The nearest planet to the sun
o Mercury is the closest planet to the sun, and
ORIGIN OF SOLAR SYSTEM
Big Bang Theory
o According to the big bang theory, the universe
was once very small and very hot, and then it
expanded over time until it reached it speak
around 13.7 billion years ago.
o The big bang model also asserts that seconds
after the explosion, the surroundings were at a
high temperature of about 10 billion degrees
Fahrenheit (5.5 billion Celsius) with aggregates
of fundamental particles such as neutron,
electron, and protons.
o It began nearly 13.8 billion years ago with a
massive expansion. It started from a single
point
STEADY STATE THEORY
o Everything is the same”
o Galaxies are not moving away from each
other
o Stars are being made in the center of the
galaxies that spiral out the center.
o Galaxies reabsorb energy given off by strs
throughout their lifecycle
o Energy is reused to produce new stars
o No expansion and contraction
o Failed to explain Cosmic Microwave
Background
Cosmic Inflation Theory
o The most recent cosmic inflation theory was
proposed by physicists Alan Guth (1947-
present) and Andrei Linde (1948-present) in
the 1980’s. The term inflation refers to the rapid
expansion of space-time
o According to this theory, the early universe
was a rapidly expanding bubble of pure
vacuum energy. It did not have any matter or
radiation. After the expansion and cooling
arising from this inflation, the potential energy
converted into kinetic energy of matter and
radiation. Then, a big bang occurred because
of the extremely hot, dense condition of
matter.
ABOUT THE PLANETS
How many planets are there in the Solar System?
o There are eight planets in the solar system:
Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus, and Neptune
it’s also the smallest, only a little bit larger
than Earth’s moon.
The second nearest planet to the sun
o Venus is the second planet from the sun,
Venus is Earth’s twin in size
The third planet from the sun
o The Earth is the third planet from the
sun, Earth is a water world, with two-thirds
of the planet covered by ocean.
The fourth planet from the sun
o What We Know About the Red
Planet. Mars is the fourth planet from the
sun.
The fifth planet from the sun
o Jupiter is the fifth planet from our Sun and
is, by far, the largest planet in the solar
system – more than twice as massive as all
the other planets combined.
The sixth planet from the sun
o Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun and
the second largest planet in our solar
system
The seventh planet from the sun
o Uranus is the seventh planet from the Sun.
Its name is a reference to the Greek god of
the sky
The eight planets from the sun
o The eighth planet from the sun, Neptune is
about the size of Uranus and is known for
supersonic strong winds.
How old is our Solar System?
o Our solar system formed about 4.5 billion
years ago from a dense cloud of interstellar
gas and dust
The coldest planet in our solar system
o The seventh planet from the
sun, Uranus has the coldest atmosphere of
any of the planets in the solar system
The smallest planet in our solar system
o Mercury is the smallest planet in our solar
system—only slightly larger than Earth’s
Moon.
How many moons are there in out solar system
o There are more than 200 moons in our solar
system. Most orbit the giant planet with
Saturn and Jupiter leading moon counts
What planet in the solar system has the most
volcanic activity?
o The surface of Venus is dominated by
volcanic features and has more volcanoes
than any other planet in the Solar System
The largest ring system
o Saturn’s ring system is the most extensive
and complex in our solar system; it extends
hundreds of thousands of kilometers from
the planet
Theories on the Origin of the Solar System
o Nebular Hypothesis
o Planetesimal & Tidal Theories
✓ It is said that the solar system was formed
from a rotating gas cloud or nebula of
extremely hot gas.
✓ The gravitational pull of a passing star
raised tides on the surface of the sun.
✓ Some of this erupted matter detached and
plunged into elliptical orbits around the
sun.
✓ Some cooled down and become solid
bodies called planetesimals.
Revolve – The action of a smaller object circling
around a larger object.
Rotate- The action of an object spinning on its axis.
There are 8 planets and 5 dwarfs planet found
Inner planets
o Mercury
o Venus
o Earth
o Mars
Outer planets
o Jupiter
o Uranus
o Saturn
o Neptune
Their differences:
o Inner planets have many craters due to
asteroids and meteorites.
o Outer planets are much larger and are
made of gas.
Advancements and Discoveries on the Solar System
• In 2006, Pluto was observed to belong in a
different region, the Kuiper Belt.
• Mars may have had prehistoric living forms.
• The expansion of the universe accelerating.
• The farthest interstellar travel is outside the
solar system.
