Elements of Human Biology

M.
SC YOGA
FOR HUMAN EXCELLENCE
22YGB403T
ELEMENTS OF
HUMAN BIOLOGY
First Semester
Semester – I
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Potheri, Chengalpattu District 603203,
Tamil Nadu,INDIA
Phone: 044 – 27417040 / 41
Website: www.srmist.edu.in / Email:office.dde@srmist.edu.in
EXPERT COMMITTEE
S.No. NAME DESIGNATION ORGANISATION
1 Dr.R.Rajagopal Director DDE - SRMIST
2 Dr.N.A.Perumal Director General WCSC-VISION for Wisdom
3 Dr.K.Perumal Director Academy WCSC-VISION for Wisdom
Vethathiri Maharishi College of
4 Dr.S.Jayaprakash Principal
Yoga
5 Dr.S.Pragadeeswaran Subject Expert Annamalai University
6 Dr.V.Nithyananthan Subject Expert CARE-SRMIST, KTR
7 Dr.S.JahiraParveen Subject Expert FOM – SRMIST, KTR
8. Dr.K.Usha Subject Expert DDE - SRMIST
Academic
9 Dr.G.Venugopalan DDE – SRMIST, KTR
Coordinator
Course Writer(s)
1. Dr.M.V.Rabindranath, M.B.B.S., M.D., Director R&D, WCSC
2. Dr.N.A.Perumal, B.V.Sc., PhD., Director General., WCSC
3. Dr.P.Dhanapathy, B.V.Sc., Phd. WCSC
WCSC – VISION for Wisdom

The World Community Service Centre
Vethathiri Maharishi Institute for Spiritual and Intuitional Education
Temple of Consciousness, Arutperumjothi Nagar,
Aliyar – 642 101. Pollachi. Ph: 9486112222 / 94421 24234
Information contained in this book has been obtained by its Author(s) from sources believed
to be reliable and are correct to the best of their knowledge. However Publishers and the
Author(s) shall in no event be liable for any errors, omissions or damages arising out of this
information and specifically disclaim any implied warranties or merchantability or fitness
for any particular.
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Potheri, Kancheepuram District 603203, Tamil Nadu,INDIA
Phone: 044 – 27417040 / 41
Website: www.srmist.edu.in / Email:office.dde@srmist.edu.in
22YGGB403T – ELEMENTS OF HUMAN BILOGY – SYLLABUS
UNIT 1: CELL BIOLOGY AND MUSCULO-SKELETAL SYSTEM:

Introduction to cell, tissue, organs and systems; Basic cell physiology-Cell- Introduction, Cell
Organelles, Cell membrane, Movement of the substances and water through the cell membrane,
Bioelectric potentials.
Muscle - Classification - Histology - properties of each type - distribution - Mechanism of muscle

contraction (Brief) - neuromuscular transmission (Brief), ligaments, tendons, Skeleton-Bones-types,
Structure & function, Spinal column. Joints - Types, Structure, Function.
UNIT 2: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

Anatomy of Heart and blood vessels - Innervation of heart - Properties of cardiac muscle - Control of cardiac
cycle and circulation - Cardiac output - Blood pressure.
Composition of blood corpuscles - R.B.C., W.B.C., Platelets. Plasma, Hemoglobin - Coagulation of
blood and anticoagulants. Blood groups and its importance, lymphatic system, Immunity - types &
mechanism
Anatomy-Gross & Histological - Mechanism of Breathing, Exchange of gases Pulmonary function tests- lung
volumes - Control of respiration.
UNIT 3: DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

Anatomy - Gross and Histological - Mechanism of secretion of - Saliva, Gastric Juice, Pancreatic Juice,
Bile, Intestinal secretion - Role of these secretions in digestion of food, Absorption and assimilation
and formation of faeces.
Anatomy-Gross & Histology - Functions of glomerules and renal tubules Micturition and composition
of urine - structure and functions of skin-Regulation of body temperature.
UNIT 4: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

Anatomy - Gross & Histological, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Supra - renal, Pituitary, Islets of Langerhans -
Function of thyroid and parathyroid hormone, effect of hypo and hyperactivity on the body. Hormones of
supra-renal and their action and effect of hypo & hyper activity on the body. Hormones of pituitary
gland- its action and effect of hypo & hyper activity on the body. Role of insulin in glucose metabolism.
Anatomy - Gross & History of Male reproductive system - Spermatogenesis. Female reproductive
system - Ovarian harmones, Menstruation, Pregnancy, Parturition, Lactation.
UNIT 5: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SPECIAL SENSES:

Anatomy - Gross - Cerebrum, cerebellum, Spinal cord. Histology - Nerve - structure and properties of
neurons - Nerve - Action Potential - generation propagation – factors influencing. Classification of
neurons and nerve fibers Receptors and reflex arc. Functions and important connections of Cerebrum, Pons,
Medulla, Thalamus, Hypothalamus, Cerebellum - Autonomic nervous system - Sympathetic and
parasympathetic - anatomy & functions.
Eyes Anatomy - Histology of retina, Corneal function, Physiology of vision & accommodation, Sense of smell
- nasal mucosa, tongue, taste buds. Ear-Mechanism ofhearing and function of semicircular canal.
References:
1. Arthur C. Guyton & John Edwar Hall (2006), Textbook of Medical Physiology,
Florida,United States,Elsevier standards.
2. Surinder H Singh & Krishna Garg (2008), Anatomy and physiology for nurses &
Alliedhealth sciences, New Delhi CBS Publishers.
3. Sivaramakrishnan S (2006), Anatomy and physiology for physical education, new delhi,Friends
publishers.
4. Anne Waugh &Alsongraunt (2005) Anatomy and physiology in Health and
Wellness,Allahabad, ChurhcillLivingtone.
5. Clark Robert K (2005), Anatomy & Physiology – Understanding the human body,
Suddury,United states, Jones &Bartiett.
6. Shri Krishna (1985) Notes on structure and functions of human body & Effects of
Yogicpractices in it, Mumbai. ICYHC Kaivalyadharma.
7. Dutta Ray (2001) Yogi exercises, New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
8. Shirley Telles (2006) A Glimpse of the human, Bangalore : Swami Vivekananda Yogaprakashana
9. Leslie Kaminoff (2007) yoga anatomy, Champaign : Human Kinetics
10. Peter L Williams & Roger Waswie (1988) Gray’s Anatomy, Edinburgh: ChurchillLivingstone.
11. Evelyne C Peace (1997) Anatomy & Physiology for nurses, New Delhi: Jaypee Brothers.
12. Gore M.M. (2003) Anatomy & Physiology for yogic practices, Lonavala : Kamhanprakshan.
NOTES
19YGB401T
22YGB403T 1. SCOPE OF ANATOMY
Anatomy of the Human body
Man’s search for health is unending – a quest for longer, happier and
healthier life. The basic knowledge of structure, size, shape, location and
functioning of various organs of the human body is provided by two important
subjects – Human Anatomy and Human Physiology.
Human Anatomy is the branch of biomedical science dealing with normal
structure, shape, size, and location of various parts of the body. The study of
anatomy with unaided eye is called gross anatomy whereas; study of minute
details of various parts studied under the microscope is called histology.
Human Physiology is the branch of biomedical science, dealing with normal
functioning of various organs in the body. It describes what happens in various
organs and organ systems contained in our body, say how one digests,
assimilates, breathes, excretes, reproduces etc. It tells about the vital fluid called
blood and how it continuously circulates in the body with pumping carried out by
the physiological pump called the heart.
While Anatomy is a detailed study of the body, its shape, structure etc.
Physiology deals with the functions of a living thing and its parts like the brain,
heart, lungs, kidneys etc. Anatomy and Physiology go hand in hand and form one
of the basic subjects of medical science. Hippocrates (460 – 377 BCE), a Greek
philosopher and physician, is regarded as the Father of Modern Medical Science.
He had undertaken very deep studies into the workings of the human body and
recorded his findings for the benefit of posterity. Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564),
who wrote the book De humani corporis fabrica, after studying the organs of the
corpses dissected by him, is considered the Founder of Modern Anatomy.
There are also other interesting functions of the body. The nervous system
controls and co-ordinates all the systems of the body and gives us sensations,
movements, intelligence etc. and guide us at every moment both externally and
internally with or without our knowledge.
1 WCSC-VISION M.Sc YHE SLM

The endocrine glands are also a great force in the growth and development
NOTES
of our body. All these functions of various systems, co-operate and co-ordinate to
maintain the Homeostasis in our body functions.
The science of physiology draws freely from biochemistry and biophysics.
The biochemical examination of blood and urine may reflect the changes in the
body functioning and hence aid in the diagnosis of disease. Study of biophysics is
also useful. The hydrostatic and osmotic pressure govern the maintenance of
equilibrium of the body fluids.
Introduction the Dynamic Human Body
Life is perhaps the most mysterious, dynamic and marvelous existence in the
universe. One can see the life in different stages ranging from the unicellular
amoeba to the highest evolved creature, the human being. The complexity of the
organization of the organism progressively increases from unicellular,
multicellular, and multilayered animals to worms and then from worms to
vertebrates and finally the human beings. Although the human body has the most
complex organisatioin, fundamentally the cell remains the functional unit of life.
Tissue: The human body as a whole is built of billions and trillions of cells.
An aggregation or group of cells having similar origin, structure are 1. Epithelial
2. Connective 3. Muscular and 4. Nervous.
Organ: Different tissues combined together to perform particular function or
functions is called an organ. For example, stomach is composed of epithelial,
muscular and connective tissues, each has its own function. The epithelial system
covers, the muscular system performs movements and the connective tissue
connects and supports them.
Organ system: Various organs, working in co-ordination for the particular
function or functions form an organ system. Various organ systems are the
osseous (skeleton), articular, muscular, digestive, circulatory, respiratory, nervous,
excretory, reproductive and endocrine system. Their names are suggestive of their
respective functions.

NOTES
Different Organ Systems
Osseous System (Skeleton): The primary purpose of skeleton is to support
the body. It is strong enough to resist great pressure, yet flexible enough to absorb
a certain amount of shock, without shattering. It also permits necessary
movements.
The skeleton is the framework of bones which are organized to form distinct
parts such as skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, upper and lower extremity
bones.
Articular System: The articular system is joining various bones at their ends
or edges by means of cartilages, membranes and ligaments. The joints give the
movements by co-ordinated contraction of groups of muscles which are controlled
by nerves.
Muscular System: There are three types of muscles in the body 1. Skeletal 2.
Visceral and 3. Cardiac. Their names suggest, their location. Skeletal muscles are
usually attached to bones, visceral muscles are found in the visceral organs such
as stomach, intestine etc. and the heart is made up of cardiac muscles. Skeletal
muscles are voluntary, while cardiac and visceral muscles are involuntary in
nature. Involuntary and voluntary muscles are controlled by autonomic and
central nervous system respectively. Skeletal muscles work with bones, ligaments
and cartilages to produce movement at the body joints.
Digestive System: Food is one of the basic needs of life. Digestive system is
concerned with food – its swallowing, digestion, absorption, assimilation and
metabolism. The digestive system consists of alimentary canal and the associated
glands. The alimentary canal starts from the mouth as a hollow musculo-
glandular tube, dilated and deviated, on its about 30 feet devious journey it ends
at the anus. Various parts of the alimentary canal are pharynx, oesophagus,
stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, large intestine (colon) and the
rectum. The associated glands are salivary, pancreas and liver.
The digestion takes place mainly in duodenum and jejunum. However, it
starts with the digestion of starch in the mouth. Stomach stores and mechanically
churns the food. Partial digestion of food specially of proteins also start here.
Pancreatic secretion, bile and intestinal secretions provide enzymes for the
NOTES
digestion. The gastric and intestinal peristaltic movements produce mechanical
digestion as against the biochemical secretion. Absorption of the digested food
occurs in the small intestine. Water is mainly absorbed from stomach and the
colon. Various drugs and vitamins are absorbed from the small intestine. The liver
is the metabolic factory of the body and metabolism of the foods occurs here. Liver
is thus the lever of health.
Respiratory System: One can live without food for a month or so but one
cannot survive for more than few minutes without oxygen. This oxygen is
continuously being exchanged with carbon dioxide in the body through the
respiratory system. It consists of nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi,
bronchioles and lungs. Intercostal muscles (external and internal) and diaphragm
are the respiratory muscles which contract and relax for inspiration and expiration
respectively.
Cardiovascular System: The functioning of a city is possible through an
intricate system of streets and roads which link houses, offices, stores, factories,
hospitals and other key places. Various parts of the human body require continual
supply of nutrient and oxygen and a continual removal of waste. This is being
done by the circulatory system. It consists of the pumping station the heart and
the intricate network of blood vessles. The blood vessles which carry blood from
the heart are the arteries. They divide and redivide into arterioles, finally ending
into minute hair like capillaries. The capillaries form venules and veins which
bring the blood back from various parts of the body and pour it into the heart.
Blood is the vital fluid of the body which is concerned with the transport or
respiratory gases, nutrition and excretory products. Besides, it is also involved in
the maintenance of water, acid-base balance (pH), body temperature and hence
homeostasis of the body. Leucocytes (WBC) present in the blood give protection to
the body from bacteria, toxins, foreign material etc.
The defensive mechanism is an inborn instinct of a living organism. It has a
priority at every stage ranging from an individual human to society, state and
even at the national level. Human body also has a well-organized defence system.
NOTES
Body Fluids and Lymphatic System: Every living organism is full of water.
Human being is intricately filled up with watery fluid which weighs two third of
his body weight. On an average 62% of the body weight of man and 51% of the
body weight of woman is water. In infants water is 65-75% of its body weight. In
the human body, water exists in two forms. 1. Intracellular fluid and 2.
Extracellular fluid.
Connected to the circulatory system is the lymphatic system which consists
on the closed lymphatic vessels containing a fluid called lymph. The lymph flows
in lymph sinuses, capillaries and vessels ending in lymph nodes. The lymph
nodes are finally drained into the heart through lymphatic ducts which end in
subclavian vein.
Excretory System: It includes mainly the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder
and urethra. It works to eliminate the waste products of cell activity through urine
which is formed in the kidney, stored in the urinary bladder and is voided outside
at regular intervals through the urethra.
Reproductive System: The continuity of the species is maintained by
reproduction. In the highest evolved organism i.e. human being, the mode of
reproduction is sexual. Sex is the character which divides the world into two
groups, male and female.
Male: In male, there are two testes situated in the scrotal bag. They form
spermatozoa and secrete the hormone testosterone. The vas-deferens, a cord like
structure carries the spermatozoa to seminal vesicles and the prostate gland.
Seminal vesicles are situated behind the bladder and open via ducts into the
prostate at the mouth of the bladder. Semen is the male sex secretion and contain
billions of live spermatozoa. A spermatozoa is the unit of male contribution to
start a new life through zygote.
Female: Female reproductive organs include vaginal canal, uterus, fallopian
tubes and ovaries. Vaginal canal extends from the cervix of the uterus to outside.
The uterus is the organ where the development of baby takes place. It is an
inverted pear like structure with thick walls. Two uterine or fallopian tubes, one
on each side opening into the uterus. In this tube, glides small mustard size, ovum
which comes from the ovary once a month. There is one ovary on each side. The
NOTES
ovum is the unit of sex life in woman. If the male sperm unites with the ovum
after coitus, a zygote is formed. This multiplies and differentiates to give a baby,
which represents the genetic traits of parents and ancestors of either side.
Nervous system: This is the system of control and co-ordination of the body.
It can be compared with a complex telephone system which consists of central
telephone exchange that interconnects, controls and co-ordinates a vast branching
network of telephone wires, carrying a dazzling number of incoming and
outgoing messages. The central telephone exchange is comparable to the central
nervous system comprising of the brain and the spinal cord. The wires are like
nerves passing through various junction boxes called ganglia. Physiologically, the
voluntary activities are controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
Endocrine System: Besides the nervous system, the body activities are also
controlled by chemicals called hormones. They are secreted by the specialized
ductless glands – endocrine glands. These glands pour their secretions directly
into the blood. Various endocrine glands are pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
suprarenal (adrenal), testes, ovaries, placenta and the pancreas.
Although different organ systems are functionally independent, they are
interdependent on each other. For example-bones, joints and ligaments are all
concerned with movement. The movement is not only necessary for locomotion
but also for various functions like circulation, respiration and propulsion of food
for digestion etc. The muscular system itself is controlled by the nervous system,
the vitality of which is dependent on adequate supply of oxygen through the
blood. The nervous system controls all other systems of the body and thus reigns
supreme. These few illustrations show that the human physiological systems
work in co-operation and co-ordination.
Homeostasis: The human body apparently looks solid like but it holds
within, it, nearly 70 percent of water in the form of plasma, lymph, tissue fluid
and transcellular fluid. In human body, the composition of blood and body fluids
generally vary with respect to gases and solids within very narrow limits. Various
organs such as skin, kidneys, lungs, endocrine glands etc. interact in the most
NOTES
complex manner and carry out their functions with such a precision that the
relative consistency is maintained among body fluids. They respond with the
utmost delicacy to any condition which might tend to cause any departure from
the normal state. This mechanism regulating the integrity of body fluids is termed
as homeostasis. It is the keystone to longevity of life.
One of the classical examples of homeostasis is the maintenance of the blood
glucose level within narrow limits. Any factor which tends to increase or decrease
blood sugar level will result into activation of counteracting mechanism. This in
turn leads to normalization of the blood sugar level, the hormones of pancreas viz.
insulin and glucagon maintain the blood sugar level.

Schematic representation of an example of homeostasis – Maintenance of blood
NOTES
glucose level by pancreatic hormones

NOTES
Summary of organ systems and their organs
System Organs
Osseous Skull, Vertebral column, Thoracic cage
Upper extremity, Lower extremity.
Muscular Skeletal muscles
Digestive Oral cavity, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach,
Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum, Caecum, Colon,
Rectum, Anus
Respiratory Nasal cavity, Pharynx, Larynx, Trachea, Bronchi,
Bronchioles, Alveoli, Lungs
Circulatory Heart, Arteries, Arterioles, Capillaries, Venules,
Veins, Blood
Lymphatic Spleen, Thymus, Tonsils, Lymph nodes, Lymph
vessels, Lymph
Excretory Kidneys, Ureters, Urinary bladder, Urethra, Lungs,
Skin, Sweat glands
Reproductive Testes, Vas-deferens, Seminal vesicles, Prostate
gland, Penis (Male), Ovary, Fallopian tubes,
Uterus, Vagina (Female)
Nervous Brain, Spinal cord, Cranial nerves, Spinal nerves,
Ganglia
Endocrine Pituitary, Pineal, Thyroid, Parathyroid, Thymus,
Pancreas, Adrenal, Ovary, Testes

NOTES 2. CELL BIOLOGY
The Basic Unit of the Body (Cell)

Years of research by eminent scientists and physicians from all over the
world led to the discovery that the cells are the basic units of the body. A Cell is
the smallest structural and functional unit of the living body. To understand the
function of organs and other structures of the body, it is essential to understand
the basic organization of the cell and the function of each component of cell (cell
organells). A human body may have as many as 1014 cells. The size, shape and
functions of the cell vary significantly to suit the requirements. Average diameter
of the cell is approximately 10 micrometers (1-10micromts).
Cell Physiology
Physiology mainly focuses on the functions of structures and we cannot
discuss physiology without knowing anatomy. Similarly, we cannot understand
the anatomy & physiology until unless we know the composition of human body.
The human body consists of atoms of chemical elements such as carbon,
hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen. It also contains smaller amounts of many other
elements including, calcium, iron, phosphorus, potassium and sodium.
Atoms of chemical elements combine and make thin structures called
molecules. Water is the most common molecule in our body. A molecule of water
consists of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. Water makes up
about 70 percent of our body and most of the chemical reactions that take place in
our body required water.
Except for water, all main molecules in the body contain the element carbon.
Physical structure of the cell:
The cell along with fluids, enzymes and chemicals contain highly organized
physical structures called as organelles. Most cells comprise of:
(1) Cell membrane (2) Cytoplasm and (3) Nucleus.
The cell membrane is the outer covering of the cell which is 7.5 to 10
nanometers thick. It is composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids.

NOTES
Cytoplasm consists of various organelles like endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, lysosomes, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, centrosomes etc.
The nucleus consists of nuclear membrane, nucleolus and network of
chromatin (DNA)
Shapes of Cells:
Cells have different shapes and sizes which are related to its needs or to the
job it does. For example, the long, thin muscle cells can contract to do work. The
long, many branded
nerve cells relay
messages throughout
the body. Muscle
cells expand and
contract. Their long,
thin shape helps them to do this. The outer layer of skin forms a protective cover
over our body. Their flat shape helps them to cover a large area.
Unicellular and multicellular
There are two types of cellular organisms one is unicellular and another is
multicellular. Organisms, which are made up of one cell only are unicellular and
of many cells are called multicellular (multi means many) organisms.
Our body is multicellular where cells do different jobs that help to keep our
body alive. For example, red blood cells in our body carry oxygen and nerve cells
message to and from the brain. Cells that do a certain job in a multicellular
organism are called specialized cells. Thus, red blood cells and nerve cells are
called specialized cells.
Cell Membrane:
It is the outer envelope of the cells which is thin and elastic. It is only 5 to 10
nanometer thick and composed almost entirely of proteins and lipids and small
amount of carbohydrates. The approximate chemical composition is proteins, 55%,
lipids 42% (phospholipids 25%, cholesterol 13%, other lipids 4%) and
carbohydrates 3%.

Basic structure of cell membrane and Organelles:
NOTES
The cell membrane consists of lipid bilayer, which is a thin film of lipids only
two molecules thick that is continuous over the entire cell surface. Interspersed in
this lipid film are large globular protein molecules.
The lipid bilayer is mainly composed of phospholipid molecules. The end
which contains phosphate group is polar and therefore soluble in water. The other
end of the phospholipid molecule is highly non-polar. The polar portion project to
outer sides of the membrane, whereas the non-polar (hydrophobic) portion of
phospholipid remains in the centre.
The lipid layer because of hydrophobicity repels water soluble substances
such as electrolytes, glucose, urea, etc, and thus prevent their entry into the cell.
Fat soluble substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and alcohol can easily
penetrate the lipid membrane.
The cell membrane is not solid in nature but it is fluid. Therefore, portions of
the membrane can literally flow from one point to another along the surface of the
membrane. Proteins from one area can migrate to the other area.
The cholesterol which is another lipid present in cell-membrane controls the
fluidity of the cell and also the permeability of the water soluble components.
Cell membrane proteins are of two types: Integral proteins and peripheral
proteins. Integral proteins protrude all the way through the membrane. These
proteins mainly functions as ion channels and carrier proteins, thus help in
transport of selected water soluble components into and out of the cell.
Peripheral proteins are mainly enzymes located, in most cases on the inside of the
membrane.
Carbohydrates in cell membrane are mainly in form of glycoproteins or
glycolipids. Carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids mostly protrude out of
the cell and at times outer surface of the cell has carbohydrate coat called the
glycocalyx.
These carbohydrate coat provides negative change to cell membrane which
repels negative charged substances. Many of such carbohydrates act as receptor
substances for hormones like insulin.
NOTES
Cell organelles:
Cytoplasm: It is the mass of living material which consists of proteins, fats,

carbohydrates, pigments, minerals, vitamins and various organells embedded in
it. Cytoplasm may be granular, homogenous or reticular in nature. Various
organelles embedded in cytoplasm are the endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes,
lysosomes, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, centrosomes etc.
Nucleus: It is the key
structure of the living cell, like
the brain of man in miniature. It
consists of dense chromosomal
network (chromatin) and
nucleolus.
The whole nucleus is
surrounded by a nuclear
membrane which is identical to
the cell-membrane. It is
perforated by numerous pores and appears to be continuous with endoplasmic
reticulum.
Chromatin is the set of hereditary material consisting of Deoxyribose Nucleic
Acid (DNA) in the form of genes. When the cell divides, the chromatin becomes
compact, and dense, and rod like particles called chromosomes become distinct.

Each human body cell is made up of 46 chromosomes. In addition to DNA,
NOTES
nucleus also consists of Ribo Nucleic Acid (RNA)
Nucleolus is a tiny spherical, dark staining body consisting of 95% proteins
and 5% RNA. A nucleus may contain one or more nucleoli. The function of
nucleolus is synthesis of ribosomal RNA and its packaging with protein, to form
ribosomes. It disappears temporarily during the cell division.
Most of the body cells contain single nucleus which is round or oval in
shape. However, there are exceptions e.g. skeletal muscle fibres are multinuclear
and the floating red blood cells lack the nucleus.
Functions of the nucleus are: 1. Cell division. 2. Transfer of hereditary
characteristics. 3. Synthesis of proteins and enzymes. Since nucleus contains
genetic material that directs functioning of all the parts, the nucleus is also
considered as the control center of the cell.
Endoplasmic Reticulum:
It consists of network of tubules and flat vesicular structure. It has a large
surface area and consists of outer membrane like cell membrane the space inside
the tubules and vesicles is filled with matrix consisting of a watery fluid medium –
different from cytosol.
The major function of endoplasmic reticulum is to transport substances from
one part of the cell to the other. The large amount of enzymes and vast surface
area allow metabolic reactions.
Ribosomes comprise a complex macromolecular machine, found within all
living cells, that serves as the site of biological protein synthesis. Ribosomes link
amino acids together in the order specified by messenger RNA molecules.
Vesicle in cell biology, a vesicle is a structure within or outside a cell,
consisting of liquid or cytoplasm enclosed by a lipid bilayer. Vesicles form
naturally during the processes of secretion, uptake and transport of materials
within the plasma membrane.
Vesicles are organelles, the small enclosed sacs that function to transport and
store substances within a cell, or from one cell to another. They have a lipid

NOTES
bilayer, which separates the contents of the vesicle from the rest of the cell, from
the cytoplasm and its contents.
Golgi Apparatus: Its shape is like a network of threads. It contains large
amount of lipoproteins. The synthesis of various secretions takes place in the
Golgi apparatus. Enzymes, ascorbic acid and some other substances are stored
here. Golgi apparatus is the first organelle to be affected by drugs and poisons.
The cytoskeleton of a cell is made up of microtubules, actin filaments, and
intermediate filaments. These structures give the cell its shape and help organize
the cell's parts. In addition, they provide a basis for movement and cell division.
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), meshwork of fine disklike tubular
membrane vesicles, part of a continuous membrane organelle within the
cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, that is involved in the synthesis and storage of
lipids, including cholesterol and phospholipids, which are used in the production
of new cellular membrane. The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is
distinguished from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), by its lack of
ribosomes, which are protein-synthesizing particles that can be found attached to
the outer surface of the RER to give the membrane its “rough” appearance. SER
occurs both in animal and in plant cells.
Microsomes: They are minute particles. They occupy one fourth of the
weight of the cell. They contain more fat as compared to mitochondrial cells.
Vacuoles: A vacuole is a membrane-bound organelle which is present in all
plant and fungal cells and some protist, animal and bacterial cells. Vacuoles are
found in cytoplasm of the cell. They are covered by fatty material.
The cytosol, also known as intracellular fluid or cytoplasmic matrix, or
groundplasm, is the liquid found inside cells. It is separated into compartments by
membranes. For example, the mitochondrial matrix separates the mitochondrion
into many compartments.
Lysosomes: These are the “suicide bags” of the cells which contain more
than dozen powerful hydrolytic enzymes capable of digesting the very substance
of the cell. The living cell is protected from this disastrous result by the membrane
of the lysosome, which in some way, not yet understood, holds the lytic enzymes
without itself being digested. At the time of death of the cell the lysosome
NOTES
membrane ruptures, their enzymes spill out, and self-digestion or autolysis of the
body cells ensues.
Centriole: In cell biology a centriole is a cylindrical organelle composed
mainly of a protein called tubulin. Centrioles are found in most eukaryotic cells. A
bound pair of centrioles, surrounded by a shapeless mass of dense material, called
the pericentriolar material, makes up a structure called a centrosome.
Centrosomes: The cell has a pair of tiny, cylindrical structures called
centrioles, which can be seen only when the cell is dividing. The two centrioles,
together form the centrosome. Centriole of the centrosome, is situated near the
nucleus and play very important role in the cell division. Before the division, of
entire cell, centriole and centrosome divide into two each. Two radiating lines
grow from the centriole and form achromatic spindle. The nucleus divides and
chromosomes are equally shared in the achromatic spindle. These divided cells
are known as daughter cells.
Plasmosin: It is found in cytoplasm and it consists of long protein molecules,
especially deoxyribo-nucleoprotein.
Despite their potential danger, the lysosomes perform important functions in
the cell. They are the cell’s digestive organelles. Their appearance varies greatly
according to the phase of their activity. Indeed, lysosomes are so variable that they
cannot be identified by appearance alone, but rather by the presence of lytic
enzymes. Particals taken into the cell, as well as various complex chemical
compounds synthesized within the cell, are broken down by the lysosomal
enzymes in lysosomes into smaller fragments that can pass through the
mitochondrial membrane and be utilized in the cell’s energy metabolism. Broken
mitochondria and other bits of cell-debris are removed after digestion in the
lysosomes. Lysosomes are particularly active in phagocytes, which are white
blood cells that engulf microbes and other invading foreign particles. The lytic
enzymes of ruptured lysosomes are the key factors in the breakdown of individual
cells that have died, clearing the way for their replacement.

NOTES
Enzymes:
Enzymes form a major part of the cell. They are made of proteins and act as
catalysts, accelerating the rate of metabolic reactions from digestion of the food, to
synthesis of the DNA. They are responsible for the chemical conversions that
sustain life.
The Mitochondria: Mitochondria rightly called the “powerhouse of the cell”,
are typically large saucer shaped organelles, about 0.5 micron in diameter and 4
micron in length. They are readily visible even under the light microscope,
particularly when stained with the vital dye called Janus green. The shape, size,
number and distribution of the mitochondria vary, depending on the kind of the
cell and its activity. They average cell contains a few hundred mitochondria, while
a liver cell may contain a thousand or more. Mature erythrocytes, on the other
hand, have no mitochondria at all. Within the cell, mitochondria tend to collect in
areas of the greatest cell activity.
Two membranes envelop the mitochondrion, each of which has typical
protein-lipid protein unit form of membrane structure. The inner membrane of the
mitochondrion is extensively folded, with the fold (cristae) projecting like shelves
into the interior of the mitochondrion and vastly increasing the surface area of the
membrane. In a highly magnified electron micrographs, both the outer and the
inner membranes of the mitochondria have a pimpled appearance. They are
covered with thousands of tiny particles, which are thought to be enzymes.
The mitochondrion is filled with fluid inside. Enzymes floating in the fluid
and other enzymes associated with the inner membrane activate various reaction
of the cell’s respiratory cycles. The energy released in these reaction is stored in
the form of ATP.
Studies have shown that the mitochondria contain not only RNA, but also
DNA, and thus carry blue prints for their own replication and growth,
independent of the DNA in the nucleus.
There are four most important carbon – Containing large molecules namely
1) Carbohydrates which provide energy that powers all the body’s activities;
2) Lipids that have several jobs i.e. storage of extra fuel by fat lipids and
making up the body by other lipids;
NOTES
3) Proteins also have different duties;
4) Nucleic acids which carry instructions that tell each cell how to perform its
special jobs.
Transport Mechanisms across the cell membrane
The main function of the cell membrane is selective permeability and
transport of various ions and substance into and out of the cell. This movement
across the cell membrane may occur with or without the assistance of membrane
components.
The process of transport that occurs without assistance of membrane
components is called passive transport or non-mediated transport. It includes
diffusion and osmosis.
The process of transport that occurs with the assistance of membrane
components is called mediated transport. Facilitated diffusion and active transport
are mediated transport mechanisms.
A third type of process of transport involves the formation and movement of
membrane – bound sacs or vesicles. This is known as vesicle mediated transport.
Endocytosis (pinocytosis and phagocytosis) and exocytosis are the examples of
such transport systems.
Movement of substances
Water, carbon dioxide, and oxygen are among the few simple molecules that
can cross the cell membrane by diffusion (or a type of diffusion known as
osmosis). Diffusion is one principle method of movement of substances within
cells, as well as the method for essential small molecules to cross the cell
membrane.
Synthesis of Proteins
The production of proteins from the stored information in DNA involves
two steps: transcription and translation.
The transcription involves copying of the information from DNA into
messenger RNA (mRNA), mRNA then travels from nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm, where the information is used to construct a protein. The process of
NOTES
constructing a protein from the information present in mRNA is called as
translation. The ingredients necessary to synthesize a protein are amino acids.
Bio-electric potentials
Electrical signals are used extensively within the human body to transfer
information from one point to another. The signals travel through the nervous
system and muscle fibers in what are known as excitable cells. The biopotentials
are produced as a result of interactions between electrical and chemical activities.
Electrically, a cell exhibits an ionic voltage, a resting potential, across its
membrane. When the cell is appropriately stimulated, the membrane's voltage
changes and an action potential occurs. These action potentials propagate from
one cell to the next, and information is transmitted through the body. The signals
can be viewed as digital pulses because the action potentials are either “on” or
“off”. Furthermore, the information is digitally encoded by the body's ability to
vary the frequency at which the action potentials occur. As a result, the overall
communication system is a digital frequency modulated procedure.
CELL CYCLE
The cell life cycle involves series of changes in a cell will undergo during its
life. The whole cycle can be divided into two major periods: (i) cell growth
(interphase) (ii) division.
Cell Division
Cells in the body of a living organism multiply through a process called cell
division. Cells die, or they are destroyed, in large numbers during the normal
functions of the body and have to be replaced constantly. The dead cells are
excreted from the body along with the wastes, and failure to do so can lead to
boils or abscesses, which may require surgical intervention later.
Interphase: It includes the total period starting from the birth of the cell to
the time when it undergoes division. In this phase the cell undergoes the routine
activities and is metabolically active. In addition, during this phase the cell
prepares for next cell division.
Every life including human being, began as a single cell. It is the process of
cell division which results in trillions of cells that form a recognizable human
being. The cell division, takes place by any of the two methods: 1. Mitosis, a type
NOTES
of cell division in which the original parent cell splits into two daughter cells,
keeping the chromosome – number constant. 2. Meiosis, a type of cell division in
which the chromosome number is reduced to one half. This occurs only in gonads
during the formation of gametes. The resultant gametes are potentially capable of
combining with gametes of opposite sex to form a zygote.
Cell divisions as such is a continuous process. However, for convenience it
has been divided into four phases viz. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase. Cell division is mainly required for body growth and to cope up with
wear and tear. Cells of the skin, intestinal lining, bone marrow etc. are rapidly
dividing cells, whereas cells of liver divide very slowly. In contrast, cells of
nervous tissue and skeletal and heart muscle totally lose their ability to divide
when they are fully mature. However, repairs of such tissues may be done by
replacing these cells by fibrous connective tissue. The cell divisions phase can be
subdivided into four subphases viz. Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase and
Telophase.
Review Questions
1) Write a detailed note on the cells.
2) Explain classification of the cells in detail.
3) Explain in detail the functions of the cells.
4) State the functions of the cellular membrane, mitochondria, nucleus,
ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.
5) Describe the cell division.
6) Name the structures in the nucleus that contain the genes.
1. What is the definition of a cell?
Cell Definition. Cells are the basic unit of life. In the modern world, they are
the smallest known elements world that performs all of life's functions. All living
organisms are either single cells, or are multicellular organisms composed of
many cells working together.

