HEAT TRANSFER LABORATORY

MANUAL

Prepared By

Dr.T.R.Seetharam
(Chair Professor in Thermal Engineering)

Mechanical Engineering Department

P.E.S.Institute of Technology, Bangalore – 85

1
 CONTENTS

# Description Page No.

1. Learning Objectives for Heat Transfer Laboratory 3

2. Students Instruction Manual for Report Writing 4

3. List of Experiments to be Conducted 10

4. Thermal Conductivity of Metal Rod (E 1) 11

5. Conduction Through a Plane Composite Wall (E 2) 15

6. Transient Conduction in a Sphere (E3) 21

7. Experiment on a Pin Fin (E4) 25

8. Experiment on Free Convection from a cylinder (E5) 36

9. Experiments on Laminar and Turbulent Forced Convection for

Flow Through a Circular Pipe (E6) 47

10. Experiments on a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger (E 7) 60

11. Experiment on Filmwise/Dropwise Condensation of Steam from

a Vertical Surface (E8) 74

12. Determination of Stefan-Boltzman Constant for Thermal Radiation (E9) 83

13. Determination of Emissivity of a Surface (E 10) 88

2
A. Learning Objectives for Heat Transfer Laboratory

1.This laboratory course serves the lecture course on heat transfer which addresses the principles and
application of heat transfer by conduction, convection and thermal radiation.

2. The course will develop technical skills among students in conducting basic heat transfer experiments
and analyze data in heat transfer applications and build student skills and confidence for project work
activity

3. It will develop written communication skills among students through laboratory reports.

4.The one open ended experiment will train students to formulate their own experimental procedure,
collection of data, statistical analysis of data and method to propose a working formula based on the
experimental data.

5. The course will help students to work in teams.

3
B. Students Manual for Writing Laboratory Reports For BE(Autonomous) Programs

1. Introduction

This manual provides the students with a detailed description of what is required for a
laboratory report for the various laboratory courses. It includes a format for the entire report as well as
detailed instructions on the preparation of figures and tables, and a discussion of errors and laboratory
practice.

2. Format For The Laboratory Report

The detailed laboratory report describes the purpose of an experimental investigation,

the way in which it was carried out, and the basic data obtained, discussion of the results, the
assumptions made, the accuracy of the measurements and results, as well as the significance of the
results and conclusions or recommendations arising from them. Before submitting your report, the
following checklist should be reviewed.

2.1 The report is based on the actual observations (NO cooking up of experimental data).

2.2 The report should be around 10 to 15 pages, including any tables, plots and appendices.

2.3 The report will include the following.

(i) An abstract (objectives of the experiment) immediately following the title of the
experiment.
(ii) An introduction including a discussion of purpose of the work being reported upon
and an outline of the relevant theory and background.
(iii) A description of the experimental procedure and the rig used including simple
schematic diagram(s) {no three dimensional diagrams}of the equipment, carefully
drawn and dimensioned wherever necessary
(iv) A presentation of the results including: tabulation(s) of the raw data, a discussion of
the data treatment method (specimen calculations) and the assumptions made,
tabulation(s) and plot(s) of the final derived results.
(v) A detailed discussion of the accuracy and reliability of the results, with comparison
to the theoretical background presented in the introduction,
(vi) A statement of the conclusions and recommendations if any resulting from the study,
(vii) A list of references in proper form,
(viii) Appendices as required.

2.4. All pages of the report shall be numbered.

2.5. All symbols should be defined; units (Only SI units)should be clearly indicated.

4
3. Format for Tables of Data or Results:

A sample table is provided in the appendix (A2) Before submitting your report for evaluation check the
following:

3.1.Each table should have a proper descriptive title and a table number if there is more than one.
3.2.Columns should be properly titled.

3.3.Units should be clearly stated and only SI system of units be employed.

3.4.Each table must be referred to and explained in the text.

3.5.Columns may be numbered if the headings are complex, and an explanation given in the text.

3.6.Wherever required foot notes be given.

A sample table is given in page A2.

4. Format for Figures:

4.1 : Check List:- For plotting mathematical curves, recording engineering data, and for many other
technical purposes, graphs are frequently drawn using rectangular co-ordinates.Such graphical charts
have a distinct advantage over tabular charts in representing continuous functions, because such
functions will be shown either by straight lines or by curved lines. In such cases if any one value (
experimental or calculated) falls distinctly away from the curve, it will be suspected and checked,
where as in a tabular chart it is much more difficult to detect incorrect values.

It should be remembered that the data points are really the only information on which the graph is
based. Any curve drawn through the points is strictly conjecture, even if the points do lie on smooth
curves. It is wise to avoid drawing curves with eccentric shapes simply so that they pass through all the
data points.

A sample figure is provided in the appendix and detailed instructions on plotting are provided in
subsequent sections. Before submitting your report check the following:

i).Each figure should have a proper descriptive title and should be numbered if there is more than one
figure. The title should not merely repeat the co-ordinate axes.

ii).The abscissa (x – axis) and ordinate (y-axis) of each figure should be properly labeled with the
scale of the graph and the variable names.

iii).Units of the variables should be clearly shown.

iv).Scales for each coordinate axis should be carefully chosen for good display of the data.

5
v).Data points should be clearly marked, and lines should be clear and bold. Figures should be kept
simple – not more than two or three curves on each figure.

vi).If there is more than one graph on a figure, data points and curves should be carefully identified. For
example, Δ, O, X, , may be used for four different lines.

vii).Elaborate drafting is not important, but neatness and good appearance are very important. All
curves should be drawn in fine smooth lines, with the use of straight edge or French curve if done
manually.

viii).Lettering on each figure should be of a generous size – at least twice that of normal type. Ample
margins should be allowed. This may mean that the axes have to be drawn inside the printed margin of
the graph paper.

ix) Each figure must be referred to and explained in the text of the report.

x) Use quality graph paper with 1 cm squares.

4.2. How to Plot Engineering Data:

In preparing a co-ordinate graph, you should proceed in the following manner:

STEP 1: Select the type of graph sheet. Of the several types available, those most generally used
are ruled with rectangular coordinates, in logarithmic co-ordinates, or in semi-logarithmic
coordinates. Use paper having 10 divisions per centimeter as far as possible.

STEP 2: Locate the axes, determine the variable for each axis, and choose the appropriate
scales.The axes should be drawn at the left and at the bottom of the sheet two or three
centimeters inside the border so as to leave ample space for lettering. The intersection of
the axes is generally (but not necessarily), the origin of co-ordinates; i.e. the zero point for
vertical and horizontal distances. Do not put arrows on the ends of the axes unless the
scale is meant to extend to infinity.

The graph generally has a good appearance if the length of the y-axis is between 2/3 and ¾
the length of the x-axis.Therefore in many cases, it is desirable to turn the graph sheet
horizontally.

The independent variables usually should be plotted as abscissas and the dependent
variables as ordinates. However in some cases, for example i stress-strain diagrams, it is
customary to plot the independent variables as ordinates.The scales for the variables must
be chosen so that the entire range of the data to be represented can be shown within limits
of the graph and so that each division on the graph sheet represents1,2, or 5 units, or some
power of ten multiplied by 1,2, or 5.

6
STEP3: Mark the unit values along the axes. All numbering should be clear and distinct and
readable from the bottom, not from the side. If decimal fractions are shown, a zero should
precede the decimal point, thus: 0.10 or 0.050.

STEP 4: Plot the points representing the data. Show the points by dots and enclose each dot with a
small circle, triangle or a square, etc. If more than three curves are to be shown on the same
chart, additional symbols should be used; for example crosses, double circles etc.

STEP 5: Draw the curves. Draw a smooth curve through the plotted points. If the points vary
significantly, connect them by a broken line and then draw the required curve to intersect
the broken line so that the sum of the areas of the triangles formed by the broken line on
one side of the curve is approximately equal to the sum of the areas of the triangles formed
on the other side. Note that these broken lines are only construction lines. Alternatively a
line or curve may be statistically fitted to the data as explained in section 4.3.

STEP 6: Letter the chart. The axes and the curves should be lettered so that their use and meaning
are clear to the reader. When the curves of the chart fall close together, it is best to
differentiate between the curves by means of leade (Labeling each curve is preferable to
using a legend).

STEP 7: Prepare the title. The title should be displayed prominently, near the top or bottom of the
chart, depending on the available space.The title should not repeat information which is
already provided on the axes; this is redundant The title should give other pertinent
information about the nature of the subject represented.

4.3.Correlating the Experimental Data:

Quite often a theory may be available to which experimental data are expected to conform.
The theory may be described by an equation in which the dependent variable say y, is a function of an
independent variable say x, in the experiment.

y = f(x)

In some cases the equation can be rewritten or manipulated algebraically so that it becomes the equation
of a straight line, and if possible this should be done.
The equation of a straight line is

y = a + bx

If y is the ordinate and x is the abscissa on a graph, a straight line results whose slope is b and whose
intercept on the y-axis is a.
For example, in thermodynamics, an equation of the form

log10 P = a + b (1/T)
is used to correlate the vapour pressure of a pure substance against temperature. If log10P is plotted on
the ordinate and 1 / T is plotted on the abscissa, vapour pressure data are expected to fall on a straight
line. This is a semi-logarithmic plot.

7
 In fluid mechanics for non-newtonian fluids which obey the “power law”, the rate of
strain du/dy, is related to the shear stress τ, by the equation

τ = K (du/dy)n

Taking logarithms of both sides we have

log10 τ = log10 K + n log10(du/dy).

If log10 τ is plotted on the ordinate and log10 (du/dy) is plotted on the abscissa, a straight line with slope
n is expected to result. This is a logarithmic plot.
Plotting experimental vapour pressure data or shear stress data on the appropriate axis
permits an immediate judgment to be made whether the data points fall on a straight line and then,
whether there appears to be serious experimental errors in any of the data. Furthermore, having
determined the best straight line to put through the data points it is possible to calculate a and b for the
vapour pressure correlation or K and n for a power law fluid.
The slope and intercept of a straight line fit can be determined from the graph by fitting a
line as described in the previous section or can also be obtained by using the method of least squares
for straight line fit (For the least square method refer
Advanced Engineering Mathematics by Erwin Kreyszig, Wiley Student 8th Edition,Article 18.5)

5. Uncertainty in Graphical Analysis:

Graphs and curves are tools which have a fundamental uncertainty connected with their
use. This uncertainty has to be minimized. A general principle of plotting graphs is to ensure that the
least count of smallest division of the graph paper should be almost equal the standard error of
measurement.When plotting graphs choose scales which are easy to read and number them fully.
Multiples of 3, 7, 9 etc. should be avoided as well as counting in halves, i.e. 0, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5,
etc.Wherever possible, data should be plotted such that a straight line results, because a straight line is
easily drawn through data points and deviations and scatter are easily detected when straight lines are
known to exist.

6. Laboratory Practice:

6.1.Precautions to be observed in the laboratory:- Carelessness in personal conduct or in handling

equipment may result in serious injury to the individual or to the equipment. Do not run near moving
machinery. Always be on the alert for strange sounds and find the cause for them. Guard against
entangling clothes in moving parts of machinery.
No piece of equipment should be started or stopped except under direct supervision of
the laboratory instructor or upon specific instructions from them. Do not open or close any valve,
switch, etc.without first learning its function and trying to determine what will happen when the
operation is completed.

In particular observe the following.

1. Open and/or close all valves slowly.

8
 2. While a piece of equipment is warming up see that proper lubrication is obtained, and that all
gauges are reading normally.
3. Apply and remove loads slowly.
4. Leave instruments and equipment in a clean and orderly condition upon completion of the
experiment.
5. Bring all the valves to their respective initial positions after completion of the experiment.

6.2. Observation Notes:- The observation record is an original record of a laboratory investigation and
the derived results.The following checklist should be reviewed at the start of your experiment.

i) Pages in the observation book should be numbered on both sides; a table of contents should be
developed (the first two pages of the observation book should be reserved for the table of contents).

ii) The record must be sufficiently complete to permit repetition and checking of the work.

iii) The record for each experiment should be complete with title and date.

iv) The record for an experiment should be organized to suit the experiment but one way or another
following should be covered:

(a) a brief statement of the purpose of the work

(b) a schematic diagram of the equipment and connections (with dimensions wherever necessary) drawn
free hand and a brief procedure of the experiment.

(c) a neat table to record the experimental data

(d) specimen calculations of the quantities to be determined using the data

(e) a tabulation of results derived from the data

(f) suitable plot(s) of the results

(g) a statement of conclusions

v) The record should be permanent.(i.e. all the data should be noted down using pens and not pencils)

9
 Heat Transfer Laboratory
List of Experiments to be carried out

E1 : To determine the thermal conductivity of the given metal rod.

E2 : To determine(i) oveall thermal conductance and (ii) contact resistance for a two layer composite
wall

E3 : (a)To determine the transient temperature distribution in a sphere exposed to (i) air & (ii) water and
compare with theoretical predictions

E4 : To determine the efficiency of the pin fin and compare it with the theoretical value when (i) the fin
is exposed to still air and (ii) when the fin is exposed to air moving with a certain velocity

E5 : To obtain the correlation to determine the local and average heat transfer coefficient for free
convection from a heated cylinder and compare the values obtained using standard correlations when
(i) the cylinder is oriented in vertical position and (ii) the cylinder is oriented in horizontal position

E6 : To determine local and average heat transfer coefficients for laminar and turbulent flow through a
circular tube subjected to uniform wall-heat flux.

E7 : To determine the mean temperature difference and effectiveness of (i) a parallel flow and (ii) a
counter flow double pipe heat exchanger and compare with the theoretical values.

E8 : To determine the film - wise condensation heat transfer coefficient for a vertical surface and
compare with theoretical predictions.

E9 : To verify Stefan-Boltzman Law of Radiation (Determination of Stefan-Boltman Constant)

E10 :To determine the emissivity of the given surface.

10
 1.THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF A METAL ROD

1.1. Objectives : To determine the thermal conductivity of a metal rod using steady state conduction
method and comparing the value with that available in literature

1.2. Introduction and Background Theory: Heat is a form of energy transfer which takes place from a
region of high temperature to a region of low temperature. There are three different modes by which
heat transfer can take place. They are (i) Conduction, (ii) Convection and (iii) Radiation

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the
adjacent less energetic particles as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take
place in solids, liquids, or gases. In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of
the molecules during their random motion. In solids it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free electrons. The law governing the rate of heat
transfer was first proposed by Fourier and is popularly called as “Fourier’s law of heat conduction”.
The law is stated as follows:
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference
across the layer and the heat transfer area, but is inversely proportional to the thickness of the layer.
That is
.
Qx = - kx A (dT / dx) ……………………………………(1.1)

Where the constant of proportionality kx is the thermal conductivity of the material for conduction in
x direction (for isotropic material conductivity is same in all directions), which is a measure of the
ability of the material to conduct heat. The negative sign in Eq. (1.1) is necessary to satisfy second law
of thermodynamics, which states that heat transfer will take place spontaneously from a region of high
temperature to a region of low temperature without the aid of any external agency. This means that
positive heat transfer can take place in the direction in which the temperature is decreasing. In other
words in the direction of positive heat transfer the temperature gradient, dT/dx will be negative and
therefore the negative sign in Eq. (1.1) will make Qx positive in the direction of heat transfer. Eq. (1.1)
can also be viewed as the defining equation for thermal conductivity. Thus thermal conductivity of a
material can be defined as the rate of heat transfer through a unit thickness of the material per unit area
per unit temperature difference. A high value of thermal conductivity indicates that the material is a
good heat conductor (e.g. diamond, silver, copper, gold, aluminium etc) where as a low value indicates
that the material is a poor heat conductor (e.g. glass, brick, human skin, wood, asbestos, rubber etc.).
Thermal conductivities of materials vary with temperature. The variation of k over certain range of
temperature is negligible for certain materials, but significant for other materials.It is necessary to know
the thermal conductivity of any material to design a suitable heat transfer equipment like heat
exchangers, boilers, condensers etrc.

Different methods have to be adopted to measure the thermal conductivity of solids, liquids
and gases. Even in solids , the measurement methods for metallic solids are different from those used
for non metallic soilds.

11
 In our laboratory the thermal conductivity of a metal rod is determined by measuring the
heat flow through the rod Qx and the temperature gradient dT/dx under steady state conditions and
using Eq. (1.1) to calculate k.

1.2 Experimental Set-up: The experimental set-up consists of a metal rod (Aluminium rod) of 200 mm
length and 50 mm diameter, which is heated at one end by an electric heater. The lateral surface of the
rod is completely well insulated so that the heat loss in the radial direction is minimized. The other end
of the rod is cooled by circulating cold water in a jacket attached to the end of the rod. The heat
conducted along the length of the rod is absorbed by the circulating water in the jacket. Provisions are
made to measure the temperature of the rod at 4 locations along the length of the rod as well as the inlet
and exit temperatures of water flowing through the jacket with the help of thermocouples. The heat
supply to the heater is measured with the help of a volt meter and an ammeter. Provision is also made to
set the heater output to any desired value. A schematic of the test up is shown in Fig.1.1.The water flow
rate is measured by a rotameter.

Water outlet Insulation

T0

4 3 2 1
X3 Heater
Metal Rod
X1
X2

X4
Ti

Water inlet
Water Jacket

Fig.1.1. Schematic for measurement of thermal conductivity of a metal rod

1.3. Experimental Procedure: The inlet valve of the cooling water jacket is opened and with the help
of the rotameter a constant flow rate is maintained.. Then the heater is switched on and the heater
regulator is adjusted to get the desired heat input. After steady state condition is reached (this will take
about 30 to 45 minutes) all the thermocouple readings, the heater power meter readings and the volume
flow rate of water (rotameter) reading are noted down and with these readings the thermal conductivity
of the metal rod is calculated as shown section 1.4.The experiment is repeated for different values of
heat input to get consistent results

12
1.4. Specimen Calculations: It is assumed that there are no conduction losses in the radial direction; i.e.
all the heater output will be conducted along the length of the rod (one dimensional steady state
conduction) and is completely absorbed by the cooling water.

Table 1.1: Experimental Data

Trial No 1 2 3
Power Input (kW)
X1
Location of Thermocouple from One X2
End (m) X3
X4
T1
T2
Thermocouple Readings at various
Locations (0C) T3
T4
0
Cooling water inlet Temp, Twi ( C)
Cooling water exit Temp, Two (0C)
Volume flow rate of water (lpm) Vw
Diameter of the rod, D (m) 0.05 0.05 0.05
Length of the metal rod, L (m)

A plot of Temperature of the rod versus distance (T vs X ) is plotted and a straight line passing through
the maximum number of points is drawn. The slope of this line gives dT/dX. Then the thermal
conductivity is calculated as follows.

Heat conducted along the length of the rod = Qx = Heat carried away by cooling water.

Hence Qx = ρ Vw Cp(To – Ti) ………………………………..(1.2)

Where ρ = Density of water = 1000 kg/m3 and Cp = Specific heat of water = 4180 J/(kg-K)

13
From the graph of T versus x (dT/dx) = ( 0C / m)

𝜋𝐷2
Area of cross section of the rod = A = (m2)
4

𝑄𝑥
Thermal conductivity = kx = ─ 𝑑𝑇 (W/m2 – C) (1.3)
𝐴( )
𝑑𝑥

. Fig.1.2. Temperature distribution along the length of the rod

The experiment is repeated for three different heater output to get consistent results.

