 8
D [1 000.1 C / ].1 C /
| {z 100 } 100
common factor
8 3
D 1 000.1 C /
100
D 1 000.1; 08/3
1 259; 71
i.e. the investment is worth R1 259; 71 to the nearest cent.
If we look at the values of the investment given in Example 3.3.1 for the first 3 consecutive years we have
8 8 2 8 3
R1 000.1 C /; R1 000.1 C / ; R1 000.1 C /:
100 100 100
8
These are the first three terms of a geometric sequence in which the first term is R1 000.1 C 100 / and the
8 tnC1
common ratio is .1 C 100 /: Remember that we find the common ratio by calculating tn where tn and tnC1 are
any two successive terms. Thus the common ratio is
8 2
R1 000.1 C 100
/ 8
8
D .1 C /:
R1 000.1 C 100 / 100
The n th term of this sequence is

8 8 n 1
8 n
R1 000.1 C / .1 C / D R1 000.1 C / :
| {z 100 } | {z100 } 100
1st term common ratio
We use the formula ar n 1

where a represents the first term and r the common ratio.
8 n
Now if we return to Example 3.3.1 we see that the investment will be worth R1 000.1 C 100 / after n years.
Thus we can find the value of the investment after any given number of years by substituting this number for
8 n
n into the formula R1 000.1 C 100 / :
For example, suppose we want to know what the investment is worth after 6 years. We substitute n D 6 and
obtain
8 6
A D R1 000.1 C /
100
D R1 000.1; 08/6
R1 586; 87
i.e. after 6 years the investment is worth R1 586; 87; to the nearest cent.
217 MAT0511/001
Now use Example 3.3.1, the discussion just after the example and your knowledge of geometric sequences to
do the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.3.1
Suppose P rands is invested for t years at an interest rate of r % per annum, compounded annually. Suppose
the investment is worth A rands after t years. Find a formula that gives A in terms of P; r and t:
SOLUTION
Following the same method we used in Example 3.3.1 we find that:
r
after the first year the investment is worth P.1 C 100
/ rands
r 2
after the second year the investment is worth P.1 C 100
/ rands
r 3
after the third year the investment is worth P.1 C 100
/ rands
........... etc.
The terms
r r 2 r 3
P.1 C /; P.1 C / ; P.1 C / :::
100 100 100
form a geometric sequence, in which
r
first term D P.1 C 100 /
r
common ratio D .1 C 100 /:
We want a formula that represents the amount after t years. This is the t th term, which is
r r t 1 r t
P.1 C /.1 C / ; i.e. P.1 C /:
100 100 100
Thus we have
r t
A D P.1 C /:
100
218
In Activity 3.3.1 we have thus deduced the following compound interest formula.
THE COMPOUND INTEREST FORMULA WHEN

INTEREST IS COMPOUNDED ANNUALLY
r t
A D P 1C (3.3.1)
100
where
P is the principal
r% is the interest rate per annum
t is the number of years that the money is invested
A is the amount after t years.
In words we state this formula as follows.
“The amount of money after t years is equal to the product of the principal
and the t th power of the sum of 1 and the interest rate, which is expressed
as a percentage.”
Do you think that the number of times per year that interest is compounded affects what the investment is
finally worth? The following example will supply the answer to this question.
EXAMPLE 3.3.2
Suppose that an amount of R1 000 is invested at an annual interest rate of 8% but now the interest is com-
pounded quarterly (i.e. every 3 months). How much will the investment be worth after 3 years?
SOLUTION
If the interest rate is 8% per year, then the interest rate for each quarter will be 2%. Thus interest is
compounded 4 times in each year, and hence 3 4 times in the 3 year period. In this case we say that
if interest is compounded 4 times per year, the interest rate for each
time period is 84 % and there are 4 3 such time periods in 3 years.
After the first quarter, we have

2
I D .1 000/ D 20
100
and hence
2 2
A D 1 000 C .1 000/ D 1 000.1 C /:
100 100
After the second quarter we have
2 2
I D [1 000.1 C /]
100 100
219 MAT0511/001
and hence
2 2 2
A D 1 000.1 C /C [1 000.1 C /]
100 100 100
2 2
D 1 000.1 C /.1 C /
100 100
2 2
D 1 000.1 C /:
100
We continue reasoning this way. After the fourth quarter (i.e. after 1 year) we have
2 4
A D 1 000.1 C /
100
and hence after 3 years we have
2 4 3
A D 1 000.1 C /
100
D 1 000.1; 02/12
1 268; 24 By using a calculator.
and the investment is thus worth approximately R1 268; 24:
Comparing the answers of Examples 3.3.1 and 3.3.2 we see that the value of an investment does depend on
the number of times per year that interest is compounded. We see that if interest is compounded quarterly
then the investment is worth more than if interest is only compounded annually.
If we generalise the formula we have developed in Example 3.3.2 using a method similar to the method we
used in the solution of Activity 3.3.1 we obtain the following formula.
GENERAL COMPOUND INTEREST FORMULA

r nt
A D P 1C (3.3.2)
100n
where
P is the principal
r% is the interest rate per annum
n is the number of times per year that interest is compounded
Note: It is important to remember this formula.
In words we state this formula as follows.
“If interest is compounded n times per year then the amount of money after t years is equal to the
product of the principal and the nt th power of the sum of 1 and the interest rate, expressed as a
percentage multiplied by n1 .”
220
We note that if the annual interest rate is r %, and interest is compounded annually, formula (3.3.2) reduces
to (3.3.1). This is because if n D 1 then formula (3.3.2) reduces to
r r t
A D P.1 C /1 t
D P.1 C /:
100 1 100
In both Examples 4.3.1 and 4.3.2 we used a calculator to work out the value of the investments after 3 years.
For situations where calculators may not be readily available, compound interest tables exist, from which we
may find the approximate values of certain expressions. An example of a compound interest table is given
below.
COMPOUND INTEREST TABLE
n
n .1:01/ .1:02/n .1:04/n .1:08/n .1:12/n
1 1:01000000 1:02000000 1:04000000 1:08000000 1:12000000
2 1:02010000 1:04040000 1.08160000 1.16640000 1.25440000
3 1:03030100 1:06120800 1:12486400 1:25971200 1:40492800
4 1:04060401 1:08243216 1:16985856 1:36048896 1:57351936
5 1:05101005 1:10408080 1:21665290 1:46932808 1:76234168
6 1:06152015 1:12616242 1:26531902 1:58687432 1:97382269
7 1:07213535 1:14868567 1:31593178 1:71382427 2:21068141
8 1:08285671 1:17165938 1:36856905 1:85093021 2:47596318
9 1:09368527 1:19509257 1:42331181 1:99900463 2:77307876
10 1:10462213 1:21899442 1:48024428 2:15892500 3:10584821
11 1:11566835 1:24337431 1:53945406 2:33163900 3:47854999
12 1:12682503 1:26824179 1:60103222 2:51817012 3:89597599
15 1:16096896 1:34586834 1:80094351 3:17216911 5:47356576
20 1:22019004 1:48594740 2:19112314 4:66095714 9:64629309
25 1:28243200 1:64060599 2:66583633 6:84847520 17:00006441
30 1:34784892 1:81136158 3:24339751 10:06265689 29:95992212
35 1:41660276 1:99988955 3:94608899 14:78534429 52:79961958
40 1:48886373 2:20803966 4:80102063 21:72452150 93:05097044
45 1:56481075 2:43785421 5:84117568 31:92044939 163:98760387
50 1:64463182 2:69158803 7:10668335 46:90161251 289:00218983
55 1:72852457 2:97173067 8:64636692 68:91385611 509:32060567
60 1:81669670 3:28103079 10:51962741 101:25706367 897:59693349
65 1:90936649 3:62252311 12:79873522 148:77984662 1581:87249060
70 2:00676337 3:99955822 15:57161835 218:60640590 2787:79982770
75 2:10912847 4:41583546 18:94525466 321:20452996 4913:05584077
80 2:21671522 4:87543916 23:04979907 471:95483426 8658:48310008
85 2:32978997 5:38287878 28:04360494 693:45648897 15259:20568055
90 2:44863267 5:94313313 34:11933334 1018:91508928 26891:93422336
95 2:57353755 6:56169920 41:51138594 1497:12054855 47392:77662369
100 2:70481383 7:24464612 50:50494818 2199:76125634 83522:26572652
Table 3.3.2
221 MAT0511/001
The table only gives selected interest rates. For example, this table cannot be used in the case where the
interest rate is 7% per annum, with interest compounded annually for 102 years. You must use a calculator
for this.
Table 3.3.2 is easy to use. Suppose you want the value of .1; 02/35 : In this case n D 35: Place a ruler
horizontally across the table and move it downwards until the number 35 in the column marked n is just
above the ruler. Then the number just above the ruler in the column marked .1; 02/n is the answer, i.e.
.1; 02/35 1; 99988955:
It is clear that the more often interest is compounded, the more the investment is finally worth. (Obviously,
from a practical point of view, interest can only be compounded a finite number of times.)
This is illustrated again by the following activity.
ACTIVITY 3.3.2
An amount of R1 000 is invested at an interest rate of 10% per year. Find out what the investment is worth
after 1 year if interest is calculated
(a) annually
(b) every six months (bi–annually)
(c) every three months (quarterly)
(d) every day (assume that there are 365 days in the year).
SOLUTION
(a) We use the formula