Big Crunch
o The universe at a certain point in time will
stop expanding and collapse into itself,
pulling everything in until eventually it
becomes a blackhole.
EARTH SUBSYSTEM
o The Earth’s unification comprises of complex
subsystems- geosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and biosphere- that interact
respectively to carry out various natural
processes.
o These processes (physical, chemical, and
biological) are possible due to the configuration
of these subsystem.
THE GEOSPHERE
Characteristics of Geosphere
o It is the portion of Earth that includes the interior
structure, rocks and minerals, and landforms,
and all the physical processes on land that
shape Earth’s surface.
o Continents and the ocean floor (solid ground)
o People who study geosphere are called
geologist.
o Geosphere- covers all the solid part of Earth,
from its surface up to the depth of core, unlike
the lithosphere-covers only the crust
THE HYDROSPHERE
Characteristics of Hydrosphere
o All the waters found on Earth. It includes all forms
whether, ice, liquid, or vapor found on the
surface, below, and in the atmosphere (in
gaseous form).
o Covers 70% of Earth’s composition
 The Importance of Water
o Associated with the existence of life. Thus, its
traces were mostly associated with possibility of
survival.
o Necessary for sustenance of different organisms
o Prevents dehydration leading to serious
complications
Among the properties of water that make it vital are
the following:
1.Water could be in liquid form, not just solid and gas.
o It has the characteristic to flow and travel to
different places and reach organisms. The
liquidity it possesses makes it easy to circulate in
the internal body systems of organisms.
2. Water has neutral pH.
o Neither acidic nor alkaline (or basic), it can be
readily consumed by organisms without any
harmful reactions.
3. Water is a good conductor of heat and energy.
o The ability of water to transfer heat and energy
has helped regulate the overall temperature of
Earth, which allows living things to effectively
process body activities.
4. Water has a high specific heat.
o Specific heat relates to the amount of heat
necessary for any object to raise its temperature
or adapt to any changes in atmospheric shifting.
5. Water is a universal solvent.
o Solvent- ability to dissolve substances
The Hydrological Cycle
o Water circulates everywhere on Earth. It is made
possible due to the interaction of energy and
matter that allows the transformation from one
phase to another. Also, this cycle maintain the
existence of different life processes.
o Liquid water- is converted to vapor when
temperature increases.
o Gaseous water- is collected when the
temperature changes.
o Liquid water goes back to rivers, lakes, and
oceans or seeps through the rocks and soil to
reach the water table.
o Hydrological Cycle- when water is in the
atmosphere, it can go back to the ground during
temperature changes and starts the cycle over
again.
Distribution of Waters on Earth
o All the waters found on Earth are natural but not
everything is considered safe for drinking. Only
less than 3% of the world’s waters is considered
potable.
o Divided into two groups: Surface water and
Groundwater
o Surface Water can be either marine or
freshwater. Marine water has higher salt content
and is found on larger bodies such as oceans,
seas, bays, and gulf. While freshwater, has lower
salt content and accounts for about 2% of the
world’s water.
o However, using desalination technology, marine
water can be safe for drinking.
Groundwater
o On the other hand, groundwater is the water
found beneath Earth’s surface where there are
spaces in the soil or fractures in rocks.
Aquifer
o The underground layer of water bearing rocks
Acts as a reservoir for groundwater and may
contain large amounts of minerals such as
magnesium, calcium, etc.
Distillation
o required for prevention of health problems.
There is a limit to our body intake of minerals
thus; we should not exceed its tolerable amount.
Since, it might cause kidney strain leading to
formation of kidney stones
Example: Bottled mineral- processed and contains
the right amount of minerals.
THE ATMOSPHERE
o The primitive atmosphere of Earth is assumed to
be similar to the composition of the solar nebula
from which Earth came from. However, due to
interactions in space, Earth eventually lost its
primitive features.
o The last features were replaced by compounds
released from the crust, impacts of comet, and
other planetary objects rich in volatile materials.
Composition of the Atmosphere
o Composed of 78% nitrogen and 20% oxygen; the
rest is other gases such as carbon dioxide,
argon, and water vapor.
o Carbon Dioxide- was considered to be
predominant because it is one of the escaping
gases from the interior of Earth.
o Nitrogen Gas- thought to have come from
ancient planetary bodies that float around
during early ages.
o Oxygen- it raised dramatically at present after
the organisms are formed.