14
2. HEAT CONDUCTION THROUGH A PLANE COMPOSITE WALL(Determination of the
contact Conductance)

2.1. Objectives: To determine(i) oveall thermal conductance and (ii) contact conductance for a plane
composite wall.

2.2. Introduction and Background Theory: In practice we often encounter walls that consist of several
layers of different materials.The thermal resistance concept can be used to determine the rate of heat
transfer through such walls.Consider a plane wall of thickness ‘L’, area,A and whose two surfaces are
maintained at temperatures T1 and T2.[Fig. 2.1(a)] Then for one dimensional steady state conduction,
the rate of heat transfer is given by

𝑘𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Q = (2.1)
𝐿

Eq. (2.1) can be rewritten as:

(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Q = (2.2)
𝑅

Where R = (L / kA) is called as thermal resistance of the wall against heat conduction. It can be

L
Plane wall of area A and thermal conductivity k

T1 T2

Q Q
Q
.
T1 T2

Rcond

Fig. 2.1.(b)
Fig.2.1(a)

noted that the thermal resistance for conduction depends on the geometry and the thermal properties of
the medium.Eq. (2.2) is analogus to the equation for electric current flow through a electrical resistance.
(T1 – T2) is called the thermal potential for conduction heat transfer through the medium.Thus for the
purposes of analysis the plane wall is replaced by a thermal resistance as shown in Fig. 2.1(b).

The concept of thermal resistance can still be used to determine the steady state heat transfer rate in a
composite wall consisting of a number of layers as illustrated below. Consider a composite wall

15
consisting of three layers of ticknesses L1, L2, and L3 and of thermal conductivities k1, k2 and k3
respectively as shown in Fig. 2.2(a). The corresponding thermal network with three thermal resistances
corresponding to the three layers is shown in Fig. 2.2(b).

L1 L2 L3

T2

T1 T3
T4
k1 k2 k3

Fig. 2.2(a): A three-layered composite wall

T2
T1
. Q
. . T4
R1 R2 R3

Fig. 2.2(b) : EquivalentThermal circuit for the composite wall

Since all the three thermal resistances are in series, the rate of heat transfer is same in all the three
resistances. Therefore

(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) (𝑇2 − 𝑇3 ) (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )

Q= = =
𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3

(𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ) ( 𝑇1 − 𝑇 4 )
Or Q= = ∑ 𝑅𝑖
, (2.3)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝑅3

Where Ri = Li / (AKi) , i = 1 to 3

Thermal Contact Resistance:In the above analysis it was assumed that there is “perfect thermal
contact” at the interface of two layers. But due to unevenness of real surfaces it is not possible to have
perfect thermal contact at the interface of two layers of solids.In general, when two surfaces which are

16
parallel and flat in engineering sense, are pressed together, they actually touch only at a limited number
of discrete points (See Fig .2.3). The contact is imperfect and the real heat transfer area of the joint is
only a small fraction of the apparent contact area. The rest of the space may be filled with air or another
fluid or it may be in vacuum.Since the thermal conductivities of metals are much larger than those of
fluids, when heat flows through , an interface the heat flow lines converge to the microscopic contacting
spots. The converging of the heat flow lines produces higher heat flow densities at the actual contact
spots. These require higher driving potential, i.e., temperature differences for maintaining the heat flow.
Therefore this converging of heat flow lines causes a resistance called the constriction resistance. This
constriction resistance together with the resistance of interstitial fluid forms the contact resistance.This
resistance is much larger than the resistance offered to heat flow by metals when the heat flux is
uniform. Because of its relatively large magnitude, the thermal contact conductance of metallic contacts
is a problem of considerable importance in engineering and has received a great deal of attention in
recent years. The development of space craft structures to withstand reentry heating, the thermal
insulation of cryogenic storage equipments and the optimum packaging and improvement of heat
dissipation systems of electronic equipments all require a through knowledge of thermal contact
conductance for their analyses and solutions.Reseaches to date has lead to collection of some
worthwhile experimental data and several partilly successful thermal contact conductance correlations
in the area of flat, rough and conforming surfaces [1].A general correlation , one covering waviness,
directional effects, loading hysteresis, bolted joints, surface films etc., has not been developed[1].

T2
T1
Rc

LA LB

Gap between solids

T1 Enlarged view of the contact surface

Tc1

Tc2 T2
Fig.2.3: Temperature drop across a
contact resistance

The heat transfer that occurs at the interface may be thought of as the parallel contributions of
conduction across the contact areas and conduction, convection, and/or radiation across the interstitial
gaps. Especially for rough surfaces, the contact area at the interface is small and the major resistance is
due to the gaps.The contact resistance for a unit area of the interface is defined as the ratio of the
temperature difference at the interface to the heat flux. Thus referring to Fig. 2.3 the expression for
contact resistance is given by

Rc = (Tc1 – Tc2) / (Q/A)

17
Thermal contact conductance = h = 1/Rc …………………………. …(2.4)

2.3. Experimental Set-Up: The set-up consists of a band heater at one end (Fig.2.4) which heats the
composite wall consisting of three layers ,circular cylinders in shape, namely one layer of Aluminium ,
followed by stainless steel layer and a cast iron layer . All the layers are of 50 mm diameter. Two
thermocouples are fixed at two locations in each layer as shown. The heater and the three layers are
covered with sufficient insulation to minimize the heat conduction in radial direction.The exposed
surface of the Cast Iron layer is enclosed in a water jacket where in cold water is circulated to absorb
the heat from the outer surface of the cast iron layer. Provision is

Water outlet
XAl XSS XCI

1 2 3 4 5 6
6 Stainless Water jacket
Heater Aluminium steel Cast Iron

LAl
Lss LCI

Insulation Rotameter

Water inlet

Fif. 2.4: Experimental Set-up for a Plane Composite wall

made not only to measure the energy input to the heater with the help of a volt meter and an ammeter
but to vary the energy input also by means of a variac.

2.4. Experimental Procedure: The inlet valve of the cooling water jacket is opened and with the help of
the rotameter a constant flow rate is maintained.. Then the heater is switched on and the heater regulator
is adjusted to get the desired heat input. After steady state condition is reached (this will take about 30
to 45 minutes) all the thermocouple readings, the heater voltage and current meter readings and the
rotameter readings are noted down and with these readings the required parameters are calculated as
shown below.

2.5. Experimental Data: The experimental data is recorded as shown in Table 1

18
 Table 1: Experimental Data:

Trial No 1 2 3
Power Input (kW)
X1
X2
Location of Thermocouple from One X3
End (m) X4
X5
X6
T1

Thermocouple Readings at various T2

Locations (0C)
T3

T4

T5

T6

Cooling water inlet Temp (0C) Twi

Cooling water exit Temp (0C) Two
Volume flow rate of water (lpm) Vw
Diameter of the rod,D (m) 0.05 0.05 0.05
Length of the Aluminum Layer, LA (m) 0.11 0.11 0.11

Length of the Stainless steel rod,LSS (m) 0.20 0.20 0.20

Length of the Cast Iron Layer,LCI (m) 0.60 0.60 0.60

2.6. Speciman Calculations:

Area of heat flow = A = πD2 / 4 =

Heat carried away by cooling water = Q = m Cp (Two – Twi) =

(𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
Thermal resistance offered by Aluminum layer = RAl = 𝑄/𝐴

19
 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 )
Thermal resistance offered by Stainless steel layer = RSS = 𝑄/𝐴

(𝑇5 − 𝑇6 )
Thermal resistance offered by Cast Iron layer = RSS =
𝑄/𝐴

Overall Thermal Resistance Neglecting Contact Resistance = Req = RAl + RSS + RCI

Overall Thermal Conductance = Ceq = 1 / Req. =

To find Contact Conductances at the two interfaces: A graph of Temperature versus distance along the
length of the composite wall is plotted as shown in Fig. 2.5. From the plot the temperatures T c1, Tc2, Tc3
and Tc4 are read from the plot.Then the contact conductances are calculated as follows.

T
T LAl LSS LCI

Tc1
Tc2
Tc3

Tc4

XAl XSS XCI

Fig. 2.5 : Composite wall with contact resistances between interfaces

Thermal contact conductance for aluminium – stainless steel contact surfaces is given by

Q/A
h1 =
(Tc1 −Tc2 )

Similarly contact resistance between stainless steel and cast iron layers is given by

Q/A
h2 =
(Tc3 −Tc4 )

Overall thermal resistance including contact resistance = ∑Ri = RAl + RSS + RCI + Rc1 + Rc2 =

20
Overall Thermal conductance = Coverall = 1 / (RAl + RSS + RCI + Rc1A + Rc2)

The experiment is repeated for three different heater inputs to get consistent results.

References: 1. “Thermal Contact Conductance of Nominally Flat Surfaces”, H.Yüncü, Heat Mass
transfer,Vol.43, 2006

21
 3.EXPERIMENT ON TRANSIENT CONDUCTION IN A SPHERE

3.1. Objectives : To determine the transient temperature T(t) of a sphere as a function of time and
compare the results with the theoretical predictions when the heated sphere
(i) is suddenly exposed to air, and (ii) is suddenly exposed to water at room temperature

3.2.Introduction and Background Theory: There are many heat transfer application where unsteady
heat flow causes temperature and other variables to change with time. We will see, however, that in
some unsteady situations, for which a certain criterion is met, the use of the lumped capacitance theory
greatly simplifies the analysis. The criterion as we will see is based on the assumption that temperature
gradients within a solid are negligible compared to the temperature gradients between the solid and
fluid. To verify whether this assumption is true or not depends on calculating the Biot number, Bi,
which is defined as the ratio of temperature differences across the solid itself, and between the solid and
fluid. It can also be defined as the ratio of thermal resistance of the solid by conduction and the fluid by
convection, given as

Bi = hLc/k ………………………………..(3.1)

The value, Lc, is the characteristic length which is defined as the ratio of solid's volume to its external
surface area, Lc = V/As. In order to use the Lumped Capacitance Method, the Biot number must be
calculated and confirmed to be less than 0.1 (For free convection in air, because of very low values of
heat transfer coefficient, this condtion may be satisfied). Unless this requirement is satisfied, use of this
method would create too much error. Consider a solid which was initially at a uniform temperature,Ti
is suddenly exposed to an environment which is at a uniform temperature T ∞. Then the energy balance
equation for the solid at any time t (t>0) can be written as heat transfer rate from the outer surface of
the body is equal to the rate of decrease of internal energy of the body, i.e.,

Q = h As[T(t) - T∞] = - ρ V Cp(dT/dt) ………………….(3.2)

where Q is the heat transferred from the system to the surroundings (in Watts), C is the specific heat of
2 3
the metal (in J/kg.K), As is the total surface area (in m ), V is the volume (in m ), ρ is the density of the
3
cylinder (in kg/ m ), T(t) is the temperature of the solid at time t and h is the surface heat transfer
coefficient.

The solution to Eq.(2) is given by

(𝑇(𝑡) − 𝑇∞ )
Θ(t) = (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇∞ )
= exp {─(hAs) / (ρVCp)}t …………(3.3)

Now, if we define the time constant, τ= (ρVCp ) / (hAs) in the above equation as a constant value with
respect to time, equation (3 ) could be written as

Θ(t) = exp{─ t / τ} = e mt ………………………………………..(3.4)

22
 and m( = - 1 / τ) is the slope of the lnΘ versus t plot. It can be observed from equation (3.4) that the
time constant is the negative reciprocal of the slope m. Once we find the time constant from the
experimental data, gives us the combined (radiation + free convection) heat transfer coefficient, h.

3.3. Experimental Set up and experimental procedure:: The facility available in the laboratory consist
of an aluminium sphere whose centre and outer surface temeperatures can be measured by means of
two thermocouples fixed. The sphere can be heated by immersing in a hot water bath whose
temperature can be maintained at any desired value with the help of a temperature control. The sphere
can be immersed and removed from the hot water bath with the help of a holder fixed rigidly to the
sphere. The hot water bath temperature is set to any desired value say 90 0C and the sphere is immersed
in the bath. As soon as the surface temperature of the sphere reaches a temperature around 900C, it is
suddenly removed from the water bath and allowed to cool in atmospheric air. The centre and surface
temperatures of the sphere are noted down at regular time intervals until the surface temperature
approaches the ambient temperature very closely and the results are tabulated as shown below.

3.4.Experimental Data:

Table 3.1.Experimental data for air

Sl.N ITEM
o
1 Time, t (min) 0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9
2 CentreTempTo
(0C) Tc1 Tc2 Tc3 Tc4 Tc5 Tc6 Tc7 Tc8 Tc9 Tc10
3 Surface Temp
Ts (0C) Ts1= Tc1 Ts2 Ts3 Ts4 Ts5 Ts6 Ts7 Ts8 Ts9 Ts10
0
4 Ambient Temperature , T∞ ( C)
5 Diameter of the sphere , D (m) 0.075
6 Conductivity of the sphere k (W / m-K) 204
7 Specific heat of the sphere, Cp (J/kg-K) 896
8 Density of the sphere, ρ (kg/m ) 3
2707
9 Emissivity of the sphere, ε 0.3

3.5.Specimen Calculations for t = t1 : (a) 3. 4.1 When heated sphere is exposed to air:

Heat loss from sphere to ambient = Q = mCp [Ts2 – Ts1] / t1 =

If ‘hcomb’ is the combined heat transfer coefficient for convection and radiation then

23
 Q = hcomb As [Ts2 - T∞]

Or hcomb = Q / As [Ts2 - T∞] =

Bi = (hcomb R) / k =

[Note: If Bi < 0.1 then internal temperature gradients can be neglected]

(Ts2 – T∞)
[θ(R,t1 ) / θi]exp = -------------------- =
(Ts1 – T∞ )

[θ(R,t1 ) / θi]exp is calculated and tabulated as shown in Table 3.2.For different values of ‚‘t‘ and a
graph of [θ(R,t1 ) / θi]exp versus t is plotted. On the same graph θ(0,t) / θi]theoretical versus ‘t ‘ is plotted
for comparison and reasons for deviations if any to be explained. θ(0,t) / θi]theoretical is obtained from the
following equation:

[θ(0,t) / θi]theoretical = e (− 3 Bi Fo)

Where Fo = Fourier number = (αt) / R2 and Bi is already defined above.

3.6. Table 3.2: Tabulation of Results:

# Time Surface Fo
(s) Temp,Ts(0C) [θ(R,t1 ) / θi]exp (αt/R2) [θ(0,t) / θi]theoretical
= exp ( - 3 Bi Fo)
1 0 Ts1 1.0 0.00 1.000
2 t1 Ts2
3 t2 Ts3
4 t3 Ts4
5 t4 Ts5
6 t5 Ts6
7 t6 Ts7
8 t7 Ts8
9 t8 Ts9
10 t9 Ts10

It is of interest to know the individual contributions of free convection heat transfer and radiation heat
transfer by doing the following calculations:

QRadiation = σ As ε [(Ts2 + 273)4 – (T∞ + 273) 4] =

Qconvection = Q - QRadiation =

24
(b) 3.7.When heated sphere is exposed to water at room temperature: The experiment is repeated and
the heated sphere is suddenly immersed in a water bath maintained at room temperature.The results are
tabulated as shown below. (note: When heated sphere is exposed to water, the free convection heat
transfer is very large when compared to the radiation heat transfer and it is reasonable to neglect
radiation heat loss)

Table 3.3.Experimental data for water

Sl. ITEM
No
1 Time, t (s) 0 t1 t2 t3 t4 t5 t6 t7 t8 t9
2 CentreTempTo
(0C) Tc1 Tc2 Tc3 Tc4 Tc5 Tc6 Tc7 Tc8 Tc9 Tc10
3 Surface Temp Ts
(0C) Ts1 Ts2 Ts3 Ts4 Ts5 Ts6 Ts7 Ts8 Ts9 Ts10

Specimen Calculations:

Heat loss from outer surface of sphere to ambient in time t1 = Q = mCp [Ts2 – Ts1] / t1

=
Therefore hcomb = Q / As [Ts2 - T∞] =

Bi = (hcomb R) / k =

Fo = α t1 / R2 =

θi = Ti - T∞ ; t = t1

[θ (0, t ) / θi ]exp = (Tc2 – T∞ ) / θi =

[θ (R,t) / θi]exp = (Ts2 – T∞ ) / θi =

If Bi > 0.1 , internal temperature gradients cannot be neglected (which will be evident from the
experimental values of centre and surface temperatures).The theoretical values , [θ (0, t ) / θi ]Theoretical and
[θ (R, t ) / θi ]Theoretical are read from Heissler’s charts for spheres corresponding to this Biot number
and Fourier number . Graphs of [θ (R, t ) / θi ]Theoretical versus t and [θ (R, t ) / θi ]exp versus t are plotted
on the same graph sheet for comparison.

The difference in surface temperatures between experimental and theoretical values may be attri-
buted to the following.
(ii) The values for α and k for the material of the sphere is based on the assumption that the material is
pure aluminum which may not be true.
(iii) Thermocouple conduction errors in measurement of temperatures

25
 4.EXPERIMENT ON PIN FIN

4.1.Objective of the experiment:- To determine the efficiency, effectiveness and temperature

distribution for a pin fin under free and forced convection conditions and compare the results with
theoretical predictions

4.2.Introduction: Convection: Heat transfer between a solid surface and a moving fluid is governed by
the Newton’s cooling law: Q = hA(Ts-T∞), where Ts is the surface temperature and T∞ is the fluid
temperature. Therefore, to increase the convective heat transfer, one can
• Increase the temperature difference (Ts-T∞) between the surface and the fluid.
• Increase the convection coefficient h. This can be accomplished by increasing the fluid flow over the
surface since h is a function of the flow velocity and the higher the velocity, the higher the h. Example:
a cooling fan.
• Increase the contact surface area A. Example: a heat sink with fins.
Many times, when the first option is not in our control and the second option (i.e. increasing h) is
already stretched to its limit, we are left with the only alternative of increasing the effective surface area
by using fins or extended surfaces. Fins are protrusions from the base surface into the cooling fluid, so
that the extra surface of the protrusions is also in contact with the fluid. Most of you have encountered
cooling fins on air-cooled engines (motorcycles, portable generators, etc.), electronic equipment
(CPUs), automobile radiators, air conditioning equipment (condensers) and elsewhere.