r t
A D P.1 C /:
100
Thus
10 1
A D 1 000.1 C /
100
D 1 000.1 C 0; 1/
D 1 000.1; 1/
D 1 100
i.e. after 1 year the investment is worth R1 100:
(b) We use the formula

r nt
A D P.1 C / :
100n
222
Now n D 2 and hence

10 2 1
A D 1 000.1 C /
200
5 2
D 1 000.1 C /
100
D 1 000.1; 05/2
D 1 102; 50
i.e. after 1 year the investment is worth R1 102; 50:

r
(c) In A D P.1 C 100n
/nt ; n D 4: Hence
10 4 1
A D 1 000.1 C /
400
D 1 000.1 C 0; 025/4
D 1 000.1; 025/4
1 103; 81
i.e. after 1 year the investment is worth approximately R1 103; 81:

r
(d) In A D P.1 C 100n
/nt ; n D 365: Hence
10 365 1
A D 1 000.1 C /
36500
1 000.1 C 0; 000274/365
D 1 000.1; 000274/365
1 105; 17
i.e. after 1 year the investment is worth approximately R1 105; 17:
If we consider the formula

r t
A D P.1 C/
100
we see that there are four unknowns. In all the problems in which we have used this formula so far, we have
been given values for P; r and t and have had to calculate A: However, if we are given values of any three of
the unknowns then we can find the value of the fourth one. In order to do this we can use the formula as it is
or we can change the subject of the formula and then substitute.
EXAMPLE 3.3.3
Rearrange the formula

r t
A D P.1 C /
100
to make each of the following the subject of the formula:
(a) P (b) r (c) t

223 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
(a)
r t
A D P 1C
100
A
, P D r t
(3.3.3)
1C 100
r t
Divide both sides of the equation by 1 C 100
.
r
A A r
(b) Divide both sides of the equation by P. t exists for all t, since > 0. Since 1 C > 0, we have
r P P 100
t A
> 0, i.e. when t is even we consider only the positive root.
P
r t
A D P 1C
100
r t A
, 1C D The unknown is in the base.
100 P
r
r t A
, 1C D
100 P
r
r t A
, D 1 Subtract 1 from both sides.
100 P
r !
t A
, r D 100 1 Multiply both sides by 100:
P
Hence
r !
t A
r D 100 1 : .3:3:4/
P
(c) Remember “apply” does not mean multiply.
r t
A D P 1C
100
r t A
, 1C D Unknown is the exponent.
100 P
224
r t A
, log 1 C D log Apply log to both sides.
100 P
r A
, t log 1 C D log By 3 of Table 4.2.3.
100 P
log PA
, tD r .4:3:5/
log.1 C 100 /
Instead of applying log above we can also apply ln to both sides of the equation
r t A
1C D :
100 P
We then obtain
r t A
ln 1 C D ln
100 P
r A
, t ln 1 C D ln
100 P
ln PA
, tD r :
ln.1 C 100 /
Hence
ln PA
tD r : .3:3:6/
ln.1 C 100 /
Note that you do not have to remember formulas (3.3.3) to (3.3.6). If you remember formula (3.3.2), i.e.
r
A D P.1C 100n /nt then you will always be able to use it to derive the other formulas, or to calculate any one
of the unknowns (symbols).
EXAMPLE 3.3.4
How long (to the next whole year) will it take R1 000 to double if it is invested at a rate of 12%, and interest
is compounded annually?
SOLUTION
We can use either formula (3.3.5) or (3.3.6). Because the money will double, if P D 1 000, then A D 2 000.
P and A are measured in rands.
If we use (3.3.6) then

ln PA
tD r ;
ln.1 C 100 /
225 MAT0511/001
where P D 1 000; A D 2 000 and r D 12:
Hence
ln 21 000
000
t D 12
ln.1 C 100
/
ln 2
D
ln.1; 12/
6; 12:
Hence it takes 7 years for the money to double. (In fact the money will be slightly more than double the
original amount.)
If we forget formulas (3.3.5) and (3.3.6) we can proceed as follows:
We have
r nt
A D P 1C
100n
where A D 2 000; P D 1 000, r D 12 and n D 1.
Hence
t
12
2 000 D 1 000 1 C
100
2 000
, D .1; 12/t
1 000
, 2 D .1; 12/t
, log 2 D log.1; 12/t You can apply ln instead:
, log 2 D t log 1; 12
log 2
, tD :
log 1; 12
Hence
t 6; 12:
Hence it take 7 years for the money to double.
Now try the following activity, which is the last one dealing with compound interest.
226
ACTIVITY 3.3.3
(a) Rearrange the formula

r nt
A D P.1 C /
100n
to make the following the subject of the formula.
(i) P (ii) r (iii) t
(b) At what interest rate (to the nearest whole number) per annum must R1 000 be invested so that the
investment is worth R1 500 after 2 years? Interest is compounded quarterly.
SOLUTION
(a) (i)
r nt
A D P 1C
100n
A
, PD r .3:3:7/
.1 C 100n
/nt
(ii)
r nt
A D P 1C
100n
A r nt
, D 1C
P 100n
r
nt A r A r
, D 1C > 0 and 1 C > 0.
P 100n P 100n
r
r nt A
, D 1
100n P
r !
nt A
, r D 100n 1 .3:3:8/
P
(iii)
r nt
A D P 1C
100n
A r nt
, D 1C
P 100n
A r nt
, ln D ln 1 C You can also apply log :
P 100n
227 MAT0511/001
A r
, ln D nt ln 1 C
P 100n
ln PA
, tD r .3:3:9/
n ln.1 C 100n /
(b) We use formula (3.3.8). We have r !
nt A
r D 100n 1
P
where n D 4 (interest is calculated 4 times a year) t D 2; A D 1 500 and P D 1 000: Hence
r !
4 2 1 500
r D 100 4 1
1 000
p
8
, r D 400. 1; 5 1/:
Thus
r 20; 80 :
The interest rate must be 21% per annum. We can also solve the problem using the formula
r nt
A D P 1C :
100n
Substituting n D 4; t D 2 A D 1 500 and P D 1 000 into the formula we obtain
r 8
1 500 D 1 000 1 C :
400
Now
r 8
1 500 D 1 000 1 C
400
1 500 r 8
, D 1C
1 000 400
r 8
, 1; 5 D 1 C
400
r p
8
, 1C D 1; 5
400
r p
8
, D 1; 5 1
400
p
8
, r D 400. 1; 5 1/:
Hence r 20; 80:

Thus the interest rate must be 21%:
228
APPRECIATION AND DEPRECIATION
We do not only measure the increase in value in the case of money. For example, property, diamonds and
Persian carpets can also appreciate, i.e. they increase in value over the years. A house which was bought for
R50 000 ten years ago may be worth R200 000 today. On the other hand, articles such as motor cars and
machinery depreciate, i.e. they decrease in value over the years.
The formulas used for appreciation and depreciation are similar to those used for compound interest.
APPRECIATION AND DEPRECIATION
Formula for appreciation
r t
A D P 1C 100 (3.3.10)
Formula for depreciation
r t
A D P.1 100
/ (3.3.11)
where
P is the initial value of an object
r% is the rate of appreciation or depreciation
t is the time in years
A is the value of the object after t years.
The next example shows how we apply one of these formulas.
EXAMPLE 3.3.5
Suppose factory machinery depreciates at 10% per year. If machinery is worth R25 000 today, what will it
be worth in 5 years time?
SOLUTION
Since we are dealing with depreciation we must use formula (3.3.11). Now
r t
A D P.1 /;
100
where P D 25 000; r D 10 and t D 5: Hence
10 5
A D 25 000.1 /
100
D 25 000.1 0; 1/5
D 25 000.0; 9/5
D 14 762; 25:
Thus in 5 years time the machinery will be worth R14 762 (to the nearest rand).
We end this study unit with an activity for you to do.

