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    7 = In 1887, it was also found that if certain metals were irradiated by ultraviolet light, the electrons were emitted having small velocities. It was also found that if certain metals are heated to high temperature, the electrons were emitted. These studies led scientists to think that electrons are fundamental particles and are universal constituent of matter. Later on Millikan measured experimentally the charge on the droplets and predicted that the charge on a droplet is always integral multiple of elementary charge 1-602 x 107!9 C, which is the integral multiple of charge of an electron (= 1-602 x 10-!9 C). This shows that the charge on a body is quantised. The knowledge of values of charge (e) and specific charge (e/m) of electron, helped to € _1602x10-!9 elm 1-76x10"! In 20th century, the discoveries of photoelectric effect by Hertz, Compton effect by Compton, Stark effect by Stark were explained by quantum theory of light. According to which, the light consists of the packets of energy which travel in straight line, with the speed of light. Each packet of energy is called photon or quantum of light (= /v = hc/h) where h is planck’s constant, v is the frequency of light, c is the velocity of light and 2. is the wavelength of light. Thus, the particle nature of light was established. As some phenomena of light were explained by wave theory of light and some by particle nature of light, hence it was concluded that Light is of dual nature. In this unit, we shall study about the dual nature of jstion and matter. FREE ELECTRONS IN METALS In metals, the electrons in the outer shells (called valence electrons) of the stom fre loosely Bound. They are quite free to move easily within the metal surface but can not leave the metal surf bound electrons are called free electrons. ah The free electrons in metal can move about freely inside the metal but can not leave its surface. The - ent an electron comes out of the metal surface, the metal surface acquires Fosiive cage . Thus, the free electrons are held inside the metal, by attractive forces of the . causing potential barrier. It means there is a potential ca ee a which ome by the electron to just escape from the metal surface. In order that an electron may just surface, a certain minimum amount of energy has to be supplied to the electron which depet the properties of the metal and the nature of the surface and is termed as the work function of the metal. Thus, . > i te li oe garg om determine the mass of the electron, m= = 9-11 x 107! kg the metal surface so as to overcome the restraining forces at the surface. Work function of a metal is generally denoted by @ and it is usually measyfed in eV. Electron volt (eV) is a unit of energy commonly used in atomic and nuclear Physics. The approximate values of work function of some metals are given in table 7.1. oa ad Cn or Work function 9 (eV) 214 From table we note that the work function is lowest for caesium (6 = 2:14 eV) and highest for platinum (9 = 5-65 eV), It means metal caesium can eject electrons with the radiation of lower energy and . Read YourFlow.Com TRUS OLN RDB Tq The work function of a metal G ture of metal (ii) the nature of metal and ii) the i ties - 7.3, ELECTRON |) The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal is called electron emission. ‘The free electron in the metal at room temperature can not leave the metal surface due to restraining forces and the energy possessed by electron is less than work function of the metal. Therefore, the electron emission from a metal surface is possible ifthe energy possessed by fre electrons is more than the wort function of the metal. The required energy for the electron emission from the metal surface can be supplied to a by one of the following physical processes: t {f Thermionle emieion, I 1s he phenomenon ef emission of electrons from the mata ete0 q [when heated sultabyy. —— ~—_ Here the energy required for the emission of electrons from metal surface is being supplied by thermal ‘energy. The emitted electrons are called thermal electrons or thermions. The number of thermions emitted depends on the temperature of the metal surface. (Wi) Photoelectric emission. It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of. metal when radiations of suitable frequency fall on it. i Here the energy to the free electrons for their emission is being supplied by the photons of incident radiations. The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons, The number of photoelectrons emitted depends ‘on the intensity of the incident light. (ill) Field emission or cold cathode emission. It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of a metal under the ‘a electric field. en a very strong electric field (~ 10° Vm") is applied to metal, it emits electrons. Secondary emission. It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metal large number when fast strike the metal surface. fast moving electrons are high energy electrons. As they fall on metal surface, they transfer energy to the free electrons of the metal by which their energy becomes more than the work function of the ‘metal and so they are emitted from the metal surface. The electrons so emitted are called secondary electrons. 7.4. PH@T@ELECTRIC EFFECT It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface of metals, when radiations of suitable frequency fall on a ‘The emitted electrons are called photo-electrons and the current so produced is called photoelectric current. Different materials emit photoelectrons when they are exposed to radiations of suitable frequencies or ‘with visible light, where as the metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium etc. are sensitive only to ultraviolet light. 