Layers of the Atmosphere
o Atmosphere- composed of different layers
which vary in thickness, temperature, and
density.
o The layers protect Earth from many external
threats in space, such as planetary debris,
impacts from celestial bodies, and radiation.
o The boundaries were established based on the
temperature trends observed in each layer.
Troposphere
o Considered as the densest among the other
layers since the temperature drops with altitude,
warm air on the surface of Earth rises readily.
o The air molecules travel up and then back down
causing the formation of clouds leading to rain.
o Tropopause- prior to reaching the next layer
above the troposphere is a thin buffer zone.
Stratosphere
o The air in this layer has strong, steady horizontal
winds which is advantageous to long-distance
flights.
o Ozone Layer- located at its upper portion. It
contains a high concentration of ozone. It plays
vital role in absorbing ultraviolet radiation from
the sun.
o Determined by certain sprays and chemicals in
modern appliances that use (ODS) or the ozone-
depleting substances.
o When ODS reach stratosphere and contacts with
ultraviolet radiation in can release chlorine.
o Due to its harmful results it is banned worldwide.
(Examples: hair sprays, insulating foams,
solvents, etc.
o Stratopause- another thin zone exists before the
next layer above the stratosphere.
Mesosphere
o This is the layer above stratosphere.
o Its temperature reaches a minimum of -90
degree Celsius and considered to be the coldest
layer because the heat of the sun has been
decreased by the absorption of thermosphere
and the radiative emissions of carbon dioxide.
o Carbon dioxide in this concept tends to cool the
layer by radiating heat into space
o Mesosphere is important in protecting Earth
from planetary debris.
o Mesopause- the thin buffer zone above the
mesosphere.
Thermosphere
o This is the hottest layer because of its absorption
of highly energetic solar heat but its
temperature may vary on solar activities.
o Extreme heat in this are causes the atmospheric
particles to become electrically charged,
making radio waves to bounce off.
o Ionosphere- the lower part of the thermosphere
where particles and nitrogen go back to their
neutral state, they release photons (light
energy)
o Aurora- release of photons results in a
spectacular display of colorful lights in the sky.
THE BIOSPHERE
o The biosphere makes up all the living
components on Earth including those who have
not yet identified.
o It can exist on land, water, and in air.
The Origin of the Biosphere
Life on Earth is presumed to have begun around 3.9
million years ago from a single primitive living
creature. How it started remain unresolved up to this
time. Therefore, many theories emerged in order to
explain the origin of life.
1. The theory of the primordial soup.
It states that life begun from nonliving matter such
as simple organic compounds.
During primitive years, it was believed that Earth
contains chemicals such as methane, water,
ammonia, and hydrogen gas that accumulate in the
“soup”.
Over time, the first creatures inhabited were single-
celled microorganisms, bacteria, and archaeans.
Today, they adapt and evolved to their new
environments.
2. Deep-sea Vent Theory
o This theory states that life began not on the
surface of Earth but deep down in the sea in
areas known as marine hydrothermal vents.
o Hydrothermal vents- release boiling hot fluids
mixed with toxic chemicals and heavy metals.
o Hydrogen sulphide- is the main compound
spewed out from cracks or fissures on the ocean
floor.
o Chemosynthesis- the bacteria that grow around
the vents absorb hydrogen to create simple
sugar for their food process.
o And in 1990, nanobes were discovered. It is the
organisms smaller than bacteria that contain
DNA.
3. Panspermia
o This hypothesis proposes that life on Earth
actually began somewhere in the universe.
o Life-forms could have been carried by
meteorites, asteroids, or comets as they made
cosmic impact on Earth.
Biosphere & Energy Flow
THE FIVE SPHERES
Hydrosphere
o (water portion)
o Hydrois a Greek root which means water.
o Hydrosphere is composed of all the water
onEarth in any form: water vapor, liquid
water,and ice.
o It is comprised of 97.5% saltwater and
2.5%freshwater.
Atmosphere
o (gaseous envelope)
o The word atmosphere comes from the Greek
root’s atoms-gas, and sphaira-globe or ball.
o The atmosphere makes up of all the gases on
Earth. It is composed of 78% nitrogen,
21%oxygen, 1% argon.
Layers of the Atmosphere
TROPOSPHERE
o Lowest layer
o Starts at the Earth surface and extends to
14.5 km
o Where weather phenomena occur
o Aircrafts/airplanes fly slightly above
o Tropopause – a thin buffer zone or boundary
STRATOSPHERE
o 14.5 km – 50 km from surface
o Where the ozone layer is found
o Stratopause – buffer zone or boundary
Ozone Layer
is the component of the atmosphere that protects
Earth from the harmful UVR of the sun.