NOTES
2. What are the 3 principles of cell theory?
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below: All living
organisms are composed of one or more cells. The cell is the basic unit of structure
and organization in organisms. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.
3. What are the Four Main Types of Cells
❖ Epithelial Cells. These cells are tightly attached to one another
❖ Nerve Cells. These cells are specialized for communication
❖ Muscle Cells. These cells are specialized for contraction
❖ Connective Tissue Cells
4. Why cell is called structural and functional unit of life?
Cell is called structural unit because body of all the organisms is made up of
cells. It is functional unit of life because all the functions of body (physiological,
biochemical. genetic and other functions) are carried out by cells.


TISSUES
NOTES
A tissue is a collection of cells having similar origin, structure and function.
There are number of cells
in the body which carry
out particular type of
work and form a
particular type of tissue.
There are various types
of tissues in the human
body. The elementary
tissues are: epithelial,
connective, muscular
and nervous.
Epithelial Tissue: It is the type of tissues that provides covering to other
tissues. It consists of cells that are situated very near to each other; with the least
intercellular space. Cells derive their nourishment from the nearby vascular tissue.
Epithelial tissues help in protection, absorption, excretion and secretion. They are
classified according to the shape and arrangement of the cells.
Epithelial cells fuse with adjacent cells forming tight junctions in certain
organs e.g. alimentary canal. These tight junctions behave as water proofing and
prevent 7 digestive enzymes and micro-organisms from the intestine into the
blood stream.
Connective Tissue: It is a type of primary tissue that serves as the binding
structure between two tissues. Cells are less in number but intercellular
substances called matrix is found in abundance. It performs the function of
binding and supporting different tissues.
Areolar connective tissue: It is a type of connective tissue, found (i) in the
subcutaneous, sub mucous and subserous tissues, (ii) between muscles and nerves
and (iii) in the interior of organs binding its different parts.

NOTES
It consists of the ground substance called matrix, within which lie two kinds
of fibers (i) yellow or elastic fibers and (ii) white or collagenous fibers. These fibers
cross and intercross, thus making a network, the space of which is occupied by the
matrix and various types of cells such as fibroblasts, histiocytes, basophils, plasma
cells, pigment cells, mast cells, lymphocytes, monocytes etc.
Muscular Tissue: It is the type of excitable tissue possessing contractile
ability. It is of three types: (1) Skeletal (2) Visceral (Smooth muscle) (3) Cardiac.
Muscular Tissue
The muscular tissue forms the muscles in the body. The muscular tissues are
found in every part of the body where movement is involved. It is the most
prominent tissue of the body and makes up more than one-third of the weight of
the body.
Muscular tissue is a collection of a large number of muscle cells. Muscle cells
or muscle fibers are bound together by connective tissue. Most of the muscles are
attached to the bones of the skeleton. They have the ability to contract and expand.
Because of this they can be used to move the part of the body to which they are
attached.
These muscles are attached to the bones and make them move. They are
called voluntary muscles as they are within our control. We can move them when
we want. The muscles in our arms and legs for example are voluntary muscles.
We use these muscles when we run, lift a load, or write. These muscles have a
band like appearance. The bands look like dark and light stripes; that is why they
are also called striped or striated muscles.
Involuntary or smooth muscles
We do not have control over the movement of these muscles. They move
whether we want it or not. Thus, they are called involuntary muscles.
The cells of these muscles are spindle shaped in the pointed ends. They are
present in the walls of most internal body organs. The walls of our blood vessels
have smooth muscles. The walls of digestive system and respiratory tract contain
these muscles. They move food in the digestive tract and control breathing in
respiratory tract help to move blood through the body.
White fibrous tissue: This is the type of connective tissue made up of white
NOTES
shinning thin fibers that are non-branching. The fibers are present in bundles.
They are present in tendons and ligaments of limbs. They bind different tissues
and different organs of the body and provide them protection. This tissue is made
up of protein known as collagen.
Yellow elastic tissue: It is the type of connective tissue made up of fibers
that are thicker, branched and yellow in colour. The fibers are not wavy and may
be present singly or in bundles. These types of fibers are found in bronchi, larynx,
lungs, arteries and in areolar connective tissue. As it is elastic in nature, it helps in
binding various parts together and also helps in movement of the organ.
Adipose tissue: It is also known as loose connective tissue. The cells of the
adipose tissue contain a fatty substance and they are large and round in shape.
Adipose tissue is found beneath skin (sub-cutaneous tissue) in the mesentery,
omentum etc. This tissue prevents the injury to organs, gives shape to limps,
stores energy in form of fats and regulates body temperature.
Lymphoid tissue: This tissue contains lymph, lymph glands, lymphatic
vessels etc. This tissue, is distributed in Peyer’s patches small intestine, lymph
glands, pharyngeal tonsils etc.
Reticular Tissue: It resembles white fibrous tissue, but the fibres are thinner
and show branching. The cells of this tissue form a part of the reticulo-endothelial
system. Reticular tissue is also found in spleen, liver, lymph glands, bone marrow
etc.
Cartilage: cartilage is a type of connective tissue that is hard but elastic in
nature. It contains large quantity of matrix formed of hard substance chondrion.
There are three types of cartilages: (1) lymph, (2) Fibrous and (3) Elastic.
Bone: Amongst all the connective tissues bone is the hardest connective
tissues. It contains ground substance and bone cells. Calcium salts are present in
the ground substance. There are two types of bone cells namely, osteoclasts and
osteoblasts. There are two type of bones namely, compact bone and spongy bone.
Long bones are the examples of compact bone.

NOTES
Blood: It is a type of fluid connective tissue which pervades almost
everywhere and is distributed through blood vessels-arteries, veins, arterioles,
venules and capillaries. It is being pumped continuously by the heart which it fills.
The ground substance or the liquid part of blood is watery fluid called plasma.
Suspended in it are two types of cells-white blood cells or leucocytes (4,000-
11,000/cmm) and red blood corpuscles or erythrocytes (4-5 millions/cmm) and
thrombocytes or platelets (0.2-0.5 millions/cmm). Red blood corpuscles are non-
nucleated, round and slightly flat. White blood cells are nucleated cells of various
types such as neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes and lymphocytes.
Platelets are round or oval, non-nucleated bodies of varying size.
Nervous Tissue: Nervous tissue is also an excitable type of tissue that
receives as well as transmits messages. Nervous tissue is composed of only
neurons.
Nervous tissue consists of nerve cells or neurons. A nerve cell is made up of
the cell body, which contains the nucleus and a long structure called the axon. The
nerve cells are joined end to end in synapses to form long nerve fibers.
A Large number of nerve fibers held together, form a nerve. It is through
these nerves that messages travel from one part of the body to another.
The brain and the spinal cord are also made up of nervous tissue.
Neuron: The structural and functional
unit of the nervous system is the nerve cell or
neuron. The neuron is made up of the nerve
cell body and its processes-the dendrites and
axons. The nerve cell body consists of a
Mitochondria and other cell-organelles are also
present in the nerve cell body. The dendrites
are receptive fibers which receive the impulses
and transmit them to the nerve cell body
whereas; the axons carry the impulses away
from the nerve cell body.

Nerve fiber: The processes of nerve cells are dendrites and axons. Axons
NOTES
form nerve fibers which may be myelinated or non-myelinated.
Myelinated fibers show, central axis cylinder, surrounded by myelin sheath.
It is interrupted at regular intervals by constrictions known as nodes of Ranvier.
Outside the myelin sheath lies nucleus. All the nerve fibers supplied to skeletal
muscles are of myelinated type. Myelin sheath allows faster conduction at
impulses.
Non-myelinated nerve fibers have central axis cylinder surrounded by
neurolemma. Most of the autonomic nerves are non-myelinated.
Cardiac or heart muscles
These muscles are found only in the heart. They have very strong
contractions and work throughout our life without tiring. They are also
involuntary muscles, as we have no control over them. Cardiac muscle cells also
have stripes on them and are branched.
Review Questions
1. What are the 4 types of tissue?
In humans, there are four basic types of tissue: epithelial, connective,
muscular, and nervous tissue. There may be various sub-tissues within each of the
primary tissues. Epithelial tissue covers the body surface and forms the lining for
most internal cavities.
2. What are true tissues?
Presence of True Tissues. Tissues are defined as an integrated group of cells
that share a common structure and a common function (for example, nervous
tissue or muscle tissue). Sponges are described as lacking true tissues. True tissues
are present in Cnidaria, flatworms, and all higher animals.
1) Name the four basic types of tissue.
2) What are the main functions of each basic kinds of tissue?
3) Name several types of connective tissue cells.


NOTES
3. OSSEOUS SYSTEM
Introduction:
The osseous system consists of the skeleton which forms the bony frame-
work of the human body. The human skeleton consists of approximately 200
individual bones. The whole skeleton can be divided into two parts: (1) Axial
skeleton which includes skull, vertebral column, ribs and sternum, and (2)
Appendicular skeleton which includes the bones of upper and lower limbs. The
bones of upper limb are attached to the trunk through scapula (the shoulder bone)
and clavicle (the collar bone), while the bones of lower limb are joined through the
hip bone.
The Skeletal system:
The skeletal system consists of all the bones of the body. The hard and rigid
structure of bone makes the skeletal system to act as a framework, which supports
the body and give it shape.
The Human Skeleton system:
The human skeleton consists of 206 bones. For the purposes of study these
can be divided into two major parts:
1) Axial Skeleton
2) Appendicular Skeleton
Hyoid bone, which is one in number, is a U shaped bone located in the neck
just below the chin.
The skeletal system protects many important internal organs. For example,
skull protects the brain and rib cage protects the heart and lungs.
Functions of the Skeletal System:
1) It serves as a supporting framework.
2) It acts as lever and allows movement of the body.
3) It protects and supports many of the internal organs.
4) It releases calcium when there is a lack of calcium in the body fluids.
5) It produces, maintains and repairs itself.
6) It stores the marrow, which produces the blood cells.

7) It provides surface for the attachment of skeletal muscles.
NOTES
Types of Bones:
Bones are classified on the basis of their shapes and structure. There are four
types of bones such as:
Long Short Flat Irregular
Sesamoid Bones
Bones Bones Bones Bones
Long bones: Each long bone is composed of a central shaft and two knob
ends. A fibrous sheet covers the whole area of long bone, except where it joins
with other bone, whereas at the end of long bone where it joins with other bone a
thin sheet of cartilage covers the surface. Bones of upper and lower arm (humerus,
ulna) thigh and leg (femur, tibia and fibula) and fingers and toes come under these
types of bones.
Short bones: These bones are cube shaped and are composed of central
spongy bone covered by a thin layer of compact bone. The bones of wrists and
ankles are short bones.
Flat bones: These bones are thin and flat. They are composed of central layer
of spongy bone fixed between two outer layers of compact bone. Certain bones of
the skull, the ribs and shoulder bones are flat bones.
Irregular bones: These bones have complex shapes as compared to other
types. They are similar to short bones and flat bones but are identical. Bones of
spinal column and some bones of skull are irregular bones.
Sesamoid bones: These bones are seed like, and develop in the tendons, like
patella, pisiform etc.
Appendicular Skeleton:
The appendicular skeleton include the bones of the upper and lower
extremities like the arms, the legs and the bones of the shoulders and hips, which
attach the bones of the extremities to the axial skeleton.
Further bones of these parts can be studied under two names:-
1) Upper Extremities
2) Lower Extremities
NOTES
Upper Extremities – It consists of 64 bones
Lower Extremities – It consists of 62 bones
The appendicular skeleton consists of bones of two upper limbs and two
lower limbs.
The upper limbs or arms are meant for handling the object, performing
different types of work and movement. The lower limbs or legs perform
locomotion, maintain posture and give stability to the trunk.
The Upper Limb: It consists of bones of shoulder, upper arm, forearm, wrist
and fingers. Clavicle and scapula form the pectoral or shoulder gridle. Humerus is
the bone of the upper arm. Ulna and radius are two parallel bones of the fore-arm.
There are eight carpals or wrist bones arranged in two rows-each of four bones.
They are followed by five metacarpal bones. There are fourteen phalanges which
include three for each finger and two for the thumb.
The Scapula: It is a large flat
bone which contributes to the wide
range of movement of the upper
limb. The anterior surface of the
scapula is slightly hollowed out in
conformity with the ribs on which it
overlies. The posterior surface is
slightly convex and is divided into
two unequal parts by a large ridge
known as spine of the scapula.
The Clavicle: It is a long bone without a marrow cavity. It is situated just
beneath the skin at the root of the neck. It acts as a weight bearing strut or brace
for the shoulder and allows the arm to swing clear of the trunk. This bone usually
breaks at the junction of the two curves.
The humerus: It is long bone of upper limb. It consists of a shaft and
expanded upper and lower extremities. Medially, the upper end bears a rounded
head and forms a ball and socket joint with the glenoid cavity of the scapula.
Laterally the upper extremity of the humerus bears a prominence called the
greater tuberosity and in front of this is the lesser tuberosity. The upper half of the
NOTES
shaft is cylindrical but the lower half is flattened.
The Radius: It is the lateral (outer) bone of the forearm. It is long bone with a
shaft and expanded extremities. Smaller upper end of the radius consists of head,
neck and tuberosity.
The Ulna: It is the medial bone of the forearm and is slightly longer than the
radius. It consists of shaft, upper and lower extremities.
Bones of the wrist and hand: Wrist consists of eight carpal bones arranged
in two rows, proximal and distal, with four bones in each. They are irregularly
shaped bones and articulate with one another. They are held in position by
ligaments.
Metacarpal bones are the bones of the palm; they are long bones with a base,
a shaft and a head.
The phalanges are also long bones. Each finger has three phalanges,
proximal, middle and distal except thumb which has two phalanges.
The Lower Limb: The bones forming the lower limb are the hip bones,
femur (the thigh bone), patella (the knee-cap), tibia (the skin bone), fibula (the
splint bone), tarsals (the ankle bones), metatarsals (the instep bones) and
phalanges (the bones of toes).
The hip bone consists of three bones ilium, ischium and pubis. There is are a
deep-cavity on the side and in between ilum and ischium known as the
acetabulum. The broad upper portion is called the ‘ilium’, the lower part is called
the ‘ischium’ and the public bone is situated in front of the acetabulum, fits the
rounded head of the thigh bone (femur).
The pelvis: Two hip bones unite posteriorly with sacrum (formed by the
fusion of 5 sacral vertebrae) and 3-4 coccygeal vertebrae to form the pelvis. It
accommodates and supports various organs of the abdomen such as urinary
bladder, rectum, uterus (in female) etc.
The Femur: It is the thigh bone which resembles somewhat with the
humerus of the upper arm. Femur is the longest and the strongest bone of the
body. Its upper part has a round head which articulates with the acetabulum of
NOTES
the hip bone and forms the ball and socket joint. The rounded head and its long
neck of the femur is much more prominent that of humerus and the acetabulum is
deeper than the glenoid cavity of the scapula. All this is to establish better stability
of the hip joint, which has to bear the weight of the trunk.
The Tibia and Fibula: Tibia and fibula of the leg resemble radius and ulna of
the fore arm. The upper end of tibia forms the knee joint with the lower end of
femur. Tibia is the strongest bone of the body.
Bones of the Foot: There are seven tarsal bones situated in two rows and
help to bear the weight of the body.
Cartilage: It is a firm, tough but flexible structure which covers the articular
surfaces of the bones and form the joint.
Ligaments: They are strong flexible white fibrous bands. They bind the
articular surfaces of the bones together. They help in the necessary freedom to the
bones as well as protect the joints from external injury and the dislocation of the
bones. The ligaments are as a rule, elastic but some are non-elastic also. Tendons
are white bands which attach the muscles with the bones while ligaments hold the
bones together at joints and are non-elastic in nature.
Type of Joints and Major Movements:
Before knowing the various joints and major movements around these joints
we must know the anatomical division of the body. The body is divided into three
anatomical planes namely Frontal, Sagittal and Horizontal. The Frontal plane
divides the body from front to back. The Sagittal plane divides the body down the
center. The Horizontal place divides upper and lower. The table below lists the
anatomical terms and their description.
Joint is the place at which two or more bones meet in the skeleton of the
body. Joints may be fixed or moveable. Fixed joints are between bones that lie
directly against each other, or are separated only by a thin layer of connective
tissue. In case of blow on an accident, these joints absorb the shock and prevent
the bones from breaking. The joints of the head (cranium) are fixed and protect the
brain.

Kinds of Joints:
NOTES
There are five main types of moveable joints:
Ball and Saddle and

Hinge Gliding
Pivot joints socket Condyloid
joints joints
joints joints
Movable joints are protected from wear and tear in several ways. A smooth
layer of cartilage covers the ends of bones that move over one another. The
elasticity of cartilage breaks the force of sudden shocks and also, the smooth
quality of the cartilage makes a joint move easily. A liquid called synovial fluid
keeps the joints moist and lubricated.
Bones are held together at the joint by strong ligaments that are attached
above and below and joint. At the hip, a number of ligaments circle the bone like a
collar to keep the joint in place. Joints are often sprained or dislocated. A sprain
occurs when the ligaments around a joint are torn or badly stretched. Serious
sprains are painful, and if neglected may result in instability of the joint.
Dislocated joints should be treated as soon as possible by a doctor.
The joint or articulation is the junction between two or more bones,
regardless of the actual movement it permits. The joints of the body are classified
according to the degree and types of movements they perform. There are three
types of joints: (1) Fibrous or immovable. (2) Cartilagenous or slightly movable
and (3) Synovial or freely movable.
Fibrous Joints: It is the type of
joint where bones are not movable.
Here, the connecting medium
between the joints is fibrous tissue.
Synovial Joint: It is a freely
movable joint.
Various types of synovial joints
are:
1. Ball and Socket joint, 2. Hinge Joint, 3. Condyloid Joint, 4. Gliding Joint, 5.
Saddle Joint, 6. Pivot Joint
NOTES
Various Types of Movements at Joints:
1.Rotation Movements, 2.Angular Movements, 3. Gliding Movements
Movement around Joints:
Moveable joints allow one or more of the following types of movements:
1) Flexion: Flexion decreases the joints angle. For example bending the head
forward, bending the arm at the elbow or curling the fingers.
2) Extension: Extension is the return from the flexion. It means extension
increases the joint angle. For example bending the head backward or lifting the
arm backward.
3) Abduction: Abduction is outside movement away from the mid line of the
body like lifting the arms sideways.
4) Adduction: Adduction is inside movement towards the midline of the body. It
is just opposite of abduction like bringing the arms back towards mid line of
the body.
5) Rotation: Rotation is the movement towards body’s centerline. It is the
pivoting of a bone on its own axis somewhat as a top turns on its axis. For
example turning the head from side to side to say ‘no’ or moving the trunk
from side to side.
6) Circumduction: It is 360 degree rotation like making a circle with the arm or
rolling the head forward, sideways, backward and then to other side. This
circumduction is a circular motion of a body part.
7) Supination: Supination is the turning of the palm forward or upward.
8) Pronation: Pronation is turning the palm backward or downward, just
opposite to supination.
9) Inversion: Inversion is turning the sole of the foot inward.
10) Eversion: Eversion is turning the sole of the foot outward.
11) Protraction: Protraction is lowering the jaw or sticking out the tongue.
12) Retraction: Retraction is raising the jaw or pulling in the tongue.
Description of some of the individual joints given in the Table below:
Description of some individual joints

Name Type Movement
NOTES Shoulder Ball and Socket Flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction, rotation and
circumduction of upper arm (one of
the most freely moving joints)
Elbow Hinge Flexion and extension
Hip Ball and Socket Flexion, extension, abduction,
adduction rotation and
circumduction
Knee Hinge Flexion and extension, slight
rotation of tibia
Neck Pivot Pivoting or rotation of head
Ankle Hinge Flexion and extension
Foot Hinge & Gliding Flexion, extension, Inversion and
eversion
Wrist Saddle & Flexion, extension, abduction,
Condyloid adduction and circumduction
Carpal & Gliding Articular surfaces glide over each
tarsal bones other
Bone Marrow: It is found in between the bone plates of the spongy

substance and in the bone canals. There are two types of bone marrow: red and
yellow. The yellow bone marrow contains fat cells; while red bone marrow
produces red blood corpuscles (RBC).
The bone marrow is a red jelly like mass of cellular tissue present in all the
bones at birth. This red bone marrow is slowly converted into yellow adipose
tissue in most of the bones, however, it remains permanently red at any age in the
ribs, sternum and vertebrae. Yellow marrow, fills the medullary cavities of the
long bones in adults.
There are many functions of the bone marrow which can be summarized as
follows:
1) It forms hemoglobin and red blood corpuscles.
2) Bone-marrow is rich in reticulo-endothelial cells which help in carrying
out various functions, specially protecting the body against microbial
infections and foreign bodies.
3) It helps in the development of final thrombocytes from megakaryocytes.
4) It forms types of the white blood cells.
NOTES
5) It destroys old red blood corpuscles with the help of reticuloendothelial
cells.
Primarily, some bones develop from cartilage and some from membrane.
There are growth centres in bones, namely epiphysis, diaphysis and metaphysis.
After a particular age, they ossify and then the bone does not grow further. That is
why; man does not grow taller after youth. These
centres are means to identify age of a person, before
the age of 25 years.
The Vertebral Column: It consists of a series of
vertebrae and forms the axis to which other bones of
the skeleton are connected. The skull is situated on the
pivot at the top of the vertebral column which is
situated posteriorly on the central axis. The sacrum of
the vertebral column forms a part of the pelvis which
forms the lower end of the axis. There are 33 vertebrae
amongst which upper 24 are movable. The first 7
vertebrae of the neck are known as “Cervical vertebrae”. The next 12 of the chest
region are known as “Thoracic vertebrae”.
The remaining 5 vertebrae of the loin region are known as ‘Lumbar
vertebrae’. The lowest 5 fused vertebrae form a wedge shape structure known as
‘sacrum’. The end portion of the vertebral column is known as ‘coccyx’ in which 4
vertebrae are fused together. The coccyx represents remnant of the tail of the
monkey in man. This indicates that man has evolved from the monkey.
Functions: Vertebral column is a powerful and flexible pillar. It supports
neural arches of the vertebral column to form a long bony tube. It gives
attachment to ribs, and a large group of muscles of the neck, chest and back. Pairs
of spinal nerves emerge from the spinal cord through the vertebral column. It thus
effectively protects the spinal cord from shocks, accidents, jerks and injuries. It
also serves as a pillar for large number of muscles.
The bones of vertebral column become increasingly larger as the column
descends, reaching their maximum at the upper part of sacrum. The sacrum then
tapers off into the coccyx. When vertebral column is looked at from the side, one
NOTES
can see various curves. It is convex forward in the cervical or neck region. The
thoracic region is convex backward. The lumbar region is markedly convex
forward. The sacrum and coccyx form a marked forward concavity.
A vertebra consists of an anterior circular solid body with two neural arches.
The two neural arches form bony ring for the spinal cord. From the bony ring
three projection arise which are known as ‘process’. The processes, one on each
side-are called ‘transverse processes’ and the projection on the back in the centre is
called ‘spine’. There are elastic cartilages in between all the movable vertebrae like
cushions known as ‘inter-vertebral discs’. They act as buffers and prevent sudden
jerks to the delicate spinal cord which runs in the central canal.
The individual vertebrae are built on the same plan, however, there are
certain variations in different parts such as the body, the spinous process and
transverse processes. The differences in these parts of vertebrae are given in table.
Differences between vertebrae of different regions
Transverse
Type of Vertebra Body Spinous Process
Process
Atlas Absent Absent Small
(1st Cervical)
Axis Odontoid Large and strong Very small
(2nd Cervical) (tooth like process
from the body)
Typical Cervical Small and Oblong Long and bifid Large and
shaped contains a
well-marked
foramen
Thoracic Small, flat with Long, markedly Large with a
costal facets on the downward sloping facet for rib
body
Lumbar Kidney shaped Strong, First four are
Quadrangular thin
broad and flat Fifth is
Almost horizontal massive
The Sacrum: The sacrum is a large, triangular bone composed of five
vertebrae, the individual parts of which can be discerned. The dorsal surface of
the sacrum is convex and the pelvic surface is concave. The sacrum has a wide

NOTES
base, articulating with the fifth lumbar vertebra and a narrow blunted apex
inferiorly, articulating with the coccyx.
The coccyx: This consists of four (sometimes three or five) vertebrae. Usually
fused together so that their individual characteristics are not apparent. The coccyx
is triangular in shape, articulating at its base with the sacrum and tapering to its
apex below.
Bones of the thorax
The thorax is formed
behind by the thoracic or dorsal
vertebrae, anteriorly by the
sternum and costal cartilages
and the remainder of the
circumference by the ribs.
The Sternum: This is an
almost flat, dagger – shaped bone which has a slightly convex anterior surface and
a slightly concave posterior surface. The sternum is divided into three points: (a)
the manubrium, (b) the mesosternum or body and (c) the xiphoid process.
The Ribs: There are twelve pairs of ribs bilaterally situated. They are curved,
flat, strip shaped bones joined at the back with the thoracic vertebrae. Each pair of
the ribs forms an elliptical elastic arch. All these ribs are combined together with
their respective cartilages, the backbone (12 thoracic vertebrae) and the sternum
situated in front and centrally to form the thoracic cage, which is an elastic
framework with movable sides. Ribs move with every breath of respiration.
Thoracic cage, acts as a mobile cage for protection to the organs of the chest,
especially the heart and the lungs.
Ribs are not on a horizontal plane but inclined downwards and forwards
with their lower edges everted. These ribs are raised and lowered during
inspiration and expiration of air thus alternately increasing and decreasing the
chest cavity respectively in anterior, posterior and lateral planes. The last five
pairs are called ‘false ribs’ and of these, the eleventh and the twelfth pairs are

termed as ‘floating ribs’. During respiration, maximum movement is found in the
NOTES
lower part of the thorax.
Besides protecting the organs in the thorax, the thoracic ribs also give
attachment to various muscles on the back and front. The most important
attachments are, however, the intercostal muscles (external and internal), in
between the corresponding ribs. This gives rise to thoracic respiration. The lower
ribs on their inner side give attachment to the respiratory muscle, the diaphragm.
Diaphragm also serves as the musculotendinous partition between the thorax and
abdomen which contracts during inspiration and relaxes during expiration.
The Osseous System
Frontal 1 Maxilla 2
Parietal 2 Zygomatic
Temporal 2 Cheek 2
Occipital 1 Palatine 2
Sphenoid 1 Nasal 2
Ethmoid 1 Lachrymal 2
Vomer 1
Mandible 1
Inferior turbinate 2
Vertebral Column
Cervical 7
Thoracic 12
Lumbar 5
Sacral 5
Coccyx 4
Thorax
Sternum 1
Ribs 12 pairs
True costae 7 pairs
False cartilages 5 painrs
Th. vertebrae 12

NOTES
Pelvis
Hip bones 2
(Illium, Ischium, Pubis)
Sacrum (5) 1
Coccyx (4) 1
Upper Limb
Each side
Clavicle 1
Scapula 1
Humerus 1
Ulna 1
Radius 1
Carpals 8
Metacarpals 5
Phalanges 14
Lower Limb
Each side
Hip bone 1
Femur 1
Patella 1
Tibia 1
Fibula 1
Tarsals 7
Metatarsals 5
Phalanges 14

DISORDERS OF BONES
NOTES
Osteoporosis: It is an absolute decrease in bone-tissue mass, where the bone
becomes progressively porous and decalcified. However, the remaining part of
the bone appears morphologically normal.
Osteomalacia: It is a disease of the bones found in adults called adult rickets,
identical with infant ricket. It arises as a result of vitamin D and calcium
deficiency in adults. The disease is more common in females with multiple
pregnancies due to calcium drain.
Osteomyelitis: It is the infection of the bone or bone marrow, producing
suppuration.
Periostitis: Inflammation of the membrane surrounding the bone.
Osteoma: It is a benign tumour of bony tissue.
Myeloma: A rare fatal disease, characterized by multiple tumours in bones
or its marrow.
Fracture: It is a break in the continuity of a bone. It is due to some trauma
and is very painful.
Achondroplasia: It is a congenital disease characterized by shortness of long
bones with tender in hands and a large head.
Kyphosis (hump back): It is the excessive curvature of thoracic region of the
vertebral column.
Lordosis: It is the excessive convex curvature forward in the lumbar region
of the vertebral column.
Disorders of Joints:
Arthritis: It is type of inflammatory disorder characterized by changes in the
joint, resulting in the restriction of locomotion. There are two types of arthritis.
Rheumatoid arthritis and Osteoarthritis.
1) Rheumatoid Arthritis: It is a chronic inflammatory disease mostly
infective type involving small joints, characterized by stiffness and pains in
joints resulting from progressive destruction of articular and periarticular
structures. It is progressive and lasts for years resulting in severe
deformities if unchecked.
NOTES
2) Osteoarthritis: It is a degenerative condition generally of large joints,
involving articular cartilage and weight bearing surfaces of the swollen
joints. Stiffness with pain in joints, the muscle wasting with limited and
unsteady movements are characteristics of osteoarthritis. The causes
(aetiology) include metabolic disorders, trauma, old age etc.
Gout: It is a recurrent acute arthritis of peripheral joints which results from
deposition of crystals of monosodium urate in the joints and tendons.
Bursitis: Acute or chronic inflammation of a bursa is termed as bursitis.
Bursa is a sac filled with synovial greasy fluid. This gets infected and it becomes
very painful.
Review Questions
1) Describe main functions of the Skeletal system.
2) What are the different types of Bones? Describe with example.
3) What are the names of bones of lower extremities?
4) State different kinds of joints with example.
5) State major movements taking place at different joints.
6) Name the bones of upper body parts.
7) Define and give an example of each of these movements: flexion,
extension, abduction, adduction circumduction and rotation.


NOTES 4. MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Introduction:
The human body contains more than 650 individual muscles anchored to the
skeleton, which provide pulling power so that you can move around. These
muscles constitute about 40% of our total body weight. The muscle’s points of
attachment or bones or other muscles are designated as origin or insertion. The
point of origin is the point of attachment to the bone to which the muscle is
anchored. The point of insertion is the point of attachment to the bone the muscle
moves. Generally, the muscles are attached by tough fibrous structures called
tendons. These attachments bridge one or more joints and the result of muscle
contraction is movement of these joints. The body is moved primarily by muscle
groups, not by individual muscles. These groups of muscles power all actions
ranging from the threading of a needle to the lifting of heavy weights.
Contractions that really moves bones, like those used in working, lifting an
object or chewing food, are called isotonic contractions (iso – means same and
tonic means tone or pressure or tension). In isotonic contraction the tension within
a muscle remain the same but the length of the muscle changes thus produce
movement to do work.
Contractions that counter opposing forces, but do not make movement, are
called isometric contractions. In isometric contractions muscle length remains the
same but muscle tension increases. You can feel isometric contraction by pushing
your arms against a wall and feeling the tension increase in your arm muscles.
Isometric contractions ‘tighten’ a muscle, but they do not produce movement or
do work.

NOTES
Types of Muscles:
The muscular system provides mobility and support to the body. There are
three types of muscle
tissue: skeletal, smooth,
and cardiac. These vary
in structure according
to their function.
Skeletal muscles are
striated muscles that
serve to move body
parts. Smooth muscles
are found in internal
organs, while cardiac
muscle is present only
in the heart. Muscle
filaments and filaments
similar to those found
in muscles are
responsible for most of the movements of protoplasm in the body.
So the muscles of human body can be divided into following types:
1) Skeletal Muscles
2) Smooth Muscles
3) Cardiac Muscles
Skeletal Muscle:
These muscles are attached to the bones. They move the bones of the arms,
legs, fingers and other part of the skeleton. They are also called voluntary muscles.
The fibers that make up a skeletal muscle which have alternate light and dark
bands called striations.
Skeletal muscle is under voluntary control and is responsible for voluntary
movements of body parts. Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle because its
composition results in a striped appearance. Each muscle fiber is formed by the
fusion of embryonic muscle cells, or myoblasts, into a multinucleate structure
NOTES
called a syncytium. This syncytium is surrounded by a sarcolemma, similar to the
plasma membrane of a uninucleate cell.
A striated muscle fiber is composed of a bundle of 1,000 or more myofibrils,
banded fibers formed from units called sarcomeres. Sarcomeres are bounded by Z-
lines, this structures that extend across each myofibril. Within the myofibril,
filaments of actin alternate with thick filaments of myosin.
Skeletal muscles responsible for movement of the limbs can be classified
according to their function. Those, which cause the joint to close up, are flexors.
Their opposite, or antagonistic muscles are called extensors, which cause the joint
to stretch out.
The point of attachment of a flexor or extensor on the moving bone is called
the insertion, and the point of attachment on the stationary bone is the origin.
Voluntary skeletal muscles are attached to bones either directly or by means of
straps of connective tissue called tendons.
Ligaments, flexible bands of connective tissue that hold muscles and tendons
in place, hold movable joints together.