4.3. Extended surface analysis:

In this module, consideration will be limited to steady state analysis of rectangular or pin fins of
constant cross sectional area. Annular fins or fins involving a tapered cross section may be analyzed by
similar methods, but will involve solution of more complicated equations which result. Numerical
methods of integration or computer programs can be used to advantage in such cases.
We start with the General Conduction Equation:

( 1/α)(∂T/∂t) = (∂2T/ ∂x2) + (∂2T/ ∂y2) + (∂2T/∂z2) + q’’’ / k …………….(4.1)

After making the assumptions of Steady State, One-Dimensional Conduction, this equation reduces to
the form:

d2T/dx2 + q’’’/k = 0 ………………………………………. (4.2)

This is a second order, ordinary differential equation and will require 2 boundary conditions to evaluate
the two constants of integration that will arise.
Consider the cooling fin shown in Fig. 4.1 :
Heat and Mass Transfer Prof. P
The fin is situated on the surface of a hot surface at T s and surrounded by a coolant at temperature T∞,
which cools with convective coefficient, h. The fin has a cross sectional area, Ac, (This is the area
through with heat is conducted.) and an overall length, L.
Note that as energy is conducted down the length of the fin, some portion is lost, by convection, from
the sides. Thus the heat flow varies along the length of the fin.We further note that the arrows indicating
the direction of heat flow point in both the x and y directions. This is an indication that this is truly a

26
two- or three-dimensional heat flow, depending on the geometry of the fin. However, quite often, it is
convenient to analyse a fin by examining an equivalent one–dimensional system. The equivalent system

x Fin attached to the primary surface

and exposed to surroundings at T∞
with a heat transfer coefficient h

Qfin

Primary surface at T0

Qc = hPΔx (T - T∞)

Δx

Fig.4.1. Heat dissipation from the fin to surroundings

will involve the introduction of heat sinks (negative heat sources), which remove an amount of energy
equivalent to what would be lost through the sides by convection.

Consider a differential length of the fin. Across this segment the heat loss will be h⋅(P⋅Δx)⋅(T-T∞),
where P is the perimeter around the fin. The equivalent heat sink would be ─ q’’’A c Δx
Equating the heat source to the convective loss we get

─ q’’’Ac Δx = hPΔx (T - T∞)

Or q’’’ = ─hP (T - T∞)/Ac …………………(4.3)

Heat and Mass Transfer Pro
Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
Substituting this expression for q’’’ into Eq.(4.2) we get

d2T/dx2 ─hP (T - T∞)/kAc = 0 ………………………….(4.4)

which is the equation for a fin with a constant cross sectional area. This is the Second Order Differential
Equation that we will solve for each fin analysis. Prior to solving, a couple of simplifications should be

27
noted. First, we see that h, P, k and Ac are all independent of x in the defined system (They may not be
constant if a more general analysis is desired.). We replace this ratio with a constant.

Let m2 = (hp)/ (kAc)………………………………………(4.5)

Then Eq. (4.4) reduces to d2T/dx2 ─ m2 (T - T∞) = 0 ……………………………….(4.6)

Next we notice that the equation is non-homogeneous (due to the T∞ term). Recall that non-
homogeneous differential equations require both a general and a particular solution. We can make this
equation homogeneous by introducing the temperature relative to the surroundings:

Let θ ≡ T - T∞ …………………………………….(4.7)

Then d2θ/dx2 = d2T/dx2 …………… (4.8)

Substituting for T - T∞ and d2T/dx2 in Eq. (4.6) we get

d2θ/dx2 ─ m2θ = 0 ………………………………………….(4.9)

Eq. (4.9) is called the fin equation

Solution of the Fin Equation: Eq. (4.9) is a second order linear homogeneous differential equation the
general solution for which is given by

θ = Aemx + Be─mx …………………………………………(4.10)

The solution for Eq. (4.9) is also given by

θ = C cosh mx + D sinh mx ……………………….(4.11)

Generally the exponential solution is used for very long fins, the hyperbolic solutions for other cases.
Boundary Conditions:
Since the solution results in 2 constants of integration we require 2 boundary conditions. The first one is
obvious, as one end of the fin will be attached to a hot surface and will come into thermal equilibrium
with that surface.
Hence, at the fin base (x = 0),

θ =T0 - T∞ = θ0 ……………………………………………..(4.12) e
of Science
The second boundary condition depends on the condition imposed at the other end of the fin. There are
various possibilities, as described below.
Very long fins:
For very long fins, the end located a long distance from the heat source will approach the temperature of
the surroundings. Hence,

θ(∞) = 0 ………………………………………(4.13)

28
Substitute the second condition into the exponential solution of the fin equation:

θ(∞)= 0 = Ae m∞ + Be ─m∞

The first exponential term is infinite and the second is equal to zero. The only way that this equation can
be valid is if A = 0. Now apply the second boundary condition.

θ (0) = θ 0 =B

The general temperature profile for a very long fin is then:

─mx
θ(x) = θ 0 e …………………………………. (4.14)

If we wish to find the heat flow through the fin, we may apply Fourier Law:
At any x, the rate of heat conduction is given by

Q = ─ kAc(dT/dx) =─ kAc(dθ/dx)

All the heat dissipated by the fin to the surroundings is coming from the fin base. Hence the rate of heat
transfer from the fin to the surroundings is given by

Qfin = Q|x=0

= ─ kAc(dθ/dx)x=0 ……………………………(4.15)

From Eq.(4.14) (dθ/dx)x=0 = ─mθ0

Substituting this expression in Eq. (4.15) we get

_____
Qfin = kmAcθ0= √hpkAc θ0 ………………………(4.16)

The fin with insulated tip:

Assume that the tip is insulated and hence there is no heat transfer at the fin tip.
Hence the boundary condition at the tip is given by

At x = L, dθ/dx = 0.

Substituting this condition and the boundary condition at x = 0 and simplifying we get the temperature
profile for this case as
cosh m(L – x)
θ(x) = θ0 -------------------- ………………………(4.17)
cosh mL

We may find the heat flow at any value of x by differentiating the temperature profile and substituting it
into the Fourier Law:

29
Qfin = Q/x=0 = ─kAc (dθ/dx)x=0.

From Eq. (4.17) (dθ/dx)x=0 = ─θ0 sinh mL / cosh mL

Therefore Qfin =kmActanh mL ……………………………………(4.18)

If we compare this result with that for the very long fin, we see that the primary difference in form is in
the hyperbolic tangent term. That term, which always results in a number equal to or less than one,
represents the reduced heat loss due to the shortening of the fin
Indian Institute of Science Bangalore
Other tip conditions:
We have already seen two tip conditions, one being the long fin and the other being the insulated tip.
Two other possibilities are usually considered for fin analysis: (i) a tip subjected to convective heat
transfer, and (ii) a tip with a prescribed temperature. The expressions for temperature distribution and
fin heat transfer for all the four cases are summarized in the table below.

Other tip conditions:

We have already seen two tip conditions, one being the long fin and the other being the insulated tip.
Two other possibilities are usually considered for fin analysis: (i) a tip subjected to convective heat
transfer, and (ii) a tip with a prescribed temperature. The expressions for temperature distribution and
fin heat transfer for all the four cases are summarized in the table below.

Table 4.1: Expressions for Temperature distribution and rate of heat dissipation from a fin for
different tip conditions
Tip Expression for
Condition Expression for Temperature Profile Rate of Heat Transfer

─mx
Long Fin θ(x) = θ0 e Qfin = kmAcθ0= kmAcθ0

cosh m(L – x)
Tip Insulated θ(x) = θ0 -------------------- Qfin = kmAcθ0tanh mL
cosh mL

Tip with prescribed (θL/ θ0)sinh m(L-x) + sinh m(L-x) (cosh mL – θL/ θ0)
Temperature,TL θ(x) = ------------------------------------------ Qfin = kmAcθ0 --------------------
sinh mL sinh mL

Tip dissipating heat [cosh m(L – x) [sinh mL +

by convection with + (he/km)sinh m(L-x)] (he/km) cosh mL]
surface heat transfer θ(x) = ----------------------------------- Qfin = kmAcθ0 -----------------------
Coefficient,he [cosh mL +(he/km)sinh mL] [cosh mL +
(he/km) cosh mL]

30
4.4.Performance of a fin: The performance of a fin is assessed by using a parameter called “efficiency
of a fin, η” given by

Actual rate of heat transfer from the fin Qfin

η = ------------------------------------------------------ = ------------ …………(4.19)
Maximum Possible heat transfer rate from fin (Qfin)max

The rate of heat transfer from the fin will be maximum when the entire fin surface is at the fin base
temperature (This means that the fin is having an infinite thermal conductivity): i.e.,

(Qfin)max = hPL(To - T∞) = hPLθ0 …………………....(4.20)

To know how effective an extended surface as compared to a bare primary surface is, another parameter
called effectiveness is used. It is given by

Heat Transfer with fin

ε = --------------------------------- ……………………..(4.21)
Heat Transfer without fin

4.5. Lay out of the experimental rig: The experimental set up shown in Fig.4.2.consists of a primary
surface which happens to be a side wall of a duct. A pin fin of circular cross section is attached to this
primary surface and is exposed to air in the duct.A heater attached to the fin base heats the base of the
fin. In order to reduce the radial heat transfer from the heater, the outer surface of the heater is insulated.
Five thermocouples are fixed to the outer surface of the fin at specified locations to measure the
temperature of the fin at different locations. The temperature of air surrounding the fin is also measured
by another thermocouple.

Walls of the duct

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Heater

1,2,3,4,5 6,7 : Location of thermocouples

Fig.4.2. Experimental set up for studying the performance of a pin fin

31
4.6. Experimental Procedure when the air surrounding the fin is stationary:

Heater switch is put on and the volt meter and ammeter readings are set to give the desired heater output
by operating the voltage regulator. After steady state condition is reached, the volt meter reading, the
ammeter reading and the readings of all the thermocouples are noted and the performance of the fin is
determined as shown in the next sections

4.7. Specifications of the Pin Fin : Fin Material : Brass ( k = 110 W/(m-K) ; ε = 0.6)

Fin diameter = d = 1.27 cm ; Fin length = L = 14.7 cm ; a = 2.5 cm ; = 2.5 cm ;

Table 4.1. Experimental data for free convection conditions

Sl.No ITEM
1 Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
2 Distance of from fin 0.022 0.047 0.072 0.097 0.122 0.147 0.172
base,x (m)
3 Temperature at the location, T
(0C)
4 Ambient temperature , T∞ (0C)
5 Fin diameter,d (m) 0.0127
6 Fin length, L (m)
7 Conductivity of fin, k (W / m-K) 110 (Brass)
8 Emissivity of fn surface, ε 0.60
9 Heater voltage, v (volt)
10 Heater current, I (amp)

4.9.Specimen Calculations : Temperature of the ambient = T∞ =

Heater Input Voltage = V =

Heater Current = I =

4.9.1.Efficiency of the pin fin:

A graph of Tf versus x is plotted and the curve is extrapolated to intersect the temperature axis. Then
the value of Tf at x = 0 i.e. T0 and dT/dx at x = 0 are read from the graph.

Area of cross section of the fin = A = π d2 / 4 = π x (1.27 x 10 − 2) 2 / 4 = 1.267 x 10 − 4 m2.

Total heat dissipated by the fin to the ambient = Qfin = − kA (dT/dx)|x = 0

32
Since the heat is dissipated from the fin to the ambient both by free convection and radiation ,

(Qfin)max = Qconv + Qradiation assuming that the entire fin surface is at the fin root temperature T0.

Therefore

(Qfin)max = h As (T0 - T∞) + σ As (T04 - T∞4)

To find h for free convection conditions :- h is the convective heat transfer coefficient for free
convection from a horizontal cylinder as the fin is oriented horizontally.

Mean film temperature = Tm = (T0 + T∞) / 2 =

Thermophysical Properties of air at Tm0C are read from heat transfer data hand book.

𝑔 𝛽 (𝑇0 − 𝑇∞ ) 𝑑3
Rayleigh number = Rad = Grd Pr = Pr =
𝜈2

From Heat Transfer data hand book for this value of Rad suitable correlation for free convection across
a horizontal cylinder is used to determine Nud. Then

ℎ𝑑
Nud = =
𝑘

Hence Qconv = h As (T(x) |x=0 - T∞) =

QRadiation = σ As ε[ (T(x) |x=0 + 273) 4 – (T∞ + 273) 4]

Therefore (Qfin)max = Qconv + QRadiation =

𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛
Hence η=
(𝑄𝑓𝑖𝑛 )
𝑚𝑎𝑥

To find η Theoretical:- The theoretical efficiency for a pin fin is given by

Now Le = L + A / P = L + (πd2/4) / (πd) = L + d / 4 =

__________
m = √[(hP) / (kA)] = √[(πd h) / (kπd2/4)] = √ [(4h) / (kd)]

33
 (tanh mLe)
η Theoretical = ---------------------- =
mLe

4.9.2. Effectiveness of the Pin Fin: Effectiveness of a fin is defined as follows:

Heat Transfer with fin Qfin

Effectiveness = ε = -------------------------------- = -----------
Heat transfer without fin Qbare

Qbare = h2 A (T0 - T∞) , where h2 is convective heat transfer coefficient and A is the area of the surface to
which the fin is attached.

To find h2:- The surface to which the fin is attached is a vertical circular surface of diameter equal to
the diameter of the fin. No correlation is available in Data Handbook to determine the heat transfer
coefficient for natural convection from a Vertical circular Isothermal surface to the
surroundings.Recently S.C.Haldar (Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer,Vol.23,No.4 2009) has
proposed a correlation to determine the Nusselt number for vertical isothermal circular surface which is
as follows:

Nuav = (GrL 0.005/1.13) {Nuav}Vertical Flat Plate

Where Nuav = h2L/k. Using the above correlation h2 can be calculated.

Therefore Qbare = h2A (T(x) |x=0 - T∞) =

Hence ε = Qfin / Qbare =

4.9.3. Efficiency of the fin under forced convection conditions : For forced convection conditions air
is made to flow over the pin fin with the help of a blower.After steady state conditions are reached, the
temperatures at the five locations along the length of the fin, the manometer reading across the orifice
plate fitted to the delivery pipe of the blower, and the air temperature in the duct are recorded.

Table 4.2. Experimental data for forced convection conditions

Location 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

x(cm) 0 x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7

Fin Temp,Tf (0C) T0 Tf1 Tf2 Tf3 Tf4 Tf5 Tf6 Tf7

Temperature of air in the duct = T∞ = ; Input Voltage = V = ; Current = I =

34
A graph of Tf versus x is plotted and the graph is extrapolated to intersect the temperature axis.

From the graph read T(x)|x = 0 i.e.T0 and (dT/dx)|x = 0

Hence Qfin = − kAs (dT/dx)|x=0 =

To find h for forced convection conditions:-

Diameter of the orifice = d = 0.018 m ;

Pressure difference across the orifice = H cm of water

Cd = Coefficient of discharge for the orifice plate = 0.64 (as mentioned by the supplier)

ρa = Density of air at T∞ = (from table of properties of air)

ρw = Density of water at T∞ = (from table of properties of water)

. _____________________
Volume flow rate of air = Va = Cd x (πd2/4) x √ [2gH (ρw / ρa)] =

Duct cross sectional area = Ad = 0.15 x 0.10 = 0.015 m2

.
Velocity of air in the duct = U∞ = Va / Ad = m/s

At free stream temperature of air T∞ read the properties from data hand book.

Reynolds number = Red = U∞D / ν =

From heat transfer data hand book corresponding to this value of Red select the suitable correlation to
determine the average Nusselt number ,Nuav and find Nuav.

Then h = Nuavk / D =

Therefore Qconv = h As x [T0 – T∞ ] =

QRadiation = σ As ε [(T0 + 273) 4 – (T∞ + 273)4] =

Hence (Qfin)max = Qconv + QRadiation =

Qfin
Therefore η = ------------- =
(Qfin)max

35
To calculate ηTheoretical Under forced Convection Conditions:

__________
m = √[(4hf) / (kd)] =

Hence η Theoretical = tanh (mLe ) / mLe =

4.10. Radiation heat transfer contribution in total heat dissipation by the fin:

When the fin is exposed to still air we have

Qradiation / Qtotal =

When the fin is exposed to moving air (forced convection) we have

Qradiation / Qtotal =

36
 5. EXPERIMENT ON FREE CONVECTION FROM A CYLINDER

5.1. Objectives: To determine the local and average heat transfer coefficient for free convection from a
heated cylinder to air, propose a correlation for local Nusselt number based on experimental values
and compare the correlation with the standard correlation
when the cylinder is in (i) vertical position and (ii) horizontal position.

5.2. BackgroundTheory : Natural or free convection is a mechanism, or type of heat transport in which
the fluid motion is not generated by any external source (like a pump, fan, suction device, etc.) but only
by density differences in the fluid occurring due to temperature gradients. In natural convection, fluid
surrounding a heat source receives heat, becomes less dense and rises. The surrounding, cooler fluid
then moves to replace it. This cooler fluid is then heated and the process continues, forming a
convection current; this process transfers heat energy from the bottom of the convection cell to top. The
driving force for natural convection is buoyancy, a result of differences in fluid density. Because of this,
the presence of gravity or an equivalent force (arising from the equivalence principle, such as
acceleration, centrifugal force or Coriolis force) is essential for natural convection. For example, natural
convection does not operate as it does on Earth in the freefall environment of the orbiting International
Space Station, where other heat transfer mechanisms are required to prevent electronic components
from overheating.

Natural convection has attracted a great deal of attention from researchers because of its presence both
in nature and engineering applications. In nature, convection cells formed from air raising above
sunlight warmed land or water, are a major feature in all weather systems. Convection is also seen in the
rising plume of hot air from fire, oceanic currents, and sea-wind formation (where upward convection is
also modified by Coriolus forces). In engineering applications, convection is commonly visualized in
the formation of microstructures during the cooling of molten metals, and fluid flows around shrouded
heat-dissipation fins, and solar ponds. A very common industrial application of natural convection is
free air cooling without the aid of fans: this can happen on small scales (computer chips) to large scale
process equipment.

Mathematically, the tendency of a particular system towards natural convection relies on the Grashof
number (Gr), which is a ratio of buoyancy force and viscous force

g β ΔT L3
Gr = ----------------- …………………(5.1)
ν2

The parameter β is the volumetric coefficient of expansion (K-1), g is acceleration due to gravity, ΔT is
the temperature difference between the hot surface and the bulk fluid (K), L is the characteristic length
(this depends on the object) and ν is the kinematic viscosity.

For liquids, values of β are tabulated. Additionally β can be calculated from:

β = ─ (1 / ρ) (dρ/dT)p …………………..(5.2)

For an ideal gas, this number may be simply found as follows:

37
For an ideal gas, (p / ρ) = RT.

Hence ─ (1 / ρ2 ) (d ρ / dT) p = R

Or ─ (1 / ρ2 ) (d ρ / dT) = R / p = 1 / (ρT)

Therefore, β for an ideal gas is simply:

β = ─ (1 / ρ) (dρ/dT)p = 1 / T ………………………………(5.3)

Thus, the Grashof number can be thought of as the ratio of the upwards buoyancy of the heated fluid to
the internal friction slowing it down. In very sticky, viscous fluids, fluid movement is restricted, along
with natural convection. In the extreme case of infinite viscosity, the fluid could not move and all heat
transfer would be through conduction.

The relative magnitudes of the Grashof and Reynolds number, Re determine which form of convection
dominates, if (Gr / Re2) >> 1, forced convection may be neglected, whereas if (Gr / Re2) << 1, natural
convection may be neglected. If the ratio is approximately is equal to one, then both forced and natural
convection effects need to be taken into account.

Natural convection is highly dependent on the geometry of the hot surface. Various correlations exist in
order to determine the heat transfer coefficient. The Rayleigh number (Ra) is frequently used, where:

Ra = Gr Pr, where Pr is the Prandtl number given by Pr = (μCp) / k.