229 MAT0511/001
ACTIVITY 3.3.4
Suppose property costing R50 000 ten years ago is worth R200 000 today. Calculate the rate of appreciation
correct to one decimal place.
SOLUTION
We use the formula

r t
A D P 1C
100
where A D 200 000; P D 50 000 and t D 10; and we need to find r:
Hence
r 10
200 000 D 50 000 1 C
100
200 000 r 10
, D 1C
50 000 100
r 10
, 4D 1C
100
r p
10
, 1C D 4
100
r p
10
, D 4 1
100
p
10
, r D 100. 4 1/:
Thus
r 14; 870 :
Hence the rate of appreciation is approximately 14; 9%:
POPULATION GROWTH AND RADIOACTIVE DECAY
In this study unit we consider examples of population growth (exponential growth) and radioactive decay
(exponential decline).
Doubling time
We first consider the growth of populations, such as people, animals, insects and bacteria. Populations usually
grow exponentially and at different rates. The doubling time, i.e. the time it takes for a population to double,
is a measure of the rate of growth of a population. The smaller the doubling time the faster the rate of growth;
the bigger the doubling time the slower the rate of growth.
230
EXAMPLE 3.3.6
In a laboratory cultures of two different species of bacteria are under observation. It is found that the doubling
time for bacteria A is 3 hours; for B it is 6 hours. At the start of the observation each culture contains 1 000
bacteria. We first observe the culture of bacteria A: At the start there are 1 000 bacteria.
After 3 hours the number has doubled, i.e. there are 2 000 bacteria.
After another 3 hours, i.e. after 6 hours the number of bacteria has doubled again, i.e. there are then 4 000
bacteria.
Continuing in this way we see that after 9 hours there will be 8 000 bacteria and after 12 hours 16 000
bacteria, etc.
Now, since the doubling time of bacteria B is 6 hours, we see that after 6 hours there are 2 000 bacteria; after
12 hours 4 000 bacteria, etc.
We tabulate the results.

Time in hours No of bacteria A No of bacteria B
0 1 000 1 000
3 2 000
6 4 000 2 000
9 8 000
12 16 000 4 000
15 32 000
18 64 000 8 000
Table 3.3.3
We represent the above data pictorially using a graph. The dots represent the number of bacteria A and the
crosses represent the number of bacteria B:
60 000
50 000
Number 40 000
of
bacteria 30 000
(N)
20 000
x
10 000 x
x x
x
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24
Number of hours (t)
Figure 3.3.3
231 MAT0511/001
Figure 3.3.3 shows that the number of bacteria in the culture with the smaller doubling time grows more
rapidly than the number of bacteria in the culture with the bigger doubling time.
We take a closer look at the results for bacteria A: We denote time in hours by t and the number of bacteria
by N :
0
When t D 0; N D 1 000 D 1 000 1 D 1 000 20 D 1 000 23 :
3
When t D 3; N D 2 000 D 1 000 2 D 1 000 21 D 1 000 23 :
6
When t D 6; N D 4 000 D 1 000 4 D 1 000 22 D 1 000 23:
9
When t D 9; N D 8 000 D 1 000 8 D 1 000 23 D 1 000 23 :
12
When t D 12; N D 16 000 D 1 000 16 D 1 000 24 D 1 000 2 3 ; etc.
What do we mean when we say t D 0? This is just a convenient way of representing the situation at the
beginning, i.e. after 0 hours have passed.
From the pattern that is developing it follows that at time t;

t t
N D 1 000 2 3 D N0 2d
where d is the doubling time, N0 the number of bacteria at time t D 0 and N is the number of bacteria at time
t: If we know
– the number of bacteria we started with .N0 /
– the doubling time for the growth of that type of bacteria .d/
– after how many hours we are investigating the size of the population of bacteria .t/
then we can find how many bacteria there are at this stage by means of the formula
t
N D N0 2d :
For example, if we want to know the number of bacteria B after 18 hours we have
18
N D 1 000 26
D 1 000 23
D 1 000 8
D 8 000;
which is the answer we obtained earlier.

232
In the previous example we deduced a formula for population growth.
POPULATION GROWTH
(Doubling–time model)
t
N D N0 2 d (3.3.12)
where
N0 is the number at time t D 0
N is the number at time t
d is the doubling time of the population.
(The doubling time is the time it takes for a population to double.)
ACTIVITY 3.3.5
It is estimated that the population of South Africa will double in 30 years. If the population was 40; 3 million
in 1993, what will the population of South Africa be by the year 2005?
SOLUTION
Equation (3.3.12) states that

t
N D N0 2 d ;
where N is the population (in millions) after t years, N0 is the initial population (in millions), and d is the
doubling time.
We thus have
12
N D .40; 3/.2 30 / There are 12 years between 1993 and 2005.
D .40; 3/.20;4 /
53; 18 By using a calculator.
i.e. by the year 2005 there could be approximately 53; 2 million people in South Africa.
If you know the population at two different times then you can work out the doubling time of that population.
EXAMPLE 3.3.7
Suppose it is observed that the number of bacteria has increased from 2 500 to 4 000 in 2 hours. What is the
doubling time to the nearest hour of the bacteria?
233 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
We have
t
N D N0 2 d
where N D 4 000; N0 D 2 500 and t D 2 (where t is measured in hours). Now
2
4 000 D 2 500 2d
4 000 2
, D 2d
2 500
40 2
, D 2d
25
8 2
, D 2d
5
2
, 1; 6 D 2 d
2
, ln 1; 6 D ln 2 d
2
, ln 1; 6 D ln 2
d
ln 1; 6 2
, D
ln 2 d
2 ln 2
, dD :
ln 1; 6
Thus
d 2; 95:
Hence the doubling time is approximately 3 hours.
Half–life
We now consider radioactive decay. Radioactive substances are used, for example, for carbon–dating, in
medical diagnoses and as power sources. A measure of the rate of decay of a radioactive substance is the
half–life of the substance. This is the time it takes for the substance to decay to such a point where half the
original amount is left. The smaller the half–life the quicker the decay, and the bigger the half–life the slower
the decay. In the following activity you will derive a formula for radioactive decay.
234
ACTIVITY 3.3.6
Suppose the half–life of a certain radioactive substance is 5 days. Suppose we begin with 16 grams of the
substance. Determine the amount of substance after 5 days, 10 days, 15 days and 20 days. From the pattern
that develops, deduce a formula that gives the amount of substance, A, after t days, in terms of the initial
amount A0 , the time t and the half–life h (both measured in days).
Hint: Look at Example 3.3.6.
SOLUTION
0
When t D 0, A D 16 D 16 1 D 16 . 12 /0 D 16 . 12 / 5 .
1 5
When t D 5, A D 8 D 16 2
D 16 . 12 /1 D 16 . 21 / 5 .
1 10
When t D 10, A D 4 D 16 4
D 16 . 12 /2 D 16 . 21 / 5 .
1 15
When t D 15, A D 2 D 16 8
D 16 . 12 /3 D 16 . 21 / 5 .
1 20
When t D 20, A D 1 D 16 16
D 16 . 21 /4 D 16 . 12 / 5 .
From the pattern we may deduce that at time t

t t
1 5 1 h
A D 16 D A0 :
2 2
We now state the formula for the decay of a radioactive substance in terms of the half–life of the substance.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
(Half–life model)
t
1 h
A D A0 (3.3.13)
2
where
A0 is the amount of substance at time t D 0
A is the amount of substance at time t
h is the half–life of the substance.
(The half–life of a substance is the time it takes for the substance

to decay to half its original amount.)
The derivation of formula (3.3.13) is similar to that of formula (3.3.12). We do not expect you to derive
235 MAT0511/001
these formulas, but it is interesting to know how they are derived.
We stated that radioactive substances can be used for dating objects. One of these methods uses radioactive
carbon, which is denoted by the symbol 14 C.
The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere always contains a fixed fraction of

