Chapter 1:

Mathematics

 Greek word “Mathema” – “that which is learnt”

 Modern Greek word “Mathaimo”
 Meaning of math in encyclopedia - “the science of
structure, order, and relations that has evolved from
elemental practices of counting, measuring, and
describing the shapes and characteristics of
objects”.

Characteristics of Mathematics

 Applicability - mathematics can lie anywhere on a

spectrum from the completely simple (trivial) to the
utterly (complex) mysterious. Mathematics can be
used in all fields of human endeavor.
 Generalization -finding and singling out properties
in a whole class of similar objects.
 Classifications
 Logical sequence
 Structure - a structure on a set is an additional
mathematical object that is related to that given set
in some particular characteristics, in some manner,
attaches to that set to endow it with some additional
meaning or significance.
 Precision and accuracy- accuracy is the degree to
which a given quantity is correct and free from
error. On the other hand, precision is how close the
measured values are to each other.
 Abstractness - the process of extracting the
underlying essence of a mathematical concept. The
process involves taking away any dependence on
real world objects thus generalizing the concept so
that it will have wider applications.
Chapter 2: Nature of Logic  Or
 Implies
Some Elementary Logic
Logical Connectives Conjunction
2. Quantifiers 𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑏𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠. 𝑇ℎ𝑒
3. Negation 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄, 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑
4. Variables 𝑏𝑦 𝑃∧𝑄 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄) 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒
Fundamentals of Logic 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄.
 Definition 𝑊𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑗𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑡.
o A proposition P is a declarative statement
that is true or false but not both.
 If P is true, P is assigned the truth
value 1.
 If P is false, P is assigned the
truth value 0.
o Examples of Proposition
 It is raining.
 When you work hard, you are
rewarded with success.
 There are seven days in one
week.
 Get out! (Not proposition)
 How old are you? (Not
proposition)

Which of the following are propositions?

1. Check your solution. NP Rule: For conjunction to be
2. A rectangle is a square. true, both conjuncts must be true. Otherwise, the
3. A square is a rectangle. conjunction is false.
4. Today is Thursday.
5. Have a nice day. Example:
6. Two points determine a line. “He is the only begotten son; yet, He humbled Himself by
7. Sugar is sweet. dying on the cross to save us.”
8. Go home!
9. Only obese people are diabetic.
10. 5 + 6 - 10
11. 5 + 6 < 10 NP
12. For all real numbers x, the square of x
is greater than or equal to zero. P

Negation
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃,
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 ¬𝑃 (𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑎𝑠 "𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑃"),
𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑤ℎ𝑜𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 Disjunction
𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑠 𝑜𝑛 𝑃 𝑎𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑤. Let P and Q be propositions. The disjunction of P and Q,
   𝑇𝑟𝑢𝑡ℎ 𝑇𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 denoted by P v Q (read as “P or Q”) is the proposition
whose truth value depends on P and Q.
We call each P and Q a disjunct

Symbol Translation

Logical Connectives
A logical connective is a word or symbol that joins two
sentences to produce a new one.
Examples:
 And (^)
Rule: for a disjunction to be true, at least one of the Implication: If P Then Q.
disjuncts must be true and it is false when both disjuncts are P: antecedent or premise
false. Q: consequent or conclusion

 Converse: If Q then P.
 Inverse: If not P then not Q.
 Contrapositive: If not Q then not P.

Give the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the

following statements.

1. If you are more than 60 years old, then you are

Conditional
Let P and Q be propositions. The conditional statement or
implication “if P then Q” denoted by P ⇒ Q is the
proposition whose truth value depends on P and Q. We call
P the hypothesis or premise and we call the Q the
conclusion
entitled to a senior citizen card.
2. If P is prime, then it is odd.
Quantification
Is a construct that specifies the quality of specimens in the
domain of the discourse that satisfies the open formula.
 Universal Quantification
o The phrase “For all x” is called a universal
quantifier and is denoted by ∀ x .
o
 Existential

Quantification
o The statement “For some x” is called an
existential quantifier and dnoted by ∃ x .
Example:
“Buy one notebook, take one free pencil.”
P: I buy a notebook.
Q: I get a free pencil.

a. If I buy a notebook, then I get a free pencil.

b. If I buy a notebook, then I don’t get a free pencil.
c. If I don’t buy a notebook, then I get a free pencil.
d. If I don’t buy a notebook, then I don’t get a free
pencil.

Rule: the implication is

false only when the
THE NATURE OF LOGIC

What is the role of logic in mathematics?