A general correlation that applies for a variety of geometries is Nu = f (Ra)

Nu is the Nusselt number (Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient) and is defined as follows.

Nu = (h L) / k,

where h is the heat transfer coefficient ,L is the characteristic length and k is the thermal conductivity of
the fluid. Expression for Nusselt number can also be written as

hA ΔT Heat transfer by convection

Nu = ------------------ = ------------------------------------------------
( kAΔT /L) Heat transfer by conduction

5.3. Experimental Setup: The experimental rig consists of a vertical hollow cylinder which is heated
from inside by an electric heater so that the outer surface of the cylinder will give out uniform heat flux.
Provisions are made to measure the outer surface temperature at 9 different locations along the length of
the cylinder as shown in Fig. 5.1.and also to measure the undisturbed air temperature. The electric
energy input to the heater is measured by using a voltmeter and an ammeter. Readings are noted down
only after steady state conditions are reached and the heat transfer coefficients are calculated as shown
below.

38
 9*

8*

7*

6*

5*
L
4*

3 g
2 x3
x
1 x2
x1
x1

Fig. 5.1: Locations of the thermocouples along the height of the cylinder

5.4. Experimental Data for vertical orientation of the cylinder:

Diameter of the cylinder = D = 0.048 m ; Length of the cylinder = L = 0.456 m ;

Emissivity of the surface of the cylinder: Since the test cylinder is in use for quite some time and the
colour of the surface of the cylinder is almost dull and since there is no provision to measure the
emissivity of the cylinder in the laboratory , the tube was assumed to be an oxidized copper tube for
which ε varies between 0.5 and 0.8 (Ref: 1). Hence an average value of 0.65 is assumed as the
emissivity of the copper tube.

Surface area of the cylinder = As = π D L = π x 0.048 x 0.456 = 0.0688 m2

Experimental Data:- Voltage = V = 62 V ; Current = I = 0.33amp; Ambient temperature = T∞ = 32.2 0C

Table 5.1: Measured wall-Temperatures at different locations.

Location 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
X (m) 0.028 0.078 0.128 0.178 0.228 0.278 0.328 0.378 0.428
T (0C) 55.5 57.4 60.0 63.4 66.0 67.4 70.1 71.2 72

39
5.5.Specimen calculations for vertical cylinder : As x increases the thermal resistance increases due to
increase in the boundary layer thickness and therefore for uniform wall-heat flux condition the surface
temperature has to increase as indicated by the experimental data.A plot of wall temperature versus x is
first drawn and a smooth curve is drawn to pass through maximum number of points as shown in Fig.
5.2.

Tw
80
70
60
50
40
Tw
30
20
10
0 x,m
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

Fig. 5.2. Wall-temperature distribution for vertical cylinder

Specimen Calculations for Location 1:

Average surface heat flux = qs = (VI) / As = (62 x 0.33) / 0.0688 = 297. 38 W /m 2.

Heat flux dissipation by radiation = qrad = σ ε [Ts 4 − T∞4]

= 5.67 x 10 ─ 8 x 0.65 x [(55.5+ 273) 4 – (32.2 + 273) 4]

= 109.42 W / m2.

Heat flux dissipation by free convection = qconv = qs – qrad = 297.38 – 109.42

= 187.96 W / m 2

Local heat transfer coefficient at x1, h x1= qconv / (Ts1 - T∞)

= 187.96/ (55.5 – 32.2) = 8.07 W /(m2 – K).

Mean film temperature = Tm = (Ts + T∞) / 2 = (55.5 + 32.2 ) / 2 = 43.85 0 C.

40
Properties of air at Tm: β = 1 / (43.85 + 273) = 3.15 x 10 - 3 1 / K ; Pr = 0.686 ;

ν = 17.356 x 10 – 6 m2 / s ; k = 0.02784 W / (m –K).

Local Nusselt Number = Nux|x=x1 = h x1x1 / k = (8.07 x 0.028) / 0.02784 = 8.12

Modified Grashoff Number at any x is given by

g β qs x1 4 9.81 x 3.15 x 10 − 3 x 187.96 x (0.028)4

Grx1* = ----------- = ------------------------------------------------- = 4.25 x 105
kν2 0.02784 x (17.356 x 10 - 6) 2

Modified Rayleigh Number = Rax1* = Grx1* Pr = 4.25 x 10 5 x 0.686 = 2.96 x 105

The above calculations are repeated for each location and the results are tabulated as shown
below.

Table 5.2. Reduction of Experimental Data:

Location ΔT qrad qconv Local heat Local Rayleigh

(qs – qrad) transfer Nusselt Number
x (m) (Ts - T∞) (W / m2) coefficient Number
(qconv / ΔT)
W / m2-K Nux Ra*x

0.028 23.30 109.42 187.96 8.07 8.12 2.96 x 105

0.078 25.20 119.42 177.96 7.06 18.79 1.61 x 107

0.128 27.80 133.25 164.13 5.90 25.77 1.05 x 108

0.178 31.20 152.21 145.17 4.65 28.25 3.53 x 108

0.228 33.80 166.98 130.40 3.86 30.04 8.31 x 108

0.278 35.20 175.01 122.37 3.48 33.02 1.70 x 109

0.328 37.90 190.90 106.48 2.81 31.47 2.62 x 109

0.378 39.00 197.47 99.90 2.56 33.03 4.61 x 109

0.428 40.10 203.96 93.42 2.33 34.00 6.99 x 109

41
5.6. Correlation using method of least squares:

Since Nux is a function of Ra*x, the functional relation is assumed to be of the form

Nux = C Ra*x n …………………………(1)

Where C and n are constants .Taking logarithms on both sides, Eq.(1) can be written as

ln Nux = n ln Ra*x + ln C ............................(2)

Eq.(2) represents a straight line with slope n and intercept equal to ln C. Using the method of least
squares n and ln C can be obtained from the following equations.

M ln C + n ∑(ln Ra*x) = ∑(ln Nux) ……………..(3)

(M is the number of points under consideration)

And ln C ∑(ln Ra*x) + n ∑(ln Ra*x)2 = ∑(ln Ra*x) (ln Nux) ……(4)

Eqautions (3) and (4) are solved to get the values for C and n as shown below

Location Ra*x (ln Ra*x) (ln Ra*x)2 Nux ln Nux ln Ra*x ln Nux

1 2.96 x 105 12.59 158.51 8.12 2.09 26.31

2 1.61 x 107 16.59 275.23 18.79 2.93 48.61

3 1.05 x 108 18.49 341.88 25.77 3.25 60.09

4 3.53 x 108 20.13 405.21 28.25 3.34 67.23

5 8.31 x 108 20.54 421.89 30.04 3.40 69.84

6 1.70 x 109 21.25 451.56 33.02 3.50 74.38

7 2.62 x 109 21.68 470.02 31.47 3.45 74.80

8 4.61 x 1010 22.25 495.06 33.03 3.50 77.90

9 6.99 x 1010 22.66 513.47 34.00 3.53 80.00

Total 176.18 3532.83 28.99 579.16

Substituting the relevant numerical values in equations (3) and (4) we get

9 ln C + 176.18 n = 28.99

42
and 176.18 ln C + 3532.83 n = 579.16

Or ln C + 19.57 n = 3.22 ………………………………(5)

And ln C + 20.05 n = 3.29……………………………….(6)

Solving for ln C and n from equations (5) and (6) we get

n = (3.29 – 3.22) / (20.05 – 19.57) = 0.15

and ln C = 3.29 – 20.05 x 0.15 = 0.1458

or C = 1.157

Hence the correlation based on the experimental data can be written as

Nux = 1.157 (Rax*) 0.15……………………………..(7)

The standard correlation for a vertical cylinder with uniform surface heat flux is proposed by
Vliet & Lu (Ref.2) and is of the form

[ Nux]correlation = 0.6 (Rax*) 0.2 (8)

If in the proposed correlation [Eq.(7)], the power of Rax* is assumed to be same as the one in the
standard correlation then from Eq.(5) we have

C = exp [(3.22 – 0.2 x 19.57)] = 0.5 (9)

and from Eq.(6) we have C = exp [(3.29 – 0.2 x 20.05)] = 0.49 (10)

Hence the proposed correlation will be Nux = 0.5 (Rax*)0.2 (11)

It can be seen that the proposed correlation predicts local heat transfer coefficients which are 16.7 %
lower than those predicted by standard correlation.

Graphical method of finding n and C:

Alternatively the values of C and n can also be obtained by plotting ln (Nux) versus ln (Ra*x) and
drawing a straight line passing through the maximum number of points The slope of the line gives the
value of n. For any point on the straight line, the values of Ra*x and Nux are read from the graph [see
Fig.5.3] and the value of C is obtained from the equation

ln C = ln Nux − n ln Ra*x.

43
5.7. Comparison with standard correlation:

(i)Comparison of local value of h:

Local Nusselt number from standard correlation is given by Vliet & Lu (Ref.2) as:

[ Nux]correlation = 0.6 (Rax*) 0.2 = 0.6 x (2.96 x 105) 0.2 = 7.42.

Local Heat Transfer coefficient = {hx}correlation = 7.42 x 0.02784 / 0.028 = 7.37 W /(m2 – K)

(a)At the lowest value of Rax* the percent deviation of experimental value of hx from that obtained
using Vliet and Liu correlation is as follows:

Percent deviation = (7.13 – 7.37) x 100 / 7.37 = − 3.25 %.

(b) At the highest value of Rax*:

(hav)correlation = 0.6 x (6.99x 109)0.2 x 0.02977 / 0.428 = 3.88 W/(m2-K)

Percent deviation = (2.33 – 3.88) x 100 / 3.88 = − 39.9 %

(i) Comparison of average value of h:

From Eq.(11) we have local heat transfer coefficient as

hx = ( 0.5 x k ) [g β qconv Pr / (k ν2)] 0.20 x −0.20

Hence the average heat transfer coefficient is given by

L
h av = (1 / L) ( 0.5 x k ) [g β qconv Pr / (k ν2)] 0.21 ∫ x −0.20 dx
0

= (1.25 x 0.5) (k /L) [RaL*] 0.15

Or Nu av = 1.25 x 0.5 [RaL*] 0.20 = 1.25 x 0.5 x (6.99 x 10 9) 0.20 = 58.20

Therefore [ h av]exp = 58.20 x 0.0288 / 0.428 = 3.92 W/(m2-K)

Using standard correlation Nuav = 1.25 x 0.6 x [6.99 x 109] 0.2 = 69.82

Hence [ hav]correlation = 69.82 x 0.0288 / 0.428 = 4.70W/(m2 – K)

Percent deviation of the average heat transfer coefficient obtained using the proposed correlation from
that obtained using standard correlation.

44
Percent deviation = (3.92 – 4.70) x 100 / 4.70 = − 16.6 %

5.8. Conclusions: (i) The experimental result of average heat transfer coefficient agree with the value
obtained using standard correlation proposed by Vliet & Lu within 16.6 % where as the local values,
the deviation varies from – 3.25 % to – 39.9 %.. This deviation is because of the following reasons:
(a) the proposed correlation is based on only 9 data points, where as the standard correlation is based
on a large number of data points , (b) the error in assuming the value of emissivity of the cylindrical
surface to calculate the heat loss due to radiation and (c) the error in measurements of temperatures
along the length of the cylinder. (d) The experimental data of Vliet & Lu itself has a scatter of about 10
% with respect to their proposed correlation and (e) heat loss from the circular faces of the cylinder
which has not been taken into account. The major reason is due to uncertainty in the value of emissivity
assumed to calculate the radiation heat transfer to the surroundings.

5.9. Experimental Data for Horizontal orientation of the cylinder:

Ambient temperature = T∞ = 34.4 0C ;

Experimental Data:- Voltage = V = 104 V ; Current = I = 0.56 amp

Table 5.3: Measured wall-Temperatures at different locations for horizontal orientation of the
cylinder.

Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
x (m) 0.028 0.078 0.128 0.178 0.228 0.278 0.328 0.378 0.428
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Ts(0C) 94.8 100.3 102.2 105.5 106.6 106.2 106.4 102.8 99.5

5.10.Speciman calculations for horizontal cylinder: The boundary layer over a hot cylinder start to
develop at the bottom, increasing in thickness along the circumference, and forming a rising plume at
the top.. Therefore, the local Nusselt number is highest at the bottom, and lowest at the top of the
cylinder when the flow in the boundary layer is laminar.When a heated cylinder is in horizontal
position and if the heat loss at the ends is prevented, then the surface temperature along the length of the
cylinder will be uniform. However because of heat loss from the ends it should be expected that the
temperatures at the ends will be less than those at the middle section of the cylinder. Hence in order to
calculate the heat transfer coefficient an average value of the surface temperature is taken.

_
Average surface temperature ,Ts is given by

_
Ts = (94.8 + 100.3 + 102.2 + 105.5 + 106.6 + 106.2 + 106.4 + 102.8 + 99.5) / 9 = 102.7 0C

Heat loss due to radiation = qrad = 5.67 x 10 – 8 x 0.65 x [(102.7 + 273) 4 – (34.4 + 273)4] = 405.2 W/m2

Average surface heat flux = qs = (VI) / As = (104 x 0.56) / 0.0688 = 846.5 w /m 2.

45
Heat loss by convection = qconv = qs – qrad = 846.5 – 405.2 = 441.3 W/m2.
_
441.3
Average heat transfer coefficient = [h] exp = qconv / (Ts - T∞) = (102.7 −34.4) = 6.46 W / (m2 – K).

5.11.Comparison with values obtained using standard correlations:

For free convection from horizontal cylinders two correlations are available in literature to determine
the average heat transfer coefficient which are as follows:

(i)Correlation proposed by Churchill & Chu (Ref.3):

Mean film temperature = Tm = (Ts + T∞) / 2 = (102.7 + 34.4) / 2 = 68.55 0C.

Properties of air at 68.55 0C are as follows: β = 1 / (68.55 + 273) = 2.93 x 10 ─ 3 K – 1;

Pr = 0.6942 ; k = 0.02959 W/(m – K); ν = 19.915 x 10 – 6 m2/s.

9.81 x 2.93 x 10─ 3 x (102.7 – 34.4) x (0.048)3

Rad = {gβΔTd / ν }Pr = -------------------------------------------------------- x 0.6942 = 3.8 x 10 5
3 2

(19.915 x 10 ─ 6) 2

____ 0.387 Rad0.167

√ Num = 0.60 + -----------------------------------
[ 1 + (0.559 / Pr) 0.5625] 0.296

____ 0.387 (3.8 x 105) 0.167

√ Num = 0.60 + ----------------------------------- = 11.17
[ 1 + (0.559 / 0.6942) 0.5625] 0.296

Hence [h]correlation = 11.17 x 0.02959 / 0.048 = 6.89 W /(m2-K).

Deviation = (6.89 – 6.46) x 100 / 6.89 = + 6.24 %

(ii) Correlation proposed by Morgan:

Num = 0.48 Rad0.25 = 0.48 x (3.8 x 10 5) 0.25 = 11.92

Hence [h]correlation = 11.92 x 0.02959 / 0.048 = 7.35 W/(m2 – K).

Deviation = (7.35 – 6.46) x 100 / 7.35 = + 12.1 %

5.12. Conclusions: The deviation of the experimental value of the average hav from those obtained from
the correlation proposed by Churchill & Chu is not much (<10 %) where as the deviation with respect
to the correlation propsed by Morgan is as high as + 12.1 %. The deviations can be attributed to the
following reasons: (i) the error in assuming the value of emissivity of the cylindrical surface to

46
calculate the heat loss due to radiation, (ii) the error in measurements of temperatures along the length
of the cylinder.(iii) heat loss from the circular faces of the cylinder, which has not been taken into
account and (iv) the deviation of the data points from the correlations proposed both by ChurchHill and
Morgan.

6.References: 1“Heat & Mass Transfer- A Practical Approach”, Yunus A. Çengel , Tata - McGraw-
Hill Third Edition, 2007

2“An experimental study of Natural Convection Boundary Layers”, Vliet,G.C. and C.K.Liu, J.Heat
Transfer 91 C:511 – 516, 1969.

3“Correlating Equations for Laminar and Turbulent Free Convection from Horizontal
Cylinders”,Int. J.Heat Mass transfer, 18: 1049 -1053, 1975

4“The Overall Convective Heat Transfer from Smooth Circular Cylinders”, Morgan,V.T.
inT.F.Irvine and J.P.Hartnet (Eds), Advances in Heat Transfer, vol. 16,Academic Press,New York,
1975,pp.199-264

47
 6. Experiments on Laminar and Turbulent Forced Convection Heat Transfer In
Circular Tubes Subjected to Uniform Wall-Heat Flux

6.1. Introduction & Background Theory:

A common situation encountered by the mechanical engineer is heat transfer to fluid flowing through a
tube. This can occur in heat exchangers, boilers, condensers, evaporators, and a host of other process
equipment. Therefore, it is useful to know how to estimate heat transfer coefficients in this situation.
We can classify the flow of a fluid in a straight circular tube into either laminar or turbulent flow. It is
assumed from hereon that we assume fully developed incompressible, Newtonian, steady flow
conditions. Fully developed flow implies that the tube is long compared with the entrance length in
which the velocity distribution at the inlet adjusts itself to the geometry and no longer changes with
distance along the tube.

Reynolds number
The value of the Reynolds number permits us to determine whether the flow is laminar or turbulent. We
define the Reynolds number as follows.

Reynolds number = Re = ρUav Di / μ ……………………………………………….(6.1)

Here, Di is the inside diameter of the tube (or pipe),Uav is the average velocity of the fluid, ρ is the
density of the fluid and μ is its dynamic viscosity. It is common to use the kinematic viscosity ,ν = μ/ρ
in defining the Reynolds number. Another common form involves using the mass flow rate m instead of
the average velocity.
The flow in a commercial circular tube or pipe is usually laminar when the Reynolds number is below
2,300. In the range, 2,300<Re<4,000 the status of the flow is in transition and for , Re > 4,000 flow can
be regarded as turbulent. Results for heat transfer in the transition regime are difficult to predict, and it
is best to avoid this regime in designing heat exchange equipment. By the way, turbulent flow is
inherently unsteady, being characterized by time-dependent fluctuations in the velocity and pressure,
but we usually average over these fluctuations and define time-smoothed or time-average velocity and
pressure; these time-smoothed entities can be steady or time-dependent (on a time scale much larger
than that of the fluctuations), and here we only focus on steady conditions when we discuss either
laminar or turbulent flow.