MESOSPHERE
o Extends to 85km
o Coldest layer (-90 deg. Celsius)
o Where asteroids/meteors burn up
o Mesopause – buffer zone or boundary
THERMOSPHE
o Extends to 600km
o Hottest region
o Divided into ionosphere – lower part,
exosphere – upper part
o Thermopause – buffer zone or boundary
Geosphere (solid component)
o Geo is a Greek root which means ground.
o Geosphere includes all the soil, rocks, and
minerals present in the crust to the core of the
Earth.
o It is divided into three layers namely crust,
mantle, and core.
Biosphere (living component)
o Bio is a Greek root that means life.
o The biosphere is comprised of all living things.
o Earth is a complex system made up of many
smaller systems through which matter and
energy are continuously cycled. The Earth
consists of four subsystems, across whose
boundaries matter and energy flows, the
atmosphere (air), biosphere (living things),
hydrosphere (water), and geosphere (land).
The atmosphere provides the geosphere with
heat and energy needed for rock breakdown
and erosion. The biosphere receives gases,
heat, and sunlight (energy) from the
atmosphere. It receives water from the
hydrosphere and a living medium from the
geosphere.
 Earth’s Internal Structure
SEISMIC WAVES
o This wave helps seismologists study the interior
structure of the Earth. This is usually produced by
sudden movements of materials within the
earth, especially during earthquakes.
CRUST
o This is the thinnest and outermost layer of the
Earth.
MANTLE
o This compositional layer of the Earth is mainly
solid but, at the same time, is also believed to
somehow behave as a viscous liquid.
MAGNETIC FIELD
o The outer core produces this because of the
flowing liquid iron that generates electric
current. It protects the Earth from the solar wind
and allows life to exist within the atmosphere
ASTHENOSPHERE
o This mechanical layer of the Earth provides
enough lubrication for tectonic plates’ motion.
MESOSPHERE
o It has an extreme condition that primarily
causes minerals to change into various forms
called pseudo morphs.
LITHOSPHERE
o All of the rock from the mountain to the seafloor
is included in this layer. What is it?
DISCONTINUITIES
o Layers of the Earth are separated from each
other because of different transition zones called
MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
o This discontinuity was discovered by the
Croatian seismologist, Andrija Mohorovicic, and
can be found between the crust and mantle of
the Earth.
P WAVE/S / P (PRIMARY) WAVE/S / PRIMARY WAVE/S
o At the Earth’s core, this wave travels at a speed
of 8 km per second. It can also travel through
solid and liquid materials.
INGE LEHMANN
o In 1936, she discovered that the current
assumption about Earth’s core was wrong. Her
findings proved that the core is divided into two
parts; the outer and inner core.
XENOLITHS
o The limited knowledge of scientists is derived
from the pieces of rock that are embedded into
another type of rock or in igneous rock.
layers of the earth based on their chemical
composition.
o CRUST
o MANTLE (UPPER MANTLE AND LOWER MANTLE)
o CORE (OUTER CORE AND INNER CORE)
layers of the earth based on their physical
properties.
o LITHOSPHERE
o ASTHENOSPHERE
o MESOSPHERE
three discontinuities in earth.
o MOHOROVICIC DISCONTINUITY
o GUTENBERG DISCONTINUITY
o LEHMANN DISCONTINUITY
Physical properties of minerals
o The physical properties of minerals can be used
to easily identify a mineral. In some cases, same
minerals may be found in different places and in
different forms but their fundamental physical
properties remain the same.
(Physical Properties of Minerals)
1. Color- is usually the property used to identify
minerals easily. It is a result of the way minerals
absorb light.
2. Streak - is the color of the mineral in powder
form In cases when the color of minerals appear
different because of trace particles inside them,
scientists would pulverize them to get their true
color.
3. Hardness -refers to the measure the relative
hardness of minerals, the Mohs scale is used.
The measure of the mineral's resistance to
scratching.
4. Cleavage and fracture- are used to describe
how minerals break into pieces. Minerals are
crystalline structures and breakage may take
place in weak parts of the structures.
5. Crystalline structure - or the crystal lattice, tells
how a mineral's crystals are arranged. A crystal
solid is said to form a regular repeating three-
dimensional crystal lattice, while an amorphous
solid forms aggregate that have no particular
order or arrangement.