radioactive carbon, 14 C, which has a half–life of about 5 730 years. Plants take in the carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere. Animals eat the plants and thus also absorb carbon. All living creatures and plants contain
the same proportion of 14 C relative to the stable 12 C. When a creature or plant dies, it stops absorbing carbon
and the amount of 14 C in it starts to decay exponentially, while the amount of 12 C remains unchanged. We
can then determine how long ago it died by measuring the amount of 14 C left, and comparing this with the
original amount of 14 C that was originally present (which we determine by measuring the 12 C now present).
Carbon–dating is by no means the most accurate dating method available.
EXAMPLE 3.3.8
The skull of a Neanderthal (i.e. prehistoric) woman is found to contain 0; 00005% of its original carbon–
14: How old is the skull? (Give your answer to the nearest 1 000 years.) The half–life of carbon–14 is
5 730 years.
Since we are not given the actual amount of 14 C present now, we reason as follows.
We assume that the amount of 14 C originally present was x grams; i.e. A0 D x: Since the skull contains
0; 00005% of the original amount of 14 C, it contains
0; 00005
x grams
100
of 14 C, i.e.
0; 00005
AD x:
100
Thus in the formula
1 t
A D A0 . / h ;
2
0; 00005
we have A D x; A0 D x and h D 5 730; where A and A0 are measured in grams and h in years.
100
Now
t
0; 00005 1 5 730
xDx
100 2
t
0; 00005x 1 5 730
, D
100x 2
t
0; 00005 1 5 730
, D
100 2
236
t
1 5 730
, 0; 0000005 D
2
t
1 5 730
, ln 0; 0000005 D ln
2
t 1
, ln 0; 0000005 D ln
5 730 2
5 730 ln 0; 0000005
, tD :
ln 0; 5
Hence
t 119 938:
Thus the skull is approximately 120 000 years old.

Note: If one does not remember the double-time and or half-life formulas, one may use the formula A D A0 ekt
in calculations. The process will take longer as you first have to find k, but the answer will be the same.
Usually exponential growth and decay are modelled using the formulas
N D N 0 ekt (3.3.14)
and
A D A0 ekt (3.3.15)
where N ; N0 , A and A0 are as previously defined and k is a constant.
Formulas (3.3.14) and (3.3.15) are the same although different symbols are used. You will come across
both formulas in textbooks. Formula (3.3.14) is usually used for population growth since N and N0 denote
number, for example the number of bacteria. Formula (3.3.15) is usually used for decay since A and A0
denote amount, for example the amount of carbon–14:
In formulas (3.3.14) and (3.3.15) the value of k determines whether we are dealing with growth or with decay.
From Section 4.1 we recall the following:
I ek > 0 since e > 0
I ek D 1 if k D 0 since a 0 D 1 for all a 6D 0

1
I ek > 1 if k > 0 since e > 1 (for example e 4 1; 28/
1
I 0 < ek < 1 if k < 0 since e > 1 (for example e 4 D 1
1 0; 78/:
e4
237 MAT0511/001
We also recall from Study Unit 4.3 that if a formula contains the term a p ; then
I if a > 1, growth is involved
I if 0 < a < 1, decline is involved.
Thus we can conclude that in formulas (4.3.14) and (4.3.15)
I if k > 0, then we are dealing with growth
I if k < 0, then we are dealing with decay.
EXAMPLE 3.3.9
The number of bacteria increases according to the formula
N D N0 e0;25t
where N0 is the initial number of bacteria and N is the number at time t in hours.
(a) Determine the doubling time of the bacteria.
(b) How many bacteria were present initially, if there are 2 1015 bacteria after 5 hours?
SOLUTION
(a) Let d be the doubling time in hours. When the time t in hours increases so that t equals the doubling
time d; then the number of bacteria will have doubled. We say that when t D d; N D 2N0 :
Hence
N D N0 e0;25d
, 2N0 D N0 e0;25d
, 2 D e0;25d
238
, ln 2 D ln e0;25d
, ln 2 D 0; 25d ln e
, ln 2 D 0; 25d Since ln e D 1.
ln 2
, dD :
0; 25
Thus
d 2; 773:
The doubling time is approximately 2 hours and 46 minutes.

Note that that 0; 773 hours is equal to 0; 773 60 minutes, i.e. approximately 46 minutes.
(b) We substite N D 2 1015 and t D 5 into
N D N0 e0;25t
and obtain
2 1015 D N0 e0;25 5 :
Hence
2 1015 D N0 e1;25
and thus
2 1015
N0 D 5; 73 1014 :
e1;25
There were thus approximately 5; 73 1014 bacteria initially present.
Now try the following activity which deals with radioactive decay.
ACTIVITY 3.3.7
Strontium–90 is a radioactive substance that decays according to the formula
0;0244t
A D A0 e
where A0 is the initial amount present and A is the amount present at time t in years.
(a) Determine the half–life of strontium–90.
(b) If we begin with 20 g of the substance, how much will be left after 5 hours.
239 MAT0511/001
SOLUTION
1
(a) Let h be the half–life of strontium–90 in years. When t D h; A D 2
A0 since half the substance will
remain.
Hence
0;0244 t
A D A0 e
1 0;0244 h
, A0 D A0 e
2
1 0;0244 h
, De
2
, ln 0; 5 D 0; 0244 h ln e
ln 0; 5
, hD : Since ln e D 1:
0; 0244
Thus
h 28; 4 years:
Consequently the half–life of strontium–90 is between 28 and 29 years.
(b) We substitute A0 D 20 and t D 5 into
0;0244 t
A D A0 e
and obtain
0;0244 5
A D 20e :
Thus
0;122
A D 20 e
and hence
A 17; 70
i.e. there will be approximately 17; 7 g of strontium–90 left.
So far we have been given the value of k in all the problems in which we used the formula
N D N0 ekt or A D A0 ekt :
In the following activity you will first need to determine k before answering any other questions.
240
ACTIVITY 3.3.8
In a certain section of the Hartebeespoort dam it was found that the area covered by water hyacinth (a type of
water weed) increased exponentially according to the formula
A D A0 ekt (3.3.16)
where A was the area covered by water hyacinth in square metres after t days.Here A represents area and not
amount.
Initially the area covered by water hyacinth was 100 m2 : After 10 days the area was 150 m2 :
(a) Determine the value of k in equation (3.3.16). Leave your answer in terms of ln :
(b) Use the formula to determine the area covered by water hyacinth after 30 days. (Try to do this without
using a calculator.)
SOLUTION
(a) We have A0 D 100; and A D 150 when t D 10:
Substitution in (4.3.16) gives 150 D 100e10k .
Now
150 D 100e10k
150
, D e10k
100
3
, D e10k
2
3
, ln D 10k ln e
2
1 3
, kD ln : Since ln e D 1:
10 2
241 MAT0511/001
1 3
(b) After 30 days we have A D 100e. 10 ln 2 / 30
.
Now
1 3
A D 100e. 10 ln 2 / 30
30 3
, A D 100e 10 ln 2
Remember that
3
, A D 100e3 ln 2 r ln x D ln x r and eln x D x.
3 3
, A D 100eln. 2 /
, A D 100 . 23 /3
27
, A D 100 8
, A D 337; 5:
Hence the area covered by water hyacinth after 30 days is 337; 5 m2 :
EXERCISE 3.3
1. An amount of R10 000 is invested at an annual rate of 12%; compounded every four months. Find the
value of the investment after
(a) 5 years (b) 10 years.
2. Which of the following would be a better investment?
(a) An account paying interest of 8 14 % per year, interest compounded every six months.
(b) An account paying interest of 8% per year, interest compounded monthly.
3. We use the expression present value to describe the amount of money that needs to be invested now,
at a given interest rate, to produce a desired amount of money at some later stage. If you know that you
will need R5 000 in 3 years’ time, find out how much you must invest now, if interest is calculated at
9% per annum, compounded every six months.
4. Suppose you invest R1 000 in a bank today and interest is compounded monthly. When will your
investment be worth R1 500 if the interest rate is
(a) 9% per annum (per year)?

(b) 12% per annum(per year)?
242
5. Suppose a diamond is valued at R15 000 today. If the rate of appreciation of a diamond is 12% per
annum what was the value (to the nearest R100/ of the diamond 5 years ago?
6. Suppose you buy a motor car for R80 000 today. If the rate of depreciation of a car is 10% per annum
what will the value (to the nearest R100/ of the car be in 10 years time?
7. Suppose that the present population of a country is 24 million and that the doubling time is 20 years.
Use the doubling time model to find the population (to the nearest million) in
(a) 10 years time

(b) 30 years time.
8. The radioactive isotope gallium–67 .67 Ga/ is used to diagnose malignant tumors. The half–life of 67 Ga
is 46; 5 hours. Suppose we start with 20 mg of 67 Ga: Use the half–life model to find the amount left
after
(a) 1 day
(b) 1 week?
(Give your answers correct to one decimal place.)
9. Sodium–24 decays according to the formula
0;0462t
A D A0 e
where A is the amount of sodium–24 in grams at time t in hours.
(a) Determine the half–life of sodium–24.