Principal differences between heat transfer in laminar flow and that in turbulent flow
In discussing heat transfer to or from a fluid flowing through a straight circular tube, it is useful to
distinguish between the axial or main flow direction, and the directions that lie in a plane perpendicular
to the tube axis. In that plane, transverse heat flow can be broken into radial and azimuthal components.
The principal difference between laminar and turbulent flow, as far as heat transfer is concerned, is that
an additional mechanism of heat transfer in the radial and azimuthal directions becomes available in
turbulent flow. This is commonly termed “eddy transport” and is intense, providing much better transfer
of energy across the flow at a given axial position than in laminar flow, wherein diffusion is typically
the only mechanism that operates in the transverse directions (an exception occurs when there are
secondary flows in the transverse direction, such as in coiled tubes). Another difference worthwhile

48
noting is the extent of the “thermal entrance region” in which the transverse temperature distribution
becomes “fully developed.” This region is relatively short in turbulent flow (precisely because of the
intense turbulent transverse transport of energy), whereas it tends to be long in laminar flow. Heat
transfer correlations, based on experimental results, are typically divided into those applicable in the
thermal entrance region, and those that apply in the “fully developed” region. In the case of laminar
flow, it is important to be aware of this distinction, and normally a laminar flow heat exchanger is
designed to be short, to take advantage of relatively high heat transfer rates that are achievable in the
thermal entrance region. In the case of turbulent flow, the thermal entrance region is short, as noted
earlier, and typically heat transfer occurs mostly in the “fully developed” region. Therefore, turbulent
heat transfer correlations are commonly provided for the latter region.

Laminar heat transfer correlations

A variety of correlations are in use for predicting heat transfer rates in laminar flow. From dimensional
analysis, the correlations are usually written in the form

Nu =f(Re,Pr) …………………………….(6.2)

where Nu = hDi/ k is the Nusselt number, f is some function, and Pr = μCp/K is the Prandtl number.
Here, h is the heat transfer coefficient, k is the thermal conductivity of the fluid, and Cp is the specific
heat of the fluid at constant pressure. As you can see, the Prandtl number can be written as the ratio of
the kinematic viscosity ν to the thermal diffusivity of the fluid α. As we noted before, efficient heat
transfer in laminar flow occurs in the thermal entrance region. A reasonable correlation for the Nusselt
number was provided by Sieder and Tate.

Nu = 1.86 Re1/3 Pr1/3(Di /L )1/3 (μb / μw)0.14 …………………………(6.3)

We can see that as the length of the tube increases, the Nusselt number decreases as L – 1/3. This does
not, however, imply that the Nusselt number approaches zero as the length becomes large. This is
because the Sieder-Tate correlation only applies in the thermal entrance region. In long tubes, wherein
most of the heat transfer occurs in the thermally fully-developed region, the Nusselt number is nearly a
constant independent of any of the above parameters. When the boundary condition at the wall is that of
uniform wall temperature,
Nu → 3.66.If instead the heat flux at the wall is uniform, Nu → 4.36, but in this case we already know
the heat flux and a heat transfer coefficient is not needed. It should be remembered that the purpose of
using a heat transfer coefficient is to calculate the heat flux between the wall and the fluid. In the case of
uniform wall flux, we can use an energy balance directly to infer the way in which the bulk average
temperature of the fluid changes with distance along the axial direction.

It should be noticed that a ratio (μb / μw ) appears in the above laminar flow heat transfer correlation.
We have defined μ as the viscosity of the fluid. The subscripts “b” and “w” stand for “bulk” and “wall,”
respectively. We know that the bulk temperature of the fluid will change along the tube. The wall
temperature may be constant, or it may vary along the length of the tube. In all cases, we can use an
arithmetic value of the average between the extreme values that occur in the system. Because the
exponent is small, the effect of this term on the Nusselt number is not large – it is only a small
correction, and this averaging is quite justified. In fact, for all the other physical properties such as

49
density, thermal conductivity, and specific heat, we should estimate values at the average temperature of
the fluid between the inlet and outlet.

The Reynolds and Prandtl numbers are raised to the same power in the laminar flow correlation.
Therefore, we can write the correlation as

Nu = 1.86 (RePr)1/3 (Di /L )1/3 (μb / μw)0.14 = 1.86 (Pe)1/3 (Di /L )1/3 (μb / μw)0.14 …….(6.4)

where we have introduced a new group Pe called the Peclet number.

Pe = Re Pr ………………………………….(6.5)

The Peclet number plays a role in heat transfer that is similar to that of the Reynolds number in fluid
mechanics. Recall that the physical significance of the Reynolds number is that it represents the ratio of
inertial forces to viscous forces in the flow, or equivalently, the relative importance of convective
transport of momentum compared with molecular transport of momentum. Thus, the Peclet number tells
us the relative importance of convective transport of thermal energy when compared with molecular
transport of thermal energy (conduction).
For laminar flow heat transfer the average Nusselt number is given by

hav Di 0.065 Re Pr (Di/L)

(Nu)average = ------------ = 3.66 + --------------------------------- ……………………(6.6)
k 1 + 0.04{ Re Pr (Di/L)}2/3

Unlike the correlation of Sieder and Tate, this result can be used for short or long tubes. Note that as the
length becomes very large, Nuaverage → 3.66, which is the result for a uniform wall temperature when
the temperature field is fully developed.

The hydrodynamic entrance length Lh for the friction factor to decrease to within 5% of its value for
fully developed laminar flow conditions is given as

Lh / Di = 0.05 Re……………………………………………………………….(6.7)
.
Likewise, if the velocity profile in laminar flow is fully developed and we then apply a uniform wall
temperature boundary condition, the thermal entrance length can be estimated from

Lte / Di = 0.033RePr …………………………………………(6.8)

and for uniform wall-heat flux condition the thermal entrance length is given by

Lte / Di = 0.043RePr ………………………………………………(6.9)

When both the velocity and temperature fields develop with distance simultaneously, the problem is
more involved

50
.

Turbulent flow:
The entrance lengths are much shorter for turbulent flows, because of the additional transport
mechanism across the cross section. Thus, typical hydrodynamic entrance lengths in turbulent flow are
10-15 tube diameters, and the thermal entrance lengths are even smaller. Therefore, for most
engineering situations wherein L/Di ≥ 50, we use correlations for fully developed conditions. Correlations
for turbulent flow are classified based on whether the interior wall of the tube is smooth or whether it is
rough.

Smooth tubes
The earliest correlations for turbulent heat transfer in a smooth tube are due to Dittus and Boelter,
McAdams, and Colburn. A common form to be used for fluids with Pr > 0.5 is

Nu = 0.023 Re0.8Pr n …………………………………………(6.10)

(n =0.4 if the fluid is being heated and n = 0.3 if the fluid is being cooled)

6.2. Experimental Set-Up::

A schematic view of the experimental set-up is shown in Fig.6.1. Air is used as the working fluid. The
main part of the set-up consists of an air blower, a straight horizontal circular copper pipe of 36 mm
OD, 1 mm thickness, and 5 m total length.The upstream part of 2 m length is a bare pipe to provide for

51
 a hydrodynamically developed laminar flow regime, while the remaining 3 m part is the heated part for
measurement of heat transfer.The outer surface of the tube is heated by a tape heater of 500 W capacity
wound round the outer surface of the tube very closely and the heater surface is covered by a good
rock-wool insulation to minimize the radial conduction losses.Thermocoples for measurement of pipe-
wall temperature are attached at 16 locations on the outer surface of the heated pipe at intervals of 200
mm. The pipe is heated under the condition of constant heat flux and in the thermally developed region
the temperature gradient in the axial direction is constant. Just after the blower exit a by-pass with a
control valve is provided so that the volume flow rate of the fluid in the test section can be varied.
Provision is also made to vary the flow area at inlet to the blower. With these controls it is possible to
conduct the experiment for wide range of Reynolds number from as low as 500 (Laminar flow) to as
high as 25000.The volume flow rate through the pipe is measured by an orfice meter. Provision has
been made to measure the fluid temperature just before the fluid enters the heated section. A
thermocouple attached to a traversing mechanism will help to measure the air temperature at any
location at. the exit section. With this mechanism it is possible to move the thermocouple both along the
horizontal axis as well as vertical axis.
This facility has been provided to know the effect of free convection (effect of buoyancy force) on the
temperature profile when the Reynolds number is very low.

6.3. Experimental Procedure For Laminar Flow: First Blower is switched on and the control valves
are adjusted so as to give Laminar flow conditions.This is done as follows.Suppose it is desired to
conduct the experiment for a Reynolds number of say 500.Corresponding to this Reynolds number, the

52
average velocity of air in the pipe is determined from the equation Uav = (Re ν) / Di. The value of the
kinematic viscosity, ν corresponding to the inlet temperature of air is obtained from a Heat transfer Data
Hand book. Once Uav is known, the corresponding difference in level of the orifice manometer,h w is
found out and the control valves of blower are adjusted to give this value of h w as closely as possible.
By so doing we will be ensuring that the Reynolds number is very close to the value at which we have
to conduct the experiment. Then the heater is switched on and the voltage regulator is adjusted to give
the desired heat input. After steady state conditions are reached (this will take about an hour or so) , all
the thermocouple readings, the manometer reading and the heater volt meter and ammeter readings are
noted down and the various useful parameters are calculated as shown below.

6.3.1. Experimental Data:

Inside diameter of test section pipe = Di = 0.036 m.

Outside diameter of test section pipe = Do = 0.038 m.

Hole diameter of orifice meter = d = 0.0072 m.

Unheated straight length of the tube = Lh = 2 m.

Heated length of the tube = Lt = 3 m.

Supply voltage for the heater = V = 77 volt.

Supply current for the heater = I = 0.65 amp.

Pressure difference across the orifice meter = hw = 65 mm of water.

Bulk mean temperature of air at inlet to test section = T mi = 20.5 0C

Temperature of air at the centre of pipe at exit section of the pipe = T(0) = 36 0C.

Table 6. 1:Wall-Temperature Distribution

Location Distance Wall-Temp Location Distance Wall-Temp

From Entrance Tw(z), 0C From Entrance Tw(z), 0C
Section, z (m) Section, z (m)

1 0 23.5 9 1.6 40.8

2 0.2 27.4 10 1.8 40.5
3 0.4 29.6 11 2.0 43.6
4 0.6 32.5 12 2.2 44.8
5 0.8 34.2 13 2.4 45.6
6 1.0 36.3 14 2.6 45.5
7 1.2 38.2 15 2.8 45.3
8 1.4 39.7 16 3.0 43.8

53
Bulk Mean Temperature of air at exit section: The bulk mean temperature of the fluid at any section has
to be evaluated from the equation

2
Tm(z) = ---------------- ∫u(r)T(r) dr ……………………………………….(6.11)
Uav (Di/2)2

Since there was no provision to measure the velocity, u(r) at different radius,as a first approximation it
is assumed that, the temperature of the fluid at the centre of the pipe at the exit is equal to the bulk
mean temperature of the fluid at the exit section.
Hence at the exit section of the pipe

Tmo = T(0) = 36 0C

6.3.2. Specimen Calculations For Thermally Developed Region:

A graph of z versus Tw(z) is plotted as shown in Fig.6.2. From the graph the location, z from which the
wall-temperature variation becomes linear is noted. Beyond this value of z the flow will be thermally
developed. Hence specimen calculations are shown for location 16. It can be seen from the plot that the
temperatures recorded by the last three thermocouples (at locations 14,15,and16) are lower than that
recorded by thermocouple at location 13 and this is not correct. Because under constant wall-heat flux
conditions the wall-temperature should increase with z continuously.Hence for these locations the wall-
temperatures are read from the plot of z vs. T w(z).

Tw
50
45
40
35
30
25
20 Tw
15
10 Tm
5
0 z
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

Fig. 6.2. Wall and bulk-mean temperature variation with distance

for laminar flow through the tube

54
From the graph at z = 3 m, Tw = 49 0C and ΔT = 49 – 36 = 13 0C.

Average temperature of air = Tm = (Tmi + Tmo) / 2 = (20.5 + 36)/2 ≈ 28 0C.

Properties of air at 28 0C are : ρ = 1.173 kg/m3 ; ν = 15.81 x 10 -6 m2/s ; Pr = 0.7014 ;

Cp = 1005 J/(kg-K) ; k = 0.026586 W/(m-K) ; β = 1 / (28 + 273) = 3.32 x 10 -3 K -1.

Area of cross section of the pipe = A = π Di2 / 4 = π x 0.036 2 / 4 = 1.02 x 10 -3 m2.

Area of the orifice = a = π d2 / 4 = π x 0.0072 2 / 4 = 4.07 x 10 -5 m2.

β* = d / Di = 0.0072 / 0.036 = 0.2

Pressure difference across orifice in N/m2 is given by

65 x 1.173 x 9.81 x [(1000/1.173) – 1]

Δp = hw ρ g [(ρw / ρ) – 1] = ------------------------------------------------ = 624 N/m2.
1000
. _______________________
Volume flow rate of air = V = Cd a √ 2Δp / [ρ (1 - β*4)]

. ___________________________________
Or V = 0.6 x 4.07 x 10 -5 x [√ 2 x 624 /[1.173 x (1 – 0.24)] = 7.97 x 10 -4 m3/s.
.
Average velocity of air in the pipe = Uav = V / A = 7.97 x 10 -4 / (1.02 x 10 -3)

= 0.78 m/s.

Heat carried away by air = Qair = ρA Uav Cp [Tmo – Tmi]

= 1.173 x 1.02 x 10 -3 x 0.78 x 1005 x [36 – 20.5]

= 14.54 W.

Heater out put = Qheater = VI = 77 x 0.65 = 50.05 W

(It should be noted that the heat transferred to air is about 29 % of the heater output, indicating that the
insulation provided around the test pipe is not satisfactory)

14.54
Wall heat flux = qw = Qair / (πDiLt ) = -------------------- = 42.8 W / m2.
(π x 0.036 x 3)

55
Heat transfer coefficient at exit of the pipe = h = qw / (ΔT)exit = 42.8 / 13

= 3.3. W / (m2 – K)

Nusselt Number at the exit section = Nu = hDi / k = (3.3 x 0.036) / 0.026856

= 4.47

Reynolds number is given by

0.78 x 0.036
Red = (UavDi) / ν = --------------------- = 1776
15.81 x 10 -6

Since Red < 2300 flow is laminar. Therefore theoretical prediction of Nusselt number is

(Nu)Theoretical = 48 / 11 = 4.33

The % deviation of the experimental value with theoretical prediction is equal to

(4.47 – 4.33)x100 / 4.33 = 3.23 %. (Excellent agreement)

Free convection effects: Whether the rate of heat transfer is affected by free convection effects or not
can be determined by finding the value of the parameter (Gr / Re2).If this parameter is << 1, then free
convection effects are negligible.

g β (Tw – Tmo) Di 3 9.81 x 3.32 x 10 -3 x (49 – 36) x 0.036 3

Gr = ------------ ---------------- = -------------------------------------------------- = 79,030
ν2 (15.81 x 10 -6 ) 2

Gr / Re 2 = 79,030 / (1776) 2 =0.025 which is << 1. Hence free convection effects are negligible.

6.3.3. Specimen Calculations For Thermally Developing Region:

From the plot of z vs Tw, thermal entry length = Lte = 1.85 m.

Theoretical prediction of Lte is given by (Lte)Theoretical = 0.043 DiRedPr.

Hence (Lte)Theoretical = 0.043 x 0.036 x 1776 x 0.7014 = 1.93 m.

Deviation = (1.93 – 1.85) x100 / 1.93 = 4.15 %

56
Since the temperature difference ΔT between the wall and the bulk fluid increases with distance in the
thermally developing region and qw is constant, the heat transfer coefficient and hence the Nusselt
number decreases with distance and the variation obtained experimentally is compared with theoretical
predictions as shown below.
The distance from the entrance section is non-dimensionalized by defining a dimensionless number
called Graetz Number which is defined as Graetz number = Gz = (Red Pr) / (z/Di). The value of Gz -1 at
different locations and the corresponding Nusselt numbers are calculated and tabulated as shown in
table 2

Table 6.2 Local Heat transfer coefficient, hz as a function of distance, z along the pipe

Location z (m) ΔT (0C) hz =qw/ΔT Nuz = hzDi/k Gz -1

(W /m2-K)
1 0.0
2 0.2 5.9 7.25 9.82 4.45 x 10 -3
3 0.4 7.1 6.03 8.16 8.90 x 10 -3
4 0.6 8.6 4.98 6.74 1.33 x 10 -2
5 0.8 9.9 4.32 5.85 1.78 x 10 -2
6 1.0 10.8 3.96 5.37 2.23 x 10 -2
7 1.2 11.6 3.70 5.00 2.67 x 10 -2
8 1.4 12.1 3.54 4.80 3.11 x 10 -2
9 1.6 12.6 3.40 4.60 3.56 x 10 -2
10 1.8 12.7 3.37 4.56 4.00 x 10 -2
11 2.0 13.0 3.29 4.47 4.45 x 10 -2
12 2.2 13.0 3.29 4.47 5.00 x 10 -2
13 2.4 13.0 3.29 4.47 5.34 x 10 -2
14 2.6 13.0 3.29 4.47 5.80 x 10 -2
15 2.8 13.0 3.29 4.47 6.23 x 10 -2
16 3.0 13.0 3.29 4.47 6.80x 10 -2

A plot of Nuz versus Gz -1 is plotted as shown in Fig.6.3. The plot of theoretical predictions are also
shown in the figure for comparison.It can be seen that the experimental values agree very well with the
theoretical predictions.

57
 Nuz
12

10

6
Nuz
4

2
1 / Grz
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

Fig.6.3: Nusselt number,Nuz distribution as a function of 1/ Grz for laminar flow

6.4. Experimental Procedure For Turbulent Flow:Whatever procedure adopted for laminar flow
experiment, the same procedure is to be adopted for turbulent flow also. In literature correlations to find
the heat transfer coefficient are available for Re ≥ 3000. The corresponding pressure head difference
across the orifice meter will be very large if water manometer is used. Hence while conducting
experiments on turbulent flow, the pressure difference is measured using a mercury manometer or
alternatively the orifice plate having a value of β* = d / Di = 0.5 should be used.

6.4.1. Experimental Data:

Inside diameter of test section pipe = Di = 0.036 m.

Outside diameter of test section pipe = Do = 0.038 m.

Hole diameter of orifice meter = d = 0.0072 m.

Unheated straight length of the tube = Lh = 2 m.

Heated length of the tube = Lt = 3 m.

Supply voltage for the heater = V = 107 volt.

Supply current for the heater = I = 0.95 amp.

Pressure difference across the orifice meter = hw = 180 mm of water.

Bulk mean temperature of air at inlet to test section = T mi = 20.6 0C

Temperature of air at the centre of pipe at exit section of the pipe = T(0) = 45 0C.

58
Table 6.3 Wall-Temperature Distribution for turbulent flow
Location Distance Wall-Temp Location Distance Wall-Temp
From Entrance Tw(z), 0C From Entrance Tw(z), 0C
Section, z (m) Section, z (m)

1 0 25.0 9 1.6 52.0

2 0.2 30.2 10 1.8 51.6
3 0.4 33.8 11 2.0 55.4
4 0.6 38.0 12 2.2 57.6
5 0.8 40.4 13 2.4 58.5
6 1.0 43.8 14 2.6 58.6
7 1.2 47,5 15 2.8 59.0
8 1.4 50.1 16 3.0 56.6

For turbulent flow, since the temperature profile is much more flatter than that for laminar flow ,
assuming the bulk mean temperature of air at exit as equal to the temperature of air at the centre of the
pipe will not result in any significant error.

Hence T mo = T(0) = 45 0C

6.4.2. Specimen Calculations For Thermally Developed Turbulent Region:

A graph of z versus Tw(z) is plotted as shown in Fig.6.4. It can be seen from the plot that the
temperatures recorded by the last three thermocouples (at locations 14,15,and16) are lower than that
recorded by thermocouple at location 13 and this is not correct. Because under constant wall-heat flux
conditions the wall-temperature should increase with z continuously.Hence for these locations the wall-
temperatures are read from the plot of z vs. T w(z) after extrapolating from location 13 onwards as shown
in the figure.