6. Transparency or diaphaneity - indicates the
extent of light that can pass through the
minerally Hence, the degree of transparency
may depend on the thickness of the mineral.
7. Magnetism- indicates the ability of a mineral to
attract or repel other minerals.
8. Tenacity - is the level of resistance or reaction of
minerals to stress such as crushing. bending,
breaking, or tearing. It can tell if a mineral is
brittle, malleable, elastic, etc.
9. Luster- refers to the reaction of a mineral to
light. It determines how brilliant or dull the
mineral is.
10. Odor- is a distinct smell of a mineral that is
usually released from a chemical reaction when
subjected to water, heat, air, or friction. Sulfur, for
example, smells like a lit match. The strength of
this smell increases when the mineral is heated
or struck, giving off an odor similar to rotten
eggs.
11. Specific gravity- is a measure of the density of
a mineral. It determines how heavy the mineral
is by its weight to water. Specific gravity is used
especially when two minerals have the same
size or the same color. The specific gravity of
each mineral can distinguish them apart.
Chemical properties of minerals
o Another way of identifying and classifying
minerals is according to their chemical
composition. This classification was first used in
1848 by James Dana (1813-1895), a Yale
University professor.
Minerals are divided into eight basic classes:
Chemical Properties of Minerals
1. Silicate class- is the largest and most abundant
group containing silicon and oxygen with some
aluminum, magnesium, iron, and calcium. Some
examples of these minerals are feldspar, quartz,
pyroxene, mica, garnet, olivine, and amphibole.
2. Carbonate class- is mostly found deposited in
marine environments. Minerals belonging to this
group are formed from the shells of dead
plankton and other marine organisms. This
group of minerals are also found in areas where
high rates of evaporation take place such as the
Great Salt Lake in Utah. Other places where
these minerals settle are areas where dissolution
of soluble rocks took place (karst region) such
as caves, where stalactites and stalagmites are
formed.
3. Sulphate class - forms in areas with high
evaporation rates and where salty waters slowly
evaporate. Some of the most common sulphate
minerals are anhydrite, celestine, barite, and
gypsum. This class may also include chromate,
molybdate, selenite, sulphite, tellurate, and
tungstate minerals.
4. Halide class- contains natural salts and
includes fluorite, halite, sylvite, and sal
ammoniac components. These minerals usually
form in lakes, ponds, and other landlocked seas
such as the Dead Sea and the Great Salt Lake
Minerals in this class have relatively low
hardness, may be transparent, have good
cleavage, have low specific gravities, and are
poor conductors of heat and electricity.
5. Oxide class - is a diverse class. Metallic minerals
such as hematite and gemstones such as
chrysoberyl and spinel belong to this class. In
science, these minerals are important as they
carry histories of changes in Earth's magnetic
field. They are formed as precipitates close to
Earth's surface or as oxidation products of
minerals during the process of weathering.
6. Sulphide class - has important metals such as
copper, lead, and silver, which are considered
economically significant. These metals are
found in electrical wires, industrial materials, and
other things that are needed in construction.
7. Phosphate class - contains minerals with
phosphorus. The phosphate class is considered
an important biological mineral found in the
teeth and bones of many animals.
8. Native element class- contains metals and
intermetallic elements (e.g., gold, silver. copper),
semimetals, nonmetals (e.g., antimony, bismuth,
graphite, Sulphur) or natural alloys, and
constituents of a few rare meteorites
ROCKS & MINERALS
o The richness of the Philippines in terms of
mineral resources is being attributed to its
location in the so-called pacific ring of fire. This
 area is associated with over 450volcanoes and
is home to approximately75% of the world's
active volcanoes.
Mineral- single element
Rock- consist of different minerals
History tell us that rocks have been used by humans
for more than two million years.
Uses of Rocks
o Lived in caves
o they carved rocks stones to make tools for
hunting animals
o cultivating crops, or weapons for protection
o Rocks, stones, gravel and sand are used to make
roads, buildings, monuments and art objects.
Philippines is listed as:
- 5th mineral country in the world
- 3rd in gold reserves
- 4th in copper
- 5th in nickel
Where do minerals came from?
Mineral crystals can form in two main ways:
o From stuff dissolved in liquids (Evaporation
& Hot Water)
o From Cooling molten material
Minerals and Crystals from Magma & Lava
“Extrusive” Cooling: Lava cools Fast (Short Time =
Small Crystals)
•Minerals form from hot magma as it cools inside the
crust, or as lava cools on the surface.