(b) If the initial amount of sodium–24 is 5 g when will there be 1 g of sodium–24 left?
10. The population of a certain country increases according to the formula
N D N0 e0;0289t
where N is the number of people at time t in years.
(a) Calculate the doubling time of this population.

(b) How long will it take for the initial population to triple?
11. It is estimated that the present elephant population at a certain game reserve increases according to the
formula
N D 800e0;0231t
where N is the number of elephant at time t in years.

How long will it take for the elephant population to reach 1 200?
243 MAT0511/001
12. A radioactive substance decays according to the formula
A D A0 ekt
where A is the amount of substance in grams after t years. The initial amount of substance is 20 grams
and after 5 years an amount of 16 grams is left.
(a) Determine the value of k (leave your answer in terms of ln/:

(b) Determine the amount of substance remaining after 10 years.
Do this without using a calculator.
13. The population of a certain country grows according to the formula
N D N0 ekt
where N is the number of people in millions at time t in years.

The population in 1980 was 40 million and in 1990 was 50 million.
(a) Determine the value of k (leave your answer in terms of ln/:

(b) What will the population be in the year 2010?
Do this without using a calculator.
UNIT SUMMARY
Rational exponents
Z D set of all integers
1 p
B an D
n
a; a 2 R; n 2 Z and n 2
m 1 1
B a n D .a m / D .a /m ; a 2 R;
n n
m
n
2 Q and n 2
m p p
n
i.e. a n D n a m D . a/m
Note
p
n
If a m exists, and a 6D 0 then
pn
a m has a unique value, i.e. one value, whereas x n D a m has
p
n
B one solution, i.e. x D a m if n is odd
pn
B two solutions, i.e. x D a m if n is even
Example:
p
4 p
4
13 D 1 D 1:
However, the solutions of x 4 D 13 are x D 1 and x D 1:

244
Rules of real exponents (a; b; x; y 2 R; m; n 2 Z and n 2)

The rules hold whenever each of the expressions is defined. Remember that 0m is undefined if m 0.
Rule Example
3 5 3 5
1. a x a y D a xCy 22 22 D 22C2
ax 3 3
1
2. D ax y
1
D3 3 2
ay 3 2
1 1
3. .a x / y D a x y .5 4 /7 D 5 4 7
1 1 1
4. .ab/x D a x b x .2 5/ 3 D 2 3 53
Rule Example
3 3
x
a x a 3 2 32
5. D x D 3
b b 4 42
6. a0 D 1 .3; 7/0 D 1
x 1 1 2 1 2 1
7. a D x
or a x D x 2 5 D 2
or 2 5 D 2
a a 2 5 2 5
p
n 1 p
3 1
8(i) a D an 3 D 33
p
n p
n m p
3 p
3 2
(ii) . a/m D a m D a n . 1/2 D . 1/2 D . 1/ 3
Exponential equations
An equation containing terms of the form a x ; a > 0 and a 6D 1 is called an exponential equation.
Properties of a x for a > 0 and a 6D 1
B a x is defined for all real values of x:

B The value of a x is positive for all real values of x:
B If a x D a y then x D y (one–to–one property).
B a x > 1 for x > 0:
B 0 < a x < 1 for x < 0:
Logarithm to the base a; where a 2 R; a > 0 and a 6D 1

If y D a x then x D loga y:
B y D a x is called the exponential form

B x D loga y is called the logarithmic form.
245 MAT0511/001
Properties of loga x
B loga 1 D 0
B loga a D 1
B loga a x D x
B a loga x D x
B loga x is defined for all positive values of x:
B The value of loga x is a real number.
B If loga x D loga y; then x D y (one–to–one property).
Special logarithms
B Common logarithm – logarithm to the base 10 – denoted by log

B Natural logarithm – logarithm to the base e – denoted by ln :
Laws of logarithms
1. loga .x y/ D loga x C loga y

x
2. loga D loga x loga y
y
3. loga .x r / D r loga x
Change of base formula for logarithms
loga x
B logb x D
loga b
1
B logb a D (special case)
loga b
Logarithmic equations
An equation containing logarithms is a logarithmic equation.
Compound interest formula when interest is compounded annually

r t
A D P 1C
100
where
P is the principal
r % is the interest rate per annum
From this formula we can deduce the following formulas.
246
These formulas need not be memorised

A
B PD r t
.1 C 100 /
q
B r D 100. PA 1/
t
log PA ln PA
B tD r D r
log.1 C 100 / ln.1 C 100 /
General compound interest formula

Note: This formula has to be memorised
r nt
A D P 1C
100n
where
P is the principal
r % is the interest rate per annum
n is the number of times per year that interest is compounded
t is the number of years that money is invested
From this formula we can deduce the following formulas.
These formulas need not be memorised
A
B PD r
.1 C 100n
/nt
q
B r D 100n.
nt A
P
1/
ln PA log PA
B tD r D r
n ln.1 C 100n / n log.1 C 100n /
Appreciation and depreciation formulas
B Formula for appreciation

r t
A D P 1C
100
B Formula for depreciation
r t
ADP 1
100
where
P is the initial value of the object
r % is the rate of appreciation or depreciation
t is the time in years
A is the value of the object after t years.
Population growth (doubling time model)

t
N D N0 2 d
247 MAT0511/001
where
N0 is the number at time t D 0
N is the number at time t
d is the doubling time of the population.
Radioactive decay (half–life model)

t
1 h
A D A0
2
where
A0 is the amount of substance at t D 0
A is the amount of substance at time t
h is the half–life of the substance.
General formulas for growth and decay
A D A0 ekt
N D N0 ekt
where A0 ; A; N and N0 are as stated on the previous page, and k is a constant.
B If k > 0; then we are dealing with growth.

B If k < 0; then we are dealing with decay.
CHECKLIST
3.1 Exponents
1. Define powers with rational exponents and apply the definitions.

Definitions 4.1.1, 4.1.2
2. Know and apply the exponential rules.

3. Use a calculator to find the values of expressions containing powers.

Activities 4.1.3, 4.1.4, 4.1.5
4. Change the base of an exponent.

5. Solve equations containing exponents where the unknown is in the base.

6. Solve exponential equations using the properties of a x for a > 0 and a 6D 1:

248
3.2 Logarithms
1. Define a logarithm to the base a:

Definition 4.2.1
2. Change from exponential form to logarithmic form and vice versa.

3. Know what common and natural logarithms are. Know and apply the properties given in Tables 4.2.1
and 4.2.2 to find values of certain expressions containing logarithms.
Tables 4.2.1, 4.2.2; Example 4.2.3; Activity 4.2.3
4. Know and apply the laws of logarithms.

5. Know how to write loga x; a 6D 10; a 6D e in terms of log and ln : Use a calculator to find the values of
expressions containing log; ln or loga ; where a 6D 10 and a 6D e:
Example 4.2.5, Activity 4.2.6
6. Know and be able to apply the change of base formula for logarithms.
Formulas (4.2.5), (4.2.6); Example 4.2.6; Activity 4.2.7
7. Solve logarithmic equations.