NOTES
Smooth Muscle:
These muscles are found in most of the body’s internal organs. Smooth
muscles do not have alternate light and dark cross bands called striations as in the
case of skeletal muscles. Smooth muscles in the walls of the stomach and intestines
move food through the digestive system. Smooth muscles also control the width
of the blood vessels and the size of the breathing passages. In such cases, the
smooth muscles contract and relax automatically. We do not control them;
therefore they are called involuntary muscles.
Smooth muscle provides the contractile force for movement in internal
organs under control of the involuntary or autonomic nervous system. Smooth
muscle is responsible for movement of the food through the digestive tract, the
flow of blood through blood vessels, and the emptying of urine from the urinary
bladder.
Smooth muscle is composed of long spindle-shaped cells, each with a single
nucleus. Smooth muscle tissue is usually arranged in sheets, with the cells in
electrical contact with one another through structures called gap junctions. Gap
junctions are involved in propagating (Sending) an action potential generated in
the membrane of one smooth muscle cell to all the other muscle cells in the sheet
of tissue. The extent of construction depends upon how much the cell is
depolarized.
Cardiac Muscle:
This muscle is found only in the heart. It has features of both skeletal muscle
and smooth muscle. Cardiac muscle has striations like skeletal muscle. But like
smooth muscle, it contracts automatically and rhythmically without tiring.
Cardiac muscle helps the heart to beat an average of 72 times a minute without
rest throughout our lifetime.
Cardiac muscle, or heart muscle, is a striated muscle that occurs only in the
heart. The heartbeat is controlled by non-contractile cells in the heart called
Purkinje fibers. These cells have no contractile proteins and are specialized for
electrical conduction. The heartbeat is initiated by electrical activity of the
pacemaker or sinoatrial node (S.A.) in the wall of the right atrium. How heart cells
keep up their rhythmic contraction is not known, but heart cells in culture
NOTES
continue to beat, and even single heart cells beat rhythmically, independently of
other muscle cells or external innervation.
An electrical impulse spreads from the sinoatrial (S.A.) node to all parts of
the atrium and then to the atrioventricular node, which is located adjacent to the
partition between the two ventricles. From here, the impulse spreads through the
ventricles and triggers simultaneous contraction of the ventricles.
As in smooth muscle, cardiac muscle cells are joined by gap junctions,
structures that contain tiny pores through which electrical currents and calcium
can pass from one cell to another. Although the heart beats regularly without
nervous intervention, there is a main nerve to the heart, the tenth cranial nerve, or
vagus. The vagus nerve is also called the parasympathetic nerve which is a branch
of autonomic nervous systems. The sympathetic activity speeds the heart rate, and
the parasympathetic slows it. Cardiac muscle has many mitochondria, due to its
constant continuous activity.
Structure of Skeletal Muscles:
Skeletal muscles are organs, which made up of skeletal muscle tissue plus
important connective and nervous tissue components. Skeletal muscles differ in
size, shape and arrangement of fibers. They range from very small strands such as
muscle of middle ear to large masses such as the muscle of the thigh. Some
skeletal muscles are narrow in shape and some broad. Some are long, some short
and blunt. Some are triangular and some are irregular. Some form flat sheets and
others bulky masses.
Arrangement of fibers differs in various muscles. In some muscles the fibers
are parallel to the long axis of the muscle, in some they have narrow attachment.
The direction of the fibers in making a muscle is important because of its
relationship to function.
Function of Skeletal Muscles:
1) Skeletal muscles contract only if stimulated. The natural stimulus is from
nerve impulses and artificial stimuli are electrical or injury.
2) Skeletal muscles contract in different types such as isotonic contraction,
NOTES
isometric contraction, twitch contraction etc.
3) Skeletal muscles contract according to graded strength.
4) Skeletal muscles produce movement by pulling on end bones of joints.
5) Skeletal muscles always act in groups rather than singly.
6) Bone act as levers and joints as fulcrums of these levers.
Properties of Skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle possesses four essential properties:
Excitability: this refers to muscle tissue being able to react to nervous
stimulation.
Extensibility: this refers to the ability of muscle tissue to shorten when
contracting and provide the effort required to move the lever system (the bones
and joints), producing coordinated movement.
Elasticity: this refers to the ability of muscle tissue to return to its normal
resting length once it has been stretched. A useful analogy is that of an elastic
band, that will always resume its resting shape after it has been stretched. This
property enables the muscle to prepare for a series of repeated contractions, which
is normally required when performing exercise or sport.
Contractility: this refers to the capacity of a muscle to contract or shorten
forcibly when stimulated by nerves and hormones (excitability).
All these properties are essential for all body actions including movement
and posture.
Sarcotubular system
Sarcotubular: Relating to or being the system of membranes, vesicles, and
tubules in the sarcoplasm of a striated muscle fiber that make up the sarcoplasmic
reticulum and the T tubules.
Muscular contraction and Relaxation
A skeletal muscle contracts in response to signals from a motor neuron. As
seen in the muscle contraction, the ‘head’ of the thick filament (myosin filament)
attaches to the thin filament (action filament) and ‘pulls’ it toward the middle. In a
muscle at rest, the myosin filaments are not able to attach to the actin filaments
because the points of attachment are blocked by a filament of a protein called
tropomyosin. the globular protein complex called troponin is able to bind to actin,
NOTES
and the fibrous protein tropomyosin. Troponin and tropomyosin normally block
the attachment sites of actin, making actin unavailable for myosin to bind with.
The only way myosin can attach to the actin filaments is if the binding sites are
uncovered if calcium binds to troponin C, tropomyosin moves away.
Nerves attach to the muscle at a modified postsynapstic area of the
sarcolemma called a motor end plate. Nervous impulses sent to a group of motor
end plates called a motor unit result in the release of calcium into the cytoplasm of
the muscle cell. Calcium reacts with the actin-troponin-tropomyosin complex,
causing the attachment site to become uncovered. The myosin filaments are then
able to bind with the actin filament and contraction occurs. Unlike smooth
muscles, where the strength of contraction depends upon the degree of
depolarization, striated muscle response is an all or none phenomenon; the force
of contraction is proportional to the number of fibers stimulated.
Neuromuscular junction
A neuromuscular junction (or myoneural junction) is a chemical synapse
formed by the contact between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber. It is at the
neuromuscular junction that a motor neuron is able to transmit a signal to the
muscle fiber, causing muscle contraction.
Neuromuscular junction diseases can be of genetic and autoimmune origin.
Genetic disorders, such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy, can arise from mutated
structural proteins in the skeletal muscle fibre, whereas autoimmune diseases,
such as myasthenia gravis, occur when antibodies are produced against nicotinic
acetylcholine receptors on the sarcolemma.
Sarcotubular: relating to or being the system of membranes, vesicles, and
tubules in the sarcoplasm of a striated muscle fiber that make up the sarcoplasmic
reticulum and the T tubules.
The mechanism of muscle contraction: Muscle contraction occurs when the
thin actin and thick myosin filaments slide past each other. It is generally assumed
that this process is driven by cross-bridges which extend from the myosin
filaments and cyclically interact with the actin filaments as ATP is hydrolysed.
NOTES
Muscle Exercise
Prior to strength training, warm up and flexibility exercises should be
performed. Warm up should include at least 5 minutes of aerobic activity to
provide increased blood oxygen levels and increased body temperature. Both of
these factors will increase the effectiveness of the strength-training workout.
Exercise sessions should be organized so that exercises of the larger muscle
groups are done first, followed by the smaller muscle groups.
The order of groups should be as follows:
❖ Abdomen ❖ Shoulders
❖ Hips and lower back ❖ Triceps
❖ Upper Legs ❖ Biceps
❖ Calves ❖ Waist
❖ Chest ❖ Neck
❖ Upper back
Muscle is a contractile tissue which behaves as the body’s engine, generating

some movement and produces most of the heat. There are three types of muscles:
(1) skeletal (2) cardiac and (3) visceral. Skeletal muscles form the largest mass of
tissue accounting for over 40% of the body weight. Their ability to shorten and
attachment of bones produce voluntary body movements (locomotion). Besides
producing heat and movements, some of the skeletal muscles give protection to
vital organs of the body (e.g. abdominal muscles, pectoralis muscle etc.).
Intercostal muscles and diaphragm help in respiratory movements. Skeletal
muscles also give shape and form to the body and serve to store glycogen. Smooth
muscles area found in the walls around hollow organs such as the digestive tract,
blood vessels, trachea, urinary bladder, uterus etc. They produce involuntary
movements is response to internal and external stimuli. Cardiac muscle is found
in the wall of heart and used to propel blood.

Review Question
NOTES
1. What is muscular system function?
As you have probably guessed, the main function of the muscular system is
movement, but it also helps stabilize our joints, maintain our posture and generate
heat during activity. Movement of our body can be voluntarily and controlled by
the skeletal muscles.
2. What are the 5 major properties of the muscular system?
Functions of muscle tissue
Movement, Maintenance of posture, Respiration, Heat generation,
Communication, Constriction of organs and blood vessels, Pumping blood
1) State the importance and function of the skeleton and muscular system?
2) What are the types of muscles? Explain.
3) Name the major muscles of arm, legs, head, shoulder and chest?


NOTES
5. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Introduction:
The circulatory system is a network consisting of blood, blood vessels, and
the heart. This network supplies tissues in the body with oxygen and other
nutrients, transports hormones, and removes unnecessary waste products.
Blood is the life-giving fluid that flows through the human body. We cannot
live without it. The heart pumps blood to all our body cells, supplying them with
oxygen and nutrition. At the same time, blood carries carbon dioxide and other
waste products from the cells. Blood also fights infection, keeps our temperature
steady, and carries chemicals that regulate many body functions. Blood even has
substances that plug broken blood vessels and so prevent us from bleeding to
death.
The amount of blood in our body depends on our size and the altitude at
which we live. An adult who weighs 80 kilograms has about 5 litres of blood. A 40
kilogram child has about half that amount, and a 4 kilogram infant has about 250
milliliters. People, who live at high altitudes, where the air contains less oxygen,
may have up to 2 litres more blood than people who live in low regions. The extra
blood delivers additional oxygen to body cells.
The circulatory system consists of four major components:
❖ The Heart: About the size of two adult hands held together, the heart rests
near the center of the chest. Thanks to consistent pumping, the heart keeps
the circulatory system working at all times.
❖ Arteries: Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart and
supplies all the organs in the body.
❖ Veins: Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs collecting it from all
the organs.
❖ Blood: Blood is the transport media of nearly everything within the body.
It transports hormones, nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, and other important
things needed to keep the body healthy.

Oxygen enters the bloodstream through tiny membranes in the lungs that
NOTES
absorb oxygen as it is inhaled. The bodies cell use oxygen and processes nutrients
(cell metabolism), it produces carbon dioxide, which your lungs expel as you
expire. A similar process occurs with the digestive system to transport nutrients,
as well as hormones in the endocrine system. These hormones are taken from
where they are produced to the various organs on which they bring about their
action.
The circulatory system works thanks to constant pressure from the heart and
valves throughout the body. This pressure ensures that veins carry blood to the
heart and arteries transport it away from the heart.

NOTES
Functions of Blood
The important functions of the blood are as under:-
1) Transport of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2):- Blood transports
oxygen from the respiratory surfaces such as lungs to the tissues and from
the tissues to the respiratory surfaces which helps in respiration.
2) Transport of food:- Blood carries soluble food (i.e., glucose, amino, acids,
vitamins, fatty acids minerals and water) from the intestine, first to the
liver and then to the whole of the body tissues where it is required for
cellular activities.
3) Transport of waste products:- Waste products are produced regularly by
all the cells of the which are harmful to the body and need to be eliminated
immediately from the body. Blood carry waste products to the kidney,
lungs, skin and intestine so that they can be eliminated.
4) Maintenance of water balance:- Blood maintains water balance at a
constant level, due to constant exchange of water between circulating
blood and tissue cytoplasm.
5) Maintenance of pH:- The plasma proteins of blood act as buffer system
and therefore brings change in pH (acid base balance) of blood.
6) Chemical coordination:- Organs called endocrine glands produce
hormones and release them – into the blood. The hormones enter the
plasma and act “chemical messengers”. When a hormone reaches the
target organ such as bone it affects growth, reproductive processes.
7) Regulates body temperature:- All cell activities produce heat. But some
cells, particularly muscles and glands, create more heat than others. The
heat enters our bloodstream and travels throughout our body. Excess heat
escapes through our skin. If blood did not distribute heat, some body areas
would become extremely hot, while others would remain extremely cold.
Therefore, blood circulation distributes body heat and regulates body
temperature.
8) Defense against infection:- White blood cells (WBC) play an important
role in our immune system, which helps our body to resist against disease
– causing substances. The invasion (attack) of a harmful substance
NOTES
activates the white blood cells. They then work to destroy it. Some proteins
in the plasma also help to fight diseases.
9) Clotting of Blood:- Blood prevents loss of blood in injury as it has power
of coagulation.
10) Support and formation of stable environment:- blood provides support
and a relatively a stable environment for the active body cells.
Composition of Blood
Blood is a connective tissue and consists of cells that move about in watery
medium called plasma. The cells are known as formed elements because they have
definite shapes.
Three types of cells make up the formed elements:
Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets

NOTES
A micro litre of blood normally contains about 4 million to 6 million red
blood cells, 5,000 to 10,000 white blood cells, and 1,50,000 to 5,00,000 lakhs
platelets. The red and white blood cells are also called corpuscles. Total blood
volume is approximately 5 liters.
Plasma:
Plasma is the liquid, straw-coloured fluid. It makes up about 50 to 60 per
cent of the total volume of blood. The formed elements accounts for the rest.
Plasma consists of about 90 percent water and 9% suspended or dissolved
substances. These substances include proteins that enable blood to clot and to
fight infection; dissolved nutrients (foods); and waste products. Plasma also
carries chemicals called hormones, which control growth and certain other body
functions.
Formed elements:
The formed elements are cells such as erythrocytes (RBC) and leukocytes
(WBC) and cell fragments (platelets)
Blood is an essential component of life. The human body contains about 5
litres of blood, forming around 12% of its weight. 55% of the blood is liquid
matter, the remaining 45% blood cells. Red blood corpuscles, white blood
corpuscles, platelets, plasma, water, etc. form a part of the blood.
❖ Red blood corpuscles – 45%
❖ White blood corpuscles - below 0.5%
❖ Platelets – 0.5%
❖ Plasma – 54%
❖ Water
Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)
Red blood cells, also called erythrocytes, carry oxygen to body tissues and
remove carbon dioxide. A red blood cell has a flat, dislike shape. It is thinner in
the middle than at the edges – somewhat like a ring doughnut without the hole.
Red blood cells have haemoglobin, an oxygen-carrying protein that gives
them their red colour. The cells also contain chemicals, particularly enzymes.

White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)
NOTES
White blood cells, also called leukocytes, fight infections and harmful
substances that attack the body.
Platelets
Platelets, also known as thrombocytes, are dislike structures that help to stop
bleeding. They are the smallest formed elements. If a blood vessel is cut, platelets
stick to the edges of the cut and to one another, forming, a plug. They then release
chemicals that react with fibrinogen and certain other plasma proteins, leading to
the formation of a blood clot.
Normal Blood Count:
Every cubic millimeter of blood in a healthy person should contain:
Red blood corpuscles – 4.5 million – 5.5million cells
(Average 5million)
White blood corpuscles – 4, 000 – 11, 000 (Average 8, 000)
Platelets – 2,50, 000 – 5,00, 000 (Average (300, 000)
PH (Alkalinity) – 7.35 – 7.45
The red blood corpuscles carry oxygen to the different parts of the body and
the white blood corpuscles protect the body, fighting off the germs that attack it.
Platelets help in the clotting of the blood and plasma carry nutrients to the tissues
and help in the elimination of the waste materials from them. Haemoglobin in the
blood gives it the distinctive red colour. Lack of haemoglobin makes a person
anaemic. Arteries and veins carry the blood to the different parts of the body. The
plasma contains the materials essential for clotting of the blood.
The acidity and alkalinity levels of the blood should be balanced, failing
which can lead to problems. This is detected by testing the blood for pH levels,
which is considered ideal at 7. Levels 1 – 7 indicate acidity in the blood, while
those from 7 – 14 show alkalinity. The Pons in the brain controls the level of pH by
excreting the excess acid or alkaline substances from the body.
Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin is the iron-containing oxygen transporting protein in the red
blood corpuscles of the vertebrates. They give the blood its distinctive red colour.
NOTES
Every 100 ml of blood contains 15 grams of hemoglobin. Depletion in the level of
hemoglobin leads to anaemia. The ideal levels are given below:
❖ Males – 15 grams/ 100 ml of blood
❖ Females – 13 grams/ 100 ml of blood
❖ Slightly anaemic:– 10 – 13 grams%
❖ Moderately anaemic:– 6 – 10 grams%
❖ Highly anaemic:– below 6 grams%
Levels below 6 grams% are considered dangerous, where the organs become
deprived of oxygen. Respiratory problems can set in. Women are more prone to
anaemia than men.
Blood Groups
Similar in all humans, has Blood, which appears however been classified into
four groups viz. A, B, AB and O. The red blood corpuscles and blood plasma
contain Antigens and Antibodies respectively, based on which the classification is
done. Modern medicine is fully aware of the blood groups and according to it:
Recipient group
Donor group
A B AB O
A ✓ ✓
B ✓ ✓
AB ✓
O ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
People with A group blood can donate blood to – A and AB groups.

People with B group blood can donate blood to – B and AB groups.
People with AB group blood can donate blood to – AB group alone.
People with O group blood can donate blood to – A, B, AB and O groups.
People belonging to the O group, who can give blood to recipients from all
the other groups are called the ‘Universal Donors’, while those belonging to the
AB group, who can receive blood from all the other donors are called the
‘Universal Recipients’. Persons belonging to O and A groups are common, while
those from AB group are rare. Care has to be exercised while transfusing blood;
mixing of the groups can have fatal consequences.

RH Blood Grouping:
NOTES
Human blood is classified into Rh+ve and Rh-ve, on the basis of the Rh
antigen (D-antigen) in the blood. The Rh factor, observed in and named after the
Rhesus monkey, refers to an antigen on the surface of the red blood cells. Blood
that contain Rh antigen is called Rh+ve, and the others, Rh-ve. The number of Rh-
ve people being few, AB-ve blood is hard to come by. An Rh-ve recipient has to
necessarily receive blood from an Rh-ve donor only. Care has to be exercised in
the case of women with Rh-ve blood, and having Rh+ve husbands, during their
pregnancies. The child lying within the mother can be +ve or –ve, and the risk of
prenatal death is great in the case of a child with Rh+ve blood.
The risks are far greater during the second pregnancy of the mother. When
the blood of the child mixes with that of the mother during her first pregnancy,
her immunity system identifies the D antigens from the foetus as viruses and is
ready for attacking them. Even though this does not affect the first child much,
when the placenta between the mother and the baby is cut, there is leakage of
baby’s RBC’s into mother’s circulation preparing itself, the second child is exposed
to great danger, by then antibodies are developed in the mother attack and
destroy the red blood cells of the child, leading to its death. Even if the child does
manage to survive and be born, it can be affected with severe jaundice or brain
damage. This problem is called Erythroblastosis fetalis.
It, therefore, is important for women with Rh-ve factor in their blood to seek
medical assistance even during their first pregnancy.
Benefits of the Blood Circulation:
1) It carries oxygen to the different parts of the body and collects carbon
dioxide for elimination through the lungs.
2) It carries nutrients, vitamins and glucose to various parts of the body.
Waste products like urea are eliminated through the kidneys.
3) The white blood corpuscles protect the body from infections.
4) Body temperature is regulated.
5) The ability to clot and prevent excessive bleeding.

NOTES
Review Questions
1. What is the circulatory system function?
The circulatory system, or the vascular system, is an organ system that
permits blood to circulate and transport nutrients (such as amino acids and
electrolytes), oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, and blood cells to and from the
cells in the body to provide nourishment and help in fighting diseases, stabilize
temperature and pH, and maintain homeostasis.
2. What are the 3 types of circulation?
In a human body, there are three types of circulation of blood:
❖ Systemic (greater) circulation
❖ Pulmonary (lesser) circulation
❖ Portal circulation
3. What are the 4 main parts of the circulatory system?
The circulatory system consists of four major components:
❖ The Heart: About the size of two adult hands held together, the heart rests
near the center of the chest. Thanks to consistent pumping, the heart keeps the
circulatory system working at all times.
❖ Arteries: Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood away from the heart to supply all
the organs in the body.
❖ Veins: Veins carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs where they receive
oxygen.
❖ Blood: Blood is the transport media of nearly everything within the body. It
transports hormones, nutrients, oxygen, antibodies, and other important
things needed to keep the body healthy.
4. What are the 5 types of circulation?
1) There Are Two Types of Circulation: Pulmonary Circulation and
Systemic Circulation
2) The Heart Powers Both Types of Circulation
3) The Circulatory System Works with the help of cardio vascular.
4) The Pulmonary Loop Only Transports Blood Between the Heart and
Lungs.
5) The Systemic Loop Goes All Over the Body

NOTES 6. BODY FLUIDS, LYMPH AND LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Introduction:
Every living organism is full of water. Human being is intricately filled with
watery fluid which weights two third of his body weight. On an average 62% of
the body weight of man and 51% of the body weight of woman is water. In infants
water is 65-75% of its body weight. In the human body, water exists in two forms.
1. Intracellular fluid and 2. Extracellular fluid.
1. Intracellular Fluid:
It is nearly 55% of the total human body water. It contains potassium and
phosphates in good measure and some magnesium and sulphate as well. It is
present inside the cells of the human body. All cells, including RBC, contain this
type of fluid.
2. Extracellular Fluid:
It is a heterogenous compartment of the body fluids which constituents
about 45% of the total body water.
The composition of intracellular and extracellular fluids which respect to
solutes varies from tissues to tissues. Muscle cell fluid and plasma are typical
examples of intracellular and extracellular-fluid respectively.
Tissue Fluid:
Like the closed circulatory system carrying blood, there is another closed
system of vessels carrying lymph fluid. In between these systems and the tissue
cells, there are minute intercellular spaces filled up with tissue fluid. In other
words, this is an ocean in which billions of cellular minute islands exists.
Interchanges of liquid, gaseous nutrients and metabolic end products, i.e.
metabolites pass either way to and fro from the cells.
Formation of Tissue Fluid:
Interstitial tissue fluid (ITF) is derived from the oozing of the blood
capillaries and products of tissue activities. ITF formation from the blood
capillaries depends upon (1) permeability of the capillaries, (b) differential
pressure between capillaries and ITF and (c) the differential in colloidal osmotic

NOTES
pressure of blood and that of tissue fluid. Thus, it is clear that increase in capillary
permeability will increase the ITF formation. Hydrostatic blood pressure (HBP)
forces the deproteinized plasma to move out whereas, the osmotic pressure (OP)
of the plasma proteins produces an inward pull of fluid. Thus, the net result is
interstitial tissue fluids formation (HBP)-(OP)=ITF. At the arterial end, the balance
is towards formation of ITF. However, at the venous capillary end, the balance is
more towards formation of plasma.
The tissue cell metabolic activity forms the ITF. Greater the activity, larger is
the quantity of water formed as an end product of metabolism.
Composition: ITF composition is not constant. It undergoes exchanges
between tissues, lymph and blood. The compositions is nearly the same as that of
lymph, with a low proteins and hence low OP. It consists of 94% H2O with 6%
solids containing carbohydrates, proteins fats metabolites like urea and creatinine
and inorganic ions like chloride, P, Ca, NPN etc.
Plasma fluid, interstitial fluid or tissue fluid and lymph try to keep up
equity. Human health depends on maintenance of this equilibrium called
Homeostasis.
Function of Tissue Fluid:
1) Tissue fluid forms a link between the tissue cell and blood, the cells
drawing their oxygen and nutrition from the tissue fluid and excrete their
metabolites and carbon dioxide into it.
2) Tissue fluid bathes the cells.
3) It act as a reservoir of water, salts and nutrition. This ultimately helps in
maintenance of blood volume.
Lymph is a thin, watery, clear, modified tissue fluid formed by the passage
of substance from the blood capillaries into the tissue spaces. It flows in a closed
system of vessels, sinuses, capillaries, etc. called lymphatic system.
Composition and Formation of Lymph: Lymph consists of large number of
leucocytes, mainly lymphocytes ranging from 1000 to 20,000 cells per cmm.
Platelets and red blood corpuscles are absent in lymph. the noncellular part
consists of 94% water and 6% solids in a soluble form. the composition of solids,
varies from time to time and according to the site. the main solids are proteins
NOTES
(2.0-4.5%), fats (5.0 to 15%), carbohydrates, (130 mg%), urea (23.5 mg%),
nonprotein nitrogenous substances (34.8 mg%), creatinine (1.4 mg%) and other
inorganic substances.
Lymph is formed by passage of substances from capillaries into the tissue
spaces by the process of transudation. The transudation includes tissue fluid,
anything that increases the amount of tissue fluid, will respectively increase the
lymph formation. Substances that increase the lymph formation and its flow are
called lymphagogues.
Factors Affecting Lymph Formation:
1. Capillary pressure, 2. Permeability of capillary walls, 3. Substances
directly affecting the capillary wall, 4. Substances affecting the osmotic pressure of
the interstitial fluid and peritubular fluid, 5. Anoxia, 6. Metabolites, 7. Passive
movements and massage.
Functions of Lymph:
1) To drain the excess interstitial fluid into the circulatory system.
2) To supply nutrients to such parts where blood does not reach. Besides
dissolved nutrients, it also supplies O2 to those parts.
3) Lymph also helps in transport of proteins from interstitial fluid to blood.
4) Defensive mechanism is one of the important functions of lymph. It drains the
bacteria and toxins along the lymphatics and trap them in lymph nodes.
Lymphocytes and monocytes contained in lymph also act as body defence.
Thus, it is a filter and also a killer of microbes, their toxins and other foreign
bodies.
5) Fats are absorbed from intestinal villi through blind-end lymphatics called
‘lacteals’. The lymphocytes contained in the lymph act as porters of fat.
Circulation of Lymph and Lymphatic system:
Lymph flows in a closed system of vessels called the lymphatic systems. It
consists of lymph sinuses which from lymphatic capillaries and lymph vessels.
The lymphatic capillaries are situated in the intercellular spaces and their walls
are formed by endothelial cells, supported by fibrous connective tissue. Lymph
NOTES
capillaries join to form lymph vessels. There are superficial and deep lymphatic
vessels. They are found in skin, blood vessels, muscles and various visceral
organs. Various lymph vessels are linked together by free anastomosis. There are
intervening lymphatic glands. The lymphatic vessels are provided with one-way
valves which help the forward flow of lymph toward the chest. The intestinal villi
contain the primary lymphatics called lacteals. Nervous system has no lymphatics.
However, it is not devoid of lymph, since the cerebrospinal fluid flows in the CNS.
The lymphatic vessels then pass through the lymph nodes and gradually
increase in size. Finally, lymph is collected from the body and poured into the
right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct or left lymphatic duct. The right
lymphatic duct opens in the right subclavian vein and the left lymphatic duct
opens in the left subclavian vein. The thoracic duct receives lymph from a cistern
‘receptaculum chyli’ placed in the abdomen. The left cervical duct also drains its
lymph in the thoracic duct.
Introduction:
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid
balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels
that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid
called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood. There
are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to
infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and
immune system cells. A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that
their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in
the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
Fast facts about the lymphatic system
❖ The lymphatic system plays a key role in the immune system, fluid
balance, and absorption of fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
❖ As lymph vessels drain fluid from body tissues, this enables foreign
material to be delivered to the lymph nodes for assessment by immune
system cells.
❖ The lymph nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of
NOTES
lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
❖ Lymph nodes can also become infected, in a condition known as
lymphadenitis.
❖ If lymph nodes remain swollen, if they are hard and rubbery, and if there
are other symptoms, consulting a doctor is essential.
Definition
❖ It maintains the balance of fluid between the blood and tissues, known as
fluid homeostasis.
❖ It forms part of the body's immune system and helps defend against
bacteria and other intruders.
❖ It facilitates
absorption of fats
and fat-soluble
nutrients in the
digestive system.
The system has
special small vessels called
lacteals. These enable it to
absorb fats and fat-soluble
nutrients from the gut.
They work with the
blood capillaries in the
folded surface membrane
of the small intestine. The
blood capillaries absorb
other nutrients directly
into the bloodstream.

NOTES
Anatomy
The lymphatic system consists of lymph vessels, ducts, nodes, and other
tissues. Around 2 liters of fluid leak from the cardiovascular system into body
tissues every day. The lymphatic system is a network of vessels that collect these
fluids, or lymph. Lymph is a clear fluid that is derived from blood plasma.
The lymph vessels form a network of branches that reach most of the body's
tissues. They work in a similar way to the blood vessels. The lymph vessels work
with the veins to return fluid from the tissues. Unlike blood, the lymphatic fluid is
not pumped but squeezed through the vessels when we use our muscles. The
properties of the lymph vessel walls and the valves help control the movement of
lymph. However, like veins, lymphatic vessels have valves inside them to stop
fluid from flowing back in the wrong direction.
Lymph node:
Lymph is drained progressively towards larger vessels until it reaches the
two main channels, the lymphatic ducts in our trunk. From there, the filtered
lymph fluid returns to the blood in the veins. The vessels branch through
junctions called lymph nodes. These are often referred to as glands, but they are
not true glands as they do not form part of the endocrine system. In the lymph
nodes, immune cells assess for foreign material, such as bacteria, viruses, or
fungus.
Important lymphatic tissue organs:
Lymph nodes are not the only lymphatic tissues in the body. The tonsils,
spleen, and thymus gland are also lymphatic tissues.
What do the tonsils do?: In the back of the mouth, there are tonsils.
They have a strategic position, hanging down from a ring forming the
junction between the mouth and pharynx. This enables them to protect against
inhaled and swallowed foreign bodies. The tonsils are the tissues affected by
tonsillitis.
What is the spleen?: The spleen is not connected to the lymphatic system in
the same way as lymph nodes, but it is lymphoid tissue. This means it plays a role
in the production of white blood cells that form part of the immune system. Its
other major role is to filter the blood to remove microbes and old and damaged
NOTES
red blood cells and platelets.
The thymus gland: The thymus gland is a lymphatic organ and an
endocrine gland that is found just behind the sternum. It secretes hormones and is
crucial in the production, maturation, and differentiation of immune T cells. It is
active in developing the immune system even before birth and through childhood.
The bone marrow
Bone marrow is not a lymphatic tissue, but it can be considered part of the
lymphatic system because it is here that the B cell lymphocytes of the immune
system mature.
Liver of a fetus
During gestation, the liver of a fetus is regarded as part of the lymphatic
system as it plays a role in lymphocyte development.
Below is a 3-D model of the lymphatic system, which is fully interactive.
Function
The lymph system has three main functions.
1) Fluid balance
2) Absorption
3) Immune system
Fluid balance
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance. It returns excess fluid
and proteins from the tissues that cannot be returned through the blood vessels.
The fluid is found in tissue spaces and cavities, in the tiny spaces surrounding
cells, known as the interstitial spaces. These are reached by the smallest blood and
lymph capillaries. Around 90 percent of the plasma that reaches tissues from the
arterial blood capillaries is returned by the venous capillaries and back along
veins. The remaining 10 percent is drained back by the lymphatics.
Each day, around 2-3 liters is returned. This fluid contain proteins that are
too large to be transported via the blood vessels.

NOTES
Loss of the lymphatic system would be fatal within a day. Without the
lymphatic system draining of excess fluid, will not happen so tissues would swell,
blood volume would also fall.
Absorption
Most of the fats absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract are taken up by the
lymphatic system.
The lymphatic system has tiny lacteals in the intestine that form part of the
villi. These finger-like protruding structures are produced by the tiny folds in the
absorptive surface of the gut.
Lacteals absorb fats and fat-soluble vitamins to form a milky white fluid
called chyle.
This fluid contains lymph and emulsified fats, or free fatty acids. It delivers
nutrients indirectly when it reaches the venous blood circulation. Blood capillaries
take up other nutrients directly.
The immune system
The lymphatic system produces white blood cells, or lymphocytes that are
crucial in preventing infections.
The third function is to defend the body against unwanted organisms.
Without it, we would die very soon from an infection.
Our bodies are constantly exposed to potentially hazardous micro-
organisms, by infections.
The body's first line of defense involves:
❖ Physical barriers, such as the skin
❖ Toxic barriers, such as the acidic contents of the stomach
❖ "Friendly" bacteria in the body
However, pathogens often do succeed in entering the body despite these
defenses. In this case, the lymphatic system enables our immune system to
respond appropriately.
If the immune system is not able to fight off these micro-organisms, or
pathogens, they can be harmful and even fatal.