59
 Tw
70

60

50

40

30 Tw

20

10
z
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Fig. 6.4. Wall-Temperature distribution for turbulent flow through tube

Hence from the graph at z = 3 m, Tw = 61.6 0C and ΔT = 61.6 – 45 = 16.6 0C.

Average temperature of air = Tm = (Tmi + Tmo) / 2 = (20.6 + 45)/2 ≈ 32.8 0C.

Properties of air at 32. 8 0C are : ρ = 1.155 kg/m3 ; ν = 16.27 x 10 -6 m2/s ; Pr = 0.692 ;

Cp = 1005 J/(kg-K) ; k = 0.02698 W/(m-K) ;

Pressure difference across orifice in N/m2 is given by

180 x 1.155 x 9.81 x [(1000/1.173) – 1]

Δp = hw ρ g [(ρw / ρ) – 1] = ------------------------------------------------ = 1764 N/m2.
1000
_______________________
Volume flow rate of air = V = Cd a √ {2Δp / [ρ (1 - β*4)]}

___________________________________
Or V = 0.6 x 4.07 x 10 -5 x [√{ 2 x 1764 /[1.155 x (1 – 0.24)]} = 1.35 x 10 -3 m3/s.
.
Average velocity of air in the pipe = Uav = V / A = 1.35 x 10 -3 / (1.02 x 10 -3) = 1.324 m/s

Heat carried away by air = Qair = ρA Uav Cp [Tmo – Tmi]

= 1.155 x 1.02 x 10 -3 x 1.324 x 1005 x [45 – 20.6] = 38.25 W

38.25
Wall heat flux = qw = Qair / (πDiLt ) = -------------------- = 112.7 W / m2.
(π x 0.036 x 3)

60
Heat transfer coefficient at exit of the pipe = h = qw / (ΔT)exit = 112.7 / 16.6 = 6.79 W / (m2 – K)

Nusselt Number at the exit section = Nu = hDi / k = (6.79 x 0.036) / 0.02698 = 9.06.

Reynolds number is given by

1.324 x 0.036
Red = (UavDi) / ν = --------------------- = 2930
16.27 x 10 -6

For fully developed flow ,the Dittus – Boetler correlation is given by

(Nu)d-b = 0.023 Re 0.8 Pr 0.4 = 0.023 x (2930 0.8) x (0.692 0.4) = 11.78

This correlation though simple, give maximum errors of ± 25 %. This correlation is valid
for Re ≥ 10,000. Hence, the more accurate correlation proposed by Gnielinski for smaller
Reynolds number (For Re ≥ 3000) is used for comparison. It is given by

( Re – 1000) Pr
(Nu)gki =----------------------- (f / 8) for air with X = 1.0 + 12.7 (Pr 2/3 – 1)(f/8)1/2
X
1
and f = ----------------------------- ; f = friction factor
(1.82 log Re – 1.64) 2.

1
Now f = ------------------------------- = 0.046
(1.82 x log 2930 – 1.64) 2

X = 1.0 + 12.7 x (0.692 0.667 – 1) x (0.046 / 8) 0.5 = 0.7903

(2930 – 1000) x 0.692 0.046

(Nu)gki = ------------------------------ x ----------- = 9.72
0.7903 8

6.4.3 Comparison between the experimental values of Nu with that obtained by correlations:

Re (Nu)exp (Nu)d-b (Nu)gki % Deviation % Deviation

w.r.t (Nu)d-b w.r.t (Nu)gki

2930 9.06 11.78 9.72 - 23.08 % - 6.79 %

The experimental prediction is lower than the values predicted by the two correlations and agrees very
well (within 7 %) with that obtained using the Gnielinski correlation.

61
 7. Experiment on a Double Pipe Heat Exchanger
7.1. Objective: The objective of this experiment is to evaluate the performance of a double pipe heat
exchanger under parallel flow and counter flow arrangement and draw the performance characteristic
curves for both the flow arrangement.

7.2 Introduction: Heat exchangers are devices used to transfer heat from a hot fluid to a cold fluid.
They are used to heat and cool homes, offices, cars, trucks, power plants, aircrafts etc.They are also
found in superconductors, advanced computer systems etc.The list of applications both in low and high
tech industries is practically endless.

7.3. Classification of Heat Exchangers: There are many classifications of heat exchangers.
Here we consider classifications based on (i) the heat transfer process, (ii) compactness, (iii)
construction type, (iv) flow arrangement, and (v) heat transfer mechanism.
(i) Classification based on heat transfer process : Based on the heat transfer process, heat exchangers
are classified as follows:
(a) Direct transfer type (or recuperative), (b) Storage type (or regenerative type)
(c) Direct mixing type.
A “direct transfer type” of heat exchanger is one in which the cold and hot fluids flow simultaneously
through the exchanger and heat is transferred through a wall separating the two fluids. This type of heat
exchanger is the one which is mostly used.
Cold fluid in

Hot
Fluid in Hot
Fluid out

Cold fluid out

Fig.7.1: Direct transfer type concentric tube heat exchanger

A simple example of this type is shown in Fig. 7.1. The heat exchanger has a concentric tube
arrangement. One fluid flows through the inner tube, while the other fluid flows through the annular
space between the two tubes. The heat transfer takes place across the wall of the inner tube. Although
both the fluids flow through the exchanger simultaneously, there is no mixing of the two fluid There are
no moving parts. The most serious defect of this type of heat exchanger is the fact that , with passage of
time, scale and dirt tends to accumulate on the heat transfer surface. This accumulation (called fouling)
increases the thermal resistance to heat flow so that the performance of the heat exchanger deteriorates.

62
 A “storage type” heat exchanger or regenerator is one in which the heat transfer from the hot fluid
to the cold fluid occurs through a coupling medium in the form of a porous solid matrix. The hot and
cold fluids flow alternately through the matrix, the hot fluid giving heat to the matrix and the cold fluid
extracting heat from the matrix. The arrangement is illustrated in Fig. 9.2.In many applications, a
continuous flow has to be

Hot fluid in Cold fluid in

Cold fluid out Hot fluid out

Fig. 7.2: Single matrix storage type heat exchanger

maintained on both the hot and cold sides. In such cases, it is a common practice to use a rotating disc
type matrix, every element of which passes from the hot stream to the cold and back again during each
revolution.. Storage type heat exchangers are commonly used in open –hearth steel melting furnaces
and in blast furnaces. They are also used at very low temperatures in certain cryogenic cycles where a
very high degree of performance is required.
Because of alternate flow of hot and cold fluid through the matrix, the storage type of heat
exchanger is self cleaning. This type also results in a much more compact arrangement than the direct
transfer type. The major disadvantages of the storage type are that some mixing of hot and cold fluids is
inevitable and that sealing the hot side from the cold side in the rotary design presents considerable
difficulty.
A “direct contact type” of heat exchanger is one in which the two fluids come in direct contact with one
another in the heat exchanger. Therefore this type of heat exchanger can be used only for two
immiscible fluids. Cooling towers of steam power plants and scrubbers used in chemical plants are
examples of this type. If heat has to be transferred between a gas and a liquid, the gas is either bubbled
through the liquid or the liquid is sprayed in the form of droplets into the gas. A schematic diagram of a
direct contact type heat exchanger is shown in Fig. 9.3. Very often in this type of heat exchanger in
addition to heat transfer there will be mass transfer also.

63
 Fig. 7.3: Direct mixing type of Heat Exchanger

(ii) Classification based on compactness: The definition of compactness with respect to heat exchangers
is quite arbitrary. The ratio of the maximum heat transfer surface area of the heat exchanger to its
volume called as ‘surface area density”, is normally used as the parameter. A heat exchanger having a
surface area density greater than 700 m2 / m3 is arbitrarily referred to as a compact heat exchanger.
Automobile radiators having an area density of the order of 1100 m 2 / m3 and the glass ceramic heat
exchangers used in vehicular gas-turbine engines having a surface area density of 6600 m2 / m3 are
compact heat exchangers. The human lungs, with an area density of about 20,000 m2 / m3 , are the most
compact heat and mass exchanger. The very fine matrix regenerator used in sterling engine has an area
density approaching that of the human lung. The compactness of a heat exchanger becomes very
important when heat exchangers are to be employed in automobiles, marine applications, aircraft, space
vehicles, cryogenic systems, and refrigeration and air conditioning units.
(iii) Classification according to construction: Based on the type of construction, heat exchangers are
classified as (a) tubular type, (b) plate type , (c) plate-fin type, (d) tube-fin type etc. The tubular type is
further classified as (1) concentric tube type (double pipe heat exchanger) and (2) shell and tube heat
exchanger
(iv) Classification based on flow arrangement: Heat exchangers are also classified as (a) parallel flow,
(b) counter flow, (c) cross flow and (d) multi-pass flow. In parallel flow arrangement the hot and cold
fluids enter the same end of the heat exchanger, flow through in the same direction and leave together
at the other end as illustrated in Fig. 7.4(a). The temperature distribution along the length of the
exchanger

64
 Hot fluid at Thi

Tco Fig. 7.4 (a) Parallel Flow Heat

Exchanger
Tci

Tho
Hot fluid out at Tho

Thi
Fig 7.4 (b) Temperature
Tho distribution in a parallel flow
T exchanger
Tco

Thi = Inlet Temp. of Hot Fluid

Tci Tci = Inlet Temp. of cold Fluid
Tho = Exit Temp. of Hot Fluid
Tco = Exit Temp. of Cold Fluid
A
.
is shown in Fig. 7.4 (b). In this figure T hi and Tho are the inlet and exit temperatures of the hot fluid and
Tci and Tco are the inlet and exit temperatures of the cold fluid. It is obvious from the temperature
distribution shown that for parallel flow arrangement Tco cannot exceed Tho in order to satisfy the
second law of thermodynamics and in practice it is necessary that there shall be a finite temperature
difference between the two fluids in order to have a finite amount of heat transfer. Hence T co is always
less than Tho for a parallel flow heat exchanger. The temperature difference between the two fluids is
quite large at one end of the exchanger and decreases considerably as we proceed towards the other end.
The schematic and temperature distribution for a counter flow arrangement are shown in
Fig.7.5(a) and Fig. 7.5 (b) respectively. In this type of exchanger both the fluids flow parallel to, but
opposite to each other. It can be seen from Fig. 7.5(b) that T co has to less than Thi to satisfy the second
law. However it is possible to have Tco > Tho in a counter flow arrangement.

65
 Hot fluid at Thi

Tco Fig. 7.5 (a) Counter Flow Heat

Tci Exchanger

Tho
Hot fluid out at Tho

Thi
Tho
Tco
T
Tci

Fig 7.5 (b) Temperature distribution

in a counter flow exchanger
A

In a cross flow heat exchanger the two fluids flow through the exchanger at right angles to each
other. The temperature distribution of the two fluids depend on whether each fluid is mixed or unmixed
as it flows through the exchanger. Figure 7.6 illustrates the direction of flow of the two fluids as well as
the temperature distribution for an Unmixed-unmixed cross flow heat exchanger. Thermodynamically,
the effectiveness for the cross flow heat exchanger falls in between that for the counter flow and parallel
flow arrangements. The largest temperature difference exists at the corner of the entering hot and cold
fluids such as point a in Fig. 7.6.In a cross flow heat exchanger, a fluid stream is considered unmixed
when it passes through individual flow channels or tubes with no fluid-mixing between adjacent
streams.

66
 Cold fluid
in y

Th = Th (y,z)
Hot
Fluid Tc = Tc(y,z)
in

a
a Hot fluid
Outlet
Temperature
distribution

Cold fluid outlet

Fig. 7.6: Unmixed-unmixed cross flow temperature distribution
Heat exchanger

7.3.2 Heat Exchanger Analysis:- The concept of overall heat transfer resistance or coefficient that you heat
exchanger, the total resistance is the sum of the individual components; i.e., resistance of the inside flow, the
conduction resistance in the tube material, and the outside convective resistance, given by

Rtotal = 1 / (Aihi) + 1 / (kAln) + 1 / (Aoh0) ….………………………..(7.1)

Where Ai = πdiL, ……..……………………………(7.2a)

Ao = πdoL, …………………………………(7.2b)

Ai and Ao refer to inner and outer heat-transfer surface areas, respectively, t is the wall thickness, and Aln
is the logarithmic mean heat transfer area, defined as

67
 (Ao − Ai)
Aln = ----------------- …………………………………… (7.2c)
ln (Ao / Ai)

and hi and ho are inside and outside heat transfer coefficients respectively.
The total heat transfer resistance can be defined in terms of overall heat transfer
coefficient based on either outer or inner areas, as long as the basis is clearly spelled out.
For example, based on outer area, we have

1 1 1
Rtotal = + + ............................. (7.3)
𝐴𝑖ℎ𝑖 𝑘𝐴 𝐴𝑜ℎ𝑜

which after simplifying yields the overall heat transfer coefficient based on inner and
outer areas, respectively as

1
Ui = --------------------------------------------------------------- ………………….(7.4a)
(1/hi)+ [di/(2k)] ln (do/di) + (di/do)( (1/hi)

1
Uo = --------------------------------------------------------------- …………………….(7.4b)
(do/di)(1/hi)+ [d0/(2k)] ln (do/di) + (1/ho)

We note from the above equations that if the wall thickness is negligible Di ≈ Do .For example, in thin tube
heat exchangers or the thermal conductivity of the tube material is very high, the conduction resistance
through the tube may be neglected in Equations(7.4a) and (7.4b) to give
1 1 1 1
≈ = + ……………………………………..(7.5)
𝑈𝑖 𝑈𝑜 ℎ𝑖 ℎ𝑜

The convection coefficients for the inlet and outlet side of the heat exchanger tube can be estimated using
empirical correlations appropriate for the flow geometry and conditions. During normal heat exchanger
operation, surfaces are subjected to fouling by fluid impurities, rust formation, and scale depositions, which
can markedly increase the resistance to heat transfer between the fluids. For such situations, one would add
the fouling resistance (inside and/or outside-side) to Equation (7.4a and 7.4 b) to give

1
Ui = -------------------------------------------------------------------------- …………………….(7.6a)
(1/hi) + Fi + [di/(2k)] ln (do/di) +(di/do)Fo + (di/do) (1/ho)

and

1
Uo = ------------------------------------------------------------------------ …………………….(7.6b)
(do/di)(1/hi) + (do/di)Fi + [d0/(2k)] ln (do/di) + Fo + 1/ho

68
Where di = inside diameter of the inner tube, do = outside diameter of the inner tube,
Fi = Fouling factor for the inside surface of the inner tube,and F o = Fouling factor for the outside
surface of the inner tube ;

7.3.3 Heat Transfer: The general heat exchanger equation is written in terms of the mean-temperature
difference between the hot and cold fluid, ΔTm as

Q = UA ΔTm …………………………………….(7.7)

This equation, combined with the First Law equations, defines the energy flows for a heat
exchanger. It can be expressed in terms of the temperature change of the hot and cold
fluids, as
Q = Ch (Thi – Tho) = Cc (Tco – Tci) …………………………………….. (7.8)

Ch = (mCp)h and Cc = (mCp)c are the hot and cold fluid heat capacity rates, respectively.

7.3.4 Mean Temperature Difference (MTD):

Heat flows between the hot and cold streams due to the temperature difference across the tube acting as a
driving force. As seen in Fig. 7.7, the difference will vary with axial location so that one must speak in terms
of the effective or integrated average temperature differences. The form of the average temperature
difference, m ΔT , may be determined by applying an energy balance to differential control volumes
(elements) in the hot and cold fluids. As shown in Fig. 7.7(a), for the case of parallel flow arrangement, each
element is of length dx and the heat transfer surface area is dA.Energy balance equation for a surface area dA
can be written as follows:

Fig.7.7(a): Parallel Flow Arrangement Fig.7.7(b) Counter Flow Arrangement

69
 dQ = − Ch dTh = Cc dTc ………………………………………..(7.9)

The heat transfer across the surface area dA can be expressed in terms of the overall heat transfer coefficient
as:
dQ = UdA dT …………………………………….(7.10)

where dT = Th – Tc is the local temperature difference between the hot and cold fluids.

From Eq.(7.9) we have dTh = − dQ / Ch and dTc = dQ / Cc.

1 1
Hence dTh – dTc = − U{ + } dA (Th – Tc)
𝐶ℎ 𝐶𝑐

𝑑(𝑇ℎ−𝑇𝑐) 1 1
Or (𝑇ℎ−𝑇𝑐)
= − U{ + } dA …………………………………….(7.11)
𝐶ℎ 𝐶𝑐

Integrating Eq. (7.11) between A=0 and A we have

(𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑜) 𝑑(𝑇ℎ−𝑇𝑐) 𝐴 1 1
∫(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑖) (𝑇ℎ−𝑇𝑐)
= ∫0 − U{ 𝐶ℎ + 𝐶𝑐
} dA ……………………………. (7.12)

(𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑜) 1 1
Or ln (𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑖)
= −𝑈 𝐴 {𝐶ℎ + 𝐶𝑐
}. ..……………………………… (7.13)

1 (𝑇𝑐𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑖)
Now Q = Cc (Tco – Tci) or 𝐶𝑐
= 𝑄
-------------------------------- (7.14a)

1 (𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇ℎ𝑜)
Similarly 𝐶ℎ
= 𝑄
-------------------------------- (7.14b)

Substituting these expressions in Eq.(7.13) and rearranging we get

(𝑇ℎ𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑜) 𝑈𝐴
ln = − {(𝑇ℎ𝑖 − 𝑇ℎ𝑜) − (𝑇𝑐𝑜 − 𝑇𝑐𝑖)}
(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑖) 𝑄

Or Q = UA ∆Tm ……………………………(7.15)

(∆𝑇𝑜− ∆𝑇𝑖)
Where ∆Tm = ln (∆𝑇𝑜 / ∆𝑇𝑖) ………………………………(7.16a)

and ∆To = Tho – Tco and ∆Ti = Thi – Tci …………………………………..(7.16b)

It can be seen from Eq.(7.16a) that ∆Tm is logarithmic mean of ∆𝑇𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑇𝑖 and therefore it is normally
referred to as “Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD in short”.

70
 Eq. (7.16a) is also valid for a counter flow exchanger also except that the definition of
∆𝑇𝑜 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝑇𝑖 are given by the expressions

∆To = Tho – Tci and ∆Ti = Thi – Tco …………………………..(7.16c)

It can be shown that ΔTm will always be greater in the counter flow arrangement than in parallel flow
arrangement.

7.3.5 Effectiveness – NTU Method:

In this method first, we define effectiveness (ε) of a heat exchanger as a ratio of as actual heat transfer rate to
the maximum possible heat transfer rate;
𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑐(𝑇𝑐𝑜−𝑇𝑐𝑖) 𝐶ℎ(𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇ℎ𝑜)
i.e. ε= = = ……………………………………..(7.17)
𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑖) 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑇ℎ𝑖−𝑇𝑐𝑖)

where Qmax is obtained from an infinitely long pure counter-flow heat exchanger that will have maximum
possible temperature difference. We choose an infinitely long exchanger since that will yield the maximum
heat transfer that can take place (i.e., eventually, enough heat will be transferred so that the driving force
will disappear - the streams will reach the same temperature).