3.3 Applications of Exponents and Logarithms
1. Know and apply the two compound interest formulas (4.3.1) and (4.3.2). [You need NOT know for-
mulas (4.3.3) to (4.3.9).] In problems you must be able to determine any of P; r or t by using formulas
(4.3.1) and (4.3.2).
Formulas (4.3.1), (4.3.2); Examples 4.3.2, 4.3.4 (2nd solution); Activities 4.3.2, 4.3.3(b) (2nd solution)
2. Know and apply the formulas for appreciation (4.3.10) and depreciation (4.3.11).
Formulas (4.3.10), (4.3.11); Example 4.3.5; Activity 4.3.4
3. Know and apply formula (4.3.12) for population growth using the doubling–time model.
Formula (4.3.12); Example 4.3.7; Activity 4.3.5
4. Know and apply formula (4.3.13) for radioactive decay using the half–life model.
Formula (4.3.13); Example 4.3.8
5. Apply the general formulas (4.3.14) and (4.3.15) for exponential growth and decay.
Example 4.3.9; Activities 4.3.6, 4.3.7
249 MAT0511/001
ANSWERS
MODULE 2
Unit 1
Exercise 1.1
1. (a) 4
2a C 2b C 1
(b)
1 2a 2b
(c) 17 79
x C1
2. (a) is undefined if x 1 D 0; i.e. if x D 1:
x 1
p
(b) 2 1 3x is undefined if 1 3x < 0:
Now
1 3x < 0
, 3x < 1
, x > 13 :
p
Thus 2 1 3x is undefined when x > 31 :
1 3 p
(c) p C 2 is undefined if x < 0 or if x 2 2 D 0, i.e. if x < 0 or if x D 2, i.e. if x < 0 or
x px 2
x D 2.
Exercise 1.2
1. (a) 7x 2 y 9x y 2 C 2y 3 C 4 (b) 3yz 3y 7z

(c) 2z 2 C 3zy y 2 (d) 9x 2 24x C 16
(e) 2x 2 9x y 5y 2 (f) 4a 2 9b2
(g) 9r 2 s 2 30r s C 25 (h) 7x 2 4y 2
(i) x 3 3x 2 y C 4x y 2 y 3 (j) abx 2 C .a 2 C b2 /x C ab
11
2. (a) x 5C
x C2
1
(b) x 2 C x C 3 C
x 1
250
3. (a) x 2 .x 1/ (b) x 2 .x 1/.x C 1/

(c) .y 4/.y C 3/ (d) .5z C 1/.2z 3/
(e) .5x 1/.x C 3/ (f) .3y C 2/.2y 3/
(g) 5.x C 2/.x 1/ (h) a.b a/.b C a/
(i) .2x y/.x C 3y/ (j) .3y C z/.y z/
(k) .2x 3y/.4x 2 C 6x y C 9y 2 / (l) .x y/.x C y/.x 2 C y 2 /
(m) .x 4 C 3/.x 4 2/ (n) .x C 2y C 4/.x C 2y 1/
Use the substitution x C 2y D k:
(o) .5y 2 C 4/.2y 2 1/ (p) a.x b/.x C b/
(q) .x C 1/.x 2/.x C 2/ (r) .b C 1/.3x C 2/
(s) .x C 2/.x 3 C a/
4. (a) .x C 2/2 1 (b) .x 21 /2 3 14

(c) 2.x C 23 /2 C 4 12 (d) 2.x 94 /2 C 5 81
1 1
(e) 5
.x C 5/2 6 (f) 2
.x C 4/2 1
Exercise 1.3
x 3 C 3x 2 2x C 2 x.2x 3 17x 2 C 16x C 91/

1. (a) (b)
x 1 2.x 3/.x C 3/.x 5/
2
4a 10ab C 25b2
(c)
a b
2. 1
ab 1
3.
aCb
Unit 2
Exercise 2.1
1. (a) LHS D 3 6D RHS. x D 2 is not a solution.

(b) LHS D 4 C 8 6D RHS. x D 2 is not a solution.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(c) LHS D 2 4
C 8
D 8
C 8
D 4
D RHS. z D 4
is a solution.
(d) LHS D 1 and RHS D 0: LHS 6D RHS. s D 1 is not a solution.
Exercise 2.2
4
1. (a) 3x C 5 D 1 , 3x D 4,x D 3
251 MAT0511/001
5
(b) 2.x 1/ D 3 , 2x 2 D 3 , 2x D 5 , x D 2
2
(c) 3.x C 2/ D 4.2 x/ , 3x C 6 D 8 4x , 7x D 2 , x D 7
(d)
2.y 1/ 3.y C 1/ D 4.3y C 7/ , 2y 2 3y 3 D 12y C 28

, 33 D 13y
33
, yD 13
(e)
x x C1
D , x.2x 3/ D .x C 1/.2x C 1/
2x C 1 2x 3
, 2x 2 3x D 2x 2 C 3x C 1
, 6x D 1
1
, xD 6
(f)
2x x 4
D 0 , 2x.x C 3/ .2x C 1/.x 4/ D 0
2x C 1 x C3
, 2x 2 C 6x 2x 2 C 7x C 4 D 0
, 13x D 4
4
, xD 13
2. Let the number be x.
Then
4
x 7D5
5
4
, x D 12
5
12 5
, xD D 15:
4
The number is 15.
3. Let the width be x cm.

Then the length is ( 32 x C 4/ cm.
252
The perimeter is 2.x C 32 x C 4/ cm.
Hence
2. 5x2 C 4/ D 38
, 5x C 8 D 38
, 5x D 30
, x D 6:
Hence the width is 6 cm and the length is 13 cm.
4. Suppose the son’s age is x years.

Then the father’s age is (5x C 3/ years.
In 10 years time the son will be .x C 10/ years old and the father will be .5x C 3 C 10/ years old. At
that stage the father will be 7 years younger than three times his son’s age. Hence
5x C 3 C 10 D 3.x C 10/ 7:
Now
5x C 3 C 10 D 3.x C 10/ 7
, 5x C 13 D 3x C 30 7
, 5x C 13 D 3x C 23
, 2x D 10
, x D 5:
Hence the son is 5 years old and his father is 28 years old.
5. Suppose they pass each other at C; x km from A:
x km C ( 425 _ x ) km
A B
man woman
80 km/h 100 km/h
Distance
Time D
Speed
253 MAT0511/001
Speed Distance Time

km/h km h
x
Man 80 x
80
425 x
Woman 100 425 x
100
1 425 x
Since the woman travels 15 minutes, i.e. 4
hour, less than the man, it follows that is smaller
100
x 1
than by . Hence
80 4
425 x 1 x
C D :
100 4 80
Now
425 x 1 x
C D
100 4 80
, 4.425 x/ C 100 D 5x
, 1 700 C 100 4x D 5x
, 1 800 D 9x
1 800
, xD D 200:
9
Hence they pass each other 200 km from A:
6. Suppose the tuition fee is Rx:

Since the two fees together are R14 000 it follows that the residence fee is R.14 000 x/:
Now R.14 000 x/ is R2 750 more than 12 Rx. Hence
1
14 000 xD x C 2 750:
2
254
Now
1
14 000 xD x C 2 750
2
3
, 11 250 D x
2
2
, x D 11 250 D 7 500:
3
Hence the tuition fee is R7 500 and the residence fee is R6 500:
7. Suppose we need x litres of Beer A: Then we need (100 x/ litres of Beer B:
% alcohol Volume of beer Amount of

(`) alcohol (`)
3; 5x
Beer A 3; 5 x
100
6.100 x/
Beer B 6 100 x
100
5 100
New beer 5 100
100
Hence
3; 5x C 6.100 x/ D 500:
Now
3; 5x C 6.100 x/ D 500
, 3; 5x C 600 6x D 500
, 2; 5x D 100
, 2; 5x D 100
100
, xD D 40:
2; 5
Thus we need 40 litres of Beer A and 60 litres of Beer B:
255 MAT0511/001
8. Suppose it takes x hours for Joseph to mow the lawn alone.

In 1 hour, Makhaya mows 14 of the lawn, and Joseph mows x1 of the lawn.
Thus, together, in 1 hour they mow 41 C x1 of the lawn.
They also mow the lawn in 35 of the time it takes Makhaya to mow the lawn.
Hence they mow the lawn in 53 4 hours, i.e. 12 5
hours.
1 5
Thus in 1 hour they mow 12 of the lawn, i.e. 12 of the lawn.
5
Hence 14 C x1 D 12
5
. Now solve for x:
Thus Joseph’s takes 6 hours to mow the lawn by himself.
9. Suppose it takes x hours to fill the pool if only pipe B is used.
Time taken to Amount of pool

fill pool (h) filled in 1 h
1
Pipe A 40
40
1
Pipe B x
x
1
Both pipes 25
25
1
Hence 40 C x1 D 25
1
: Now solve for x:
Hence it takes 66 hours and 40 minutes to fill the pool if only pipe B is used.
10. (a) 3x 1 < 5x C 3

, 4 < 2x
, x> 2
_2
(b) 2 < 3x 1 6
, 1 < 3x 7
1 7
, 3
<x 3
_ _1 _7
3 3
(c) x 1 < 2x C 1 x C 2
, x 1 < 2x C 1 and 2x C 1 x C2
, 2 < 3x and x 1
2
, 3
< x and x 1
2
, 3
<x 1
_ _2 1
3
256
(d) x 2x C 1 3x 2
, x 2x C 1 and 2x C 1 3x 2
, 1 x and 3 x
, x 1 and x 3
, x 3
(e) x C 2 < 2x 1 x 3
, x C 2 < 2x 1 and 2x 1 x 3
, 3 < x and x 2
, x > 3 and x 2
There is no solution.
11. Suppose your mark on the fifth test is x%.