A number of different immune cells and special molecules work together to
NOTES
fight off the unwanted pathogens.
How does the lymphatic system fight infection?
The lymphatic system produces white blood cells, known as lymphocytes.
There are two types of lymphocyte, T cells and B cells. They both travel through
the lymphatic system.
As they reach the lymph nodes, they are filtered and become activated by
contact with viruses, bacteria, foreign particles, and so on in the lymph fluid. From
this stage, the pathogens, or invaders, are known as antigens.
As the lymphocytes become activated, they form antibodies and start to
defend the body. They can also produce antibodies from memory if they have
already encountered the specific pathogen in the past.
Collections of lymph nodes are concentrated in the neck, armpits, and groin.
We become aware of these on one or both sides of the neck when we develop so-
called "swollen glands" in response to an illness.
It is in the lymph nodes that the lymphocytes first encounter the pathogens,
communicate with each other, and set off their defensive response.
Activated lymphocytes then pass further up the lymphatic system so that
they can reach the bloodstream. Now, they are equipped to spread the immune
response throughout the body, through the blood circulation.
The lymphatic system and the action of lymphocytes, of which the body has
trillions, form part of what immunologists call the "adaptive immune response."
These are highly specific and long-lasting responses to particular pathogens.
Diseases
The lymphatic system can stop working properly if nodes, ducts, vessels, or
lymph tissues become blocked, infected, inflamed, or cancerous.
Disorders of Lymph and Lymphatic system:
Oedema: It is a condition which represents excessive water and sodium
retention in the interstitial space. Usually, it is due to abnormal renal excretion but
it can also be caused by cardiac and hepatic disorders or severe anaemia. Vitamin
B deficiency (wet Beri-beri), hypo-proteinaemia or some allergic conditions.
NOTES
Lymphangitis: It is an acute inflammation of the smaller lymphatics caused
by microbial infection.
Lymphangiectasis: It is the condition resulting from obstruction of the larger
lymph vessels. Filaria sanguinis, a disease transmitted by the bite of a culex male
mosquito.
Hodgkin’s Disease: It is a disease characterized by painless, progressive
enlargement of lymph nodes, usually beginning in one group and spreading on to
other group and associated with hyperplasia of lymphoid tissue in spleen, liver
and other organs. In other words, it is the malignant type of neoplasm (cancer) of
lymph nodes.
Lymphosarcoma: It is a malignant tumour disease arising in different parts
of the lymphatic system.
Ascites: It is collection of free fluid in the peritoneal cavity of the abdomen.
Pleural effusion, pericarditis with effusion, hydrocoele in men and ovarian
cyst in women etc., are also localized abnormal fluid accumulation. They would
be introduced along with their respective chapters.
Lymphoma
Cancer that starts in the lymphatic system is known as lymphoma. It is the
most serious lymphatic disease.
Hodgkin lymphoma affects a specific type of white blood cell known as
Reed-Sternberg cells. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma refers to types that do not involve
these cells.
Cancer that affects the lymphatic system is usually a secondary cancer. This
means it has spread from a primary tumor, such as the breast, to nearby or
regional lymph nodes.
Lymphadenitis
Sometimes, a lymph node swells because it becomes infected. The nodes
may fill with pus, creating an abscess. The skin over the nodes may be red or
streaky.
Localized lymphadenitis affects the nodes near the infection, for example, as
a result of tonsilitis.
Generalized lymphadenitis can happen when a disease spreads through the
NOTES
bloodstream and affects the whole body. Causes range from sepsis to an upper
respiratory tract infection.
Lymphedema
If the lymphatic system does not work properly, for example, if there is an
obstruction, fluid may not drain effectively. As the fluid builds up, this can lead to
swelling, for example in an arm or leg. This is lymphedema.
The skin may feel tight and hard, and skin problems may occur. In some
cases, fluid may leak through the skin. Obstruction can result from surgery,
radiation therapy, injury, a condition known as lymphatic filariasis.
Histamine
Histamine is the first vasoactive amine to be identified in the body.
Occurrence of histamine: All organs and body fluids including central and
peripheral nervous system, skin and subcutaneous tissue, viscera, skeletal muscle,
lung, liver, mast cells, blood, urine, nasal discharge, saliva, pus, blisters, gastric
juice etc., contain histamine.
It is also present in the plant tissue. Its occurrence is mostly is cell
mitochondria or intracellular particles.
Release of histamine: Histamine in the body tissues is found in mast cells.
Its liberation takes place during antigen-antibody reactions with prior
sensitization of the organism with specific antigens. Mechanical stimuli like injury
to the tissue, cold, heat and ultraviolet rays also cause release of histamine.
Histamine is a base and is bound to acid groups like carboxyl, thiol and
phosphate of the cellular proteins. Any base stronger than histamine, displaces
histamine from the bound form in plasma proteins.
Antigen (protein in nature), snake, spider and bee bites, bacterial toxins,
acids, alkalies, proteolytic enzymes (trypsin), detergents, macromolecules like
dextran and polyvinyl pyrrolidone cause release of histamine. Drugs with tertiary
and quarternary nitrogen atoms particularly like d-tubocurarine, morphine,
codeine and atropine also cause the release of histamine in the body.
Why do lymph nodes swell?
NOTES
The "swollen glands," that occur, for example, in the neck during a throat
infection, are in fact enlarged lymph nodes.
Lymph nodes can swell for two common reasons:
Reaction to an infection: The lymph nodes react when foreign material is
presented to immune cells through the lymph that is drained from infected tissue.
Direct infection of the lymph nodes: The nodes can become infected and inflamed
as a result of certain infections that need prompt antibiotic treatment. This is
lymphadenitis.
Most people who have swollen glands with a cold or flu do not need to see a
doctor.
However, medical advice should be sought if:
❖ lymph nodes stay swollen for longer than 1 to 2 weeks
❖ a swollen lymph node feels hard or fixed in place
❖ swelling is accompanied by fever, night sweats, or unexplained weight loss
Swollen lymph nodes can be symptoms of numerous conditions.
Glandular fever: Also known as infectious mononucleosis, this is a viral infection
that can cause long-lasting swelling, a sore throat, and fatigue.
Tonsillitis: This is more common in children than in adults. It occurs when
the lymph nodes at the back of the mouth are fighting infection, usually viral, but
sometimes bacterial.
Pharyngitis: This bacterial infection is commonly called "strep throat." It is
caused by group A streptococcus bacteria, and it can cause lymph nodes to swell.
Children are more prone to swollen lymph nodes because their immune
systems are still developing their responses to infectious microbes.

NOTES IMMUNE SYSTEM
Component organs of immune system:

The immune system includes primary lymphoid organs, secondary
lymphatic tissues and various cells in the innate and adaptive immune systems.
Recognize the cells and organs of the immune system and their functions.
❖ The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system are the thymus and
bone marrow, and secondary lymphatic tissues such as spleen, tonsils, lymph
vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, and skin and liver.
❖ Leukocytes (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms
and are the second arm of the innate immune system. Cells of the immune
system involved in defending the body against both infectious disease and
foreign materials. Five different and diverse types of leukocytes, exist. They
are, Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, Lymphocytes, Monocytes.
❖ The innate leukocytes include the phagocytes ( macrophages, neutrophils, and
dendritic cells ), mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells.
These cells identify and eliminate pathogens and are also important mediators
in the activation of the adaptive immune system.
❖ The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called
lymphocytes. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are
derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
❖ The lymphatic system is a part of the circulatory system, comprising a
network of conduits called lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic system has
multiple functions such as the transportation of white blood cells to and from
the lymph nodes into the bones.
❖ lymphocytes: A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell in the vertebrate
immune system. The three major types of lymphocyte are T cells, B cells and
natural killer (NK) cells. T cells (thymus cells) and B cells (bursa-derived cells)
are the major cellular components of the adaptive immune response.

NOTES
Immune System Organs
The key primary lymphoid organs of the immune system include the
thymus and bone marrow, as well as secondary lymphatic tissues includes spleen,
tonsils, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, adenoids, skin, and liver.
The thymus “educates” T cells and provides an inductive environment for
the development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells. The thymus is
largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods of
development. By the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and thymic stroma
is replaced by adipose tissue. Nevertheless, residual T-lymphopoiesis continues
throughout adult life.
Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the interior of bones. In humans,
red blood cells are produced in the heads of long bones. The red bone marrow is a
key element of the lymphatic system, being one of the primary lymphoid organs
that generate lymphocytes from immature hematopoietic progenitor cells. Bone
marrow and thymus constitute the primary lymphoid tissues involved in the
production and early selection of lymphocytes.
The lymphatic system is a part of the circulatory system, comprising a
network of conduits called lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid, called lymph,
unidirectionally towards the heart. The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated
functions including the transportation of white blood cells to and from the lymph
nodes into the bones, and the transportation of antigen-presenting cells (such as
dendritic cells) to the lymph nodes where an immune response is stimulated.
Lymphoid tissue is found in many organs, particularly the lymph nodes.
The spleen is similar in structure to a large lymph node and acts primarily as
a blood filter. It synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody-
coated bacteria along with antibody-coated blood cells by way of blood and
lymph node circulation.
The palatine tonsils and the nasopharyngeal tonsil are lymphoepithelial
tissues located near the oropharynx and nasopharynx. These immunocompetent
tissues are the immune system’s first line of defense against ingested or inhaled

foreign pathogens. The fundamental immunological roles of tonsils aren’t yet
NOTES
understood.
Lymph nodes are distributed widely throughout areas of the body,
including the armpit and stomach, and linked by lymphatic vessels. Lymph nodes
are garrisons of B, T and other immune cells. Lymph nodes act as filters or traps
for foreign particles and are important in the proper functioning of the immune
system. They are packed tightly with the white blood cells, called lymphocytes
and macrophages.
The skin is one of the most important parts of the body because it interfaces
with the environment, and is the first line of defense from external factors, acting
as an anatomical barrier from pathogens and damage between the internal and
external environment in bodily defense. Langerhans cells in the skin are part of
the adaptive immune system.
The liver has a wide range of functions, including immunological effects—
the reticuloendothelial system of the liver contains many immunologically active
cells, acting as a “sieve” for antigens carried to it via the portal system.
Immune System Cells
Leukocytes (white blood cells) are immune system cells involved in
defending the body against infectious disease and foreign materials. Five different
types of leukocytes exist, all produced and derived from a multipotent cell in the
bone marrow known as a hematopoietic stem cell. The innate leukocytes include
the phagocytes, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and natural killer cells. These
cells identify and eliminate pathogens and are important mediators in the
activation of the adaptive immune system.
Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the
body in pursuit of invading pathogens. Neutrophils are normally found in the
bloodstream and are the most abundant type of phagocyte. During the acute
phase of inflammation neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation and
are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages reside
within tissues and produce a wide array of chemicals. They also act as scavengers,
ridding the body of worn-out cells and other debris, and as antigen-presenting
NOTES
cells that activate the adaptive immune system. Dendritic cells are phagocytes in
tissues that are in contact with the external environment, and are located mainly in
the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines. These cells serve as a link between
the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they present
antigen to T-cells, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system.
Mast cells reside in connective tissues and mucous membranes, and regulate
the inflammatory response. They are most often associated with allergy and
anaphylaxis.
Basophils and eosinophils are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical
mediators that are involved in defending against parasites, and play a role in
allergic reactions, such as asthma.
Natural killer cells are leukocytes that attack and destroy tumor cells, or cells
that have been infected by viruses.
The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes,
called lymphocytes. B cells and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are
derived from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
T cells recognize a “non-self” target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens
have been processed and presented in combination with a “self” receptor, called a
major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. There are two major subtypes
of T cells: the killer T cell, which kills cells that are infected with viruses (and other
pathogens) or otherwise damaged or dysfunctional cells, and the helper T cell,
which regulates both innate and adaptive immune responses and helps determine
which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen. These cells
have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly.
A third, minor subtype are the γ T cells that recognize intact antigens not bound to
MHC receptors.
In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on
the B cell surface, which recognizes whole pathogens without any need for
antigen processing. Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the
complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body
can manufacture.
Functions of immune system
NOTES
The immune system is the body's defense against infectious organisms and
other invaders. Through a series of steps called the immune response, the immune
system attacks organisms and substances that invade body systems and cause
disease.
The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs
that work together to protect the body. One of the important cells involved are
white blood cells, also called leukocytes, which come in two basic types that
combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing organisms or substances.
Leukocytes are produced or stored in many locations in the body, including
the thymus, spleen, and bone marrow. For this reason, they're called the lymphoid
organs. There are also clumps of lymphoid tissue throughout the body, primarily
as lymph nodes, that house the leukocytes.
The leukocytes circulate through the body between the organs and nodes via
lymphatic vessels and blood vessels. In this way, the immune system works in a
coordinated manner to monitor the body for germs or substances that might cause
problems.
The two basic types of leukocytes are:
1) Phagocytes, cells that chew up invading organisms
2) Lymphocytes, cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous
invaders and help the body to destroy them
A number of different cells are considered phagocytes. The most common
type is the neutrophil, which primarily fights bacteria. If doctors are worried
about a bacterial infection, they might order a blood test to see if a patient has an
increased number of neutrophils triggered by the infection. Other types of
phagocytes have their own jobs to make sure that the body responds
appropriately to a specific type of invader.
The two kinds of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes.
Lymphocytes start out in the bone marrow and either stay there and mature into B
cells, or they leave for the thymus gland, where they mature into T cells. B
lymphocytes and T lymphocytes have separate functions: B lymphocytes are like
NOTES
the body's military intelligence system, seeking out their targets and sending
defenses to lock them. T cells are like the soldiers, destroying the invaders that the
intelligence system has identified.
Here's how it works:
When antigens (foreign substances that invade the body) are detected,
several types of cells work together to recognize them and respond. These cells
trigger the B lymphocytes to produce antibodies, which are specialized proteins
that lock onto specific antigens.
Once produced, these antibodies stay in a person's body, so that if his or her
immune system encounters that antigen again, the antibodies are already there to
do their job. So if someone gets infected with a certain disease, like chickenpox,
that person usually won't get sick from it again.
This is also how immunizations prevent certain diseases. An immunization
introduces the body to an antigen in a way that doesn't make someone sick, but
does allow the body to produce antibodies that will then protect the person from
future attack by the germ or substance that produces that particular disease.
Although antibodies can recognize an antigen and lock onto it, they are not
capable of destroying it without help. That's the job of the T cells, which are part
of the system that destroys antigens that have been tagged by antibodies or cells
that have been infected or somehow changed. (Some T cells are actually called
"killer cells.") T cells also are involved in helping signal other cells (like
phagocytes) to do their jobs.
Antibodies also can neutralize toxins (poisonous or damaging substances)
produced by different organisms. Lastly, antibodies can activate a group of
proteins called complement that are also part of the immune system. Complement
assists in killing bacteria, viruses, or infected cells.
All of these specialized cells and parts of the immune system offer the body
protection against disease. This protection is called immunity.

Review Questions
NOTES
1. What is immune system and its function?
The purpose of the immune system is to keep infectious microorganisms,
such as certain bacteria, viruses, and fungi, out of the body, and to destroy any
infectious microorganisms that do invade the body.
2. What are the 5 parts of the immune system?
Components of the Immune System
❖ The tonsils and thymus, which make antibodies
❖ The lymph nodes and vessels (the lymphatic system)
❖ Bone marrow
❖ The spleen, which filters the blood by removing old or damaged blood
cells and platelets and helps the immune system by destroying bacteria
and other foreign substances.
❖ White blood cells.
3. What are the three major functions of the immune system?
The lymphatic system and the immune system are terms that are used
interchangeably to refer to the body's ability to defend against pathogens. The
lymphatic system is comprised of three interrelated functions: (1) Removal of
excess fluids, lymph, from body tissues, (2) Absorption of fatty acids and
subsequent transport of fat, chyle, to the circulatory system and (3) Formation of
white blood cells (WBCs), and initiation of immunity through the formation of
antibodies, lending specific resistance to pathogens.
4. What are the three levels of defense in the immune system?
Immune System Lines of Defense. The immune system includes three lines
of defense against foreign invaders: physical and chemical barriers, nonspecific
resistance, and specific resistance. The first line of defense are the physical and
chemical barriers, which are considered functions of innate immunity.
5. What are the 5 main structures of the immune system?
❖ Lymphoid organs. The immune system is made up of organs that control
the production and maturation of certain defense cells, the lymphocytes.
❖ Bone marrow
NOTES
❖ Thymus
❖ Lymph nodes
❖ Spleen
❖ Tonsils
❖ Lymphatic tissue in the bowel and in other mucous membranes in the
body
6. What are the four natural body defenses against infection?
Natural barriers and the immune system defend the body against organisms
that can cause infection. (See also Lines of Defense.) Natural barriers include the
skin,mucous membranes, tears, earwax, mucus, and stomach acid. Also, the
normal flow of urine washes out microorganisms that enter the urinary tract.
7. How does the immune system protect the body from disease?
The acquired immune system, with help from the innate system, produces
cells (antibodies) to protect your body from a specific invader. Immunizations
train your child's immune system to make antibodies to protect him or her from
harmful diseases.
8. What does the immune system do?
Your immune system is your body's defence against infection and illness. It
recognises the cells that make up your body, and will try to get rid of anything
unfamiliar. It destroys germs (bacteria and viruses) and parasites. But this defence
system can also cause problems.

NOTES 7. CARDIO VASCULAR SYSTEM
Cardiac vascular system is a closed circulatory transport system that

transports respiratory gases, nutrients and excretory products, through the
medium of blood to various parts of body. It consists of the pumping station, the
heart and its channels, the blood vessels
Components of cardiovascular system:
The cardiovascular system consists of the heart, blood vessels, and blood.
This system has three main functions: Transport of nutrients, oxygen, and
hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon
dioxide, nitrogenous wastes).
Functions of the Cardiovascular System
Knowing the functions of the cardiovascular system and the parts of the
body that are part of it is critical in understanding the physiology of the human
body. With its complex pathways of veins, arteries, and capillaries, the
cardiovascular system keeps life pumping through you. The heart, blood vessels,
and blood help to transport vital nutrients throughout the body as well as remove
metabolic waste. They also help to protect the body and regulate body
temperature.
Protection of the body by white blood cells, antibodies, and complement
proteins that circulate in the blood defend the body against foreign microbes and
toxins. Clotting mechanisms are also present that protect the body from blood loss
after injuries.
Regulation of body temperature, fluid pH, and water content of cells.
The structure of the Heart
Each person’s heart is about the same size as
that of a person’s fist. A new born baby’s heart
weighs only about 20 grams. A adult’s heart weighs
as much as from 250 to 320 grams. The heart lies
near the middle of the chest, between the lungs. The
heart is situated closer to the front of the chest than
NOTES
to the back and slightly to the left side. An average man’s heart beats at a rate of 72
times per minute.
The Heart and its Functions:
The human heart is a fleshy, oval shaped organ, lying slightly to the left side
of the chest cavity. It is about the size of a man’s fist and weighs around 300
grams. It has four chambers, located one below the other, on the left side and two
more similar chambers on the right. There are no openings between the left and
the right chambers. The upper chambers are called Atria (singular – Atrium), and
the lower ones Ventricles.
Heart Chambers
The septum divides the heart length wise, and valves divide it cross wise.
Each side of the heart thus has two chambers, one above the other. A thin
membrane called the endocardium lines each chamber. The top chambers, called
the right atrium and left atrium, receive and collect blood returning to the heart
through the veins. After the atria (plural of atrium) have filled with blood, they
contract and squeeze blood into the lower chambers, called the right ventricle and
left ventricle. After the ventricles have filled, they contract and pump blood out of
the heart through the arteries. The ventricles have extremely thick walls. The
ventricles, which must squeeze blood from the heart, are much larger and
stronger than the atria.
Muscular Walls
The heart consists mainly of muscles, which are called myocardium or
cardiac muscle. These cardiac muscles form the walls of the heart as well as the
septum that divides the left and right side of the heart. All the muscles contract
and relax, thereby pushing blood through the heart.
A membrane called the epicardium covers the outer surface of the heart.
Another membrane, the pericardium, surrounds the epicardium. It completely
encloses the heart and extends above the blood vessels that emerge from the top of
the heart. A slippery fluid between the epicardium and the pericardium enables
the heart to contract smoothly.

Heart muscle differs from the other muscles of the body that is skeletal and
NOTES
smooth muscles. Heart muscle has striations like skeletal muscle but it contracts
and relaxes automatically like smooth muscle.
Properties of Cardiac Cells
The muscle cells of the heart are unique and responsible for the electrical
stimulation that leads to proper mechanical function. Myocardial cells have
several different electrophysiologic properties: automaticity, excitability,
conductivity, contractility, rhythmicity, and refractoriness. Knowledge of these
distinctive abilities aid in accurate cardiac rhythm interpretation.
Automaticity - refers to the ability to spontaneously generate an electrical impulse.
Excitability - means that the cardiac cells have the ability to respond to an
electrical impulse.
Conductivity - allows for transmission of the electrical impulse to another cardiac
cell.
Contractility - refers to the ability to contract after an electrical impulse is received.
Rhythmicity - is the cell's ability to send electrical impulses in a regularly and
evenly paced manner.
Refractoriness - refers to the cell's inability to respond to another electrical impulse
Main characteristics of cardiac muscle?
Cardiac muscle is specialized tissue that is found only in the heart. It has
characteristics similar to both smooth and skeletal muscle tissue, as well as
specialized properties, that allow it to function with fast but sustained
contractions, rapid conduction and coordinated movement.
Blood Vessels
Blood enters and leaves the heart through several major vessels. Blood from
the body flows into the right artium through the body’s two largest veins. i.e., the
superior vena cava brings blood from the head and arms. The inferior vena cava
carries blood from the trunk and legs. Other blood vessels transport blood
between the heart and lungs. Pulmonary veins return blood from the lungs to the
left atrium. The pulmonary artery carries blood from the right ventricle to the
lungs. Pulmonary veins return blood from the lungs to the left atrium. The aorta is
NOTES
the largest artery. It receives oxygenated blood from the left ventricle and,
through numerous branches, distributes it throughout the body. The pulmonary
artery and the aorta are sometimes called the great vessels.
The first arteries that branch from the aorta are the two major coronary
arteries. They bring blood to the heart and so enable it to continue pumping.
These two coronary arteries divide into many branches as they cover the heart.
Diseases that affect the coronary arteries are among the most serious problems
such as heart attack (Myocardial Infarction) etc., The Cardiologists treat because
these coronary arteries nourish the heart muscle itself.
Heart Valves
Valves regulate the flow of
blood through the heart. The
valves flaps that open as blood
pours from a chamber. When
the flaps close, they prevent
blood from flowing back into
the chamber. Two valves
separate the atria and the
ventricles. They are called the
atrioventricular valves or AV
valves (See figure). The AV valve between the right atrium and right ventricle has
three flaps and is called the tricuspid valve. The ventricular (AV) valve on the left
side of the heart has two flaps and is called the bicuspid or mitral. The heart also
has a valve, called a semilunar valve, has three flaps shaped like halfmoons. When
the right ventricle contracts, it delivers blood to the pulmonary artery. The
semilunar valve controls the blood flow through for pulmonary artery is known as
the pulmonary valve. The left ventricle squeezes blood through the semilunar
valve on the left side is called the aortic valve into the aorta.
Functions of the Heart:
The main functions of the heart are as under:
1) Pumping blood to the lungs.
2) Pumping blood throughout body.
NOTES
3) Regulation of Blood Pressure.
4) Regulating the heart Rate.
Pumping Blood to the lungs:
Blood from the body that enters the right side of the heart contains carbon
dioxide.
Blood enters the right atrium through the superior vena cava and inferior
vena cava. The Right atrium contracts, forcing the blood through the tricuspid
valve into the right ventricle. When right ventricle is filled, pressure pushes the
tricuspid valve to close and blood enters into the pulmonary artery and then into
the lungs where carbon dioxide is removed from the blood and oxygen is added.
The oxygenated blood through the pulmonary veins enters into to the left side of
the heart.
Pumping blood throughout the body
Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters and fills the left atrium. The atrium
then contracts which squeezes the blood through the mitral / bicuspid valve into
the left ventricle. After blood fills the ventricle, the mitral valve closes and the
aortic valve opens. Blood pours into the aorta and flows through arteries to the
body tissues.
Regulating Blood Pressure:
Blood in the circulatory system, like water in the pipes of a water system, is
always under pressure refers to the force with which the blood pushes against the
walls of the arteries. That force from the heart to all parts of the body. Each
person’s blood pressure reflects the amount of blood the strength and rate of the
heart’s contractions, and the elasticity of the arteries, As the heart pumping
pressure in the arteries rises and falls during systole and diastole. Contraction of
the heart produces systolic blood pressure, and relaxation produces diastolic
blood pressure. The heart helps to regulate blood flow producing a hormone that
helps the kidneys in eliminating salt from the body. Excess salt may raise blood
pressure, which is called hypertension. Hypertension (high blood pressure) can
damage brain and kidneys.
NOTES
Regulating the Heart Rate:
Both sides of the heart, pumping of blood occurs at the same time. As the
right ventricle contracts and sends blood to lungs, the left ventricle contracts and
squeezes blood out of the body. The heart’s cycle, has systole and diastole. Systole
occurs when the ventricles contract, and diastole when the ventricles relax. The
complete contraction and relaxation of the heart muscle makes up one heartbeat.
The contraction and relaxation of the ventricles also open and close the heart
valves. Closing of the valves produce the ‘lub-dupp’ sound of the heartbeat, which
can be heard with an instrument called a stethoscope. As the ventricles contract,
the mitral (bicuspid) and tricuspid valves close, causing the first heart sound.
Immediately after the valves close, pressure in the ventricles forces the aortic and
pulmonary valves open. After the contraction ends, pressure in the ventricle drops
then the aortic and pulmonary valves close, producing the second heart sound
(S2). The pressure in the atria is then greater than in the ventricles, and so the
tricuspid mitral (bicuspid) valves open and blood begins to fill the ventricles
again. S1 is louder and longer S2 is softer and sharper.
Control of the heart rate:
The autonomic nervous system controls the heart rate. Special cells send
electrical impulses (nerve signals) through the heart, causing it to contract and
relax rhythmically. The impulse begins in a small bundle of muscle fibres called
the sino-atrial node, or SA node. The Sino-atrial (S-A) node is usually called the
pacemaker of the heart where the superior vena cava enters the heart (See figure).
The S-A node sends impulse along certain pathways causing the atria to contract
when the electrical signal reaches them. The impulse then arrives at another node,
called the atrioventricular node, or A-V node. The A-V node lies between the atria
and ventricles. It delays the nerve signal briefly, allowing the ventricles enough
time to fill with blood. As the impulse continue, the ventricles contract.
The nerves of the autonomic nervous system control the S-A and A-V nodes.
Stimulation of those nerves may quicken or slow the heartbeat. When the body
needs more blood, as vigorous exercise, the nervous system stimulates the S-A

node, which increase the rate of its impulses. The impulses keep the heart
NOTES
chambers contracting at a faster speed.
A person’s size largely determines a person’s resting heart rate. The bigger a
person is, the slower the heart. A new born baby’s heart beats about 120 times per
minute. The typical rate for adults in 72 beats per minute. But doctors consider
resting rates from 60 - 100 beats per minute within the normal range. Sports /
Aerobic training enlarges the heart and slows the heartbeat. Many well-trained
athletes / sports persons have resting rate from 40 to 60 beats per minute even less
than 40 beats per minute too!
The Blood Vessels
The blood vessels form a branching network of about 97,000 Kilometers.
They are divided into the following three types:
1) Arteries carry blood from the heart.
2) Veins carry blood to the heart.
3) Capillaries connect the arteries and veins.
Blood leaves the left side of the heart through the aorta. The vessel is the
largest artery in the body. Several major arteries branch off the aorta. These
arteries, in turn, divide into smaller and smaller vessels. Finally, the smallest
arteries empty into the tiny capillaries. Through the thin walls of the capillaries,
nutrients food and oxygen in the blood are exchanged for carbon dioxide and
other wastes from individual cells.
Artery
Artery is the tubes or blood vessels
through which blood is pumped away
from the heart to the different parts of the
body. The blood carried by most arteries is
bright red because it has picked up oxygen
while passing through the lungs. However,
the blood that flows through the veins on
the right side of the heart into the lungs has
not yet picked up oxygen. This blood is brownish in colour. If an artery is cut,
NOTES
blood gushes out in a series of spurts timed with the heartbeats. Veins differ from
arteries because they carry the blood back to the heart instead of away from it. If a
vein is cut, blood flows from it in an uniform stream.
When a large blood vessel has been cut by accident, the difference in the
colour and flow of the blood from the vessel makes it possible to tell whether an
artery or a vein has been injured.
The walls of arteries are made up of
three layers (See figure). The outer layer
consists of elastic tissue, and the middle
layer is muscle. The inner layer or lining of
the arteries is made of thin, smooth cells of
the same kind that line the other blood
vessels and the heart. Each time the heart beats, the elastic walls of the arteries
expand to make room for the blood pushed into them. Then their muscular tissues
slowly contract again. This squeezes the blood further along the length of the
arteries and toward the capillaries. In this way, the arteries do considerable
sharing of the work that keeps the blood circulating throughout the body. If the
arteries were had rigid instead of elastic walls, the heart would have to pump all
the blood without the arteries assistance. As a result, the heart should work much
harder than it does.
Main Arteries
The aorta the largest artery is directly connected with a chamber of the heart.
The heart pumps oxygenated blood (blood carrying oxygen) through the aorta
and its many branches to nearly all parts of the body. Two small but important
branches of the aorta are the coronary arteries. The supply the blood by which the
heart muscle itself is nourished. The right and left carotid arteries carry blood to
the two sides of the head and neck. Blood flows through the right and left
subclavian arteries to the shoulders and arms, numerous other branches of the
aorta distribute (Provide) blood to the internal organs. In the abdominal region the
aorta divides into two large branches, the right and lefty iliac arteries. These
arteries have branches that supply the organs located in the pelvis. The iliac
arteries then continue downward into the legs, where they are known as femoral
NOTES
arteries.
After the arterial blood has passed through the body and has picked up
impurities, the veins collect it and return it to another chamber of the heart. The
heart pumps this blood through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. Here the blood
takes on a new store of oxygen. This in-turn returns to the heart, where it is once
more pumped out through the aorta.
Capillary circulation:
Capillary is the smallest blood vessel in the body having thin walls, which
can be seen only under the microscope. Most capillaries are so small that only one
blood cell can pass through them at a time. Capillaries connect the smallest
arteries with the smallest veins. They make up a network of blood vessels
throughout the body. The largest capillaries are in the bone marrow and skin. The
smallest are in the brain and lining of the intestine.
Foods, which are carried in the blood stream, are able to pass through thin of
capillaries into the tissues. Waste materials from the tissues also pass into the
blood stream through capillary walls. In the capillaries of the lungs, oxygen goes
through the walls into the blood and carbon dioxide goes out. Other waste
products pass through tiny capillary walls into the kidneys, intestine and skin.
Capillary circulation is made possible by the difference between the
hydrostatic pressures of the venous and arterial ends of capillaries.
Vein:
Vein is a blood vessel, which carries blood towards the heart. Most veins
return blood to the heart after it has given out nourishment to the tissues and then
taken up waste products. Blood in veins is called venous blood. The blood
returning from the body cells has lost its oxygen so it is dull, brownish-red. It
circulates through the right side of the heart and then goes to the lungs. Here it
gives off its waste product carbon dioxide and takes a new supply of oxygen.
Bright red blood from the lungs returns to the heart through the pulmonary veins.
Then it begins its trip through the body.