“Number of Tranfer Units (NTU) for a heat heat exchanger is defined as:
𝑈𝐴
NTU = …………………………………..(7.18)
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛

And “Capacity Ratio (R) is defined as:

𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
R= ………………………………. (7.19)
𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥

It can be easily shown by simple analysis that effectiveness of a parallel flow heat exchanger can be
expressed as follows:

1−exp [ −𝑁𝑇𝑈 (1+𝑅)]

ε= (1+𝑅)
……………… (7.20)

Similarly it can be shown that for counter flow heat exchanger the effectiveness is given as follows:

1−exp [ −𝑁𝑇𝑈 (1−𝑅)]

ε= 1−𝑅 exp [𝑁𝑇𝑈(1−𝑅)]
.………………(7.21)

When R = 1 Eq. (7.21) reduces to (L’Hospital’s rule has to be used)

𝑁𝑇𝑈
ε= 1+𝑁𝑇𝑈
………………...(7.22)

71
7.4. Experimental Apparatus and Procedure:
The objectives of the heat exchanger experiments are achieved through the use of a bench mounted double-
pipe heat-exchanger unit (refer to Fig. 7.8). The unit consists of two passes and the arrangement is such that
the hot fluid flows in the inner tube while the cold fluid in the outer tube.The cold fluid circuit has four
valves that are used for changing flow arrangement from parallel flow to counter flow. It is important that
water at constant temperature is provided to both fluid circuits by means of a water bath. Three
thermocouples are available for the hot fluid temperature measurements and three for the cold fluid
temperature measurements. Using selector switches, fixed on the instrument panel, easily makes the
temperature readings from these thermocouples. These temperatures signals are also fed to the computer for
continuous monitoring of temperatures with the help of LABVIEW software. The flow rates of hot and cold
fluids are measured manually by collecting a known volume of water at the exit and noting down the time
required for collection. The flow rates are also measured using flow sensors fitted to the inner and outer
tubes and the signals from the flow sensors are fed to the computer. Notice that the measurements would be
taken for temperatures and flow rates for both (a) parallel and (b) counter-flow arrangements. Pressure
sensors are fitted at inlet and exit section of both the fluids and the signals from these sensors are fed to the
computer and recorded. It is very important that the water flow through the tubes reaches stable and steady
state conditions before recording the various parameters for both parallel and counter flow conditions. For
hot water a 5 kw heater is used to heat water in a water bath of sufficient capacity to any desired temperature
(Maximum Temperature is 90 0C) and made to flow through the inner pipe of the heat exchanger and back
to the water bath by means of a pump. One more pump is used to pump the cold water through the heat
exchanger. The water temperature in the bath is maintained at any desired value by means of a thermostat.

1.Set the flow rate at the lowest (stable) reading and then monitor the difference between the inlet and outlet
temperatures for both hot and cold water ( C = 1.00 ) until a steady state is established
2. Measure and record the inlet, outlet and temperature difference for both hot and
cold flows.
3. Change the cold water flow to give C = 0.75, then .5 and .25, each time repeating
(1) and (2) above.
4. Repeat the above sequence by changing the inlet temperature of hot fluid

7.5. Recording of Experimental Data:

7.5.1.Specifications of the Heat Exchanger:

1. Inside diameter of the inner pipe = di = 11 mm.

2. Outside diameter of the inner pipe = do = 13 mm.

3. Inside diameter of the outer pipe = D i = 24 mm.

4. outside diameter of the outer pipe = Do = 30 mm.

5. Total length of each pipe = Li = Lo = 600 mm

6. Thermal conductivity of the inner pipe material (copper) = k =

72
 7. Density of both hot and cold water = ρh = ρc =

8. Specific heat of both hot and cold water = Cph = Cpc =

7.5.2. Tabulation of Experimental Data:

Table 7.1 Data for Parallel Flow Arrangement:

Trial 1 2 3 4
No
Volume flow rate of hot fluid (Vh), m3/s Vh1 Vh2=Vh1 Vh3 = Vh1 Vh4 = Vh1
Volume flow rate of cold fluid (Vc), m3/s Vc1 = Vh1 Vc2 = 0.75Vh2 Vc3 = 0.5Vh3 Vc4 = 0.25Vh4
Inlet Temperature of hot fluid (Thi), 0C Thi1 Thi2=Thi1 Thi3=Thi1 Thi4=Thi1
outlet Temperature of hot fluid (Tho), 0C Tho1 Tho2 Tho3 Tho4
Inlet Temperature of cold fluid (Tci), 0C Tci1 Tci2 Tci3 Tci4
outlet Temperature of cold fluid (Tco), 0C Tco1 Tco2 Tco3 Tco4
Intermediate Temperature of hot fluid (Th), 0C Th1 Th2 Th3 Th4
Intermediate Temperature of cold fluid (Tc),0C Tc1 Tc2 Tc3 Tc4
Pressure of hot fluid at inlet (phi), phi1 phi2 phi3 phi4
Pressure of hot fluid at outlet (pho), pho1 pho2 pho3 pho4
Pressure of cold fluid at inlet (pci), pci1 pci2 pci2 pci2
Pressure of cold fluid at outlet (pco), pco1 pco2 pco2 pco2

7.6. Specimen calculations for Trial No 2:

For parallel flow, ∆To = Tho2 – Tco2 and ∆Ti = Thi2 – Tci2.
(∆𝑇𝑜− ∆𝑇𝑖)
∆Tm = ln (∆𝑇𝑜 / ∆𝑇𝑖)

Mass flow rate of cold fluid = mc = ρc Vc2

Heat capacity of cold fluid = Cc = mcCpc = ρc Vc2 Cpc

Similarly heat capacity of hot fluid = Ch = mhCph = ρh Vh2 Cph

Find out whether Cc < Ch or Ch < Cc and determine the capacity ratio,R

73
 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛
Where R = 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥

Heat lost by hot fluid = Qh = Ch (Thi2 – Tho2)

Heat lost by cold fluid = Qc = Cc (Tco2 – Tci2)

Under ideal conditions Qh = Qc. But because of heat losses Qh will not be equal to Qc. Hence take lower of
the two values (Qmin) for further calculations.

𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑄𝑚𝑖𝑛
Effectiveness = ε = 𝑄𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛(𝑇ℎ𝑖2−𝑇𝑐𝑖2) ………………………………………………..(1)

𝑈𝑜𝐴𝑜
Number of transfer units = NTU = ……………………………………………………….(2)
𝐶𝑚𝑖𝑛

To determine Uo: Since the inner tube material is of very high thermal conductivity, thermal raesistance
offered by copper tube is neglected. Also neglecting the fouling factor we have
1 1 1 1
𝑈𝑖
≈ 𝑈𝑜
= ℎ𝑖
+ ℎ𝑜
……………………………………………..(3)

To determine hi: The flow of fluid in the inner tube is assumed to be hydro dynamically and thermally
developed
Properties like density (ρh) kinematic viscosity(νh), thermal conductivity(kh) and Prandtl number (Prh) of
hot water flowing through the inner tube is to be determined at temperature,T m,where Tm = (Thi2 + Tho2) / 2.
𝑉ℎ2
Average velocity of hot water in the tube = Uav =
𝐴𝑜

Reynolds Number = Red = (Uav di) / ν

If Red ≥ 2300 flow is assumed to be turbulent otherwise flow is assumed to be laminar flow.

If the flow is laminar then from heat transfer data hand book for thermally developed laminar flow

Nusselt Number = Nud = hi di / kh = 4.36.……………………………………(4)

If the flow is turbulent then from heta transfer data hand book for thermally developed turbulent flow,

Nud = hi di / kh = 0.023 Red0.8Prhn ………………………..(5)

Where n = 0.3 if the fluid flowing through the tube is cooled or n = 0.4 if the fluid flowing through the tube
is being heated. Since it is the hot fluid flowing through the tube, n = 0.3.Therefore h i is calculated either by
using Eq.(4) or Eq.(5) depending on whether the flow is laminar or turbulent.

To determine ho: The steps carried out to determine hi has to be repeated to find ho except that the (Di – do)
should be taken as the characteristic length to define the Reynolds number and Nusselt number. i.e.

Red = Uav(Di – do) / ν and Nud = ho (Di – do) / kc.

74
The same correlation given in Eq.(4) or Eq.(5) is to be used for calculating Nud..Knowing hi and h0 the
overall heat transfer coefficient based on outside surface area,Uo is calculated using Eq. (3) and NTU is
calculated using Eq.(2)

7.7. Tabulation of Results and Performance Plots: For all the trails the LMTD, capacity ratio R, the
effectiveness ε and NTU are calculated for all the trials and results are tabulated as shown below.

Table 7.2. Results for Parallel Flow Arrangement

Trial No 1 2 3 4
Flow Arrangement Parallel Flow Arrangement
Capacity Ratio (R)
Number of Transfer Units (NTU)
Effectiveness (ε)
Mean Temperature Difference (LMTD)

A plot of NTU versus ε is drawn using R as the parameter.

(Note: The above procedure is repeated for counter flow arrangement also)

7.8. Reference Books :

1 Incropera, F. P. and D. P. DeWitt, Bergman,T.L.,Lavine,A.s.,”Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer”,

6thedition, John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 2007.

2 Çengel, Yunus A., Heat Transfer: A Practical Approach, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2003.

75
8.EXPERIMENT ON FILM WISE AND DROP WISE CONDENSATION ON A SINGLE
VERTICAL TUBE

8.1. Objectives: (i) To determine the average heat transfer coefficient for film-wise condensation on a
vertical tube and compare it with the value obtained using standard correlation.
(ii) To determine the average heat transfer coefficient for dropwise condensation on a vertical tube and
compare it with film-wise condensation heat transfer coefficient.

8.2. Introduction: Knowledge of heat transfer occurring during change of phase i.e. during
condensation and boiling is very useful in a number of ways. For example in all power and refrigeration
cycles, it is necessary to convert a liquid into a vapour and vice-versa. This is accomplished in boilers or
evaporators and condensers.

Heat transfer coefficients in both condensation and boiling are generally much
higher than those encountered in single phase processes. Values greater than 1000 W/(m2-K) are almost
always obtained. This fact has been used in several recent applications where it is desired to transfer
high heat fluxes with modest temperature differences. An example is the “heat pipe” which is a device
capable of transferring a large quantity of heat with very small temperature differences.

Film-wise and Drop-wise condensation: Condensation occurs whenever a vapour comes into contact
with a surface at a temperature lower than the saturation temperature of the vapour corresponding to its
vapour pressure. The nature of condensation depends on whether the liquid thus formed wets the solid
surface or does not wet the surface. If the liquid wets the surface, the condensate flows on the surface in
the form of a film and the process is called “film-wise condensation”. If on the other hand, the liquid
does not wet the surface, the condensate collects in the form of droplets, which either grow in size or
coalesce with neighboring droplets and eventually roll of the surface under the influence of gravity.
This type of condensation is called “drop-wise condensation”.

The rate of heat transfer during the two types of condensation processes is quite
different. For the same temperature difference between the vapour and the surface, the heat transfer
rates in drop-wise condensation are significantly higher than those in film-wise condensation. Therefore
it is preferable to have drop-wise condensation from the designer’s point of view if the thermal
resistance on the condensing side is a significant part of the total thermal resistance. However it is
generally observed that, although drop-wise condensation may be obtained on new surfaces, it is
difficult to maintain drop-wise condensation continuously and prolonged condensation results in a
change to film-wise condensation. Therefore it is still the practice to design condensers under the
conservative assumption that the condensation is of film type.

8.3. Nusselt’s theory for laminar film-wise condensation on a plane vertical surface: The problem of
laminar film-wise condensation on a plane vertical surface was first analytically solved by Nusselt in
1916.He made the following simplifying assumptions in his analysis.
(i) The fluid properties are constant.
(ii) The plane surface is maintained at a uniform temperature, T w which is less than the saturation
temperature Tv of the vapour.

76
(iii) The vapour is stationary or has a very low velocity and so it does not exert any drag on the motion
of the condensate: i.e., the shear stress at the liquid-vapour interface is zero.
(iv) The flow velocity of the condensate layer is so low that the acceleration of the condensate is
negligible.
(v) The downward flow of the condensate under the action of gravity is laminar.
(vi) Heat transfer across the condensate layer is purely by conduction; hence the liquid temperature
distribution is linear.

[τ + (∂τ/∂y)dy]dx
x pdy τdx
pdy
δ

dx

(p+dp)dy (p+dp)dy

ρLdxdyg ρvdxdyg
(a) Force balance on a condensate (b) Force balance on a vapour element
element at the same distance x from top
Fig. 8.1 : Laminar film condensation on a vertical plate

Consider the film-wise condensation on a vertical plate as illustrated in Fig.8.1. Here ‘x’ is the
coordinate measured downwards along the plate, and ‘y’ is the coordinate measured normal to the plate
from the plate surface. The condensate thickness at any x is represented by δ [ δ = δ(x)]. The velocity
distribution u(y) at any location x can be determined by making a force balance on a condensate
element of dimensions dx and dy in x and y directions as shown in Fig. 8.1(a). Since it is assumed that
there is no acceleration of the liquid in x direction, Newton’s second law in x direction gives

ρLdxdyg + pdy + [τ + (∂τ/∂y)dy]dx −τdx − (p + dp)dy = 0

or (∂τ/∂y) = (dp/dx) −ρ Lg …………………………………..(8.1)

Expression for (dp/dx) in terms of vapour density ρv can be obtained by making a force

balance for a vapour element as shown in Fig. 8.1(b). The force balance gives

ρvdxdyg + pdy = (p + dp) dy

77
or (dp/dx) = ρ vg

Substituting this expression for dp/dx in Eq. (8.1) we have

(∂τ/∂y) = (ρv−ρL)g

Since the flow is assumed to be laminar, τ = μL(∂u/∂y)

Therefore ∂/∂y{μ L (∂u/∂y)} = (ρv−ρL)g

Integrating with respect to y we have μL (∂u/∂y) = (ρv−ρL)g y + C1

(ρv−ρL)g y C1
Or (∂u/∂y) = --------------- + ------- ……(8.2)
μL μL

Integrating once again with respect to y we get

(ρv−ρL)g y2 C1 y
u(y) = ---------------- + ------------- + C2 ......(8.3)
2 μL μL

The boundary conditions for the condensate layer are: (i) at y = 0, u = 0;

(ii) at y = δ, (∂u/∂y) = 0.

Condition (i) in Eq. (8.3) gives C2 = 0 and condition (ii) in Eq. (8.2) gives

(ρv−ρL)g δ C1
0 = ------------- + ---------
2 μL μL

(ρv−ρL)g δ
Therefore C1 = − --------------
2

Substituting for C1 and C2 in Eq.(8.3) we get the velocity distribution in the condensate layer as

g(ρL − ρv)
u(y) = --------------- [ δy – (y2/2)] …………………(8.4)
μL

If ‘m’ is the mass flow rate of the condensate at any x then

δ
m = ∫ρLudy
0

78
 δ
m = ∫ ρL{ g(ρL − ρv) / μL}[ δy – (y2/2)]dy
0

g ρL (ρL − ρv) δ 3
= ------------------ ………………………………..(8.5)
3 μL

g ρL (ρL − ρv) δ 2 dδ
Hence dm = ----------------------
μL

Amount of heat transfer across the condensate element = dq = dm hfg

g ρL (ρL − ρv) δ 2 dδ hfg

Or dq = ------------------------- ………………………….(8.6)
μL

Energy balance for the condensate element shown in the figure can be written as

dq = kL(Tv – Tw)dx / δ

g ρL (ρL − ρv) δ 2 dδ hfg

Or ------------------------- = kL(Tv – Tw)dx / δ ………….(8.7)
μL

kL μL (Tv – Tw)dx
or δ dδ = ----------------------
3

g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg

Integrating we get

δ4 kL μL (Tv – Tw)x
----- = --------------------- + C 3
4 g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg

At x = 0, δ = 0. Hence C3 = 0.

Therefore δ4 kL μL (Tv – Tw)x

----- = ---------------------
4 g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg

79
 4 kL μL (Tv – Tw)x
or δ = [-------------------------- ] 1/ 4 ……………………(8.8)
g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg

Now kL (Tv – Tw)dx

----------------- = hx dx [Tv – Tw]
δ
kL g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg kL3
Therefore hx = --------- = [ --------------------------] 1 / 4
δ 4 μL (Tv – Tw)x

g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg kL3

Or hx = 0.707[ --------------------------] 1 / 4 ...............................(8.9)
μL (Tv – Tw)x

The local Nusselt number Nux can therefore be written as

hxx g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg x3

Nux = ----- = 0.707[ --------------------------] 1 / 4 ...............................(8.10)
kL μL (Tv – Tw)kL

The average heat transfer coefficient for a length L of the plate is given by
L
hav = (1/L) ∫ hxdx ………………………………………(8.11)
0

It can be seen from Eq. (8.8) that hx = C x − ¼ , where C is a constant given by

g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg kL3

Or C = 0.707[ --------------------------] 1 / 4 …………………(8.12)
μL (Tv – Tw)

L
Hence hav = (1/L) C ∫ x − ¼ dx = (C / L) (4/3) L− ¼ = (4/3)C L− ¼
0

Substituting for C from Eq. (8.10) we have

g ρL (ρL − ρv) hfg kL3

hav = 0.943[ --------------------------] 1 / 4 = (4/3)hx|x = L .........................(8.13)
μL (Tv – Tw)
The above expression can also be written in terms of Reynolds number as follows:

80
 1.47
hav = --------- [(k3 ρ2g) / μ2]0.33 …………………..(8.14)
Re0.33

Where Re is the Reynolds number given by

4 msteam
Re = ----------------- ………………………………(8.15)
πd μ

8.4. Experimental setup: The experimental setup consists of an electric generator to generate steam
instantaneously and the steam is made to condense on two vertical acrylic transparent hollow cylinders.
On one cylinder the condensation will be film-wise while on the other cylinder it will be drop-wise. The
cooling water to condense steam is made to flow through these hollow cylinders. The flow of water is
regulated by means of a pump. The schematic for the experiment is shown in Fig. 8.1. Provisions are
made to measure the cooling water flow rate, condensate flow rate, the outer surface temperature of the
acrylic cylinder, the pressure of steam condensing and the inlet and exit temperature of the cooling
water.

8.5. Specimen calculations for Film-wise condensation:

Outer diameter of condensing surface = d = 0.038 m ;

Length of the condensing surface = L = 0.2 m ;

81
Surface temperature = Ts = 97.4 0C ;

Pressure of steam condensing = 9 psig = (9 + 14.504) / 14.504 = 1.62 bar

Saturation temperature at 1.62 bar = Tsat = 113.246 0C (From steam tables)

Inlet temperature of cooling water = Twi = 28.9 0C ;

Exit temperature of cooling water = Two = 43.4 0C

Volume flow rate of cooling water = Vw = 2.3 x 10 − 3 m3 / min = 3.833 x 10 − 5 m3 / s ;

Volume flow rate of condensate = Vs = Volume of steam admitted / time

= 180 x 10 − 6 / (2 x 60) = 1.5 x 10 − 6 m3 / s ;

Mass flow rate of water = mw = ρw Vw = 1000 x 3.833 x 10 − 5 = 0.03833 kg/s

Specific volume of condensate = vs = vf at 1.62 bar = 1.0546 x 10 − 3 m3 / kg .