•When these liquids cool to a solid, they form crystals
(minerals).
•Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to freeze
into a solid.
“Intrusive” Cooling: Magma cools slowly (Long Time =
Large Crystals)
MINERALS CRYSTAL SIZE
When the hot material cools fast, it has smaller
crystal size. When it cools slowly, it has large crystals.
Granite- cooled slowly
Rhyolite- cooled very fast
EXAMPLES OF MINERALS
Quartz-makes glass.
Calcite, Iron
Hematite- can be used to make art
Diamond- make jewelry
In 2008, crystals up to 39 feet long were found in a
cave in Mexico at a depth of 1000 feet. The cave is
extremely hot, with air temperatures reaching 136 °F
with 90 to 99 % humidity. The cave is relatively
unexplored due to these conditions. Without proper
protection, people can only endure about ten
minutes of exposure at a time.
ROCKS
There are THREE major categories of Rocks:
IGNEOUS ROCKS
o Derived from Latin word ignis meaning FIRE. From
magma or molten volcanic materials. Makes up
the 95% of Earth’s crust
o Obsidian, Basalt ,Pumice Granite
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
o From the root word sediments which means
REMAINING PARTICLES. Formed from the
deposition of different materials on Earth’s
surface. Most sediments are found in beaches,
rivers and oceans.
- Fossil, conglomerate rock, Sandstone, Lime
stone
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
o Meta means CHANGE. Morph means FORM.
Rocks that derive from igneous and sedimentary
that were exposed to high pressure, high
temperature or combination of both, deep below
the surface of Earth.
Geologic Processes
EXOGENOUS PROCESS
o Occurs on or near the surface of Earth.
o Driven by gravity, water, wind and organisms.
o It is usually influenced or driven by gravity, water,
wind and organisms.
 Types of Weathering
o It is the disintegration of rocks, soil, and
minerals together with other materials
through contact with Earth’s subsystem.
o Weathering happens even without
movement or transportation.
o The driving force is the thermal energy of
the mantle.
a. Magmatism : magma is generated and
develops into igneous
b. Volcanism: Volcanic eruptions
c. Metamorphism : changing of materials
that make up a rock.

Physical Weathering MAGMATISM

o Magma is generated and develops into
o Breaking down of rocks due to weather igneous. magma is very hot and is
elements: high temperatures, extreme cold constantly Moved by the internal heat that
reaches the mantle of the Earth through
convection flow.
Chemical Weathering
VOLCANISM
o Decomposes rocks through a chemical o It is process that usually happens after magma
change in its minerals. is formed.
o Process when magma tries to escape from the
Types of Chemical Weathering source through openings such as volcanoes or
existing cracks on the ground.
Oxidation – important in iron-rich rocks –reddish
coloration like rust. How Magma is formed?
o Molten rock is referred to as magma when in the
Hydrolysis – igneous rocks have much silica which
readily combines with water. Earth's crust or mantle; and as lava when
exposed on the Earth's surface.
o In order for magma to form, wet or dry melting
of rocks or minerals must occur.
Erosion
o Dry melting occurs when minerals or rocks, with
Process by which Earth’s surface is sworn away by
no carbon dioxide or water in them, are heated
wind, water or ice.
to a specific temperature.
Triggers of Erosion
Metamorphism:
- rainfall
o The process of changing the materials that
- surface runoff
make up a rock
- flowing rivers
o Chemical components and geological
- seawater intrusion
characteristics of rocks change due to heat,
- flooding
fluids and pressure
- freezing and thawing
- hurricane and wind
- human activities Formation of the Different Types of Igneous Rocks

Mass wasting Extrusive rocks are formed on the surface of the

o Movement of large masses of materials Earth from lava, which is magma that has emerged
(rocks, debris, soil and mud) down a slope from underground.
or a steep-sided hill or mountain due to the Intrusive rocks are formed from magma that cools
pull of gravity. and solidifies within the crust of the planet.

Sedimentation TYPES OF STRESS

o Accumulation of materials such as soil, rock
fragments and soil particles settling on the
ground. Usually occurs in streams and sea
erosion.
Endogenous Processes on Earth
o Tension pulls rock apart resulting in normal
faults
o Compression squeezes rock together resulting
in reverse faults
o Sheer stress causes rocks to slide past each
other resulting in strike slip faults

o Takes place within the interior layer of Earth.