NOTES
The veins begin at the capillaries. At first they are very tiny, and are called
venues. Small veins join to from the larger ones. Finally all the venous blood of the
body pours into two very large veins that open into the heart. One of the these, the
superior vena cava, carries blood from the head and arms. The other, the inferior
cava, carries it from the trunk and legs.
Veins, like arteries, have walls made of three layers. But the vein walls are
thinner, less elastic, and less muscular than these of the arteries. The lining
membrane of the veins is the intima. In many of the largest veins the intima has
folds that serve as valves. These folds lie against the wall when the blood is
flowing freely. Several things can cause the blood to slow down or stop the
weight of blood above the vessel, gravity pressure on a vein, or low fluid pressure.
Then the valves open out, and stop the blood flowing backward. The valves are
usually just above the place where two veins join. There are no valves in the
abdomen, brain and lungs, or in the smaller veins.
Systemic venous pressure

Blood pressure generally refers to the arterial pressure in the systemic
circulation. Venous pressure is the vascular pressure in a vein or in the atria of the
heart. It is much less than arterial pressure, with common values of 5 mmHg in
the right atrium and 8 mmHg in the left atrium.
Blood pressure (BP) is the pressure of circulating blood on the walls of blood
vessels. Most of this pressure is due to work done by the heart by pumping blood
through the circulatory system. Used without further specification, "blood
pressure" usually refers to the pressure in large arteries of the systemic circulation.
Blood pressure is usually expressed in terms of the systolic pressure (maximum
during one heartbeat) over diastolic pressure (minimum in between two
heartbeats) and is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg), above the
surrounding atmospheric pressure.
Blood pressure is one of the vital signs, along with respiratory rate, heart
rate, oxygen saturation, and body temperature. Normal resting blood pressure in
an adult is approximately 120 millimetres of mercury (16 kPa) systolic, and 80
millimetres of mercury (11 kPa) diastolic, abbreviated "120/80 mmHg". Globally,
NOTES
the average blood pressure, age standardized, has remained about the same since
1975 to the present, at approx. 127/79 mmHg in men and 122/77 mmHg in
women.
Traditionally, blood pressure was measured non-invasively by auscultation
of brachial pulse using stethoscope with the help of mercury-tube
sphygmomanometer. Ausculation is still generally considered to be the gold
standard of accuracy for non-invasive blood pressure readings in clinic. However,
semi-automated methods have become common, largely due to concerns about
potential mercury toxicity, although cost, ease of use and applicability to
ambulatory blood pressure or home blood pressure measurements have also
influenced this trend. Early automated alternatives to mercury-tube
sphygmomanometers were often seriously inaccurate, but modern devices
validated to international standards achieve an average difference between two
standardized reading methods of 5 mm Hg or less and a standard deviation of less
than 8 mm Hg. Most of these semi-automated methods measure blood pressure
using oscillometry.
Blood pressure is influenced by cardiac output, total peripheral resistance
and arterial stiffness and varies depending on situation, emotional state, activity,
and relative health/disease states. In the short term, blood pressure is regulated
by baroreceptors which act via the brain to influence the nervous and the
endocrine systems.
Blood pressure that is too low is called hypotension, and pressure that is
consistently high is called hypertension. Both have many causes and may be of
sudden onset or of long duration. Long-term hypertension is a risk factor for
many diseases, including heart disease, stroke and kidney failure. Long-term
hypertension is more common than long-term hypotension, which is usually only
diagnosed when it causes symptoms.
Cardiac Cycle:

NOTES
The cardiac cycle consist of one cycle of contraction and relaxation. Its major
events, in order of occurrence, are: atrial systole, atrial diastole, ventricular systole,
ventricular diastole, and a passive or inactive period.
Cardiac Cycle Phases:
The following are the phases of cardiac cycle:
1) The cardiac cycle begins with the passive / inactive period in which the heart
is at rest, blood is flowing into the atria, and AV valves are open, allowing
blood to passively flow in to the ventricles.
2) The SA nodes fire, and resulted in atria systole.
3) Iso volumetric contraction of the ventricles occurs after the ventricles
depolarize. The AV valves closes as ventricular blood suddenly rush back
against the cusps. This phase is called iso volumetric because the ventricles do
not yet eject blood and there is no change in their volume even though they
are contracting.
4) Next comes ventricular ejection, in which the amount known as stroke volume
passes into the major vessels leaving the heart.
5) Iso volumetric relaxation and ventricular filling follow, completing one cardiac
cycle.
Review Questions
1. Why is arterial pressure higher than venous?
Blood pressure in the arteries is much higher than in the veins, due to
receiving of blood from the heart after contraction, but also due to their contractile
capacity. The tunica media of arteries is thickened compared to veins, has smooth
muscle fibers and elastic tissue.
2. What is the average venous blood pressure?
Venous pressure is a term that represents the average blood pressure within
the venous compartment. Venous pressure diminishes continually from the ankle
towards the heart. When standing still, venous pressure is generally 90 to 110
mmHg at the ankle.
3. What is the difference between arterial and venous blood pressure?
Blood pressure generally refers to the arterial pressure in the systemic
NOTES
circulation. Venous pressure is the vascular pressure in a vein or in the atria of the
heart. It is much less than arterial pressure, with common values of 5 mmHg in
the right atrium and 8 mmHg in the left atrium.
4. What is the normal range for mean arterial pressure?
It is considered by many to be a better indication of perfusion than systolic
blood pressure. It is vital to have a MAP of at least 60 mmHg to provide enough
blood to the coronary arteries, kidneys, and brain. The normal MAP range is
between 70 and 100 mmHg.
5. Why is blood pressure lower in veins than arteries?
Blood flows from the capillaries into very small veins called venules, then
into the veins that lead back to the heart. Veins have much thinner walls than do
arteries, largely because the pressure in veins is so much lower. Veins can widen
(dilate) as the amount of fluid in them increases.
6. What is the mean arterial pressure of blood?
Typical systolic and diastolic pressure values of 120/80 mm Hg are shown.
The mean arterial pressure is shown to be approximately 93 mm Hg.
7. Describe the circulatory system in details.
8. How large is a person’s heart? Explain its functioning.
9. Why is blood pumped to the lungs? Describe.
10. How does heart muscle differ from other muscles?
11. Describe the blood vessels and their functions in detail.
12. Write note on
(a) Arteries
(b) Veins
(c) Cardiac cycle.
13. Draw a diagram of human heart and explain its functions.
14. Describe the functions of blood.
15. Name the components of blood and give their functions.
16. Describe about the formed elements.
17. Describe the importance and kinds of Blood group.
NOTES
8. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Introduction:
The digestive system is responsible for processing food, breaking it down
into usable proteins, carbohydrates, minerals, fats and other substances, and
introducing these into the bloodstream so that the body can use them. The
digestive or alimentary, tract begins at the mouth, where the tongue begin the
breakdown of food, aided by saliva secreted by the salivary glands. The chewed
food, combined with saliva, is swallowed, carrying it to in the esophagus and into
to the stomach. In the stomach, the food combines with hydrochloric acid, which
future helps in breaking it down .when the food is thoroughly digested, the
remaining thick fluid or partially digested food, called chyme, is passed through
the small intestine and large intestine. Within intestinal canals, the nutrients are
absorbed from the chyme (partially digested food or thick fluid) into the
bloodstream, leaving the unusable residue. This residue passes through the colon
(where most of the water is absorbed into the bloodstream) and into rectum where
it is stored prior to excretion. This solid waste, called feces, is compacted together
and, upon excretion, passes through the anal canal and the anus. Along the way
through the digestive tract, the pancreas, spleen, liver, and gall bladder secrete
enzymes (chemical substances) which help in the digestive process.
Importance of Digestion
When we eat food materials such thing as bread, meat and vegetables, they
are not in a form that the body can use as nourishment .Our food and drink must
be changed into smaller molecules of nutrients before they can be absorbed into
the blood and carried to cells throughout the body. Digestion is the process by
which food and drink are broken down into their smallest parts so that the body
can use them to build nourish cells and to provide energy.
Functions and Processes of Digestive System
The digestive system has four function ingestion (swallowing), digestion,
absorption, and defecation (excretion).

The functions of the digestive tract are carried out through three principle
NOTES
process: motility (motile quality i.e. moving or able to move by itself), secretion
and membrane transport.
Organs of Digestive System
The different organs or parts of
human Digestive System are as under
and also shown in figure.
Food provides the energy for
growth and the other activities of the
body. Digestion is the process
through which the minerals, starch,
glucose and fat, contained in the
food, are converted into nutrients for
the use of the tissues. Digestion takes
place in the alimentary canal, which
has a length of around 6 –9 meters, and extends from the mouth to the anus of a
person.
The Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal starts from the mouth. The food we eat mixes with the
saliva in the mouth and it is ground by the teeth. The mouth has an upper jaw and
a lower jaw, each of which bears 16 teeth. The teeth are classified into incisors,
canines, premolars and molars. They serve to bite, tear and chew the food. The
tongue lying at the base of the mouth, helps push the food around, for being
chewed by the teeth.
Saliva is secreted by the three salivary glands, viz. the Parotid, Sublingual
and the Submandibulary, situated in the mouth. An enzyme called Ptyalin
contained in the saliva, converts the carbohydrates in the food into Maltose, which
makes it taste sweet, when chewed for long. Lysozyme, another enzyme, helps
fight bacteria. Saliva also helps grind the food well before pushing it down the
gullet.

NOTES
The Stomach
It lies in the upper portion of the abdominal cavity and is responsible for
digestion of the food. It has a capacity of about 300 – 1500ml. Gastric juice,
produced by the glands lining the walls of the stomach mix with the food. The
food is well mixed with the gastric juice on account of the contraction and
expansion of the stomach. Around 1500 – 2500ml of gastric juices is produced by
the human body every day.
The Small Intestine
The work of digestion is completed only in the small intestine. The body
receives life energy particles and bio-magnetism from the food. The nutrients in
the food are absorbed by the small intestine and taken to the liver, which converts
it into blood and sends it to the heart for circulation all over the body. The
mitochondria in the cells convert the carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and
sulphur into life energy particles and bio-magnetism in accordance with the
requirements of the body.
The Liver
Our liver produces bile, a fluid containing cholesterol and bile acids. Bile
flows from the liver through the cystic duct to the gall bladder. It is eventually
dumped into the duodenum, where it performs its major function of helping
absorption of fats through the lining of the small bowel in the bloodstream.
Gall Bladder
The gall bladder stores excess bile. It is like pear-shaped organ that sits
beneath (under) the liver. Bile passes from the gall bladder through the duct and is
stored until it is needed for the digestion of fats. The bile empties out into
duodenum. The gall bladder serve as a useful function, to digest fats, but it is not
vital to maintain normal body functions. This is because bile can be delivered
directly from the liver into the duodenum.
The pancreatic duct and the common bile duct, both ducts join together to
enter the duodenum. In the pancreatic duct, there is a separate opening into
duodenum.

The Exocrine glandular cells (around small pancreatic ducts) secrete
NOTES
pancreatic juice, and endocrine glandular cells of islands of Langerhans (adjacent
to blood capillaries) secrete glucagon, and beta cells secrete insulins.
Gastric secretion is stimulated by the act of eating (cephalic phase) and the
arrival of food in the stomach (gastric phase). Arrival of the food in the small
intestine also controls gastric secretion (intestinal phase). The secreted fluid
contains hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor, bicarbonate and mucus.
Pancreas
When there is acid chyme (thick fluid) in the small intestine from the
stomach, the walls of the intestine are stimulated. This causes two hormones
called secretin and cholecystokinin (koh-luh-sisluh-ky-nin) to be secreted into the
blood. When the blood passes through the pancreas, the pancreas is stimulated by
these hormones. Therefore the pancreas releases a substance known as pancreatic
juice. The Pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate, which neutralizes the
acidic chyme and contents of the small intestine. The enzymes in the pancreatic
juice act on proteins , carbohydrates, fats and nucleic acids.
Pancreatic Secretions:
The Exocrine glandular cells (around small pancreatic ducts) Exocrine
(pancreatic cells) secrete pancreatic juice, and endocrine glandular cells of islands
of Langerhans (adjacent to blood capillaries) secrete glucagon, and beta cells
secrete insulin.
Exocrine Secretions of the Pancreas. Pancreatic juice is composed of two
secretory products critical to proper digestion: digestive enzymes and bicarbonate.
The enzymes are synthesized and secreted from the exocrine acinar cells, whereas
bicarbonate is secreted from the epithelial cells lining small pancreatic ducts.
These enzymes are:
❖ Amylase: cause digestion of starch to disaccharides.
❖ Trypsin: digests peptones and proteases into peptides.
❖ Lipase: digests fat droplets into fatty acids and glycerol.

NOTES
Small Intestine
The small intestine small bowel, is an elongated tube about 6.5 meters long
and about 2.5 centimeters in diameter, depending on the tone of its muscular wall
and the way it is measured. It is where most of the chemical digestion and
absorption occurs.
Parts of the small intestine :
The three most important parts of the small intestine are as under :
1) The duodenum-Food leaves the stomach through the pyloric sphincter and
enters the small intestine into the duodenum, which is the shortest section of
the small intestine. This is where the absorption process truly begins.
2) The jejunum – The jejunum, the middle section of the small intestine and
the large portion of the small bowel , is where the majority of absorption
takes place.
3) The ileum-The last section is the ileum that has some absorptive function (for
example ,vitamin B-12) in addition for being responsible for the passage of
food into the large intestine.
Gastric Motility:
Contractions of gastric smooth muscle serves two basic functions: ingested
food is crushed, ground and mixed, liquefying it to form what is called chyme.
chyme is forced through the pyloric canal into the small intestine, a process called
gastric emptying.
Digestive Peristalsis:
Peristalsis, involuntary movements of the longitudinal and circular muscles,
primarily in the digestive tract but occasionally in other hollow tubes of the body,
that occur in progressive wavelike contractions. Peristaltic waves occur in the
esophagus, stomach, and intestines.
Gastrointestinal hormone:
The gastrointestinal hormones constitute a group of hormones secreted by
enteroendocrine cells in the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine that control
various functions of the digestive organs.

Structural features of the small intestine:
NOTES
The small intestine has a number of structural features such as:
1) The small intestine is very long.
2) Its lining has many folds.
3) The lining is covered with millions of finger like projections, called villi.
4) The epithelial cells that make up the intestinal lining have brush borders.
The small intestine is constantly in motion when food is present, the four
main effects of the movements are:
a) They squeeze chyme (partially digested food) through the intestine.
b) They mix the chyme (partially digested food) with the digestive enzymes
present in the small intestine.
c) They break down food particles mechanically.
d) They speed up absorption of digestive end products by bringing the
intestinal contents into contact with the intestinal wall.
Chyme is a mixture of the food particles, pancreatic juice from the pancreas,
bile from the liver and intestinal juice from the glands in the wall of the intestine.
The secretions contain enzymes and other necessary juices to complete digestion.
These various enzymes break down the semi-solid chyme into smaller particles
that can be easily absorbed through the lining of the small intestine into the
bloodstream.
The starches (carbohydrates) are broken down into simpler sugars, the
proteins are broken down into amino acids, and fats are broken down by the
enzymes from the pancreas and the bile acids from the liver. Simple Sugars, amino
acids, vitamins, minerals, water, electrolytes (for example, sodium and calcium)
and other substances are absorbed through the wall of the small intestine into
the blood vessels. The pancreatic enzymes are amylase, protease, trypsin,
chymotrypsin and lipase. The intestinal juice contains enzymes such as,
peptidases and maltase.
There are two hormones that are stimulated when the acid from the stomach
enters the small intestine and they are secretin and cholecystokinin. These
hormones stimulate the pancreas to secrete pancreatic juice and pancreatic
NOTES
enzymes. The pancreatic juice contains sodium bicarbonate, which is the
neutralizer. It neutralizes the acid in the chyme (partially digested food) and
makes the pH (acid base balance) of the contents slightly alkaline.
A summary of the small intestines is that where molecules of proteins,
carbohydrates and fats are broken down into the end products of digestion in the
small intestines. Carbohydrates are broken down into simple sugars, proteins into
amino acids and fats into fatty acids glycerol. The small intestine is just the
breaking down of food particles and transporting them to the cells through the
bloodstream.
Large Intestine
The large intestine is where the undigested and unabsorbed materials are
passed from the small intestine .It is about 1.5 meters long and 6 centimeters in
diameter. There is no digestion in this portion of the digestive system.
Functions of large intestine :
1) The large intestine reabsorbs water from the semisolid chime. During the
process of digestion water is mixed with the food, as it moving through the
digestive system. Probably, under normal conditions, about three-fourths
of the water is absorbed.
2) The absorption of vitamins, which are produced by bacteria, that is
normally living in the large intestine. The large intestine absorbs water.
3) The elimination, or the removal of undigested and indigestible material
from the digestive tract includes, cellulose from plant cell walls: large
quantities of bacteria, bile, and mucus; and worn–out cells from the
digestive tract. As the food material is travelling through the intestine, it
becomes feces, or stool. Feces is a matter that is stored in the last part of the
large intestine, the rectum, and periodically eliminated, or defecated
through the anus.
Appendix
The appendix is a small pouch, on the lower right side of the abdomen
where the small intestine joins the large intestine. In the human digestive system
the appendix plays no part in the functioning. However, occasionally, the
appendix becomes inflamed or infected, a condition known as appendicitis. If this
NOTES
condition is not treated by surgery or any other medical procedure, the appendix
may burst, causing the spreading of the infection.
Rectum
Stores feces until elimination
The anus
The large intestine collects any undigested, non–absorbed food and water
out of the body. The anus is located at the end of the large intestine. The waste
that is stored in the large intestine is then expelled out of the body from the anus.
Mechanism of Digestive System (How Food Is Digested?)
1) Enters the mouth where the teeth grind up the food.
2) Salivary glands make saliva, a digestive juice.
3) After that it passes through the Esophagus into the stomach.
4) When it gets to the stomach it churns food and adds digestive juice.
5) The liver and pancreas make digestive juices which is utilized in the small
intestine.
6) The gall bladder stores bile made in the liver.
7) The duodenum would then receive bile and pancreatic juice.
8) Then it goes down to the small intestine where it completes digestion and
sends digested foods into the blood stream.
9) Finally the digested food enters the large intestine where it stores and finally
disposes the waste material.
Nerve Regulators of Digestive System
Two types of nerves help to control the action of the digestive system.
Extrinsic (outside) nerves come to the digestive organs from the unconscious part
of the brain or from the spinal cord (Autonomic Nervous System). They release a
chemical called acetylcholine and other called adrenaline. Acetylcholine causes the
muscle of the digestive organs to squeeze with more force and increase the “push”
of food and juice through the digestive tract. Acetylcholine also causes he stomach
and pancreas to produce more digestive juice. Adrenaline relaxes the muscle of
the stomach and intestine and decreases the flow of blood to these organs.
NOTES
Even more important are the intrinsic (inside) nerves, which make up a very
dense network ambedded (enclosed) in the walls of the esophagus, stomach, small
intestine and colon. The intrinsic (inside) nerves are triggered to act when the
walls of the hollow organs are stretched by food. They release many different
substances that speed up or delay the movement of food and the production
of juices by the digestive organs.
Review questions
1. What are the 7 steps of digestion?
The digestive process starts when you put food in your mouth
❖ Esophagus. Once you begin swallowing, the process becomes automatic
❖ Lower esophageal sphincter
❖ Stomach, Small intestine, Large intestine, Rectum, Mouth
2. What are the 4 main functions of the digestive system?
To achieve the goal of providing energy and nutrients to the body, six major
functions take place in the digestive system:
❖ Ingestion, Secretion, Mixing and movement, Digestion, Absorption,
Excretion
3. What are the five stages of digestion?
The digestive process has six stages from the time you eat to the time you
eliminate the waste.
❖ Chewing. Digestion begins as soon as you put food in your mouth
❖ Swallowing, Stomach Digestion, Small Intestine Digestion, Absorption,
Waste Elimination
4. What are the main functions of digestive system?
The function of the digestive system is digestion and absorption. Digestion is
the breakdown of food into small molecules, which are then absorbed into the
body. The digestive system is divided into two major parts: The digestive tract
(alimentary canal) is a continuous tube with two openings: the mouth and the
anus.
5. What are the steps of digestion in order?
Your digestive system, from beginning to end
NOTES
❖ Step 1: Mouth. For the digestion and absorption of different foods. saliva
helps break down the products of ingestion.
❖ Step 2: Esophagus
❖ Step 3: Stomach
❖ Step 4: Small Intestine
❖ Step 5: Large Intestine, Colon, Rectum and Anus
6. How long does it take to empty your stomach?
4 to 5 hours
It generally takes 4 to 5 hours for the stomach to empty after a full meal and
a bit less after a snack or liquid, though it varies depending on how much and
what kind of food you eat. In empty stomach certain medications, after you have
fasted overnight for easy absorption can be taken.


NOTES
9. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Introduction:
Respiratory system is the system through which every cell in the body
receives its oxygen and excretes its carbon-dioxide (CO2). Human beings inhale
and exhale the air through the respiratory passages starting from nasal cavities,
nasopharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles and finally to alveoli. This
breathing in (inspiration) and breathing out (expiration) of air through lungs is
External Respiration. The air is exchanged in for oxygen and out for CO2 in the
alveoli and through capillaries it is carried to each and every cell of the body. This
exchange of gases at the cellular level is described as Internal Respiration.
Types of Respiration:
1) Internal Respiration - Exchange of gases between the blood and cells.
2) External Respiration - Exchange of gases between the blood and lungs.
Functions of the Respiratory System:
The major functions of the Respiratory system are to:
❖ Exchange oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and blood.
❖ Regular blood PH (acid - base balance).
❖ Produce sounds and voice.
❖ Move air over the sensory receptors that detect smell
❖ Protect against some microorganisms.
Organs of the Respiratory System
The main organs of the respiratory system are the nose, pharynx, larynx,
trachea, bronchi and lungs.
These organs draw in air, exchange gases with the blood, and expel the
modified air.
1) The conducting division of the respiratory system consists of those passages
that serve for airflow, mainly from the nostrils through the bronchioles.
2) The respiratory division consists of the alveoli and other distal gas - exchange
regions.
3) The airway from the nose to the larynx is often called the upper respiratory

tract.
NOTES
4) The regions from the trachea to the lungs comprise the lower respiratory tract.
The Larynx
The larynx or voice box is a cartilaginous chamber. Its basic function is to
prevent material entering the airway, but it plays an additional role of producing
sound. The superior opening of the larynx, the glottis, is guarded by a flap of
tissue called the epiglottis. During swallowing, the extrinsic muscles of the pull it
upward toward the glottis, thereby closing it so solid food and liquids enter into
the oesophagus. The folds play a greater role in keeping food and drink out of the
airway. The framework of the larynx has nine cartilages. These are the epiglottis,
thyroid, and cricoids cartilages (all single) and the arytenoids, and cuneiform
cartilages (all paired).
The walls of the larynx are quite muscular. Deep intrinsic muscles operate
the vocal cords. Extrinsic muscles connect the larynx to the hyoid bone and elevate
the larynx during swallowing. The wall of the larynx has folds. The superior pair
is the vestibular folds, or false vocal cords. The inferior true vocal cords. The
intrinsic muscles control the vocal cords by pulling onto the cartilages. As air
passes through the cords, high - pitched sound occur when the cords are pulled
(tightly stretched), and lower - pitched sounds occur when the cords are more
relaxed. The force of all passing through the vocal cords determine loudness.
The Trachea
The trachea or windpipe is a rigid tube, 12 cm in length, with C - shaped
cartilage rings to prevent collapse of airway during inspiration. The larynx and
trachea are lined with epithelium, which provides a escalator for removal of
debris trapped in the mucus.
The Lungs:
The primary unit of the respiratory system is the lungs. They are cone
shaped, soft and spongy in texture. They comprise of a right and a left lung. The
right lung with a weight of around 620gms is slightly larger than the left,
weighing around 500gms. The diaphragm, which separates the chest cavity from
the stomach, is located below the lungs. The lungs have no muscle contents in
NOTES
them and function through the action of the muscles in the chest. The expansion
and contraction of the chest causes the air to circulate in the lungs.
Human being like other land animals breathe through their nostrils and with
the help of lungs, (are) located in the airtight thoracic cavity, which is bounded
below by a convex, muscular structure (and) called diaphragm. Respiration
carried out lungs is called pulmonary respiration.
Functionally, the lungs are elastic bags resembling rubber ballons. They do
not have muscular tissue which can cause expansion and contraction. The lungs
respond passively to the pressure changes thoracic cavity due to contraction or
relaxation of muscles of ribs and movement of diaphragm during inspiration and
expiration.
Each lung is a conical organ with its broad, concave base resting on the
diaphragm. The lungs are connected with bronchus, blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves through its hilum.
The left lung is divided into two lobes and the right into three lobes.
The Bronchial Tree
The bronchial tree is a
system of highly branched
air tubes, that begins with
the primary each lung from
the trachea. Each primary
bronchus divides into
secondary (lobar) bronchi
and so on. The next
subdivision is that of
tertiary bronchi that each supply a bronchopulmonary segment of lung Tertiary
bronchi gives rise to bronchioles, which lack cartilage but have smooth muscle on
their portion ventilated by each bronchiole is a primary lobule. Each bronchiole
divides into 50 80 terminal. Each terminal bronchiole gives off smaller respiratory
bronchioles that end in alveolar sacs. Alveoli bud form the walls of respiratory
bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and sacs.
Volume of the Lungs:
NOTES
The total capacity of the lungs is around 4 – 5 litres of air. Every breath
results in around ½ litre of air entering and leaving the lungs. As we do not,
normally, take deep breaths, the air sacs within the lungs are never filled to its
capacity, as a result of which we often catch a cold. The dust particles and germs
that enter the lungs along with the air, stick to the sputum leading to allergies,
fatigue, headache and fear. Besides these, the body is deprived of oxygen,
resulting in various other problems.
A healthy person breathes around 14 – 18 times per minute, which through
suitable practices can be reduced to 6, 4, 2 or even 1 breath per minute. Reduction
in the rate of breathing helps in concentration and calms the mind. Anger and
other emotions increase the breathing rate up to 20, 25, 30 or even 40 times per
minute. Increase in the rate of breathing leads to increase in blood circulation,
affecting the function of the valves in the heart. In course of time this can even
affect the heart adversely. The volume of air inspired and expired can be
measured with the help of a Spirometer.
Mechanism of Respiration
The process of breathing is breathing in is called inspiration and breathing
out is called expiration. Several of the gas laws are highly relevant to
understanding respiratory function.
Mechanics of Ventilation
Ventilation, or breathing is, the movement of air through the conducting
passages between the atmosphere and the lungs. The air moves through the
passages because of pressure gradients that are produced by contraction of the
diaphragm and thoracic muscles.
Pulmonary ventilation
Pulmonary ventilation is commonly referred to as breathing. It is the process
of air flowing into the lungs during inspiration (inhalation) and out of the lungs
during expiration (exhalation). Air flows because of pressure differences between
the atmosphere and the gases inside the lungs.

NOTES
Air, like other gases, flows from a region with higher pressure to a region
with lower pressure. Muscular breathing movements and recoil of elastic tissues
create the changes in pressure that result in ventilation. Pulmonary ventilation
involves three different pressures:
o Atmospheric pressure
o Intra alveolar (intrapulmonary) pressure
o Intrapleural pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the pressure of the air outside the body. Intra
alveolar pressure is the pressure inside the alveoli of the lungs. Intrapleural
pressure is the pressure within the pleural cavity. These three pressures are
responsible for pulmonary ventilation.
Inspiration
Inspiration (inhalation) is the process of taking air into the lungs. It is the
active phase of ventilation because as a result of muscle contraction. During
inspiration, the diaphragm contracts and the thoracic cavity increases in volume.
This decreases the intra alveolar pressure so air flows into the lungs. Inspiration
draws air into the lungs.
Expiration
Expiration (exhalation) is the process of letting air out of the lungs during
the breathing cycle. During expiration, the relaxation of the diaphragm and elastic
recoil of tissue decreases the thoracic volume and increases the intra alveolar
pressure. Expiration pushes air out of the lungs.
Regulation of respiration
The medulla oblongata is the primary respiratory control center. Its main
function is to send signals to the muscles that control respiration to cause
breathing to occur. There are two regions in the medulla that control respiration:
❖ The ventral respiratory group stimulates expiratory movements.
❖ The dorsal respiratory group stimulates inspiratory movements.
The medulla also controls the reflexes for non-respiratory air movements,
such as coughing and sneezing reflexes, as well as other reflexes, like swallowing
and vomiting.
Mechanics of Breathing
NOTES
Breathing occurs when the contraction or relaxation of muscles around the
lungs changes the total volume of air which flows via the air passages (bronchi,
bronchioles) into the lung. When the volume of the lungs changes, the pressure of
the air in the lungs changes in accordance with Boyle's Law. If the pressure is
greater in the lungs then air flows out of the lungs, then air rushes out. If the
opposite occurs, then air rushes in. Here is a summary of the process:
1) Inspiration occurs when the inspiratory muscles—that is, the diaphragm and
the external intercostal muscles—contract. Contraction of the diaphragm (the
skeletal muscle below the lungs) causes an increase in the size of the thoracic
cavity, while contraction of the external intercostal muscles elevates the ribs
and sternum. Thus, both muscles cause the lungs to expand, increasing the
volume of their internal air passages. In response, the air pressure inside the
lungs decreases below that of air outside the body. Because of this gases move
from regions of high pressure to areas of low pressure, air rushes into the
lungs resulting in inspiration.
2) Expiration occurs when the diaphragm and external intercostal muscles relax.
In response, the elastic fibers in lung tissue cause the lungs to recoil to their
original volume. The pressure of the air inside the lungs then increases above
the air pressure outside the body, and air rushes out. During high rates of
ventilation, expiration is facilitated by contraction of the expiratory muscles
(the intercostal muscles and the abdominal muscles).
Lung compliance is a measure of the ability of the lungs and thoracic cavity
to expand. Due to the elasticity of lung tissue and the low surface tension created
by the fluid lining the alveoli (the surfactant), so the lungs normally have high
compliance.
Neural control of Respiration:
The principal nervous centre for controlling the rate and depth of respiration
is in the respiratory section of the vagus nucleus in the medulla oblongata. The
cells of this nucleus are sensitive to the acidity of the blood; which reflects higher
and lower concentrations of carbon dioxide in the blood plasma. When the acidity
NOTES
of the blood a high, as is usually caused by an excess of carbon dioxide, the
respiratory centre stimulates the respiratory muscles to greater activity. When the
carbon dioxide concentration is low, breathing is depressed.
Alveoli:
To compensate for high metabolic rates and oxygen needs, each human lung
has an immense surface area (80 square meters) for gas exchange. An alveolus
consists mostly of alveolar cells, which are thin to allow for rapid gas diffusion
across them. Also present within the lumens of the alveoli are alveolar
macrophages (dust cells) that are the last line of defense against inhaled matter.
Each alveolus is surrounded with a basket of capillaries. Pulmonary circulation
has a very low blood pressure to prevent the alveoli from filling with fluid. The
osmotic uptake of water overrides filtration and keeps the alveoli dry;
The Pleurae:
The surface of each lung is covered by visceral pleura; the chest cavity is
lined with parietal pleura. Between the two is the potential space of the pleural
cavity containing pleural fluid. The pleura and pleural fluid serve to reduce
friction during chest expansion, to create a pressure gradient, and to prevent
infection through compartmentalization.
Measurements of Ventilation
A spirometer is used to measure expired air. Four spirometric measures such
as tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, and
residual volume, are called respiratory volumes. Others are known as respiratory
capacities, and calculated by adding two or more of the respiratory volumes.
Gas Transport oxygen is transported in the blood in two ways:
A small amount of O 2(1.5 percent) is carried in the plasma as a dissolved
gas.
Most oxygen (98.5 percent) carried in the blood is bound to the protein
hemoglobin in red blood cells. A fully saturated oxyhemoglobin (HbO 2) has four
O2 molecules attached. Without oxygen, the molecule is referred to as
deoxyhemoglobin (Hb).

The ability of hemoglobin to bind to O 2 is influenced by the partial pressure
NOTES
of oxygen. The greater the partial pressure of oxygen in the blood, the more
readily oxygen binds to Hb. The oxygen‐hemoglobin dissociation curve, shows
that as pO 2 increases toward 100 mm Hg, Hb saturation approaches 100 percent.
Hypoxia
Hypoxia is a condition in which the body or a region of the body is deprived
of adequate oxygen supply at the tissue level. Hypoxia may be classified as either
generalized, affecting the whole body, or local, affecting a region of the body.
Although hypoxia is often a pathological condition, variations in arterial oxygen
concentrations can be part of the normal physiology, for example, during
hypoventilation training or strenuous physical exercise.
Hypoxia differs from hypoxemia and anoxemia in that hypoxia refers to a
state in which oxygen supply is insufficient, whereas hypoxemia and anoxemia
refer specifically to states that have low or zero arterial oxygen supply. Hypoxia in
which there is complete deprivation of oxygen supply is referred to as anoxia.
Generalized hypoxia occurs in healthy people when they ascend to high
altitude, where it causes altitude sickness leading to potentially fatal
complications: high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) and high altitude cerebral
edema (HACE). Hypoxia also occurs in healthy individuals when breathing
mixtures of gases with a low oxygen content, e.g. while diving underwater
especially when using closed-circuit rebreather systems that control the amount of
oxygen in the supplied air. Mild, non-damaging intermittent hypoxia is used
intentionally during altitude training to develop an athletic performance
adaptation at both the systemic and cellular level.
Hypoxia is a common complication of preterm birth in newborn infants.
Because the lungs develop late in pregnancy, premature infants frequently possess
underdeveloped lungs. To improve lung function, doctors frequently place infants
at risk of hypoxia inside incubators (also known as humidicribs) that provide
continuous positive airway pressure.

NOTES
Artificial ventilation
Artificial ventilation, (also called artificial respiration) is means of assisting
or stimulating respiration, a metabolic process referring to the overall exchange of
gases in the body by pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, and internal
respiration. It may take the form of manually providing air for a person who is not
breathing or is not making sufficient respiratory effort on their own,or it may be
mechanical ventilation involving the use of a mechanical ventilator to move air in
and out of the lungs when an individual is unable to breathe on their own, for
example during surgery with general anesthesia or when an individual is in a
coma.
Three are various methods of giving artificial respiration, such as:
1) Manual Methods: These include Schafer’s method, Sylvester’s method
Eve’s rocking method, Holger-Nielson’s method and Mouth-to-Mouth
method.
2) Instrumental Methods: These include Drinker’s and Bragg Paul’s method.
Schafer’s Method: The patient is put in prone position and small pillow is
placed under the chest. The head is turned to one side. The operator kneels down
by the side of the patient facing his head. Two hands are placed on the lower part
of the chest. The operator puts his body weight leaning forward and pressing
upon the lower ribs of the subject from behind.
During this period, intra-abdominal pressure rises, diaphragm moves up
and air is expirated out of the lungs. Then, pressure on the ribs is released. This
process is repeated twelve times per minute. In this way, gaseous exchanges take
place and thus, inspiration may start functioning automatically.
Non-respiratory functions of the lung
Lists and describes the mechanisms by which the lung is protected from the
contaminants in inspired air.
❖ Describes the “air-conditioning” function of the upper airways.
❖ Describes the filtration and removal of particles from the inspired air.
❖ Describes the removal of biologically active material from the inspired air.
❖ Describes the reservoir and filtration functions of the pulmonary
circulation.
NOTES
❖ Lists the metabolic functions of the lung, including the handling of
vasoactive materials in the blood.
The main function of the respiratory system in general and the lung in
particular is gas exchange. However, the lung has several other tasks. These non-
respiratory functions of the lung include its own defense against inspired
particulate matter, the storage and filtration of blood for the systemic circulation,
the handling of vasoactive substances in the blood, and the formation and release
of substances used in the alveoli or circulation.
Every day about 10,000 L of air is inspired into the airways and the lungs,
bringing it into contact with approximately 50 to 100 m2 of what may be the most
delicate tissues of the body. This inspired air contains (or may contain) dust,
pollen, fungal spores, ash, and other products of combustion; microorganisms
such as bacteria; particles of substances such as asbestos and silica; and hazardous
chemicals or toxic gases.
Air Conditioning
The temperature and the humidity of the ambient air vary widely, and the
alveoli must be protected from the cold and from drying out. The mucosa of the
nose, the nasal turbinates, the oropharynx, and the nasopharynx have a rich blood
supply and constitute a large surface area. The nasal turbinates alone have a
surface area said to be about 160 cm2. As inspired air passes through these areas
and continues through the tracheobronchial tree, it is heated to body temperature
and humidified if one is breathing through the nose.
Olfaction
Because the olfactory receptors are located in the posterior nasal cavity
rather than in the trachea or alveoli, a person can sniff to attempt to detect
potentially hazardous gases or dangerous material in the inspired air. This rapid,
shallow inspiration brings gases into contact with the olfactory sensors without
bringing them into the lung. Of course, not all hazardous gases have an odor that
can be detected, for example, carbon monoxide.