7.5. HALLWACHS AND LENARD’S OBSERVTIONS ON PHOTO ELECTRIC EFFECT [A] Hertz Observations The phenomenon of photoelectric emission was discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887, when he was working with his electromagnetic wave experiment. Hertz while studying experimentally the production of electromagnetic waves by means of spark discharge, found that the high voltage sparks across the detector loop were enhanced when the emitter plate was illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. It was accounted as follows : ‘When suitable radiations fall on a metal surface, some electrons near the surface absorb enough ‘energy from the incident radiations. Due to it, they are able to overcome the attraction of the positive ions in the material of the surface and escape to the surrounding space. a PS ee BT acs PO ee [B) Hallwachs and Lenard’s Observations Hallwachs and Lenard made a detailed study of photoelectric effect during 1886 to 1902. negative potential is exposed falling on the emir plate are stopped, the curent ultraviolet radiations fall on emitter plate, electrons are ejected from i current in the external circuit. Hallwachs and Lenard studied the variation of photoelectric current with collector plate potential and with frequency and intensity of incident light. In 1888 Hallwachs connected a negatively charged zinc plate to an electroscope and observed that the zinc plate lost its charge when it was illuminated by ultraviolet radiations. He also observed that uncharged zine plate became positively charged when it was exposed by ultraviolet radiations. The positive charge on the positively charged zinc plate was further enhanced when it was more illuminated by ultraviolet radiations, From these observations Hallwachs concluded that negatively charged particles were ejected out from the zinc plate under the action of ultraviolet radiations. ‘After the discovery of electron in 1897, it became clear that the exposure of emitter plate with incident light causes the electrons to be emitted. The emitted electrons are accelerated towards the collector plate under the effect of electric field applied. Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that there was no emission of electrons from the emitter plate if the frequency of the incident light was smaller than a certain minimum value, called threshold frequency. The value of threshold frequency depends on the nature of the material of the emitter plate. ———— — ERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT ‘The apparatus consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube which Joses a photosensitive plate C (called emitter) and a metal plate A collector). A transparent window Wis sealed on to tal can be covered with a filter for a light of particular radiation. This will allow the light of particular wavelength to pass through it. The plate ‘A.can be given a desired positive or negative potential with respect to plate C, using the arrangement as shown in Fig. 7.1. Voltmeter (V) measures the potential difference between the plates A and C, and microammeter (1A) measures the photoelectric current in the circuit. ‘When a monochromatic radiations of suitable frequency obtained from source S, after being filtered by a filter attached on the window W, fall on the photosensitive plate C, the photoelectrons are emitted from C, which get accelerated towards the plate A (collector) if it is kept at positive potential. These electrons flow in the outer circuit resulting in the photoelectric current. Due to it, the microammeter shows a deflection. ‘The reading of microammeter measures the photoelectric current. If the potential of plate A is kept zero with respect to plate C, some of the emitted electrons get stuck up in between C and A. constituting, what is known as space charge. The creation of space charge decreases the probability of the emitted photoelectrons reaching the collector. Due to it, at Vac = 0, the photoelectric current is small but not maximum. This experimental arrangement can be used to study the variation of photoelectric current with (a) the intensity of the incident radiation, (b) the potential difference between the plates C and A, (c) the frequency Of the incident radiations, and (d) the nature of the material of the plate C. — (a) Effect of intensity of the incident radiation. Maintain the collector A at a definite positive potential w.ct. to emitter C so that the electrons emitted from emitter are accelerated towards collector A. Using the incident radiations of a fixed frequency and keeping the plate A at a fixed suitable potential, note the photoelectric current from the reading of microammeter. Vary the intensity of the incident radiation, Read YourFlaw.Cam PUTS eae maa 76 keeping the radiations source at different distances w.r1. to plate C and note the 12 resulting photoelectric current each time. It is found that the photoelectric current varies linearly with the intensity of the incident radiation as shown graphically in Fig. 7.2. As the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the number of photoelectrons emitted per second, so the number of photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident radiations. 0 INTENSITY (b) Effect of potential of plate A wrt, to plate C. Keep the plate A at some accelerating positive potential w.r.t. to plate C. Illuminate the plate C with radiations of fixed frequency v and fixed intensity /,. Vary the positive potential of plate A gradually and note the photoelectric current each time. It is found that the photoelectric current increases gradually with the increase in positive potential of plate A. At one stage, for a certain positive potential Of plite A, the photoelectric current becomes maximum or saturates. After this, if we increase the positive potential of plate A, there will be This maximum value of photoelectric currents called saturation to the state when all the photoelectrons emitted from C reach Now apply a negative (retarding) potential on plate A wr. to plate C. We will note that the photoelectric current decreases. It is so because the photoelectrons emitted from C are repelled and only energetic photoelectrons are reaching the plate A. Increase the negative potential of plate A gradually, we will note that the photoelectric current decreases rapidly and becomes zero at a certain value of negative potential Vo, on plate A. At this stage even the fastest photoelectrons (ie., photoelectrons of maximum kinetic energy, Kmax) can not reach the plate A. This minimum negative potential Vo , given to the plate A w.r.t. to plate C at which the photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential or cut off potential. \f e is the charge on the photoelectron, cul PHOTO ELECTRIC then Koux = 0Vy = 5 iba re m is the mass of photoelectron and Uiay is the maximum velocity photoelectron. variation of the potential on plate A wt. to plate C and photoelectric s shown by curve marked /, in Fig. 7.3. Repeat the experiment with ion of same frequency but of higher intensity Z, and Js, we note that the saturation current becomes more with the increase in the intensity of the incident radiations