Then
60 C 65 C 58 C 70 C x
60 69
5
and so
300 253 C x 345:
Thus
300 253 x 345 253
and so
47 x 92:
Thus you can obtain any mark between 47% and 92%, including these percentages.
12. Suppose he works x hours. Then

80 C 120x > 560:
Now
80 C 120x > 560
, 120x > 480
, x > 4:
He must work more than 4 hours.
Exercise 2.3
5
1. (a) xD 1 or x D 4
(b) x D 12 or x D 4
5 1 3
(c) xD 2
or x D 3
(d) x D 4 or x D 2
257 MAT0511/001
2. (a) exactly one solution

(b) no solutions
(c) two different solutions
3. (a) kD0 (b) k2R

(c) k D 7 or k D 1 (d) no value of k
4. An even integer can be written in the form 2n, n 2 Z; since it is divisible by 2:

Suppose the first even integer is 2n: Then the next even integer will be 2n C 2:
Hence
.2n/2 C .2n C 2/2 D 100:
Now solve this equation. You will obtain two solutions, i.e. n D 4 or n D 3: Since we are dealing
with positive integers we discard n D 4:
Thus the one even integer is 2 3; i.e. 6; and the other is 6 C 2; i.e. 8:
Check that these integers satisfy the condition that the sum of their squares is 100:
5. Let the one number be x: Then the other number is 2 x since the sum of the two numbers is 2: Their
product is 63: Hence
x.2 x/ D 63:
You should find that the numbers are 9 and 7:
6. (a) 1 second (b) 2 seconds

No, it took twice as long to drop 20 m.
7. Let the width be x m. Then the length is .x C 3/ m. Since the area is 180 m2 we have
x.x C 3/ D 180:
The width is 12 m and the length is 15 m.
8. If the man walked at x km/h then the woman cycled at .x C 16/km/h.
Distance (km) Speed (km/h) Time (h)
30
Man 30 x
x
30
Woman 30 x C 16
x C 16
Hence
30 30
D C 6:
x x C 16
By solving the equation you should find that the man walked at 4 km/h and the woman cycled at 20
km/h.
258
9. (a) fx 2 R : 3 < x < 15 g

2 3
(b) fx 2 R : x 3
or x 2
}
1 1
10. (a) k < 4
or k > 4
(b) k 1 or k 7
11. x 2 . 1; 1/ , 1 < x < 1 , x2 < 1
12. Suppose the stone is between 125 m and 320 m below ground t seconds after it is dropped.
We must solve
125 < 5t 2 < 320 and t 0
i.e. we solve
25 < t 2 < 64 and t 0
which yields
25 < t 2 and t 2 < 64 and t 0:
The solution of 25 < t 2 is t < 5 or t > 5 and the solution of t 2 < 64 is 8 < t < 8: The value of
t such that t 0 and ( t < 5 or t > 5/ and ( 8 < t < 8/ is ( t > 5 and t < 8/; i.e. 5 < t < 8:
Thus the stone will be between 125 m and 320 m below ground for the time period from 5 seconds to
8 seconds after the stone is dropped.
Exercise 2.4
3
1. (a) x D 2
5
(b) x D 1 (x D 3
is not a solution)
(c) x D 3 or x D 1
(d) no solution
(e) x 1
(f) x D 2 (x D 6 is not a solution)
(g) x D 2 (x D 10 is not a solution)
2.s ut/
2. (a) C D 59 .F 32/ (b) aD
t2
r
3v IR
(c) rD (d) nD
h E Ir
f .D 2 d 2 / . 1/uv
(e) aD (f) rD
D2 C d 2 u v
Fr A 2 r2 A
(g) mD (h) hD D r
gr C v 2 2 r 2 r
259 MAT0511/001
Exercise 2.5
1. (a) x D 1; yD0 (b) x D 3; y D 1

(c) x D 1; y D 2 (d) x D 8; y D 3
(e) x D 1; y D 41 (f) x D 21 ; y D 13
2. Suppose the integers are x and y: Then

)
xCyD 2
:
x y D 20
The numbers are 9 and 11:
3. Suppose there were x twenty rand notes and y ten rand notes. Then
)
x C y D 29
:
20x C 10y D 500
There were 21 twenty rand notes and 8 ten rand notes.
4. Suppose Susan has x one rand coins and Simon has y one rand coins.
If Susan gives Simon one of her coins she has .x 1/ coins and he has .y C 1/ coins. Then Simon has
half the number of coins that Susan has, i.e.
y C 1 D 12 .x 1/:
However, if Simon gives Susan one of his coins then he has .y 1/ coins and she has .x C 1/ coins.
Susan then has five times as many coins as Simon, i.e.
x C 1 D 5.y 1/:
Now solve )
y C 1 D 12 .x 1/
:
x C 1 D 5.y 1/
Susan has 9 one rand coins and Simon has 3 one rand coins.
5. (a) Suppose the father is x years old and the son is y years old.
Then )
x D 5y C 3
:
x C 10 D 3.y C 10/ 7
The father is 28 years old and the son 5 years old.
(b) Suppose the tuition fee is Rx and the residence fee is Ry: Then
)
x C y D 14 000
:
y D 12 x C 2 750
The tuition fee is R7 500 and the residence fee is R6 500:

260
(c) Suppose x litres of Beer A and y litres of Beer B are to be used.

Then 9
x C y D 100 >
>
>
=
:
>
>
3; 5 6 5 >
xC yD .100/ ;
100 100 100
40 litres of Beer A and 60 litres of Beer B must be used.
6. Suppose the present age of Nadine is x years and her daughter’s age is y years. Then
x D 8y C 2:
In 12 years time Nadine will be .x C 12/ years old and her daughter will be .y C 12/ years old. Then
.y C 12/ D 21 .x C 12/ 4:
Now solve )
x D 8y C 2
:
y C 12 D 12 .x C 12/ 4
At present Nadine is 26 years old and her daughter is 3 years old.
7. Suppose there are x red cricket balls and y white cricket balls in the box. Then
xDy 4:
If I take one–third of the white balls out then there will be 23 y white balls remaining in the box. The
ratio of the number of red balls to white balls is then 5 : 4. Hence
x : 23 y D 5 : 4:
Now
x : 23 y D 5 : 4
x 5
, 2y
D
3
4
, 4x D 5. 2y
3
/:
Now solve )
xDy 4
:
4x D 5. 2y
3
/
There were 20 red balls and 24 white balls in the box.
8. Suppose, at the beginning of the term, x boys played soccer and y boys played cricket. Then
x D y C 20:
261 MAT0511/001
In the middle of the term 10 boys stopped playing cricket and started playing soccer. Then .x C 10/
boys played soccer and .y 10/ boys played cricket. Thus
x C 10 5
D
y 10 4
and hence
4.x C 10/ D 5.y 10/:
Now solve )
x D y C 20
:
4.x C 10/ D 5.y 10/
At the beginning of the term 170 boys played cricket and 190 boys played soccer.
p p p p
9. (a) x D 2 and y D 2I x D 2 and y D 2
2
(b) x D 3
and y D 37 I x D 2 and y D 3
18 22
(c) x D 2 and y D 2I x D 7
and y D 21
1
(d) x D 3
and y D 3; x D 1 and y D 1
10. Suppose the numbers are x and y: Then

)
2x C y D 11
:
x 2 C y 2 D 58
9 37
The numbers are 7 and 3 or 5
and 5
:
Unit 3
Exercise 3.1
11
1. (a) 4
(b) 2
2
1 2 x 5z 3
2. (a) 2x 3 .x 6/ 3 (b) 1
y2
3. (a) 2; 345 (b) 19; 547
3 3
4. (a) . 13 / 2 (b) 32
1 3 1
(c) . 81 / 8 (d) .27/ 2
5. (a) False
1 1
Correct version: If x n D a then x D a n or x D an.
(b) Correct
(c) Correct
262
(d) False
1 1 1 1 5
Correct version: 3a 3 2a 2 D 6a 3 C 2 D 6a 6
(e) Correct
(f) False
Correct version:
2
x3 D 4
p
3
, x2 D 4
, x 2 D 43
p p
, xD 43 or x D 43
p p
, xD 64 or x D 64
, x D 8 or x D 8
81 3
6. (a) x D 16
(b) x D1 (c) xD 2
(d) x D1
7. (a) The n th term, tn is given by tn D ar n 1 :