NOTES
Review questions
1. What are the 5 main functions of the respiratory system?
❖ Inhalation and Exhalation is Pulmonary Ventilation-That’s Breathing.
❖ External Respiration exchanges Gases Between the Lungs and the
Bloodstream.
❖ Internal Respiration Exchanges Gases Between the Bloodstream and Body
Tissues.
❖ Air Vibrating the Vocal Cords Creates Sound.
❖ Olfaction, or Smelling, Is a Chemical Sensation.
2. How do we breathe?
When you breathe in, or inhale, your diaphragm contracts (tightens) and
moves downward. This increases the space in your chest cavity, so the lungs
expand. The intercostal muscles between your ribs also help to enlarge the chest
cavity. They contract to pull your rib cage both upward and outward when you
inhale.
3. What triggers breathing?
As part of the process, our cells marry single atoms of carbon to two atoms
of oxygen to make carbon dioxide - which we breathe out of our mouths as a
waste product. We absolutely have to get rid of this carbon dioxide, So carbon
dioxide is the main trigger to keep us breathing. (By the way, low oxygen levels
are also a reason to breathe - but this is a much weaker trigger than the high
carbon dioxide levels in the blood.)
4. What triggers Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)breathing?
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the waste product of metabolism and is expelled
from the body during exhalation. CO2 is also one of the gases that can cross the
blood-brain barrier. In the cerebrospinal fluid, it combines with water to produce
carbonic acid which in turn separates to form hydrogen ions.
1) Describe the respiratory system showing the labeled diagram.
2) Explain the main organs of respiratory system.
3) What is Mechanism of Respiration? Discuss.
4) Describe the functions of respiratory system and give the details of lungs.
NOTES 10. NERVOUS SYSTEM
Introduction:
The nervous system is one of the body’s most complex systems. The nervous
system is the control ‘center’ of our body or it can be thought of as the body’s
communication system. It regularly receives, records and passes on information. It
receives information from the environment and from different parts of our body.
It records this information and sends messages to parts of the body ordering them
to perform certain functions. This makes it possible for other systems of our body
to work together and respond to a situation.
Orders are issued in the nervous system, which controls and regulates
everything that our body does. The nervous system controls all organs and other
parts of our body. It acts as an organ of the mind and regulates body temperature
(heat), secretion of digestive juices, and excretion of wastes. It short we can say
that it controls each and every movement/activity, which we do or think, to do.
Structure and Functions of the Brain
The brain, which is located within the skull cavity, forms the center of the
nervous system. It is covered by three protective membranes and weighs around
1.36kg normally. The human brain is larger than that of the other animals and
nearly 1/5th of the blood supplied to the body goes to the brain. The brain has to
be well provided with oxygen, because lack of oxygen, for even for three or four
minutes, destroys the brain cells, which once destroyed cannot be regenerated.
Constant physical and mental tension leads to destruction of the brain cells
and reduction in their number, affects concentration and memory adversely.
People with under-developed brains have fewer brain cells than the others.
The vast progress achieved in the fields of medicine and computer
technology has made the study of the brain and its functions easier. CT Scanning
(Computer Tomography), Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and Electro
Encephalograms have all made the study of the brain and its functions easy.
Studies have revealed that the human brain generates waves ranging from 1 -40
cycles/second.
NOTES
Main Organs or Parts of Nervous system
The human nervous system mainly consists of the following parts or organs.
❖ The brain
❖ The spinal cord
❖ The nerves
The Brain:
The brain is a vital (important)
part of the nervous system. It is a very
complex and delicate organ of our body, which is protected by the bony skull. It
weighs approximately 1420 grams.
Four major parts of the brain are:
❖ Brain stem. It has 3 parts; medulla oblongata, pons, and midbrain.
❖ Cerebellum. Also known as the "little brain"
❖ Diencephalon. It has 3 parts; thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus.
❖ Cerebrum
The Cerebrum:
The cerebrum is the major part of the brain. The outer portion of the
cerebrum or cortex is the site of the mind and intelligence. It is also called gray
matter. This is our conscious brain. It allows us to think, feel, and decide our
movements. It governs the whole body.
The diencephalons (between midbrain):
This part of the brain consisting of thalamus and hypothalamus. The
thalamus is an important sensory (information receiving) center. All sensory
imputs except smell enters the thalamus and sent to the concerned area of gray
matter. The thalamus controls the sensory information which reaches our
conscious brain hence it is very important for motor control.
The hypothalamus is a small area directly below the thalamus but
functionally it is a vast area of the brain. It performs many of the important tasks,
both for survival and for enjoyment of life. It functions as a link between the mind
(psyche) and the body (soma). It also links the nervous system to endocrine
system.
The main functions of hypothalamus are as under;
NOTES
❖ It regulates the autonomic nervous system, the blood pressure, heart rate,
digestion, respiration etc.,
❖ It regulates the body temperature
❖ It regulates emotions
❖ It regulates thirst
❖ It regulates food intake
❖ In controls neuroendocrine link
❖ It controls sleep-wake cycle
The Cerebellum:
The cerebellum is located under the back (portion) of the cerebrum and is
partially covered by it. It is the second largest part of the brain. It is connected to
many parts of the brain and has important role in coordinating movements. It
helps us in controlling our muscle movements, balance and equilibrium.
The Medulla Oblongata or the brain stem:
The medulla oblongata is composed of the mid brain and nerve fibers of our
body connecting brain and connecting the brain and the spinal cord. All sensory
and motor nerves pass through the brainstem as they relay information between
the brain and the spinal cord. The medulla has centers, which control the heart
and lungs. When the medulla is injured, death results, the heart and lungs stop
beating and breathing respectively.
The Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is the second part of the central nervous system. It starts at
the base of the hindbrain and extends to the base of the vertebral column. The
spinal cord transmits the impulses from the peripheral nerves to the brain, and the
commands of the brain to the different parts of the body. Sometimes, the spinal
cord gives instructions on its own, without the help of the brain.
For example, when we touch something hot the impulse should normally be
carried to the brain through the nerves of the spinal cord and the command to
withdraw the hand should be issued by the brain. But taking into consideration
the emergent situation, the spinal cord takes over, issuing the command to
NOTES
withdraw the hand. They are called Spinal Reflexes. Closing the eyes, when
something falls into it, is another such reflex.
The brain contains 100 to 200 ml of a clear, colourless fluid called the
Cerebrospinal fluid, which acts as a cushion for the cortex, providing
immunological protection to the brain and helps to eliminate metabolic wastes. It
is produced by the specialised ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses of the
ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid granulations.
The nervous system consists of special cells called ‘nerve cells or Neurons’.
Every neuron is linked to 80,000 other neurons and together they make up a very
complex structure within the body. Nerves, which extend all over the body of a
person, control the perceptions and behavior of an individual. Nerves connect the
brain and the spinal cord to the other parts of the body, and make the muscles to
act, according to the circumstances. The nervous system is classified into the
Central Nervous System and the Peripheral Nervous System.
The Central Nervous System
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all
of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body. The brain and the
spinal cord together make the Central Nervous System.
The main functions of the nervous systems are
❖ To collect sensory input from the body and external environment.
❖ To process and interpret the sensory input.
❖ To respond appropriately to the sensory input.
Motor nervous system
A motor nerve is a nerve located in
the central nervous system (CNS),
usually the spinal cord, that sends motor
signals from the CNS to the muscles of
the body. This is different from the motor
neuron, which includes a cell body and
branching of dendrites, while the nerve is made up of a bundle of axons.

The motor function of the nervous system is specifically, the somatic nervous
NOTES
system is responsible for movement of voluntary muscles and the process known
as a reflex arc. This system carries nerve impulses back and forth between the
central nervous system, which is the brain and the spinal cord, and the skeletal
muscles, skin, and sensory organs.
There are three types of neurons in the nervous system – afferent, efferent
and interneurons
Afferent neurons are sensory neurons that carry nerve impulses from
sensory stimuli towards the central nervous system and brain, while efferent
neurons are motor neurons that carry neural impulses away from the central
nervous system and towards muscles to cause movement.
A spinal interneuron, found in the spinal cord, relays signals between
(afferent) sensory neurons, and (efferent) motor neurons. Different classes of
spinal interneurons are involved in the process of sensory-motor integration.
The Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

They are the nerves that arise from the brain and the spinal cord to extend all
over the body. They can be classified into the Somatic Nervous System and the
Autonomous Nervous System.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) contains 43 pairs of nerves. 12 pairs of
cranial nerves that connect with the brain and 31 pairs of spinal nerves that

NOTES
connect with the spinal cord. Spinal nerves directly supply the skeletal muscles.
For each spinal nerve, sensory neurons enter the spinal cord through the dorsal
root ganglia. Motor neurons leave the spinal cord via ventral root. They are the
link in the chain of control for muscle activity, ending at the neuromuscular
junctions.
The peripheral nervous system can be divided into two major divisions i.e.
Sensory and Motor. The sensory division of peripheral nervous system carries
sensory information towards central nervous system. Sensory (afferent) neurons
originate in internal organs, the skin, blood lymph vessels, spinal sense organs
(touch, smell, taste, vision and hearing), muscles and tendons.
The Somatic Nervous System
It controls the functions of the muscles in the body. It carries messages from
the central nervous system to the limbs. For example, transfer of messages to the
sense organs, movement of the limbs, the mouth etc., are the duties of the Somatic
Nervous System.
Autonomous Nervous System
It operates independently, taking care of the functions of the organs like
heart, lungs, kidneys and the digestive system. Besides this, contraction or
expansion of the pupils in the eyes in keeping with the intensity of the light,
increase in the heartbeat for providing additional blood to the muscles, reduction
in the supply of blood to the digestive system when hungry, increase in the flow
of blood to the heart, conversion of food into energy, are all the duties of the
Autonomic Nervous System.
The Sympathetic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System is divided into the Sympathetic Nervous
System and the Para Sympathetic Nervous System. Human emotions come under
the purview of the Sympathetic Nervous System and restoration of normalcy
under the Para Sympathetic Nervous System. Emotions like anger, fear, worries
etc. are controlled by the Sympathetic Nervous System. For example, shocking
news can produce a spurt in the secretion of adrenaline, leading to an increase in
the heart beat, breathing rate, blood pressure etc. which is the work of the
Sympathetic Nervous System; but normalcy is restored with the help of the Para
NOTES
Sympathetic Nervous System.
The Para Sympathetic Nervous System
The Para Sympathetic Nervous System, which works to restore normalcy, is
also responsible for the regulation of the internal organs and glands. It takes care
of activities like sexual arousal, salivation, production of tears, urination and
defecation, besides the noble sentiments like love, compassion, tolerance and
mercy.
The nervous system, which looks after the functions of the other systems, is a
highly complex one. All systems come to a halt when the nervous system is
affected. Paralysis sets in, and the body parts or organs become useless in time.
Synapse
In the nervous system, a synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or
nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to another neuron or to the
target effector cell.
We can group synapses into 5 types:
❖ Excitatory Ion Channel Synapses. These synapses have neuroreceptors that
are sodium channels.
❖ Inhibitory Ion Channel Synapses. These synapses have neuroreceptors that
are chloride channels.
❖ Non Channel Synapses.
❖ Neuromuscular Junctions.
❖ Electrical Synapses.
Reflex Action
The nervous system controls the body to a great extent involuntarily or
unconsciously, which is called reflex action. For example if you unknowingly put
your hand on a hot stove involuntarily you withdraw your hand from the hot
stove without giving the action any thought. Practically, the regulatory function of
the internal organs is carried out by reflexes. These are the natural reflexes with
which the organisation is born.

NOTES
Another type of reflexes such as motor reflex is different from the natural
reflexes and can be developed through practice. A motor reflex is a programmed
response. Athletes do not think of how they are going to run, jump or throw, how
they are going to move their arms or their legs in the race or jump. Instead, it
becomes automatic as a result of practice. An important part of physical education
is concerned with developing the right kind of reflexes. Through physical
education many desired motor reflexes can be developed beside other social
reflexes like respect for the individual, fair play, courtesy etc.
The level of nervous system control differs in response to sensory input
(information) according to the complexity of movement. Simple reflexes are
handled by the spinal cord only, whereas complex or difficult reactions or
movements need involvement of the brain.
In generai a reflex, or reflex action, is an involuntary and nearly
instantaneous movement in response to a stimulus. A reflex is made possible by
neural pathways called reflex arcs which can act on an impulse before that
impulse reaches the brain.
The following are some of the normal reflexes seen in newborn babies:
❖ Rooting reflex. This reflex starts when the corner of the baby's mouth is
stroked or touched
❖ Suck reflex. Rooting helps the baby get ready to suck
❖ Moro reflex
❖ Tonic neck reflex
❖ Grasp reflex
❖ Stepping reflex
❖ Some examples of reflex action are:
❖ When light acts as a stimulus, the pupil of the eye changes in size.
❖ Sudden jerky withdrawal of hand or leg when pricked by a pin.
❖ Coughing or sneezing, because of irritants in the nasal passages.
❖ Knees jerk in response to a blow or someone stamping the leg.

Reciprocal Innervation
NOTES
The reciprocal innervation is the domain of Central Nervous System. This
system receives messages through sensory nerves and takes action on the message
through motor nerves. Whenever any movement is desired to take place, the
Central Nervous System directs a group of muscle to contract and to the opposite
group of muscle to inhibit contraction. In other words when the agonistic muscles
are activated through motor nerve impulses to cause the contraction and
antagonistic muscles are inhibited by an opposite process of blocking of nerve
impulses, this process is termed as Reciprocal Innervation. Therefore, mutual
action of agonists and antagonists causing the movement is called Reciprocal
Innervation.
It must be noted that with practice the inhibition of the antagonistic muscles
becomes quicker and more complete and facilitates for more efficient movement.
Review Questions
1. What are the 3 major organs of the nervous system?
The nervous system consists of the brain, spinal cord, sensory organs, and all
of the nerves that connect these organs with the rest of the body. Together, these
organs are responsible for the control of the body and communication among its
parts.
2. What are the 5 main parts of the nervous system?
❖ Sense Organs
❖ Central nervous system: Made up of the brain and the spinal cord
❖ Peripheral nervous system
❖ Neurons
❖ Brain
❖ Spinal Cord
❖ Enteric nervous system
❖ Brain Tomography
3. How do synapses work?
❖ Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called synapses. At a
NOTES
chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to
release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the
postsynaptic cell and make it more or less likely to fire an action potential.
4. What is Cerebrospinal Fluid?
Cerebrospinal fluid is the liquid around your brain and spinal cord. If a
doctor thinks you have an illness that affects your nervous system, she might take
a sample for testing.
The fluid is made by a group of cells, called the choroid plexus, that are deep
inside your brain. The body has about 150 millilitres of fluid -- roughly two-thirds
of a cup.
Blood-brain barrier
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a highly selective semipermeable border
that separates the circulating blood from the brain and extracellular fluid in the
central nervous system (CNS).
The colorless fluid goes around your brain and spinal cord, it cushions those
organs, picks up needed supplies of nutrition from the blood, and gets rid of
waste products from brain cells.
Sometimes cerebrospinal fluid can have things in it that shouldn't be there,
like bacteria or viruses that can attack the brain. With some illnesses, what's in that
fluid can help the doctor figure out what's going on.
5. Does the brain have blood?
The Blood Supply of the Brain. Although the brain is only about 2% of the
total body weight in humans, it receives 15-20% of the body's blood supply. The
blood also removes materials from the brain. Blood is supplied to the entire brain
by 2 pairs of arteries: the internal carotid arteries and vertebral arteries.
6. What is meant by the blood CSF barrier?
The endothelium, therefore, does not form a barrier to the movement of
small molecules. Instead, the blood—CSF barrier at the choroid plexus is formed
by the epithelial cells and the tight junctions that link them. The other part of the
blood—CSF barrier is the arachnoid membrane, which envelops the brain.

The blood–cerebrospinal fluid barrier (BCSFB) is a fluid–brain barrier that is
NOTES
composed of a pair of membranes that separate blood from CSF and CSF from
brain tissue.
7. What are the 4 types of nerves?
There are three types of nerves in the body:
❖ Autonomic nerves. These nerves control the involuntary or partially
voluntary activities of your body, including heart rate, blood pressure,
digestion, and temperature regulation.
❖ Motor nerves.
❖ Sensory nerves.
❖ What is a synapse and what does it do?
❖ Information from one neuron flows to another neuron across a synapse.
The synapse contains a small gap separating neurons. The synapse consists
of: a presynaptic ending that contains neurotransmitters, mitochondria and
other cell organelles.
1) Describe the main organs of the Nervous System.
2) Discuss briefly the different parts of the brain and their functions.
3) Discuss the spinal cord.
4) How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems differ from each
other? Highlight their significance in Sports.
5) Throw a light on the central nervous system, the Peripheral nervous
system autonomic nervous system.
6) Write a short notes on:
(a) Reflex Action, (b) Reciprocal Innervation.

NOTES
11. SYSTEM OF SENSE ORGANS
Introduction:
In medicine and anatomy,
the special senses are the senses
that have specialized organs
devoted to them:
Vision (the eye)
Hearing and balance (the ear, which includes the auditory system and
vestibular system)
Smell (the nose)
Taste (the tongue)
The distinction between special and general senses is used to classify nerve
fibers running to and from the central nervous system – information from special
senses is carried in special somatic afferents and special visceral afferents. In
contrast, the other sense, touch, is a somatic sense which does not have a
specialized organ but comes from all over the body, most noticeably the skin but
also the internal organs (viscera). Touch includes mechanoreception (pressure,
vibration and proprioception), pain (nociception) and heat (thermoception), and
such information is carried in general somatic afferents and general visceral
afferents.
The Eye:
It is a sensory organ of vision that resembles purely a camera. It is a globe or
sphere of about 2.5 cm. in diameter with a transparent membrane in the front. It is
composed of three distinct coats: Sclera, Choroid and Retina.
Sclera: It is an opaque fibrous coat which is white in colour and forms a
transparent membrane in front, known as ‘cornea’. It protects delicate structures
that lie inside and maintains the shape of the eyeball as well. It is the thickest and
strongest part of the eyeball. Its inner part is pigmented and is called ‘lamina
fascia’. The optic nerve and blood vessels pass through the back part of the sclera.

Cornea is the transparent horny coat of sclera and forms a prominent
NOTES
spherical surface. It is circular in shape and has a small radius of curvature. It is
not supplied with vessels but is well supplied with sensory nerves. Cornea acts as
a transparent window and protects the inner structures and also helps in focusing
the image on the retina.
Choroid: It is the middle vascular coat enriched with blood vessels. It has a
pigmented layer forming a dark chamber inside the eye. In the front part of the
eye, it forms the ‘iris’ which has a central opening called pupil. Attached to the
choroid layer and suspended by suspensory ligaments is the ‘lens’, for focusing
the light rays on the retina.
Iris: It is a muscular curtain situated in the front of the lens. It helps to
protect the retina. It controls the amount of light entering the eye. A powerful light
can damage the sensitive structures and
therefore, iris reflexly contracts in response
to bright light.
Lens: It is a biconvex transparent
body made up of a number of layers. It is
situated behind the iris and is attached to
the ciliary body by means of suspensory ligaments. The lens is a capsular structure
that recoils when suspensory ligaments are slackened and flattens when it is taut.
Lens being both transparent and elastic, helps in focusing the clear image on the
retina for both near and distant objects by changing its convexity.
Lens and iris along with suspensory ligaments and ciliary body divide the
entire eye ball into two parts: Aqueous chamber and Vitreous chamber. Aqueous
chamber is again divided by the iris and pupil into two chambers: anterior
chamber and posterior chamber. The aqueous chamber consists of a watery fluid
called aqueous humor. This fluid gives an intraocular pressure that can be
measured by tonometer. This fluid from anterior chamber is drained out into the
blood stream through the channel of Schlem.
Vitreous chamber is the space between lens and retina. It is filled with jelly
like albuminous fluid that keeps retina in contact with choroid and sclera.
NOTES
Retina: It is a very delicate, transparent and the inner most nervous coat of
the eye. In the transverse axis of centre of pupil, there is very sensitive part of
retina called macula or yellow spot. It contains the photoreceptors, called cones.
Rest of the retina contains photoreceptors called rods. Rods give a purpulish tint
due to the presence of a coloring matter known as ‘rhodopsin’. In the centre of
retina there is a depression known as ‘Fovea-centrails’. This part is full of cones
and surrounding this is macula or yellow spot. The cones contain the pigment
iodopsin. The point in retina from where the optic nerve leaves the eye ball is
called blind spot. This spot is about 3.5 mm medial to macula.
Histologically, retina is composed of nerve cells, rods and cones arrange in
various layers. Outer most layer is pigment layer containing the pigment melanin.
This is followed by layer of rods and cones. Inner to rods and cones, there is a
layer of nuclei of rods and cones, and a layer of bipolar neurons. They make
synapses with horizontal cells and nuclei of rods and cones. Lastly, there is an
internal layer of cells (ganglion cells) the axons of which form optic nerve fibers.
Rods and cones are the photoreceptor cells of retina. Each retina contains
approximately 6 million cones and 120 million rods.
The rods are meant for twilight and night vision, i.e. dim vision. They are
absent in the fovea but are found scattered in the remaining part of the retina and
are concentrated on the periphery. Cones concentrate in the centre of the retina.
The spot is called fovea centralis through which one has critical vision. They
visualize the objects in their natural colour and concentrate in the centre.
Rods contain the light-sensitive pigment called rhodopsin whereas, cones
contain the photochemical called iodopsin. Rhodopsin is made up of protein
scotopsin and the carotenoid pigment retinal (derived from retinal or vit. A).
Iodopsin is made up of the protein photopsin. Structurally rods are elongated
cylindrical structures about 40-60µ long and 2µ in diameter whereas, cones are
pyramid shaped 28-84µ long and 2.5µ in diameter. Each cone is connected with its
own nerve cell whereas, 10-14 rods are connected to one nerve cell.
Cones are also concerned with color vision. There are three different types of
photo chemicals present in different cones, thus making these cones selectively
sensitive to colors of blue, green and red. The color vision is thus fusion of red,
NOTES
blue and green. Cones are for the daylight vision and rods view objects in dim
vision.
The field of vision is variable in person to person and not equal on all sides.
It can be measured by an instrument called perimeter. The process of measuring
the field of vision is called perimetry. Retina can be viewed by an instrument
called ophthalmoscope. Fundus can be seen by fundoscopy which aids in the
diagnosis of various conditions.
Functions of Retina: Functions of retina are (1) to impart vision and colour
vision, (2) conduction of light reflex, (3) conduction of accommodation reflex and
(4) to help in maintenance of body equilibrium.
Protective Mechanism of eye: It consists of orbit, eyelids and lachrymal
apparatus. The orbits are bony cavities situated in the upper part of the face, one
on each side of the nose. They are conical in shape. They hold two eyeballs in
position and protect them.
The eyelids are two opaque movable musculo-cutaneous curtains in the
front of the eyeball. The inner surfaces of the lids are lined by a mucus membrane
known as ‘conjunctiva’.
The lachrymal gland secretes a saline-like fluid in front of the eye which
keeps the eyes clean and moist. During emotions it overflows in the form of tears.
How does the eye compare with a camera?
A camera’s adjustable diaphragm works like the iris of the eye to control the
amount of light that enters. In both camera and eye, a lens focuses images on a
light-sensitive area. Photographic film and the retina of the eye both ‘see’ images
or pictures. Together, the eye’s lens and iris produce a sharp, well-defined image
similar to that produced by a camera’s lens and diaphragm.
Unlike the camera, however, the eye ‘takes’ images continuously when you
are awake, and transmits them via the optic nerve to the brain. The lens of both
the eye and the camera produce an upside-down image. The image is slightly
different in each eye. The brain is responsible for the right-side-up, three-

NOTES
dimensional view that most of us see. Images are sorted, stored in the memory,
and recalled later by the brain.
Physiology of Vision:
Before light can reach the rods and cones of the retina, it must pass through
the cornea, aqueous humor, pupil, lens, and vitreous humor. The first step, in
vision is retinal image formation and activation of photoreceptors. The resulting
nerve impulses are then passed to the visual areas of the cerebral cortex.
Retinal image formation: This requires four basic processes (1) refraction of
light rays, (2) accommodation of the lens. (3) constriction of pupil and (4)
convergence of eyes. Light rays entering the eye from the air are refracted at the
anterior surface of the cornea, posterior surface of the cornea, anterior surface of
the lens and posterior surface of the lens. The degree of refraction that takes place
at each surface is very precise and such that rays fall at the fovea centralis.
The lens of the eye is biconvex. Further ore, it has the unique ability to
change the focusing power of the eye by becoming moderately curved at one
moment and greatly curved at the next end. This change in curvature of lens is
known as accommodation. In far vision, the ciliary muscle is relaxed and the lens
is flattened. In near vision, the ciliary muscle contracts pulling the ciliary process
and choroid forward towards the lens. This causes shortening, thickening and
bulging of the lens and thereby increasing the curvatures.
Constriction of pupil occurs in response of light reflex involving autonomic
nervous system and it is purely the function of smooth muscles of iris i.e.
constrictor or circular muscles of iris.
Human eyes are such that they focus on only one set of the object (single
binocular vision). This type of vision is possible due to the phenomenon called
convergence. Convergence refers to the medial movement of two-eye balls so that
at they are directed towards the object being viewed. Convergence is the function
of the voluntary muscles attached to the outside of the eye-ball called the extrinsic
eye muscles. These are superior rectus, inferior rectus, medial rectus, lateral
rectus, superior oblique and inferior oblique.

Stimulation of Photoreceptors: After the formation of image on the retina, it
NOTES
is converted into nerve impulses. The steps involved in the generation of nerve
potentials are activation of rhodopsin and / or iodopsin of rods and cones
respectively. Hyperpolarization occurs as a result of activation of these pigments
in response to light. These impulses are then passed through optic nerve to the
thalamus. Here the fibers synapse with other neurons whose axons pass to the
visual areas of the cerebral cortex located in the occipital lobe.
What happens when light enters the eye?
Light first passes through the transparent cornea that covers the pupil,
which is really the opening of the iris. Then it continues through a chamber of
watery fluid called the aqueous humor. Next, light passes through the lens and is
focused on the retina, after having passed through the gelatinous center of the eye,
the vitreous (meaning glassy) body. In the retina, light stimulates masses of
receptors known as rods and cones (the latter are color detectors). Impulses from
the receptors eventually reach the brain after following a complicated pathway via
the optic nerve and brain tracts.
EAR
The Ear:
How is the ear constructed?
The ear is really two organs
in one: an organ of hearing and one
of balance. Amazingly, the inner
ear, although no bigger than a
hazelnut, contains as many circuits
as the telephone system of a good-
sized city. The Eustachian tube,
which leads from the middle ear to
the throat, admits air. This helps to equalize pressure on either side of the
eardrum. The diagram at left is of an adult ear. During childhood, the Eustachian
tube is more nearly level with the throat. Milk can readily seep into the tube and
irritate it, which accounts for the tendency of children to have earaches.
NOTES
It is an organ for hearing and maintenance of body equilibrium. It is
controlled by the brain through the eighth cranial nerve called vestibulocochlear
nerve. The ear is divided into three parts: 1. External or outer ear, 2. Middle ear or
tympanic cavity and, 3. Internal or inner ear.
External Ear: It consists of pinna which helps to collect the sound waves and
the external auditory meatus which conveys the sound waves from the pinna to
the tympanic membrane. Pinna is made up of flexible cartilaginous material and
weak muscles. The auditory canal or External-auditory meatus is 3 cm. long. Its
inner part is closed by a thin membrane called ‘drum of the ear’ or tympanic
membrane. Hair and wax are present near its outer part to arrest dust particles.
This canal conveys sound waves to the drum.
What is the function of the external ear?
Despite the over-all efficiency of the human ear, one part of it is really not
very remarkable. If by chance you lost the external ear in an accident (this does
happen sometimes), the loss would be mainly cosmetic. You would hear about as
well as before, and your equilibrium would not be affected. This is because your
external ear is simply a sound-gathering device. It helps to funnel noises into the
part of the ear that does the hearing.
The external ear consists of a flap of cartilage framing a 1-inch (2.5
centimeter) long, irregularly shaped canal. The canal inclines slightly up ward to
the eardrum, or tympanic membrane, which forms the divider between the outer
and middle ear. The passageway is an obstacle course of hairs and some 4,000
wax-producing glands that catch insects, dust, and any other intruders before they
can make their way into the hearing mechanism. The canal also serves to
moderate the climate inside the ear; the air that reaches the sensitive ear drum
remains fairly constant in temperature and humidity, no matter what the
conditions are outside.
Middle Ear: It is a small chamber, internal to the drum and contains air. It is
made up of bone and a membranous wall. The eustaschian tube continues from
the middle ear and opens in the nasopharynx, so that air pressure is maintained in

equilibrium on either side of the drum. The mastoid antrum also opens in the
NOTES
middle ear.
How does the middle ear work?
In the ear just as in electronics miniaturization is the name of the game. The
middle ear is a chamber so small that five or six drops of water would fill it. It is
filled with air, and contains an amplifying system composed of three linked bones
that together take up no more space than a small carpet tack. These bones, so
crucial to the mechanical transmission of sound waves, are named for their shape:
the malleus, or hammer, the incus, or anvil, and the stapes, or stirrup, which is the
smallest bone in the human body.
The hearing process begins when sound bearing air waves strike the taut but
resonant eardrum and cause it to vibrate. With each tiny inward movement of the
membrane, the malleus next to it vibrates in the same rhythm, and by a lever
action transmits the message to the adjoining incus. The incus, in turn, transmits
the vibrations to the stapes. That bone fits into a membranous opening, called the
oval window, on the inner wall of the middle ear and relays the vibration to the
inner ear.
As the vibrations move through the middle ear from the relatively large
eardrum to the small oval window, the energy behind the vibrations becomes ever
more concentrated. Air pressure in the chamber is kept the same as atmospheric
pressure by means of a vent (the Eustachian tube), that runs down from the
middle ear to the upper part of the throat.
There are three small delicate bony structures (ossicles) situated across the
middle ear. The hammer-shaped bone is called Malleus. Its handle is attached to
the tympanic membrane and the handle projects into the tympanic cavity. The
middle bone is known as the Incus which connects with the malleus on its outer
side and stapes on its inner side. The third bone is Stapes which joins with the
incus. These three bones send the vibrations of sound from the drum to the
internal ear.