 Logic is commonly known as the science of reasoning.
 Mathematical reasoning and arguments are
hypothesis/premise is true and the conclusion is false. based on the rules of logic.
Otherwise, the implication is always true.  It is a branch of pure mathematics whose goal
is the discovery of valid arguments about
propositions.
Remarks  It is sometimes called Mathematical Logic -
A parenthesis is used whenever the word the discipline that considers the methods of
- “both” goes with “and” reasoning.
- “either” goes with “or”
 It provides the rules and techniques for
 both P or Q and R determining whether an argument is valid or
not.
 P or both Q and R
 To be specific in Mathematics, we use Logic
 either P and Q or R or logical reasoning to prove theorems.
 P and either Q or R PROPOSITIONS
• A proposition is a meaningful declarative sentence
More on Conditional Statements that is either True or False, but not both.
• Examples: Consider the following statements.
 • A: 4 is an integer. (TRUE P)
• B: √ 5 is an integer. (FALSE P)
• C: Batman is left-handed. (FALSE P)
• D: Dynamite is dangerous. (TRUE P)
• E: Elephants have wings. (FALSE P)
• Each of these statements is a declarative sentence.
Sentences (A) and (D) are True, while (B), (C), and
(E) is False. Hence, they are propositions.
• A proposition is a declarative sentence that can be
classified as true or false, but not both. Thus, one of
the values “truth” or “falsity” that is assigned to a
proposition is called its “truth value”.
• We abbreviate “truth” to T or 1 and write p is T
(or p is 1); otherwise, we say the (logical) truth
value of p is false and write p is F (or p is 0).
Remember:
• To avoid the use of so many parentheses in a
compound proposition when no confusion should
arise, we adopt the following conventions.
1. We omit the outer pair of parentheses in a
compound proposition or statement
formula. For example, we write ~p for
(~p).
2. If there is any compound propositions of
the form (¬ p) →(¬q) , we write it as
¬ p → ¬q .

  Consider the following. Are they Propositions? Why?

P: How are you? (Not a proposition because it is a
question)
Q: The Square of an integer X. (Not a proposition)
R: Study your lessons every day!(Not a proposition
because it suggests something rather than to declare)

• Consider the following statements.

p: 5 is less than 3. (False P)

q: 7 is an even integer (False P)
r: Every even integer greater than 4 is a sum of two odd
primes. (True P)
s: Will you go? (Not a P)
t: Enjoy the lovely weather! (Not a P)

 The negation of a proposition, p, is the proposition not

p. It is denoted by ~p or ¬ p . The truth table of not p is
given in the following table.
P ¬p
T or 1 F or 0
F or 0 T or 1
Compound Propositions
• New propositions called compound propositions or
propositional functions can be obtained from old ones
by using symbolic connectives or logical operators.
• The propositions that form propositional functions are
called propositional variables.

Truth Tables
• A truth table displays the relationships between the
truth values of the propositions.
• The number of statements in the truth table is 2n
where n is the number of propositional variables in
the compound propositions.

Tautology, Contradiction, and Contingency

• A compound proposition that is always true, no
matter what the truth values of the propositions that
occur in it, is called a tautology.
• A compound proposition that is always false is
called a contradiction.
• A compound proposition that is neither a tautology
nor a contradiction is called a contingency.
Chapter 3: Nature of Statistics

Statistics
 Two meanings
 branch of Mathematics that involves collecting,
organizing, summarizing, and presenting data, such
as baseball statistics or statistics the government
collects during a census.
 a discipline concerned with the analysis of data and
decision making based upon data. It can also be
used to spot trends or isolate causes.
 is based upon a solid edifice of mathematical
theorems proven through unassailable laws of
logic.

Types of Statistics
• Descriptive Statistics is that branch that deals with
the description of data collected.
• Inferential Statistics deals with examining the
relationships between variables within a sample
and then making generalizations or predictions
about how those variables will relate to a larger
population.
Population - If a measurement is gathered for every
experimental unit in the entire collection, the resulting data
set constitutes the population of interest.
Sample - Any smaller subset of measurements is a sample.
Level of Measurement
 Nominal data or categorical data
o the numbers in the variable are used only
to classify the data. In this level of
measurement, words, letters, and alpha-
numeric symbols can be used.
 Ordinal level of measurement
o depicts some ordered relationship among
the observations on the variable.

Quantitative Variable – The variable is numerical, so  interval level of measurement

operations such as adding and averaging make sense.
Examples of Quantitative Variables
 High School Grade Point Average
 Number of pets owned
 Bank account balance
 Number of stars in a solar system
 Average number of lottery tickets sold
 How many cousins you have
 The amount in your paycheck
 Distance travelled by migratory birds
 Taxpayer Identification Number
o not only classifies and orders the
measurements, but it also specifies that the
distances between each interval on the
scale, equivalent along the scale from low
interval to high interval.
 the ratio level of measurement
o the observations, in addition to having
equal intervals, can have a value of zero as
well. In the ratio level of measurement,
the divisions between the points on the
scale have an equivalent distance between
them.

Frequency Distribution Table

 Frequency tells you how often something happened.

The frequency of an observation tells you the number of
times the observation occurs in the data.

Qualitative Variable – The variable describes an individual

through grouping or categorization.

 Examples of Qualitative Variables

 Class in college (freshman, sophomore, junior,
senior)
 Favorite author
 Preferred airline
 Hair color
 Your race
 Types of hats
 Bar Graph

 Pie Graph

 Time-series – Line Graph