Condensate flow rate = msteam = Vs / vs

= 1.5 x 10 − 6 / (1.0546 x 10 − 3) = 1.42 x 10 − 3 kg/s.

Heat carried away by cooling water = Qw = mwCpw [Two – Twi]

= 0.03833 x 4.180 x [43.4 – 28.9]

= 2.3233 kW

Heat given out by steam due to condensation = Qsteam = msteam hfg

Mean film temperature = Tm = 0.5 x (Tsat + Ts) = 0.5 x (113.246 + 97.4) = 105.3 0C.

Properties of condensate at Tm are: μ = 270.65 x 10 − 6 kg / (m – s); k = 0.684 W/(m-K)

ρ = 954.7 kg / m3 ; hfg = 2243.7 kJ/kg

Hence Qsteam = 1.42 x 10 − 3 x 2243.7 == 3.186 kW

Condensation heat transfer coefficient = hav = Qsteam / {πdL(Tsat – Ts)}

3.186 x 1000
= ------------------------------------------- W/(m2 – K)
[ π x 0.038 x 0.2 x (113.246 – 97.4)

82
 = 8421.1W/(m2 – K)
To find hav using standard correlation:

4msteam 4 x 1.42 x 10 − 3
Reynolds number for the condensate = Re = ------------- = --------------------------------------
πd μ π x 0.038 x 270.65 x 10 − 6

= 175.8
Since Re < 1800, condensate flow is laminar.
1.47
Hence hav = --------- [(k3 ρ2g) / μ2]0.33
Re0.33

1.47 x [(0.684)3x (954.7)2x 9.81]0.33

= --------------------------------------------- = 8052 W / m2 - K
(175.8)0.33 x [270.65 x 10 − 6] 2

Difference between the experimental value and the value obtained from correlation

is given by : Percent difference = (8421.1 – 8052) / 8421.1 = 0.044

= 4.4 %

The correlation predicts a value of hav which is 4.4 % lower than the experimental value.

8.6. Specimen calculations for drop-wise condensation:

Pressure of condensing steam = 15 psig = (15 + 14.504) / 14.504 = 2.034 bar

Condensing surface temperature = Ts = 102 0C ;

Cooling water inlet temperature = Twi = 29.3 0C.

Cooling water exit temperature = Two = 45.5 0C.

Cooling water volume flow rate = Vw = 3 x 10 − 3 m3 / min = 5 x 10 − 5 m3/s.

Volume of condensate collected per second = Vsteam = Volume collected / time

=190 x 10 − 6 / 120 = 1.583 x 10 − 6 m3/s

Temperature of condensing steam = Tsat = saturation temperature at 2.034 bar

83
 = 120.74 0C

Mean film temperature = 0.5 x (120.74 + 102) = 111.4 0C

Specific volume of condensate = vsteam = vf at 111.40C = 0.001053 m3 / kg

Latent heat of steam = hfg = 2227.5 kJ/kg

Mass of steam condensed = msteam = Vsteam / vsteam = 1.583 x 10 − 6 / 0.001053

= 1.5033 x 10 − 3 kg/s

Heat lost by steam = Qsteam = msteam hfg = 1.5033 x 10 − 3 x 2227.5 = 3.349 kW

Average heat transfer coefficient = hav = Qsteam / [πdL (Tsat – Ts)]

3.349 x 1000
Or hav = ------------------------------------------- = = 7485 W /(m2 – K)
π x 0.038 x 0.2 x (120.74 – 102)

This value of hav is compared with the value for film-wise condensation obtained using well established
correlation as shown below.

Properties of condensate at mean film temperature of 111.4 0C are:

ρ = 949.9 kg / m3 ; μ = 255.9 x 10 − 6 kg/(m-s) ; k = 0.68514 W/(m-K)

4 msteam 4 x 1.533 x 10 − 3
Reynolds number = Re = ------------ = ---------------------------------
πdμ π x 0.038 x 255.9 x 10 − 6

= 200.7

Since Re < 1800 the condensate flow is laminar.

1.47
Hence hav = --------- [(k3 ρ2g) / μ2]0.33
Re0.33

1.47 x [(0.68514)3 x (949.9)2 x 9.81] 0.33

= --------------------------------------------------- = 5787.4 W / (m2 – K)
(200.7)0.33 x (255.9 x 10 − 6) 0.67

It can be seen that hav for drop-wise condensation is about 29 % more than that for film-wise
condensation.

84
9. DETERMINATION OF STEFAN-BOLTZMAN CONSTANT FOR THERMAL RADIATION

9.1.Objectives: To determine the Stefan-Boltzman constant for thermal radiation.

9.2. Introduction & Background Theory: Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by a body as a result
of its finite temperature. In contrast to heat transfer trough convection and conduction, radiation heat
transfer does not require a medium and can occur in a vacuum. This is because thermal radiation energy
is a type of electromagnetic radiation and like other types of electromagnetic radiation it can travel
through vacuum at the speed of light.Since it is the only mode of heat transfer that can take place
through vacuum, radiative heat transfer is the mode of heat exchange between the Sun and the Earth;
hence the term solar radiation.

Fig. 9.1. Radiative properties of a surface

Fig. 9.1 shows that when radiant enrgy,G (W / m2) is incident on a surface, portions of it can be
reflected, absorbed and/or transmitted. The relative fractions that are reflected, absorbed and transmitted
are determined by the radiative properties namely reflectivity, ρ absorptivity, α and transmissivity, τ of
the surface which is receiving the radiation. From the law of conservation of energy it follows that

G = ρG + αG + Gτ

Or ρ + α + τ = 1 ………………………………………………..(9.1)

In addition to the above, the surface also emits energy via radiation where the amount of energy emitted
by the surface is given by the “Stefan-Boltzman law”:

E = εσT 4……………………………………………………(9.2)

In Eq. (9.2) E is the energy emitted by the surface per unit area of the surface, also called as “Emissive
power or emittance”, ε is called “emissivity” of the surface, σ is called the “Stefan-Boltzman constant”
and is found to be equal to 5.67 x 10 – 8 W / (m2 K4) and T is the absolute temperature of the surface in
degrees Kelvin.The emissivity of a body is a dimensionless number and can vary between 0 and 1.A

85
surface with ε = 1 is called as a perfect radiator and is called as a “black body”. For real surfaces ε <
1.Hence Eq. (9.2) for a black body can be written as

Eb = σT 4 ………………………………………………………(9.3)

From Eq.(9.2) and Eq. (9.3) it follows that

ε = E / Eb ………………………………………………………(9.4)

In Eq. (9.4) both E and Eb should be evaluated at the same temperature T.

Two experimental facilities are available in the laboratory: one to determine the Stefan-Boltzman
constant, σ (verification of Stefan-Boltzman law) and the other to determine the emissivity of a given
surface

Thermal Radiation Spectrum: Electromagnetic radiation, like all other forms of radiation, travels at the
speed of light, c which is related to its wave length, λ, and frequency, ν by the equation

c = νλ …………………………………………(9.5)

where c = 3 x 10 8 m/s. Thermal radiation spans only a portion of the entire electromagnetic

Fig. 9.2: Thermal radiation portion of the Electromagnetic Sprctrum

Spectrum, which ranges from X-rays to microwaves. The thermal spectrum spans a range of wave
length from 0.1 μm to 100 μm, which, as shown in Fig. 9.2, includes the entire visible spectrum.
Whether thermal radiation is visible, and at what colour, is a function of the portion of the radiation
which falls within the visible spectrum. The total amount of thermal radiation emitted by a surface is a
direct function of the absolute temperature of the surface. In addition, the way in which this total
amount is distributed over the thermal radiation spectrum as a function of λ also
depends on the absolute temperature of the surface. Planck’s law of radiation gives this distribution for
a black body which is shown in Fig. 9.3. The figure shows that energy radiated by a black body varies
continuously with wave length at any given temperature. It also illustrates that at a lower temperatures

86
most of the energy is outside the visible spectrum. However as the temperature increases, more and
more energy is shifted to shorter wavelengths, and into the

Fig. 9.3: Spectral distribution of a black body emissive power

visible spectrum region. The dependence of spectral distribution on temperature also explains why
colour of a body changes as a body is heated: from black to dark red to bright red to yellow and finally
to white hot.The overall intensity of thevisible light from an object also increases with temperature
since a large percentage of the total energy radiated is in the visible spectrum

9.3.Experimental Set-up for Determination of Stefan-Boltzman Constant: The facility to determine

the constant σ consists of a flanged copper hemispherical shell B (Fig. 9.4) which is fixed to a non-
conducting plate A. The outer surface of B is enclosed in a metal water jacket used to heat the copper
shell to any desired temperature. The shell shape is chosen as hemispherical to see that the water in the
jacket is drained off easily. Four chromel-alumel thermocouples are fixed
at various points on the surface of the shell to measure the shell surface temperature. The disc D is
mounted in an insulated bakelite sleeve S fits in a hole drilled in the centre of the base plate A. The base
of sleeve S is conveniently supported from the underside of A. A chromel-alumel thermocouple is
attached to the disc to measure its temperature at any time.

9.4. Experimental Procedure: The experiment is conducted under unsteady st

ate conditions.Hot water at a temperature sufficiently higher than the atmospheric temperature from a
constant temperature bath is admitted to the water jacket surrounding the copper shell up to the level

87
marked in the water level indicator. Immediately the readings of all thermocouples are noted. These
are the temperatures at time t =0. Then thermocouple readings are noted down at time intervals of 5
seconds until steady state conditions are reached. The Stefan-Boltzman constant is then calculated as
shown in the next section.

9.5.Experimental Data:

Inside diameter of the copper shell = Di = 200 mm.

Test disc diameter = d = 20 mm

Mass of the test disc = m = 0.005 kg.

Specific heat of the test disc = Cp = 0.4187 kJ/(kg-K)

T1, T2, T3 and T4 are the temperatures recorded by the four thermocouple fixed to the surface of the
.shell

Td = Temperature of the disc.

εd = Emissivity of the disc = 0.95 (as the disc is coated with lamp black)

88
Table 9.1: Experimental Data
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Trial Thermocouple Readings ( 0C )
No T1 T2 T3 T4 Td
1
2
3

Energy balance equation for the disc at any time t is given by

Heat transfer rate to the disc from the inner surface of the shell

= Rate of increase of energy of the shell

The heat transfer to disc from the shell is both by radiation and free convection.Hence the energy
balance equation can be written as

Qconvection + QRadiation = (dE / dt)disc

hA(Ts – Td) + εd σ (Ts4 – Td4) = mCp (dTd /dt) …………………………………..(9.6)

where Ts = (T1 + T2 + T3 + T4) / 4. Solving for σ from Eq. (9.6) we get

[ mCp (dTd /dt) - hA(Ts – Td)]

σ = ------------------------------------ ……………………………..(9.7)
εd (Ts4 – Td4)

Eq. (9.7) is valid for any time t>0. Hence a graph of Temeperature of the disc,T d versus time t is plotted
and the value of (dTd /dt) at t = 0 is obtained from the graph.At the same time instant T s is also
calculated .These values are then used in Eq. (9.7) to determine σ.Eq. (13.7) also requires the value of
the free convection heat transfer coefficient h.Since the area of the disc is very small and the free
convection heat transfer coefficient for air is very small the free convection contribution to the heat
transfer to the disc is negligible. Hence Eq. (9.7) reduces to

mCp (dTd /dt)

σ = ----------------------- …………… ……………………………..(9.8)
εd (Ts4 – Td4)

The experiment is repeated 3 times to get consistent results.

89
10. DETERMINATION OF EMISSIVITY OF A GIVEN SURFACE

10.1. Objective: To determine the emissivity of the given non-black surface at a specified temperature.

10.2. Introduction & Background Theory: Thermal radiation is the energy emitted by a body as a
result of its finite temperature. In contrast to heat transfer trough convection and conduction, radiation
heat transfer does not require a medium and can occur in a vacuum. This is because thermal radiation
energy is a type of electromagnetic radiation and like other types of electromagnetic radiation it can
travel through vacuum at the speed of light.Since it is the only mode of heat transfer that can take place
through vacuum, radiative heat transfer is the mode of heat exchange between the Sun and the Earth;
hence the term solar radiation.

Fig. 10.1. Radiative properties of a surface

Fig. 10.1 shows that when radiant enrgy,G (W / m2) is incident on a surface, portions of it can be
reflected, absorbed and/or transmitted. The relative fractions that are reflected, absorbed and transmitted
are determined by the radiative properties namely reflectivity, ρ absorptivity, α and transmissivity, τ of
the surface which is receiving the radiation. From the law of conservation of energy it follows that
G = ρG + αG + Gτ

Or ρ + α + τ = 1 ………………………………………………..(9.1)

In addition to the above, the surface also emits energy via radiation where the amount of energy emitted
by the surface is given by the “Stefan-Boltzman law”:

E = εσT 4……………………………………………………(9.2)

In Eq. (9.2) E is the energy emitted by the surface per unit area of the surface, also called as “Emissive
power or emittance”, ε is called “emissivity” of the surface, σ is called the “Stefan-Boltzman constant”
and is found to be equal to 5.67 x 10 – 8 W / (m2 K4) and T is the absolute temperature of the surface in
degrees Kelvin.The emissivity of a body is a dimensionless number and can vary between 0 and 1.A

90
surface with ε = 1 is called as a perfect radiator and is called as a “black body”. For real surfaces ε <
1.Hence Eq. (9.2) for a black body can be written as

Eb = σT 4 ………………………………………………………(9.3)

From Eq.(9.2) and Eq. (9.3) it follows that

ε = E / Eb ………………………………………………………(9.4)

In Eq. (9.4) both E and Eb should be evaluated at the same temperature T.

Two experimental facilities are available in the laboratory: one to determine the Stefan-Boltzman
constant, σ (verification of Stefan-Boltzman law) and the other to determine the emissivity of a given
surface

Thermal Radiation Spectrum: Electromagnetic radiation, like all other forms of radiation, travels at the
speed of light, c which is related to its wave length, λ, and frequency, ν by the equation

c = νλ …………………………………………(9 .5)

where c = 3 x 10 8 m/s. Thermal radiation spans only a portion of the entire electromagnetic

Fig. 9.2: Thermal radiation portion of the Electromagnetic Sprctrum

Spectrum, which ranges from X-rays to microwaves. The thermal spectrum spans a range of wave
length from 0.1 μm to 100 mμ, which, as shown in Fig. 9.2, includes the entire visible spectrum.
Whether thermal radiation is visible, and at what colour, is a function of the portion of the radiation
which falls within the visible spectrum. The total amount of thermal radiation emitted by a surface is a
direct function of the absolute temperature of the surface. In addition, the way in which this total
amount is distributed over the thermal radiation spectrum as a function of λ also
depends on the absolute temperature of the surface. Planck’s law of radiation gives this distribution for
a black body which is shown in Fig. 9.3. The figure shows that energy radiated by a black body varies
continuously with wave length at any given temperature. It also illustrates that at a lower temperatures

91
most of the energy is outside the visible spectrum. However as the temperature increases, more and
more energy is shifted to shorter wavelengths, and into the

Fig. 9.3: Spectral distribution of a black body emissive power

visible spectrum region. The dependence of spectral distribution on temperature also explains why
colour of a body changes as a body is heated: from black to dark red to bright red to yellow and finally
to white hot.The overall intensity of thevisible light from an object also increases with temperature
since a large percentage of the total energy radiated is in the visible spectrum .

10.3. Experimental Set-up for Measurement of Emissivity of a given Surface:The set-up consists of an
enclosure which houses a pair of metal discs of same diameter, same thickness and made of same
material. Each disc can be heated from the bottom by a electric heater and the power output from each
heater can be adjusted to any desired value with the help of a regulator. The bottom of the discs are very
well insulated so that the heat loss from the bottom surfaces of the discs are minimized. One of the discs
top surface is painted lampblack so that its emissivity is almost equal to 0.95. The geometric and
material similarity of two discs ensures that the conduction losses and convection losses between the
disc and the ambient will remain same if the power output from both the heaters are equal.
Thermocouples are fixed on the surface of each disc at their geometric centres and one thermocouple is
provided to measure the enclosure temperature.The output from each heater is measured using a
wattmeter.

92
10.4. Experimental Procedure: The heaters for both the discs are switched on and the heater output for
the standard disc (disc painted with lamp balck) is set to the desired output. The regulators of the two
heaters are adjusted in such a way that under steady state conditions the power output of the two
heaters are the same. When these conditions are satisfied the power output of the two heaters and all
the thermocouple readings are noted and tabulated as shown below. The experiment is repeated one
more time with different value for power output from the heaters emissivity is calculated as shown
below for the two trials.

10.5. Experimental Data:

Diameter of the disc = D = 0.20 m

εb = Emissivity of the standard disc = 0.95 (assumed)

Q b = Power output of the heater heating the standard disc (Disc coated with lampblack) = 0.056 kW

Qt = Power output of the heater heating the disc whose emissivity has to be measured = 0.056 kW

Thermocouple readings (0C)

Trial Standard Disc Test Disc Enclosure

No Tb Tt T∞
1 T b1 Tt1 T∞
2 T b2 Tt2 T∞

10.6. Working Formula for Determination of Emissivity:

Under steady state conditions law of conservation of energy for the black surface can be written as:

Qb = [Qrad]b + [Qconv]b + [Qlosses]b …………………………..(10.1)

Similarly for the test disc we have

Qt = [Qrad]t + [Qconv]t + [Qlosses]t …………………………..(10.2)

Qb = Qt and [Qlosses]b = [Qlosses] t. Substituting these conditions in Eq.(a) and (b) we get

[Qrad]b + [Qconv]b = [Qrad]t + [Qconv]t

Or σεb Ab [ Tb4 - T∞4] + hb Ab [Tb - T∞] = σεt At [ Tt4 - T∞4] + ht At [Tt - T∞]

Where hb and ht are the free convective heat transfer coefficients for the two surfaces (horizontal
surfaces with heated surface facing upwards).Since Ab = At the above equation when solved for the
unknown emissivity, εt can be written as follows.

93
 σεb [ Tb4 - T∞4] + hb [Tb - T∞] – ht [Tt - T∞]
εt = ------------------------------------------------------ ………(10.3)
σ[ Tt4 - T∞4]

10.7. Specimen Calculations:

Trial No 2: To find ht:- Characteristic length = L = A / P = (πD2/4) / (πD) = D / 4 = 0.2 /4 = 0.05 m.

Mean film temperature Tm = (Tt1 + T∞) / 2 =

Thermo physical Properties of air are read at Tm 0C from data hand book.

g β (Tt - T∞) L 3
RaL = --------------------- Pr =
ν2

From heat transfer data hand book, for this value of RaL for horizontal heated surface facing upwards
suitable correlation is chosen to find the average Nusselt number,Nuav

Then ht = Nuav k / D =

The emissivity is now calculated using the expression given in Eq.(10.3).

94