NOTES
Internal Ear: It is a complex cavity situated in the temporal bone. The cavity
called bony labyrinth, is divided into three parts, namely (1) Cochlea, (2)
Vestibule, (3) Semicircular canals with membranous labyrinth lodged in it.
The vestibule is situated in the centre and it communicates with all other
parts of internal ear. The semicircular canals communicate with the vestibule.
There are three semicircular canals: superior, posterior and lateral situated
at right angle to each other. Each canal has a swelling at one end called ‘ampulla’
which helps the cerebellum in maintaining equilibrium and the sense of position
of the head in relation to the body. Semicircular canals inform us of dynamic
equilibrium and otolith origin informs us of static equilibrium.
The cochlea is a spiral tube twisted on itself two and half-spirals and looks
like snail shell. The coils are arranged on a central bony pillar with a cone shaped
axis called ‘modiolus’. To this is attached membranous labyrinth filled up with
fluid in which the organ of corti is placed, which has hair brushes that work like
musical instrument called ‘piano’.
The vestibulo-cochlear nerve collects the sensations of equilibrium from the
vestibular division and that of hearing from the cochlear division. The fibers of the
auditory nerve reach the special nucleus on the back side of the thalamus and then
the cerebral cortex for the final analysis of sound and its meaning.
Organ of Corti: The neuroepithelium of cochlea is known as organ of corti. It
is the sense organ of hearing. It situated on the basilar membrane and consist of
two rows of cells: outer and inner rods of corti or hair cells. Basilar-membrane is a
fibrous structure with about 29000 fibers running from the inner core or modiolus
to the outer core of bony tube. It is about 32 mm in length. The fibers of the
membrane act as resonator. The vibrations of the basilar membrane is in the form
of a wave. The organ of corti resembles the musical instrument called piano. The
human ear can catch sound waves within limits. Therefore, man cannot perceive
such sound notes as some birds do.
The appreciation of these sounds take place in the auditory areas located in
the temporal region of the cerebral cortex. Interpretation of the sound takes place
in the psychoauditory area which surrounds the auditory area in the brain.
The Cochlea: Where sounds are transmitted to the brain:
NOTES
The cochlea in these micrographs is that of a guinea pig, in structure
virtually identical to the cochlea of a human being. The bony covering has been
removed, revealing the rows of hair like cells that line the spirals inside the
cochlea. These cells move to one side as vibrations of sound wash over them. Very
loud noise, especially over long periods, can damage these fragile cells, causing
permanent loss of hearing. The architecture of the cochlea is shown here in
progressively closer views. In the two pictures at far right, you can see the contrast
between healthy and damaged hairs. Such damage is done not just by working in
a noisy factory, but by music played too loud.
What does the inner ear do?
Surprising as it may seem, you have something very much like a piano
keyboard in your inner ear, and it is the seat of hearing. But that is not the only
unusual structure in the inner ear; this part of the ear also contains the structures
essential for maintaining balance. The complexity of the inner ear, and its
important, dual role in human life, may help to explain why it is among the best
protected parts of the body. Located within the rigid skull, it is further
safeguarded by a cushion of fluid.
The mechanism that is central to the hearing process is the cochlea, where
sound waves are converted to nerve impulses. The cochlea, a small, bony
structure, looks like a snail shell and works like a piano keyboard. But there are
perhaps 20,000 ‘keys’ in the cochlea, compared with 88 on a piano, and they are
made of hair like sensory cells rather than of ivory. Instead of being laid out flat,
they are arranged along a membrane that coils around itself 2 ½ times.
Sounds transmitted by the stapes to the oval windows set fluid pressure
waves moving through the spiral of the cochlear canals. Depending on their pitch,
sounds have their maximum effect on different segments of the sensory-cell
keyboard. Sounds belonging to the lowest frequencies activate the wider, flexible
sensory cells at the core of the cochlear spiral; the highest frequency sounds get
their maximum response at the end of the spiral nearest the oval window, where
the sensory cells are narrow and stiff.
NOTES
As the sensory cells vibrate, they generate impulses that are picked up by the
auditory nerve and then transmitted to the brain. There the signals are ‘heard’ as a
particular sound: a voice, a birdcall, or whatever experience has taught us to
associate with that particular pattern of signals.
Physiology of Hearing
The events involved in the mechanism of ear illustrated and can be summarized
as follows:
1) Sound waves that reach the ear are directed by the pinna into the external
auditory canal to strike the tympanic membrane.
2) When sound waves strike the tympanic membrane they cause it to vibrate.
3) The central area of tympanic membrane is connected to the malleus which
also start vibrating. These vibrations are passed on to the oval window
through incus and stapes.
4) As the stapes moves back and forth, it pushes the oval window in and out.
5) The movement of the oval window pushes the perilymph of scala
vestibule and a wave of motion is set in perilymph.
6) The pressure thus created in the scala vestibuli and tympani pushes the
vestibular membrane inwards and increases the pressure of the
endolymph inside the cochlear duct.
7) The basilar membrane gives the pressure under the resonance and bulges
out into the scala tympani.
8) This pressure then pushes the perilymph towards the round window,
causing it to bulge back into the middle ear. Conversely, as the sound
waves subside, the stapes move backwards and the procedure is reversed.
The movement of basilar membrane causes the movement of the hairs and by
some unknown mechanism develops generator potentials that ultimately lead to
the generation of nerve impulses. The impulses are then passed on to the cochlear
branch of VIII cranial nerve. They reach the medulla and from here to midbrain
and thalamus to be finally relayed into the auditory area of the temporal lobe of
cerebral cortex.

Physiology of Balance and Equilibrium
NOTES
The vestibular part or non-auditory part of the internal ear is concerned with
the functions of balance and equilibrium. The receptor apparatus in the ampulla is
crista-ampullaris. It consists of the cupola (or cupula), which is a gelatinuous
wedge shaped structure running fully across the cross section of the ampula. Into
the thick end of this wedge projects a ridge carrying many hair cells whose
processes are embedded in cupola. The utricle and saccule have a patch or macula
of hair cells, that are also projecting into and embedded in gelatinous mass. This
also contains above the hairs an otolith composed of a mass of calcium carbonate
crystals called otoconia.
The vestibular system is affected by liner and rotational movements of the
head. Classically, semicircular canals respond to angular acceleration and the
otolith organs of the utricle and saccule respond to the direction of gravity force
and to linear acceleration. The vestibular system carries out the following
functions.
1) It contributes to the sensation of motion and spatial orientation of the
head.
2) During head movement, it helps to maintain a stable image on the retina
by causing compensatory eye movements.
3) It contributes to the maintenance of balance and various postures.
Movement of the head cause flow of endolymph and deflection of cupola of
cristaampularis. As a result of this hairs bend. As a result impulses are generated
in hair cells and are passed on through vestibular branch of VIII cranial nerve to
the brain. Similarly flow of endolymph in otolith organ of utricle and saccule
causes the movement of hairs of the hair cells. This causes generation of action
potential discharge which are passed on to the brain through vestibular branch of
VIII cranial nerve. In brief static equilibrium is the orientation of the body relative
to the pull of gravity. The macule of utricle and saccule are the sense organs for
static equilibrium. Dynamic equilibrium is the maintenance of body position in
response to movement. Crista ampullaris is the sense organ for the dynamic
equilibrium.
NOTES
Vestibular Disease:
There are a variety of diseases of the inner ear which are characterized by
vertigo, servere dizziness, tinnitus or ringing in the ears and deafness. The vertigo
is often so severe that there is nausea and vomiting, blurred vision, a tendency to
fall in a certain direction and nystagmus. Nystagmus is characterized by rapid,
involuntary movement of the eyeballs. Electronystagmography is a diagnostic test
that is useful in identifying vestibular diseases. Electrodes are placed on each side
of the face to measure movement of the eye while they are closed.
Otitis media: It is discharge of pus from middle ear with rupture of the ear
drum.
What is sound?
When violin strings, vocal cords, tuning forks, and other objects vibrate, or
move rapidly back and forth, they produce disturbances in the air on either side of
the vibrating object. It is these disturbances that we call sound. They come about
when the oscillating movement forces the molecules that make up the air into
alternating waves of compressed air in which the molecules are bunched up under
pressure and rarefied air in which the molecules are spread out under minimal
pressure. The effect is rather like the peaks and valleys of ocean waves.
Sound waves come in a range of frequencies or cycles per second the lowest
piano tone, for example, produces 27 vibrations per second, the highest tone on a
piano has a frequency of approximately 4,000 vibrations per second. Sound waves
of 70 billion vibrations per second have been produced in scientific experiments.
The pressure waves constitute ‘sound’ as we know it, however, only when they
are picked up by the resonating eardrum and sent to the brain for analysis.
NOSE
What does your nose do for you?
Beyond its important role as the collector of olfactory information – such as
whiffs of smoke that warn of impending danger or smells of cooking that
stimulate appetite – the nose acts as an air conditioner for the respiratory system.
Every day, it treats approximately 500 cubic feet (14.2 cubic meters) of air, the
amount enclosed in a small room. It filters out dust, traps bacteria from the air,
brings air to the temperature of the blood, and also adds moisture. And then, the
NOTES
nose has some lesser-known functions. Among them it gives your voice
resonance, adding a richness of tone that would otherwise be lacking.
What does the interior of the nose look like?
Architecturally, the nose has an admirable
design. The external shape makes good practical
sense, since its projecting form enhances its
primary function, taking in and venting air. And
the nose is strategically located right above the
mouth, an ideal place from which its smelling
apparatus can gather useful information about
food to supplement the data provided by the taste buds in the tongue.
Internally, too, the nose is efficient. Two nostrils provide ready access to the
nasal air passages. Lying behind them are two cavities, which are separated by a
thin, cartilaginous and bony nasal septum. Other bits of thicker, tougher cartilage
and bone form the supporting ridge of the nose.
The lining of the nose, beneath its layer of mucus, is packed with blood
vessels that transmit body warmth to incoming air. Assisting in the heating
process are three scroll-like ‘turbinate’ bones that project horizontally from the
sides of the nose. They function like fins on an air conditioner, enlarging the
surface over which the cool external air must pass. A number of tiny openings link
the nose to the eyes (through the tear ducts), to the ears (through the Eustachian
tubes), and to the nasal sinuses, those air-filled cavities that are scattered through
the front and sides of the skull.
How does the nose filter air?
Filtration is a two-stage process. Just inside the entrance to the nostrils, short,
stiff hairs screen out airborne pollen, fuzz, grit, and other large particles. Any
debris that eludes this first line of defense then encounters even more formidable
opposition. It may be summarily ejected if it irritates the nose in such a way as to
trigger a sneeze. Or it may run over the mucous membrane. This membrane,
which lines the respiratory passages, secretes a viscous substance called mucus
NOTES
that not only entraps bacteria mechanically but also contains a powerful
substance, called lysozyme, that destroys the bacteria chemically.
Every 20 minutes or so, the nose produces a fresh batch of mucus-as much as
1 quart (.9 liter). To get rid of the old, debris-laden mucus, your nose has billions
of tiny hair like cilia that poke up through the layer of mucus. With nearly a
thousand sweeping strokes every minute, the cilia propel the secretions on their
way toward the esophagus and stomach. There, digestive juices destroy many of
the entrapped bacteria.
In a healthy adult, mucus moves at about one-quarter (.6 centimeter) per
minute. However, the rate of clearance is considerably slower in people who
smoke, drink alcohol in excess, in dehydrated condition, or are in general poor
health. The slower the movement, of course, the less effectively the nose can
defend you against bacteria and other attackers.
The Smell-Taste Connection:
How your nose detects odours:
If you want to identify a smell, inhale deeply. You will create swirls of air
that will flow upward and pass over olfactory receptor sites at the top of the nasal
passages. Mucous secretions in the nose have the effect of dissolving airborne
molecules, and, of course, many scents are already in vapor form when you sniff
them. It is only in liquid form that an odour can be smelled. When odour
chemicals strike the microscopic, hair like sensors, a chain of impulses is set off, of
increasing strength, that eventually travel up the nerve fibers. Amazingly, it has
been discovered that a single molecule can trigger this response. The nerve fibers
enter the cranium via tiny apertures in the bony plate under the brain, and lead to
two olfactory bulbs. It is clear, from this, medications taken through nose act
quickly.
Olfactory organ of the Nose
The receptors for the sensation of smell are found in the root of nasal cavity.
The sensation of taste is closely related to that of smell. Odour often influences the
selection of food and our enjoyment of certain dishes. For example, when one has

cold with nasal congestion, food seems tasteless. Odour helps to initiate the flow
NOTES
of some digestive juices reflexly in much the same way as taste does.
Olfactory receptors are specialized bipolar sensory nerve cells. These
receptors lie in between the supporting cells (sustentacular cells). The dendrites of
olfactory receptors extend as naked processes which end in cilia. The cilia lie in the
mucus covering the olfactory mucosa of the nasal chamber. The axons unite to
form olfactory nerve which goes to the brain.
The stimulus for the sensation of smell must be a gaseous substance that
becomes dissolved in the fluid of the nasal chamber. The fluid stimulates the
sensitive olfactory cells in the upper part of the nasal mucosa. The amount of
stimuli reaching the olfactory area is greatly increased by sniffing. The pathway is
the olfactory nerve and the cortical interpretation is in the temporal lobe.
Some fibres of the trigeminal nerve are also located in the olfactory mucous
membrane. These fibres respond to irritating substances such as ammonia or
pepper and may cause sneezing, shortness of breath or some other unpleasant
sensation. It is because of this response that ‘smelling salts’ make a individual to
sprint.
The olfactory receptors are easily fatigued and sensory adaptation for a
specific odour can occur rapidly. The fatigue cause the loss of ability to recognize
a persistent odour but a new odour may be detected at once.
Unlike taste with only four stimuli recognized, there are number of distinct
odours. Individual odours in a mixed smell can be distinguished and the memory
for odours is very critical. People can often recall an odour that has been
experienced only once before, say a particular smell of perfume.
What is smell?
Insects and animals are better than people at detecting odours. For example,
the male silkworm moth can smell the female when she is morethan 2 miles (3.2
kilometers) away. Still, human beings are not dependent on smell to find food or a
mate. Chances are that you can smell a shunk when just a trace of its characteristic
perfume wafts by!

NOTES
Smell and taste are two chemical senses; they are stimulated by chemical
molecules of odor and flavor. Sight and hearing are physical senses, because they
respond to physical stimuli; waves of light and sound.
The sense of smell is estimated to be about 10,000 times more sensitive than
the sense of taste. The two senses are closely linked; in a way, it is correct to say
that you actually smell certain flavors more than you taste them? When your nose
fails, as it often does during a cold, you lose about 80 percent of your ability to
detect taste. If you can’t smell, apples and raw potatoes taste almost exactly are
alike, while chocolate ice cream tastes like not much of anything.
Where is your sense of smell located?
Each of your primary senses depends on the complex interaction of many
specialized body structures. To smell something, you need nerve cells to receive
stimuli from odorous substances, a pair of olfactory nerves to transmit those
stimuli to the brain, and nerve cells in the temporal lobes of the brain to interpret
the stimuli.
The two receptor sites, each smaller than a postage stamp, are patches of
yellow-brown, mucus-covered membrane, called olfactory epithelium, in the roof
of the nasal cavities. The sites are covered with millions of hairlike antennae that
project through the mucus and make contact with air on its way to the throat and
lungs.
Ordinarily, only a small part of the air you inhale passes the smell receptors.
To get a better idea of an interesting or alarming smell the bouquet of a fine wine,
perhaps, or the odor of escaping gas – you must therefore sniff deeply. Doing so
alters the normal air flow so that more air, with its odorous molecules, comes into
contact with the receptors.
Perhaps you wonder why your dog is a better smeller than you are. One
reason is that the dogs smell receptors are located right along the main airflow
route. In addition, his smell-receptor sites are 100 times larger than yours.

TONGUE
NOTES
What does your tongue do?
One of the body’s most versatile organs,
the tongue plays an important role in speaking
and in eating. It is also the bearer of taste and
tactile sensations and so gives us pleasure in
eating. It gives warning of possible injury by
registering pain when foods are too hot, and we
avoid them when they are spoiled. In its role as
manipulator, the tongue takes food into the
mouth, moves it between the upper and lower teeth for chewing, and then moulds
the crushed and moistened particles into a ball, or bolus, for swallowing. When
the tongue moves up and back, pressing against the hard palate, it propels the
bolus to the back of the mouth and into the esophagus.
What does a healthy tongue look like?
Composed mainly of muscles, the tongue is covered, on top, with a thick
layer of mucous membrane, which is studded with thousands of tiny projections
called papillae, inside these are the sensory organs and nerves for both taste and
touch. On a healthy tongue, the papillae are usually pinkish-white and velvety
smooth, and are crossed by slits or fissures that reveal the red tongue beneath.
Can every taste bud sense every taste?
Each taste bud in your mouth is predominantly sensitive to a single primary
taste sensation. Research has shown, however, that some of your taste buds can be
stimulated – at least to a small degree – by one or more of the other primary tastes.
SKIN
Superficial receptors of Skin
Skin consists of various types of sensory receptors. These receptors are the
nerve endings that receive the sensory impulses of touch, pressure, temperature,
pain, itch, etc. Various nerve endings encapsulated in connective tissue of skin are
Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscle and Krause’s end bulb etc. Meissner’s
Corpuscles and Pacinian corpuscles are the mechanoreceptors that respond to
NOTES
touch or light pressure and deep pressure respectively. Krause’s end bulbs are
thermoreceptors in skin which react
to a decrease in temperature (i.e.
exposure to cold).
In addition to above mentioned
types of receptors, there are naked
nerve fibres. These receptors respond
to noxious or damaging stimuli such
as excess pressure, cuts and burns.
They are also termed as nociceptors.
They generate pain and hence are also known as algesioreceptors.
Some naked nerve endings medicate itch sensations, which result from
stimuli of low frequency that cause release of vasoactive peptides, such as kinins
or histamines.
Stretch Receptors / Proprioceptors
These are the mechanoreceptors found in muscle and tendons that generate
impulses concerning muscle tone. These receptors contain muscle spindles which
are the wrappings of nerve fibres on the surfaces of smell skeletal muscle cells
called intrafusal fibres. Sensory fibres from muscle spindles convey afferent
impulses regarding muscle length to the spinal cord and brain. Efferent fibre from
the motor neurons of these two regions generate impulses which control skeletal
muscle contraction. Sensory endings that monitor the tension between tendons
and muscle cells are called Golgi tendon organs.
Pain
Pain is one of the most common symptoms for many diseases. It is a major
protective mechanism which gives a warning of something wrong in the body so
that one can take measures to correct the ailment. Unlike other sensations, pain
does not give any information about the status of the body. Further, the pain is a
subjective mechanism and may be accompanied by some physiological responses
such as reflex withdrawal movements, change in vasomotor tone, pulse-rate,
blood pressure, palpitation in heart, heavy or apnoestic breathing and sweating.
Pain is of great significance if it is developed in the early stage of a disease as in
NOTES
case of acute appendicitis, wherein one can take immediate measures to overcome
the disease. Diseases like cancer wherein pain is not evident until the process is
well advanced are much more difficult to manage.
Pain can be of two types: (1) Somatic pain and (2) Visceral pain. Somatic pain
is the pain arising from the skin and from the deep structures like muscles, bones
and joints. It is usually well defined and may be accompanied by contraction of
the surrounding skeletal muscles.
Visceral pain, on the other hand is diffuse, less easily localized and often
‘referred’. It is dull and aching in character and may be accompanied by sweating,
change in vasomotor tone, blood pressure, heart-rate, breathing by sweating,
change in vasomotor tone, blood pressure, heart-rate, increased with breathing,
and even sudden shock.
Somatic pain may be due to various physical stimuli that may be thermal
(increase in temperature above 45oC or decrease in temperature to about 0oC,
mechanical (like excessive pressure or tension), electrical or chemical (such as
strong acids).
Visceral pain may be due to ischaemia (loss of blood supply), chemical
irritants (as in case of peptic ulcer), stretching of viscera or spasm of a particular
organ etc.
Phantom pain: There is an illusive type of pain, which occurs when the thing
does not exist at that time. A patient whose leg is amputed and still experiences
pain in toes, is an example of phantom pain.
Referred pain: Damage or difficulty to an internal organ is commonly
associated with pain or tenderness not in the organ but in some skin region
sharing the same segmental innervation. This is known as referred pain. A
classical example of this type of pain is angina pain in substernal region and the
medial part of left shoulder and the left hand indicating the pain of heart attack.
The most likely explanation for referred pain is that some central cells receive both
cutaneous and visceral inputs. The pathway of such impulses is common in spinal
cord and higher up areas.
NOTES
For pain to be perceived, the brain must be functioning normally, the
pathway to the brain must be intact, and the pain receptor must respond to the
stimulus. Each of these three factors is important in different types of anaesthesia.
In general anaesthesia, the brain cannot perceive the pain. When a nerve is
blocked, the pathway to the brain is interrupted. A local injection of procaine
renders the pain receptors insensitive to the pain stimulus.
Pain receptors relay their impulses through dorsal root of spinal ganglia to
the substantia gelationsa of the spinal cord. From here impulses reach thalamus
through spinothalamic tracts passing via medulla oblongata. From the thalamus
they finally reach the cerebral cortex for appreciation of epicritic pain.
Pain can by relieved by decreasing the protopathic sensations at the thalamic
level (analgesic drugs) or by calming down the brain cortex (sedatives).
Antispasmodics relieve the pain by decreasing the visceral spasm.
Review Questions
1. What are the 5 special senses?
The five senses are the five main tools that humans use to perceive the
world. Those senses are sight, smell, hearing, taste, and touch. We see with our
eyes, we smell with our noses, we listen with our ears, we taste with our tongue,
and we touch with our skin.
2. What is the main function of the special senses?

The principle function of the special sensory receptors is to detect
environmental stimuli and transduce their energy into electrical impulses. These
are then conveyed along sensory neurons to the central nervous system, where
they are integrated and processed, and a response is produced.
3. What are somatic senses?
Somatic senses are sometimes referred to as some thesis senses, with the
understanding that some thesis includes the sense of touch, proprioception (sense
of position and movement), and (depending on usage) haptic perception.
4. How are lacrimal secretions drain from the surface of the eyeball?
The lacrimal gland produces tears which then flow into canals that connect
NOTES
to the lacrimal sac. From that sac, the tears drain through the lacrimal duct into the
nose. Anatomists divide the gland into two sections.
5. What is the iris of the eye?
In humans and most mammals and birds, the iris (plural: irides or irises) is a
thin, circular structure in the eye, responsible for controlling the diameter and size
of the pupil and thus the amount of light reaching the retina. Eye color is defined
by the iris.
6. Where is taste processed in the brain?
The primary gustatory cortex is in the brain structure responsible for the
perception of taste. It consists of two substructures: the anterior insula on the
insular lobe and the frontal operculum on the inferior frontal gyrus of the frontal
lobe.
7. What is exocrine gland?
Exocrine glands are glands that produce and secrete substances onto an
epithelial surface by way of a duct. Examples of exocrine glands include sweat,
saliva, mammary, ceruminous, lacrimal, sebaceous, and mucous.
8. How is taste perceived?
Humans have taste receptors on taste buds (gustatory calyculi) and other
areas including the upper surface of the tongue and the epiglottis. The gustatory
cortex is responsible for the perception of taste. ... Each taste bud contains 50 to
100 taste receptor cells.


NOTES
12. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Introduction:
The endocrine system consists of
a number of glands, which release
substances, called hormones into the
blood. Hormones act as chemical signals
throughout the body, which regulate
many functions in the body. Each
hormone is required in very small
quantities and has its own specific
function. Hormones produce slower and
generally long lasting responses.
Hormones control growth, development, behavior and reproduction. These
chemicals are important for metabolism, growth, water and mineral balance, and
the response to stress. Hormones provide feedback to the brain to affect neural
processing. Reproductive hormones affect the development of the nervous system.
The hypothalamus controls the pituitary gland and other endocrine glands.
The endocrine system consists of several glands located throughout the
body. These glands secrete hormones -- chemical messengers that signal the body to
perform essential functions, usually related to growth and metabolism.
Meaning of Glands
Basically there are two types of glands in our body, which produce
secretions or substances or matter used by the body. The glands which have ducts
or passageways put their secretion into another organs such as the liver and
salivary glands. But other glands which don’t have ducts or passageways are
called endocrine or ductless glands. The endocrine glands produce some matter
(substances) that are absorbed directly into the blood and carried throughout the
whole body. These substances have an important important chemical known as
hormones. These hormones are very essential for growth, development and
functions of the body.

Examples of endocrine glands are pancreas, which secretes the hormone
NOTES
insulin that regulates the amount of sugar in the blood. The adrenal glands
produce the hormones adrenaline when a person is afraid or angry. It prepares the
body to fight or to run away. The pituitary gland secretes many hormones of great
importance in physical growth and development. The sex glands are responsible
for the changes in the body of boys and girls at adolescence.
There are two types of glands within the endocrine system.
Endocrine glands include the pancreas, thyroid, pituitary and adrenal
glands. They secrete their hormones directly into the bloodstream, where they are
carried to the site of action.
Exocrine glands secrete their hormones directly into ducts. Examples of
exocrine glands include sebaceous, mammary, salivary and digestive glands
Endocrine Glands, their location and Functions:
Keeping in view the limitation of this book the following endocrine glands
are discussed here in brief with their location and functions:
❖ The pituitary Gland
❖ The Thyroid Gland
❖ The Parathyroid Gland
❖ The Adrenal Gland
❖ The Pancreas Gland
❖ The Sex Gland.
The Endocrine System
The Ovaries
The ovaries are almond shaped and pinkish-white in colour and located on
the lateral sides of the pelvis. They are attached to the outer walls of the uterus by
ovarian ligaments. The ovaries secrete two hormones called Oestrogen and
Progesterone. Oestrogen is responsible for the onset of puberty and the
appearance of the secondary sexual characteristics in women. Progesterone, on the
other hand takes care of the formation of embryos and the onset of menopause
between the ages of 45 and 50. A human female has around 400,000 potential eggs

NOTES
in her ovaries of which only a few hundreds (around 480), are released during her
reproductive years.
The Testes
Testes are the male gonads and a part of the reproductive and endocrine
system. They are two in number, oval-shaped with a pinkish-white colour. The
primary work of the testes is the production of sperms and Testosterone. The
testes are present inside the scrotum. The testes produce sperms each day. The
sperms contain X chromosomes or Y chromosomes, depending on which the
gender of the offspring is decided. Around 150-300 million sperms are released by
the body during sexual ejaculation and those that are not excreted, die in time.
Frequent sexual ejaculation deprives the body of the requisite quantity of sperms.
The Seminal Fluid
The seminal fluid, secreted by the seminal vesicles and the prostrate gland,
assist in the movement of the spermatozoa and help them reach the ova after
coitus. They are made up of amino acids, citrate, enzymes, fructose, proteins etc.
The seminal vesicles function at peak levels between the ages of 25 to 35,
after which they begin to decline, leading to the inability to procreate.
The Adrenal Glands
The adrenal glands are triangular is shape and approximately the size of the
tip of a finger. They are located on the top of the kidneys like a pair of hats, and
are responsible for releasing hormones in response to stress. Non-functioning of
the adrenals leads to nervous weakness and fatigue. They control the functioning
of the liver and the pancreas, besides regulating the blood pressure. Whereas
deficiency in the level of adrenaline leads to fatigue and breathlessness, excessive
production results in increased blood pressure and acidity. The adrenal glands are
very important for survival.
Three arteries, viz. the superior suprarenal artery, the middle suprarenal
artery and the inferior suprarenal artery, supply blood to the adrenal glands. The
glands consist of two structures called the Outer Adrenal Cortex and the Inner
Medulla, each of which produces hormones. The cortex produces Cortisol,
Aldosterone and Androgens, while the medulla secretes Epinephrine and
Norepinephrine. In emergent situations, the adrenal glands infuse the sugar
NOTES
stored by the liver into the blood stream, preparing the body for a “fight or flight”
response, resulting in increased blood pressure, respiration and metabolism.
Failure of the cortex to produce sufficient quantities of the hormone leads to skin
discolouration, lowering of the blood pressure, muscle weakness etc., Normal
supply ensures liveliness and the ability to concentrate.
The Pancreas
The pancreas is a glandular organ with endocrine and digestive functions,
lying behind the stomach. It regulates the level of sugar in the blood as well as
temperature of the body. The pancreas is elongated like the tongue of a dog, and
functions constantly. It produces hormones like Insulin, Glucogen, Somatostatin
and pancreatic polypeptides, essential for physical activities and metabolism.
Insulin regulates the levels of glucose utilisation by the body.
The main function of the pancreas is to produce enzymes that aid in the
digestive process, as well as convert sugar into energy. The defective functioning
of pancreas, reduction in insulin secretion leads to the disease syndrome diabetes
mellitus with symptoms of increased thirst, appetite, urination, tiredness etc.,
People affected with diabetes survive with the help of insulin, taken in the form of
tablets or injections. Insulin Infusion only helps to control the level of sugar in the
blood; it is not a cure for diabetes. In time the treatment leads to digestive
problems and complications of diabetes affecting CNS, Eye, Heart, Kidneys and
blood vessels.
The Thymus Gland
The Thymus gland is made up of two identical lobes located in front of the
heart and behind the sternum. It is the largest and the most active gland during
neonatal and preadolescent days, but with the onset of puberty it begins to decline
in size and function and slowly atrophies, turning into fatty matter; but residual T-
lymphopoiesis continue to be present throughout life.
The Thymus gland regulates the functions of the heart and the blood
circulation. The gland is about 5cm long, with a breadth and thickness of 4cm and
6cm respectively. The T-cells produced by the Thymus gland help fight bacterial
NOTES
and viral infections. They also help in the maturation of the lymphocytes, essential
for the immunity of the body. Mental tensions or agony causes the gland to shrink
to 1/3rd its original size. A hormone called Thymocin, produced by the Thymus
gland, enters the bloodstream to provide immunity to the body; but its production
decreases with age and comes to a slow halt after the age of 50.
The Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands
The Thyroid glands are butterfly shaped, pink in colour, and located on
either side of the neck, below the thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple). It is an
important gland defect in its function can lead to a variety of problems like brain
damage, loss of memory, problems with the genital organs, loss of appetite,
constipation, pot-belly, speech defects, wrinkles with thick dry skin etc. It is
considered the ‘power house’ of the body and regular physical exercises keep the
thyroids healthy.
Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland) and hyperthyroidism
(overactive thyroid gland) are the most common problems associated with the
thyroid glands. Absence of the thyroid gland at the time of birth gives a child a
Mongoloid appearance with thick lips, flattened nose and a short stature.
The thyroid glands help in the metabolic activities of the body. They produce
two hormones called Triiodothyronine and Thyroxin, which contain 2/3 of the
iodine required by the body. The thyroid work in tandem with the Hypothalamus
and the Pituitary gland in the production of the hormones. The secretions increase
during emergency situations. Lack of iodine in the diet causes an enlargement the
thyroid gland, called Goitre. It also leads to an increase in the body weight and
enlargement of the blood vessels, whereby the trachea becomes constricted,
resulting in breathing problems. Calcitonin, a hormone produced by the thyroid
provides calcium to the teeth and bones in the body.
The Parathyroid glands, also located in the neck, produce Parathyroid
hormone, which assists in maintaining the calcium levels for the nerves and
muscles to function normally. Calcitonin counteracts the effects of parathyroid
hormone and any shortage in the level of the hormone leads to problems in the
bones and teeth.
The Pituitary Gland
NOTES
The Pituitary gland is a protrusion off the hypothalamus at the base of the
brain, pink in colour and about the size of a pea. It performs many complicated
functions like taking care of growth, regulating the blood pressure and water
levels in the body, functions of the sex organs, production of breast milk etc.
which can make good health of the individuals. It is considered next to the brain
in importance. Failure on the part of the gland to function properly, can even lead
to sexual impotency. The Pituitary gland is referred to as the ‘Master gland’ of the
body or ‘The Conductor of Ductless Glands’ on account of the fact it controls and
regulates the other endocrine glands in the body. It receives commands directly
from the Hypothalamus in the brain.
When any of the other glands malfunction, the Pituitary gland takes over
and corrects it. It is made up of 2 lobes. The anterior lobe secretes 10 types of
hormones, one of which controls the Thyroid. Development of the bones,
maintaining youth, controlling the functions of the kidneys etc. are some of the
other functions of the Pituitary gland. Any deficiency in the gland, at the time of
birth, makes the child a dwarf and in the adults it results in acromegaly.
The Pineal Gland
The Pineal gland is cone shaped, reddish-grey in colour and about the size of
a grain of rice. It is located in the center of the brain, between the two
hemispheres, tucked into a groove. It plays an important role in the
transformation of thoughts into action. It can be said to be the abode of the life
energies. Scientists refer to the Pineal gland as a clock within the body. Even
though the gland is located in the deepest recesses of the brain in absolute
darkness, it is capable of cognizing the external world in the form of light and
shadows through the eyes. A study of the cross section of the Pineal gland reveals
it capable of receiving universal magnetism directly.
In the evening, as darkness sets in, the Pineal gland begins to secrete a
hormone called Melatonin. This secretion is stopped as dawn approaches. In
winter, when the nights are longer, the secretion of Melatonin is more, and in
summer, when they are shorter, it is less. This raises the question whether a
NOTES
change in the mental condition of the individuals does take place, according to a
change in the seasons.
In short, the seven Chakras and the related endocrine glands function well,
during one’s youth; but they slow down with age, paving the way for ill health
and diseases. This and the onset of dementia, associated with age, can be warded
off to a certain extent through the regular practice of meditation.
Hormones and their functions
Hormones are the chemical substances which coordinate the activities of
living organisms and also their growth. They are secreted by special tissues in our
body through endocrine glands. Different hormones have different effects on the
shape of the body. Some of these hormones work quickly to start or stop a process
and some will continually work over a long period of time to perform their
functions. They help in body growth, development, metabolism, sexual function,
reproduction etc. If these hormones that are released in more or less quantity can
affect a person.
Thyroid Gland. Located in the front of the neck. Secretes thyroid hormone.
Purpose: Regulate the body's overall metabolism.
Parathyroid Glands: There are 4 parathyroid glands located behind the thyroid.
Secretes parathyroid hormone.
Purpose: Absolute control over calcium levels throughout the body.
Adrenal Glands. There are 2 adrenal glands located on the top of each kidney.
Inner part secretes adrenaline, outer part secretes aldosterone and cortisol.
Purpose: Maintain salt levels in the blood, maintain blood pressure, help
control kidney function, control overall fluid concentrations in the body.
Neuroendocrine Glands of the Pancreas. Located deep in the abdomen behind the
stomach, the pancreas is primarily a digestive organ. It also contains extremely
important endocrine cells which secrete: insulin, glucagon, somatostatin, and
others.
Purpose: Control blood gluocse (blood sugar) and overall glucose
metabolism (important in diabetes), help control other endocrine cells of the
digestive tract.
Pituitary Gland. The pituitary is located at the base of the brain. Secretes
NOTES
thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH),
adrenocotropic hormone (ACTH), and others.
Purpose: Control the activity of many other endocrine glands (thyroid,
ovaries, adrenal, etc.).
List of important hormones and their functions.
1. Hormones of Thyroid
Thyroid gland basically releases two hormones, which helps in controlling
the metabolism of our body. Further these hormones regulates weight, determines
energy levels, internal body temperature, skin, hair etc.
2. Insulin
This hormone is released by pancreas, a leaf like gland located in the
abdominal cavity behind the stomach. It allows the body to use glucose or sugar
from carbohydrates in the food for energy or to store glucose for future use. It
helps in keeping blood sugar level from getting too high i.e. hyperglycemia or too
low i.e. hypoglycemia.
3. Estrogen
It is a female sex hormone released by the ovaries. It is responsible for the
reproduction, menstruation and menopause. Excess of estrogen in the female
body increases the risk of breast cancer, uterine cancer, depression, moodiness etc.
If estrogen level is less in female body leads to acne, skin lesions, thinning of skin,
hair loss etc.
4. Progesterone
Progesterone hormone is produced in the ovaries, the placenta when a
woman gets pregnant and the adrenal glands. It stimulates and regulates various
functions. It plays an important role in maintaining pregnancy. It helps body to
prepare for conception, pregnancy and regulates the monthly cycle. When
pregnancy doesn’t occur, progesterone levels drop and menstrual cycle occurs. It
also plays a role in the sexual desire.