Hence
t3 D ar 2 D 81 (1)
and
t6 D ar 5 D 3: (2)
From (1) we have

81
aD : (3)
r2
If we substitute this into (2) we have
81
r5 D 3:
r2
Now
81
r5 D 3
r2
, 81r 3 D 3
, r3 D 3
81
, r3 D 1
27
:
263 MAT0511/001
Hence q
3 1 1
rD 27
D 3
:
1
(b) If we substitute r D 3
into (3) we have
81
aD 1
D 81 9 D 729:
9
(c)
t8 D ar 7 D 729 . 1 7
3
/
1
D 36
37
1
D 3
Exercise 3.2
1 1
1. (a) log5 . 125 /D 3 (b) log 1 . 27 /D3 (c) loga n D m
3
1
2. (a) . 18 / 3 D2 (b) 3 1
D 1
3
(c) vw D u
3. (a) 3 (b) 1 (c) 3
(d) (e) 2 (f)
2
(g) 1 (h) 3
(i) 1
3 3
(j) 2
(k) 2 (l) 2
(m) 5
4. (a) log 4 C log 25 D log.4 25/ D log 100 D log 102 D 2

54
(b) log3 54 log3 2 D log3 2
D log3 27 D log3 33 D 3
(c) log3 920 D 20 log3 9 D 20 log3 32 D 20 2 D 40
5
(d) 55 log5 2 D 5log5 2 D 25 D 32
(e)
5 log4 2 C log4 3 log4 6 D log4 25 C log4 3 log4 6

25 3
D log4
6
4
D log4 2
D log4 16
D log4 42
D 2
264
1
5. (a) 3
[2 log a C log b log.a C b/]
1
(b) 2
log3 .x 3 C 1/
3
(c) 2
log3 .x C 1/
1
(d) 2
ln a C 14 ln b
(e) 5 log5 x C x 4 log5 .x C 1/ log5 .x 4 C 1/
q p
1 1 1 p
6. (a) log x 2 y 4 z 8 .D log x y z/
.a 2 C b2 /
(b) log2
.a 2 b2 /
1
xy 2 x2y
(c) ln. 3 /2 .D ln 6 /
z z
3
(d) log3 9x
x p yq
(e) loga r
z
7. (a) 2; 32 (b) 2; 32 (c) 1; 77
8. (a) x D 4
Note: log x is defined for x > 0:
(b) x D 4 or x D 4
Note: log x 2 is defined for x 2 > 0; ie for x 2 R; x 6D 0:
p
5 3
(c) x D 2
Note: log x is defined for x > 0:
10
(d) x D 7
Note: The equation is defined for x > 1:
(e) No solution.
The equation is defined for x > 0: We cannot have a negative value for x.
3
(f) x D 2
The equation is defined for x > 1: Thus x D 1 is not a solution.
(g) x D 3
(h) x D 8 or x D 41
p 1
(i) x D 3 3 or x D 27
(j) x D 2
(k) x D 5
(l) x D 5
(m) x D 3
265 MAT0511/001
ln 3
(n) x D
ln 9 ln 8
ln 2 C 1
(o) x D
ln 2 1
ln 1 C ln 14
(p) x D 31
ln 2 ln 13
Exercise 3.3
12 5 3
1. (a) A D 10 000.1 C 300
/ D 10 000.1 C 0; 04/15 18 009; 44
After 5 years the value of the investment is approximately R18 009; 44:
12 10 3
(b) A D 10 000.1 C 300
/ D 10 000.1; 04/30 32 433; 98
After 10 years the value of the investment is approximately R32 433; 98:
2. Consider an initial amount of R100; invested for 1 year.
8;25 1 2
(a) A D 100.1 C 200
/ D 100.1; 04125/2 108; 42
8
(b) A D 100.1 C 1 200
/1 12 P 12
D 100.1; 006/ 108; 30
The best option would thus be (a).
9 3 2 5 000
3. 5 000 D P.1 C 200
/ ; i.e. P D 3 839; 48
.1; 045/6
You should invest R3 840 now.
4. (a) 4 years 7 months

(b) 3 years 5 months
12 5
5. 15 000 D P.1 C 100
/; i.e. P 8 511
Thus 5 years ago the diamond was worth approximately R8 500.
10 10
6. A D 80 000.1 100
/ ; i.e. A 27 894
Thus the car will be worth approximately R27 900:
10
7. (a) A D 24 000 000.2/ 20 33 941 125
Thus the population after 10 years will be approximately 34 million.
30
(b) A D 24 000 000.2/ 20 67 882 251
Thus the population after 30 years will be approximately 68 million.
24
8. (a) A D 20. 12 / 46;5 13; 98
There will be approximately 14; 0 g left after 1 day.
(b) A D 20. 12 / 24 7
46;5
1; 63
There will be approximately 1; 6 g left after 1 week.
9. (a) Approximately 15 hours

266
(b) After approximately 35 hours.
10. (a) Approximately 24 years

(b) Approximately 38 years (If the population triples then N D 3N0 .)
11. Approximately 18 years

1
12. (a) k D 5
ln 45
(b) 12; 8 g
1
13. (a) k D 10
ln 54
(b) 78; 125 million
267 MAT0511/001
REFERENCES
Barnett R.A. and Ziegler M.R.: Calculus for business, economics, life sciences, and social sciences, Macmil-
lan Publishing Company, 1993.
Christy, D.T. and Rosenfeld, R.: Beginning Algebra, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1994.
Cilliers, H.: Data Processing and Laboratory Procedure, Manual 1 for PHY103-8, University of South
Africa, 1996.
Cook, N.P.: Introductory Mathematics, Prentice Hall Career & Technology, 1995.
Freeman, R.: How to Learn Maths, National Extension College, 1994.
Jaffe, E.D. and Hibert, S.: GMAT (9th edition), Barren’s Educational Series, Inc., 1991.
James, R.C.: Mathematics Dictionary (3rd edition), D. van Nostrand Company, Inc., 1968.
Lial, M.L., Miller, C.D. and Hornsby, E.J. Jnr.: College Algebra (6th edition), Harper Collins College Pub-
lishers, 1993.
Page S., Berry J. and Hampson H.: Mathematics. A Second Start (2nd edition), Prentice Hall, 1996.
Thomason, J.M.: Precalculus Mathematics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1987.

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FUNDAMENTAL MATHEMATICS

Prepared by Dr. Faleye Sunday

MODULE 2: ALGEBRA TOOLS 1

Unit 1 Algebraic Expressions 1

1.1 Introduction to Algebra 3

1.2 Basic Algebraic Operations 14

1.3 Working with Algebraic Fractions 46

Unit 2 Equations and Inequalities 60

2.1 Introduction to Equations 61

2.2 Linear Equations and Inequalities 67

2.3 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities 95

2.4 Some Other Equations 128

2.5 Systems of Equations in Two Unknowns 136

Unit Summary 151

Unit 3 Exponents and Logarithms 156

3.1 Exponents 157

3.2 Logarithms 182

3.3 Applications of Exponents and Logarithms 210

Unit Summary 243

MODULE 2: Algebraic Tools

1.1: Introduction to Algebra

I Recognise the special words used in the language of algebra.

I Substitute numbers, variables or expressions into algebraic expressions.

1.2: Basic Algebraic Operations

I Add and subtract algebraic expressions.

I Multiply algebraic expressions

B using the distributive property

I Divide algebraic expressions

B using long division.

I Factorise algebraic expressions by

B taking out a common factor

I Complete the square.

1.3: Working with Algebraic Fractions

I Recognise a rational expression.

I Simplify rational expressions.

I Add (subtract) rational expressions.

I Multiply rational expressions.

I Divide rational expressions.

1.1 Introduction to Algebra

I A system of logic expressed in algebraic symbols.

Let us consider a formula we all know well. We have

distance D speed time

which we prefer to write more concisely as

Note: The word “speed” here refers to average speed.

VARIABLES AND CONSTANTS

(b) There are four terms. They are

(c) There are five terms. They are

It is important to note that in the expression

LIKE AND UNLIKE TERMS

The terms in an algebraic expression may be like terms or unlike terms.

I Like terms contain the same power of the same variable.

I If terms are not like we call them unlike.

The terms contain two different variables.

The language of algebra:

D . 8x 3 y/ C 4x 2 C 2yx 3 C . 1/ Algebraic expression with

Consider an algebraic expression such as

3x 2 C 2x y C 5y 2 D 3.1/2 C 2.1/.2/ C 5.2/2