NOTES
5. Prolactin
This hormone is released by the pituitary gland after child birth for
lactation, which enables female to breast feed. Levels of prolactin hormone rise
during pregnancy i.e. it also plays an important role in fertility by inhibiting
follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
6. Testosterone
It is a male sex hormone. It is an anabolic steroid by nature which helps in
building body muscles. In males it plays an important role in the development of
male reproductive tissues; testes and prostrate. It also promotes secondary sexual
characteristics like increasing the mass of muscles and bones, growth of body hair
etc. If testosterone is secreted insufficient in men then it may lead to abnormalities
like infertility.
7. Serotonin
It is a mood-boosting hormone or also known as nature’s feel-good chemical.
It is associated with learning and memory, regulating sleep, digestion, regulates
mood, some muscular functions etc. Due to the imbalance of serotonin in the
body, brain does not produce enough of the hormone to regulate mood or stress
level. Low level of serotonin causes depression, migraine, weight gain, insomnia,
craving for carbohydrate etc. Excess level of serotonin in the body causes
agitation, stage of confusion, sedation etc.
8. Cortisol
This hormone is produced by the adrenal gland. It helps you stay healthy
and energetic. Its main role is to control physical and psychological stress. In
danger it increases heart rate, blood pressure, respiration etc. At stressful times
body secretes cortisol to cope up with the situation. High level of cortisol
consistently causes ulcer, high blood pressure, anxiety, high levels of cholesterol
etc. Similarly, low level of cortisol in the body causes alcoholism, condition
responsible for a chronic fatigue syndrome etc.
9. Adrenaline
Adrenaline hormone is secreted in the medulla in the adrenal gland as well
as some of the central nervous system’s neurons. It is also known as emergency
hormone because it initiates the quick reaction which makes the individual to
NOTES
think and respond quickly to the stress. It increases the metabolic rate, dilation of
blood vessels going to the heart and the brain. During stressful situation,
adrenaline quickly releases in to the blood, send impulses to the organs to create a
specific response.
10. Growth Hormone
It is also known as somatotropin hormone. It is basically a protein hormone
having 190 amino acids which is synthesised and secreted by the cells called
somatotrophs in the anterior pituitary. It stimulates growth, cell reproduction cell
regeneration and in boosting metabolism. It is important in human development.
Review questions
1. What is human endocrine system?
Human endocrine system, is a group of ductless glands that regulate body
processes by secreting chemical substances called hormones. Hormones act on
nearby tissues and are carried in the bloodstream to act on specific target organs
and distant tissues. Salivary glands and sweat glands are examples of exocrine
glands.
2. What is the endocrine system function?
The endocrine system is made up of glands that produce and secrete
hormones, chemical substances produced in the body that regulate the activity of
cells or organs. These hormones regulate the body's growth, metabolism (the
physical and chemical processes of the body), and sexual development and
function.
3. Why endocrine system is important?
Endocrine System. Your endocrine system works with your nervous system
to control important bodily functions. The endocrine systems responsibilities
include regulating growth, sexual development and function, metabolism and
mood. The endocrine system also helps give your body the energy it needs to
function properly.

NOTES
4. What happens if the endocrine system malfunctions?
The endocrine system is a network of glands that produce and release
hormones that help control many important body functions, including the body's
ability to change calories into energy that powers cells and organs. The endocrine
system influences how your heart beats, how your bones and tissues grow, even
your ability to make a baby. It plays a vital role in whether or not you develop
diabetes, thyroid disease, growth disorders, sexual dysfunction, and a host of
other hormone-related disorders.
5. Name the endocrine glands and explain the Thyroid and Parathyroid glands.
6. Discuss the Pituitary glands and Pancreas glands.
7. What are the two sex glands? Explain their functions.
8. Describe location and function of the Adrenal glands.

NOTES 13. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Introduction:
The reproductive or genital system comprises of a system of organs which
work together for the purpose of procreation. The need to procreate and ensure
the continuation of the species has resulted in many changes, helping the
organisms adapt to the place and circumstances. The functions of the human
reproductive system, controlled by some of the endocrine glands, are simple, and
a knowledge about the same is important.
The Male Reproductive System
The male reproductive system
consists of a pair of testes, the
epididymis, the seminal vesicle, the
prostate gland and the vas deferens.
The Testes
Males are born with a pair of
testicles, which produce spermatozoa for the fertilisation of the female. The testes
are located in the Scrotum, which shrink closer to the body during the cold
weather. Sperms are sensitive to temperature, and variations in the body
temperature can affect their growth and development adversely. The immature
sperm produced by the testes travel to the epididymis for development and
storage. The testes are about 4 – 5cm long, 2.5cm broad and weigh 10 – 14gm. The
left scrotum usually hangs lower than the right one in humans.
The testicles are covered by a thin, white membrane called the Tunica
albuginea, and divided into 300 – 400 tiny chambers by a series of half-walls,
within which lie the Semineferous Tubules and the Leydig Cells, which produce
Testosterone. The sperms from the semineferous tubules are carried to the Vasa
Efferentia by delicate tubules called the Rete Testes.
The Epididymis
The epididymis is a single, narrow, tightly coiled tube, about 6 – 7 meters
long, connecting the efferent ducts from the rear of each testicle to the Vas

NOTES
Deferens. Spermatozoa, formed in the testes are stored in the epididymis for 2 – 3
months, where they undergo maturation process.
Semen: Semen is the combination of secretions of testis, seminal vesicle and
prostate. In each ejaculation 3-5 ml of semen is ejected 1 ml of semen contain about
60-100 millions of sperms. It is derived from the 1)Testes 2)Epididymis
3)Seminalvesicle 4)Prostate gland 5) Cowpers glands ’It also contain sugar
fructose seminogelin and other proteolytic enzymes, calcium and citrate’ There is
an enzyme called “hyaluronidase” found in spermatozoa which is responsible for
rupturing the ovum of the female for conception
“Semen, also known as seminal fluid, is an organic fluid that may contain
spermatozoa. It is secreted by the gonads and other sexual organs of male or
hermaphroditic animals and can fertilize female ova.
The Vas Deferens
They are a pair of ducts that connect the left and the right epididymis to the
ejaculatory ducts, to enable sexual ejaculation. Each tube is about 30cm long and
surrounded by smooth muscles. They are a part of the Spermatic Cords. The vas
deferens end in an expanded structure called the Ampulla, which contract
reflexively propelling the sperms forward during ejaculation.
The Ejaculatory Ducts
The ejaculatory ducts are formed by the union of the vas deferens with the
duct of the seminal vesicle. They are about 2.5cm long, pass through the prostate
and open into the urethra. During ejaculation, the semen passes through the
prostate gland, enters the urethra and exits through the tip of the penis.
The Urethra
The urethra is a tube that connects the urinary bladder to the genitals for
excreting the fluids from the body. In males the urethra is around 20cm long and
travels through the penis, carrying both the semen and the urine. It is made up of
three parts as given below:
1. The Prostatic Urethra
It is the part of the urethra that crosses the prostate gland.

2. The Membranous Urethra
NOTES
It is a continuation of the prostatic urethra and is the narrowest part, located
in the deep Perineal Pouch.
3. The Spongy Urethra
This is the longest part of the urethra, running along the length of the penis.
It is about 15 to 16cm long, and the ducts from the urethral glands and the
bulbourethral glands enter here.
The Seminal Vesicles
They are a pair of simple tubular glands located within the pelvis, behind the
urinary bladder. Each seminal vesicle spreads around 5cm and its secretion along
with the spermatozoa and the secretions from the prostate gland constitute 50 –
70% of the volume of semen in man.
The Prostate Gland
The Prostate gland is a tuboalveolar exocrine gland in the male reproductive
system. It is situated below the urinary bladder. It is pyramidal in shape with a
weight of 11gm. The prostate secretes a milky, white fluid, which along with the
spermatozoa and the fluids from the seminal vesicles make up 50 – 70% of the
volume of semen. The prostate contains smooth muscles, which help expelling the
semen during ejaculation. The gland has a tendency to enlarge with age.
The Bulbourethral Glands
Also called the Cowper’s glands, the bulbourethral glands are spherical in
shape and situated behind the urethra. They are about the size of a pea, and
during sexual arousal produce a salty, viscous fluid that helps lubricate the
urethra for the spermatozoa to pass through easily. Besides this they help in
eradicating traces of acidic urine in the urethra.
The Scrotum
It is dual-chambered protuberance of skin and muscle containing the
testicles. It is divided into two by a septum. The scrotum is covered by a soft skin,
with many sweat pores for regulating the temperature. The left scrotum hangs
slightly lower in the case of humans.

NOTES
Testosterone: This is an androgen hormone, derived from two sources: (1)
Testes and (2) Adrenal cortex. androgen from cortex is found only in traces. So
mainly it is the testosterone of the testes.
Functions:
1) Growth of sex organs in the male. Beside testes, the development of prostate,
seminar vesicles and the external genitalia is also stimulated.
2) Life and fertility of spermatozoa is maintained.
3) Development of secondary sex characteristics such as appearance of mustache,
beard and hair in axillary, pubic and chest regions and hoarseness of voice.
Manly spirit also develops in the male.
4) Bony structure becomes more heavy and stronger because of the stimulation
by anabolic fraction of the testosterone. Muscular development is more in
male than in female because of the anabolic fraction of the testosterone which
stimulates the protein metabolism.
5) Metabolism in general is stimulated by anabolic fraction of the testosterone.
6) Blood volume and RBCs are more in male than in female because of the
anabolic fraction of testosterone.
7) Water percentage is more in male since anabolic fraction stimulates Na+
retention and so water imbibing increase.
8) Libido is inspired because of testosterone.
Control of Testicular Function: High temperature inhibits testicular activity.
Gonadotrophic hormones of anterior pituitary and hormones of thyroid, adrenal
cortex and thymus regulate testicular functions.
The Female Reproductive System
The human female reproductive
system consists of a pair of ovaries,
fallopian tubes and the uterus, which
are located in the lower abdomen of
the body; the external parts consist of
the Mons pubis, the Labia majora, the
Labia minora and a clitoris.
The Ovaries
NOTES
The ovaries are found in pairs, located on the lateral walls of the pelvic
region, beneath the external iliac artery, and in front of the ureter and the internal
iliac artery. They are attached to the outer layer of the uterus by ovarian
ligaments. The ovaries are dark pink in colour, having a length and breadth of 3
and 5cm respectively. The part of the broad ligament of the uterus that covers the
ovary is called the Mesovarium.
Structure of the Ovaries
The ovaries are protected by a layer of epithelium below which lies the
Tunica albuginea, made of collagen tissues. The ovaries consist of an outer Cortex
and an inner Medulla. The cortex lies immediately below the Tunica albuginea
and is made up of connective tissue and fibres among which lie the primary and
secondary follicles. The medulla forms the highly vascular stroma in the center of
the ovary and contains blood vessels, lymphatic vessels and nerves. The cortex
plays an important part in ovulation, after the attainment of puberty. The Corpora
Lutea of the ovaries lies here, the size of which depends on the menstrual cycles of
the individual.
The Ovarian Follicles
The ovarian follicles are the basic units of the female reproductive system.
They contain a single oocyte (immature ovum), which is allowed to grow and
develop, leading to ovulation. Each month one of the ovaries releases a single egg
called the oocyte. The follicles are anatomical structures in which the primary
oocyte develops. The oocytes are about 0.25mm in size. The function of an oocyte
is called oocytogenesis, which is a part of oogenesis. Primary oocytes are formed
as a part of birth followed by secondary oocytes, as a part of ovulation.
The Corpus Luteum
The Corpus Luteum develops from an ovarian follicle during the menstrual
cycles, following the release of the secondary oocyte from the follicle during
ovulation. The corpus luteum is important for establishing and maintaining
pregnancy. It secretes Progesterone, a steroid hormone, responsible for
development and maintenance. If the egg is not fertilised, the corpus luteum stops
NOTES
secreting progesterone and begins to decay into a fibrous scar tissue, called the
Corpus Albicans.
The Fallopian Tubes

The fallopian tubes are two fine tubes leading from the ovaries to the uterus.
They are about 10cm long and allow the passage of the egg from the ovary into
the uterus. The fallopian tube is divided into three parts called the Infundibulum,
near the ovary, the Ampullary region, which forms the major part, and the
Isthmus, which is the narrower part, connected to the uterus.
The Uterus
The uterus or the womb is a major component of the female reproductive
system. It is pear-shaped with a length of 7.5cm and a weight of around 50gms. Its
weight increases considerably during the gestation period. One end, the Cervix,
opens into the vagina, and the other is connected to the fallopian tubes. The foetus
grows within the uterus during gestation. The uterus is divided into the broad
Fundus and a narrow Cervix. Its walls are made of a lining called the
Endometrium, smooth muscles called the Myometrium and loose connective
tissue called the Parametrium. The endometrium plays an important role during
the menstrual cycles of women.
Progesterone: It is derived from the corpora lutea, which is formed every
month in the ovary after ovulation from its healing scar. It is secreted mainly from
the ovary but little is secreted from the placenta and adrenal cortex.
Functions of progesterone: 1. Premenstrual stimulation of oestrogens and
preparation of the endometrium for menstrual cycle. Menstruation occurs when
progesterone levels fall.
2) Pregnancy is sustained by progesterone secretion. It neutralizes oxytocin of
pituitary and protects pregnancy by preventing uterine contraction.
3) Menstruation is inhibited during pregnancy by progesterone.
4) Breasts develop under progesterone stimulation.
5) Birth passage is relaxed by progesterone and so it widens to facilitate birth.
6) Protein metabolism is slowed down with progesterone.
7) Oestrogen-progresterone and relationship combination may be synergistic,
NOTES
opposing or competitive type, depending upon the stage of sexual life in a
woman.
Review Question
1. What are the 4 functions of the reproductive system?
Within the context of producing offspring, the reproductive system has four
functions:
❖ To produce ovum and sperm cells.
❖ To transport and sustain these cells.
❖ To nurture the developing offspring.
❖ To produce hormones.
2. What are the 3 main parts of the male reproductive system?
What Is the Male Reproductive System?
❖ the testicles.
❖ the duct system, which is made up of the epididymis and the vas deferens.
❖ the accessory glands, which include the seminal vesicles and prostate
gland.
❖ the penis.
3. Which reproductive system is more complex male or female explain your
answer?
The female reproductive system is more complex than the male's because the
male needs only to produce and deliver gametes the female must do this as well
as provide nutrition and safe harbour for fetal development and then give birth
and nourish the infant.
4. What are the parts of the human reproductive system?
The human female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vulva,
which leads to the vagina, the vaginal opening, to the uterus; the uterus, which
holds the developing fetus; and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova.
NOTES
5. What are the four main functions of the female reproductive system?
The four functions of the reproductive system are:
❖ To produce egg.
❖ To transport and sustain these cells
❖ To nurture the developing fetus
❖ To produce hormones
6. What are the two kinds of tubes in the male reproductive system?
The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also called accessory
organs, include the following: Epididymis: The epididymis is a long, coiled tube
that rests on the backside of each testicle. It transports and stores sperm cells that
are produced in the testes.
7. What are the 5 main parts of the female reproductive system?
Female Reproductive System Anatomy
❖ Ovaries. The ovaries are a pair of small glands about the size and shape of
almonds, located on the left and right sides of the pelvic body cavity lateral
to the superior portion of the uterus
❖ Fallopian Tubes
❖ Uterus
❖ Vagina
❖ Vulva
8. How many eggs does a woman lose during her period?
A woman is born with all her eggs. Once she starts her periods, 1 egg
develops and is released during each menstrual cycle. After ovulation, the egg
lives for 24 hours. Pregnancy happens if a man's sperm meet and fertilise the egg.
9. How much sperm is enough for pregnancy?
It takes just one sperm to fertilize a woman's egg. Keep in mind, though, for
each sperm that reaches the egg, there are millions that don't. On average, each
time a man ejaculates he releases nearly 100 million sperm. Why are so many
sperm released if it takes only one to make a baby?
10. Does urine flush out sperm?

Fact: As the pre-ejaculate leaves the body, however, it may pick up sperm
NOTES
from a previous ejaculation that remains in the urethra. One study found small
clumps of sperm in the pre-ejaculate fluid of some men. Such small amounts of
sperm can likely be flushed out with urination, although no research has verified
this.

NOTES
14. EXCRETORY SYSTEM
Introduction:
The food we eat undergoes digestion, and the nutrients from the food are
taken to all the parts of the body by the blood circulation. The undigested portions
of the food along with the wastes are passed on to the large intestine for excretion.
Respiration provides oxygen to the tissues, besides eliminating the carbon dioxide
from the body. The body and the organs function with the help of the energy
provided by the oxygen and the food. Wastes generated during the digestive and
metabolic activities have to be necessarily eliminated from the body. For example,
metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates and fats produce wastes materials like
water, carbon dioxide and nitrogen, which have to be excreted. As retention of the
wastes leads to problems, organs like the lungs, skin, large intestines and kidneys
function to eliminate the wastes from the body.
One of the most interesting facts about the excretory system is that the human
bladder can hold up to 400 ml of urine. The skin is also considered a part of the
excretory system because by removing sweat it helps eliminate various toxins
from the body
The functions of the excretory system are to get rid of wastes, eliminate
useless byproducts excreted from cells, eradicate harmful chemical buildups and
maintain a steady, balanced chemical concentration in the body.
Parts of the excretory system:
❖ Kidneys: Within each kidney are an estimated one million microscopic
nephrons.
❖ Ureters: Ureters are muscular ducts that propel urine from the kidneys to
the urinary bladder
❖ Urethra
❖ Bladder
❖ Skin
❖ Lungs
❖ Urinary System Diagram

❖ Kidneys
NOTES
Organs Wastes excreted
Lungs Gases, carbon dioxide, water vapour
Skin (Sweat glands) Water, salts, nitrogen
Large intestine Undigested solid wastes
Kidneys Water, nitrogen, salts, bacteria
Kidneys, which separate the waste materials from the blood, consist of a pair
of bean-shaped organs that lie in the abdominal cavity, on either side of the
backbone. Two Ureters, arising from the kidneys, carry the wastes (urine) to the
Urinary Bladder, from which it is excreted through the Urethra.
Structure and functions of the Kidneys:
The kidneys are a pair of
bean-shaped organs situated to
the rear end of the abdominal
cavity, on either side of the
backbone, just below the ribcage.
They are around 10 cm long, with
a breadth and thickness of
around 5 cm and 3 cm
respectively, and weigh around
125 – 170 grams. The Adrenal glands are situated on the top of the kidneys.
The kidneys are convex on the outer surface, and concave, on the inner; they
are called the Renal Cortex and the Renal Hilum respectively. The renal artery and
the renal vein, which carry blood to and from the kidneys, as well as the ureters,
enter the kidneys from its concave surface. The ureter, shaped like a funnel, is also
called the Renal Pelvis. The Renal Medulla contains cones called
Renal Pyramids, each with thousands of Nephrons, which do the work of
producing urine.
The pyramids open into the Renal Pelvis. The nephrons contain sac-like
structures called Bowman’s capsule, within which lie the Glomerulus. Fluids from
the blood in the glomerulus are collected into the Bowman’s capsule. A Proximal
NOTES
tubule leads from the Bowman’s capsule to the Loop of Henle and the Distal
Convoluted Tubule. Together the three form the collecting duct system of the
kidneys. Nephrons are the basic structural and functional units of the kidneys.
They separate the waste materials from the blood and send them to the collecting
tubules located in the Renal Pelvis from where they are taken to the urinary
bladder by the ureters.
The urinary bladder is the organ that collects the urine before disposal by
urination. The bladder is located on the pelvic floor and is made of smooth
muscles arranged in spiral, longitudinal and circular bundles. The urinary bladder
usually holds 300 to 350 ml of urine.
Ureters:
The two ureters are tubes of 10 to 12 inches in length and of less than ½ inch
in diameter. They connect the kidneys with back surface of the bladder.
Urethra
The Urethra, which arises from the urinary bladder, excretes the urine from
the body. The muscles situated at the junction of the urethra and the urinary
bladder is capable of contraction, making urination easy.
Production of urine is an involuntary function of the body. The urethra is
around 20 cm in the case of men, and around 2.5 – 3 cm, in the case of the women.
In men excretion of both the urine and the sexual vital fluid take place through the
same passage.
The urethra is the tube through which urine flows out of the body from the
bladder. In males it is part of both the urinary system and the reproductive
system. Originating at the base of the bladder passing through the prostate gland
where it is joined by reproductive ducts. From the prostate, the urethra passes
through the penis and open to the outside.
The female urethra is only excretory in function. It is about 1 ½ inches long
and located just in front of the vagina. The back wall of urethra is united with
front wall of the vagina.
Functions
1) In female it is passageway for passing out urine from the body.
2) In male it is passageway for passing out urine as well as reproductive fluid
NOTES
(semen)
The kidneys must function properly to keep the body healthy. An
examination of the urine determine the functions of, various organs in the body.
The doctor therefore uses the urine test to diagnose disease in the body. If there is
excess sugar, enzymes or other materials in the urine it indicates that other organs
may not be functioning properly.
Formation of Urine
The nephrons function in three ways as below:
1) Filtration
2) Selective re-absorption
3) Tubular secretion
The formation of urine begins with filtration, which goes on continuously in
the renal capsules. As the blood passes through the glomeruli, it is filtered for the
wastes in it. This process is called glomerular filtration and the resultant product
is called the glomerular filtrate. This is the primary stage in the production of
urine.
Besides urea the fluid also contains glucose, sodium, potassium, calcium,
minerals and water. As the glomerular filtrate passes through the renal tubules,
substances like sodium, water, glucose and the other nutrients are reabsorbed
back into the bloodstream. Glomerular filtrate is initially taken to the proximal
tubules, and after re-absorption of the essential matter, passes on to the urinary
bladder, through the ureters, for excretion.
The urinary bladder is made of Detrusor muscles and circular muscles,
which function alternately for collecting and expelling the urine. When the
Detrusor muscles contract and the circular muscles expand, urine is expelled from
the bladder; on the other hand expansion of the Detrusor muscles and contraction
of the circular muscles enables the bladder get filled. The muscles work under the
control of the autonomic nervous system. The kidneys help to absorb glucose,
sodium, potassium, calcium etc. which would otherwise get wasted.

NOTES
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is part of the kidney nephron, next to the
glomerulus. It is found between afferent arteriole and the distal convoluted tubule
of the same nephron. This location is critical to its function in regulating renal
blood flow and glomerular filtration rate.
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized structure formed by the distal
convoluted tubule and the glomerular afferent arteriole. It is located near the
vascular pole of the glomerulus and its main function is to regulate blood pressure
and the filtration rate of the glomerulus.
The macula densa is a collection of specialized epithelial cells in the distal
convoluted tubule that detect sodium concentration of the fluid in the tubule. In
response to elevated sodium, the macula densa cells trigger contraction of the
afferent arteriole, reducing flow of blood to the glomerulus and the glomerular
filtration rate. The juxtaglomerular cells, derived from smooth muscle cells, of the
afferent arteriole secrete renin when blood pressure in the arteriole falls. Renin
increases blood pressure via the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. Lacis cells,
also called extraglomerular mesangial cells, are flat and elongated cells located
near the macula densa. Their function remains unclear.
Sweat Glands
Sweat glands are found in skin all over the body but are most numerous in
the palms of the hands, soles of the feet and forehead. For example a single inch of
skin on the palms of the hands contains about 3000 glands.
Sweat secretion helps in maintaining the fluid balance and regulating body
temperature. Sweat glands also act as excretory organs as it eliminate nitrogenous
wastes from the body through sweat.

Review Questions
NOTES
1. How does reabsorption occur in the nephron?
Reabsorption in the distal tubule and collecting duct: The tubular fluid now
enters the distal tubule and collecting duct, or terminal nephron. Reabsorption of
magnesium differs in that the majority of the reabsorption occurs in the ascending
limb of the loop of Henle.
2. Where does reabsorption and secretion occur in the nephron?
Secretion occurs in the proximal tubule section of the nephron and is
responsible for the transport of certain molecules out of the blood and into the
urine. Most of the material filtered through the glomerulus is reabsorbed in the
proximal convoluted tubule of the nephron.
Secretion is the movement of material from one point to another, e.g.
secreted chemical substance from a cell or gland. The classical mechanism of cell
secretion is via secretory portals at the cell plasma membrane called porosomes.
The urine concentrating mechanism is believed to operate as follows in the
outer medulla. This cortical water reabsorption greatly reduces the load that is
placed on the urine concentrating mechanism by the fluid that re-enters the
medulla via the collecting ducts.
3. What determines urine concentration?
A urine concentration test determines how well your kidneys are
functioning. The test may be used to test your kidneys' response to: too much
fluid intake (water loading) a hormone that should concentrate your urine,
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
4. What is dialysis?
Dialysis is a treatment that filters and purifies the blood using a machine.
This helps keep your fluids and electrolytes in balance when the kidneys can't do
their job. Dialysis has been used since the 1940s to treat people with kidney
problems.
5. What are the signs that a patient needs dialysis?
As chronic kidney disease progresses to end-stage renal disease, signs and
symptoms might include:
NOTES
❖ Nausea.
❖ Vomiting.
❖ Loss of appetite.
❖ Fatigue and weakness.
❖ Sleep problems.
❖ Changes in how much you urinate.
❖ Decreased mental sharpness.
❖ Muscle twitches and cramps.
6. Explain the excretory system in details.
7. What are the main organs of excretory system? Describe.
8. What are the functions of kidneys? Explain.
Books References:
1) Reader’s Digest Association, ABC’s of the Human Body, 1990.
2) Dr. Ramesh K. Goyal, Elements of Human Anatomy physiology & Health
Education, B.S. Shan Prakashan, 2009.
3) Dr. N. Murugesh, Anatomy Physiology and Health Education, Sathya
Publishers, 2010.
4) Anthony, C.P.Thibodeau, Gary, A, Text Book of Anatomy and Physiology,
St.Louis, The C.V. Mashy Company, 1979.
5) Myshne, David A, Human anatomy and Physiology, Moscow, Mir
Publishers, 1982.
6) Wilson, K.J.W, Foundations of Anatomy and Physiology, Hong Kong,
LogmanGroup Ltd. 1985.
7) Chaurasia, B.D., Handbook of General Anatomy, New Delhi, CAS
Publishers, 1981.
8) Parrot, J.W., Anatomy and Physiology for Physical Education Teachers
Lend, Edward Arned Ltd. 1983.
9) Rayner, John, Anatomy and Physiology, New York, Harper & Row
Publisher, 1977.
10) IBM, World Book Multimedia Encyclopedia, California, IVID
Communications, 1997.
NOTES
11) Wilmore, J.H and Costill, D.L., Physiology of Sports and Exercise,
Champaign IL, Human Kinetics, 1999.

NOTES
15. STRESS PHYSIOLOGY
Introduction:
Stress, either physiological or biological, is an organism's response to a
stressor such as an environmental condition. Stress is the body's method of
reacting to a condition such as a threat, challenge or physical and psychological
barrier. Stimuli that alter an organism's environment are responded to by multiple
systems in the body. The autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-
adrenal (HPA) axis are two major systems that respond to stress.
The sympathoadrenal medullary (SAM) axis may activate the fight-or-flight
response through the sympathetic nervous system, which dedicates energy to
more relevant bodily systems to acute adaptation to stress, while the
parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to homeostasis. The second
major physiological stress, the HPA axis regulates the release of cortisol, which
influences many bodily functions such as metabolic, psychological and
immunological functions. The SAM and HPA axes are regulated by several brain
regions, including the limbic system, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, hypothalamus,
and stria terminalis.
Through these mechanisms, stress can alter memory functions, reward,
immune function, metabolism and susceptibility to diseases. Definitions of stress
differ. One system suggests there are five types of stress labeled "acute time-
limited stressors", "brief naturalistic stressors", "stressful event sequences",
"chronic stressors", and "distant stressors". An acute time-limited stressor involves
a short-term challenge, while a brief natural stressor involves an event that is
normal but nevertheless challenging. A stressful event sequence is a stressor that
occurs, and then continues to yield stress into the immediate future. A chronic
stressor involves exposure to a long-term stressor, and a distant stressor is a
stressor that is not immediate.
Stress and illness may have intersecting components. Several studies
indicate such a link, while theories of the stress–illness link suggest that both acute
and chronic stress can cause illness, and lead to changes in behavior and in
physiology. Behavioral changes can include smoking, and changes in eating habits
NOTES
and physical activity. Physiological changes can include changes in sympathetic
activation or HPA activity, and immunological function. However, there is much
variability in the link between stress and illness.
The HPA axis regulates many bodily functions, both behavioral and
physiological, through the release of glucocorticoid hormones. The HPA axis
activity varies according to the circadian rhythm, with a spike in the morning. The
axis involves the release of corticotropin releasing hormone and vasopressin from
the hypothalamus which stimulates the pituitary to secrete ACTH. ACTH may
then stimulate the adrenal glands to secrete cortisol. The HPA axis is subject to
negative feedback regulation as well.
The release of CRH and VP are regulated by descending glutaminergic and
GABAergic pathways from the amygdala, as well as noradrenergic projections.
Increased cortisol usually acts to increase blood glucose, blood pressure, and
surpasses lysosomal, and immunological activity. Under other circumstances the
activity may differ. Increased cortisol also favors habit based learning, by favoring
memory consolidation of emotional memories.
Selye demonstrated that stress decreases adaptability of an organism and
proposed to describe the adaptability as a special resource, adaptation energy.
One study considered adaptation energy as an internal coordinate on the
"dominant path" in the model of adaptation. Stress can make the individual more
susceptible to physical illnesses like the common cold. Stressful events, such as job
changes, may result in insomnia, impaired sleeping, and physical and
psychological health complaints.
Research indicates the type of stressor (whether it is acute or chronic) and
individual characteristics such as age and physical well-being before the onset of
the stressor can combine to determine the effect of stress on an individual. An
individual's personality characteristics (such as level of neuroticism), genetics, and
childhood experiences with major stressors and traumas may also dictate their
response to stressors.

NOTES
Review of questions:
1. What are the physiological effects of stress on the body?
Indeed, stress symptoms can affect your body, your thoughts and feelings,
and your behavior. Being able to recognize common stress symptoms can help
you manage them. Stress that's left unchecked can contribute to many health
problems, such as high blood pressure, heart disease, obesity and diabetes
2. How does the body respond to stress physiologically?
Physiological reaction includes increased heart rate. Adrenaline lead to the
arousal of the sympathetic nervous system and reduced activity in the
parasympathetic nervous system. Adrenaline creates changes in the body such as
decreases (in digestion) and increases (sweating, increased pulse and blood
pressure).
3. What does chronic stress do to the body?
Signs of chronic stress can include headaches, fatigue, and low self-esteem.
Stress is a biological response to demanding situations. It causes the body to
release hormones, such as cortisol and adrenaline. These hormones help prepare
the body to take action, for example by increasing the heart and breath rates.
4. What stress and anxiety does to the body?
Central nervous system. Long-term anxiety and panic attacks can cause your
brain to release stress hormones on a regular basis. This can increase the
frequency of symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, and depression.
5. What are some of the physical signs of stress?
Physical symptoms of stress include:
❖ Low energy.
❖ Headaches.
❖ Upset stomach, including diarrhea, constipation, and nausea.
❖ Aches, pains, and tense muscles.
❖ Chest pain and rapid heartbeat.
❖ Insomnia.
❖ Frequent colds and infections.
❖ Loss of sexual desire and/or ability.
6. What are the 3 stages of the stress response?
NOTES
There are three stages of stress: the alarm, resistance and exhaustion stages.
The alarm stage is also known as the fight or flight stage.
7. What are the five symptoms of chronic stress?
❖ Acne. Acne is one of the most visible ways that stress often manifests itself.
❖ Headaches
❖ Chronic Pain
❖ Frequent Sickness
❖ Decreased Energy and Insomnia
❖ Changes in Libido
❖ Digestive Issues
❖ Appetite Changes
8. What are the 4 types of stress?
Albrecht's four common types of stress are:
❖ Time stress
❖ Anticipatory stress
❖ Situational stress
❖ Encounter stress
9. What are the four sources of stress?
To summarize, the four principal sources of stress may be grouped as follows:
❖ Environmental. Includes physical stressors that impinge upon the five
senses, such as weather, traffic, noise, pollution, disturbing images.
❖ Social
❖ Physiological
❖ Cognitive-emotional
10. Why is stress a problem?
You might feel fatigued, unable to concentrate or irritable for no good
reason, for example. But chronic stress causes wear and tear on your body, too.
Chronic stress may also cause disease, either because of changes in your body or
the overeating, smoking and other bad habits people use to cope with stress.


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M.

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

WCSC – VISION for Wisdom

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

UNIT 1: CELL BIOLOGY AND MUSCULO-SKELETAL SYSTEM:

Muscle - Classification - Histology - properties of each type - distribution - Mechanism of muscle

UNIT 2: CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM AND RESPIRATORY SYSTEM:

UNIT 3: DIGESTIVE AND EXCRETORY SYSTEM:

UNIT 4: ENDOCRINE SYSTEM AND REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:

UNIT 5: CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SPECIAL SENSES:

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The Basic Unit of the Body (Cell)

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Cytoplasm: It is the mass of living material which consists of proteins, fats,

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Ball and Saddle and

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Bone Marrow: It is found in between the bone plates of the spongy

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Muscle is a contractile tissue which behaves as the body’s engine, generating

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Red blood cells White blood cells Platelets

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People with A group blood can donate blood to – A and AB groups.

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Component organs of immune system:

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