but the value of stopping potential remains the same as that for radiations of intensity /,. From above we conclude the following : (i) All the photoelectrons emitted from metal C are not having the same kinetic energy. (ii) For the radiations of a given frequency and material of plate C, the value of stopping potential is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation. It means, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons depends on the radiation source and nature of material of plate C but is independent of the intensity of incident radiation. PTET © Ibis important to note that on doubling the intensity of the incident light, the number of =Vo POTENTIAL photons incident on the plate C per unit time becomes double. Due to it, the number of photoelectrons emitted per unit time would not be doubled because, all the incident photons would not be successful in photoelectric emission, But only some fraction of photons is able to cause the photoelectron emission. The photoelectric effeciency (n), is defined as : = Bumber of photoelectrons emitted per: second (dN/dt) A number of photons falling per second (dN p/dt) > In photoelectric emission, the value of 1 is less than 1. ‘© During photoelectric emission from the metal plate C, the photoelectrons can be emitted in any direction with any velocity inbetween zero to maximum velocity. Read YourFlow.Corn ip oes oD (©) Effect of frequency of the incident radiation. Take the radiations of different frequencies but of same intensity. For each radiation, study the variation between photoelectric current and potential of plate A wrt. to plate C. We get the variation of the type as shown in Fig. 7.4. From the graph we note that (i) the value of stopping potential is different for radiation of different frequency. (ii) the value of stopping potential is more negative for radiation of higher incident frequency. (iii) the value of saturation current depends on the intensity of incident radiatton-but-is- }indepenent of the frequgney Of Wie incident ssi = (@) If we plot a graph between stopping potential and the frequency of the incident radiation for two different metals A and B, we get the graph as shown in Fig. 7.5. From the graph we note that (O fora given photosensitive material, the stopping potential varies linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation. ~ (ii) fora given photosensitive material, there is a certain minimum cut off frequency vo (called threshold frequency) for which the stopping potential is zero. (iif) the higher is the work function for a photosensitive material, the greater is the value of threshold $ —™o Therefore, work function ¢y = ¢ x magnitude It means for a given photosensitive material, there is a certain incident radiation of frequency) for which the emission of photoelectron is just possible, but for the inci frequency less than threshold frequency, no emission of photoelectron is possible, even if i From shove ggpminant iti found th, f tha ocdent cation i of biherfeqeenry ten that of threshold frequency, the photo-electrie emlasion starts Instantaneonty, even ifthe incident light is very dim. The time lag between the incidence of radiation and emission of photo-electrons is less than 1 second. Laws of photo-electric emission 1. For a given metal and frequency of incident radiation, the number of photoelectrons ejected per second is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light. 2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident radiation below which no emission of photoelectrons takes place. This frequency is called threshold 3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron is independent of the intensity of the incident light but depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength) of the incident light, 4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process. The time lag between the incidence of radiations and emission of photoelectrons is very small, less than even 10? second. Einstein explained the various laws of photoelectric emission on the basis of Planck's quantum theory. According to Planck's quantum theory, oteione conn of ry nechen ef eae clied eset: Cs eunutien 6 Roki aS is called a photon which travels with the speed of light. Read YourFlow.Com PETE The energy of a photon is given by, where h is Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of light radiation. Einstein assumed that one photoelectron is ejected from a metal surface if one photon of suitable light radiation falls on it. Consider a photon of radiation of frequency v, incident on a photosensitive metal surface. The energy of the photon (= hv) is spent in two ways : (3 A pare ofthe energy ofthe photon is used in berating the electron from the metal surface which is . equal to the ‘$q of the metal. on) (ii) The rest of the energy of the photon is used in i ting the maximum kinetic energy to the emitted photo electron. Sueed in peg oe oe ee If Ugax, 1s the max. velocity of the emitted photoelectron and m is its mass, then ( wn) This equation is called Einstein’s photoelectric equation. If the incident photon is of threshold frequeficy: Vo, then the incident photon of energy /hvg is just sufficient to eject the electron from the metal surface without imparting it any kinetic energy, hence, hvy must be equal to work function $9 of the metal., ie, _hyg = %_) 1 From (4), za, =hv-hvy A(V—Vo) 5) Kouax = hv - Vo] of laws of photoelectric emission, ince one incident photon may eject one photoelectron from a metal surface, therefore, mi photoelectrons emitted per second depends upon the number of photons falling on the metal surface per second which intun depends on the intensity of the incident radiation. If the intensity of the incident radiation is increased, the number of incident photons increases, which results in an increase in the number of photo- electrons ejected. This is the first law of photoelectric emission. (i) From (6), we note that if v < vj, max. K.E. is negative, which is impossible. Hence, photoelectric emission does not take place for th TACident radiation below threshold frequency. This is the second law of photoelectric emigsion. (ii From (6), we note that if v > vp, max. K.E. e v. This means, maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron depends onthe frequeicV Tor wavelength) of incident radiation. Ifthe intensity ofthe incident light radiation is increased, the number of incident photons falling per second on the metal surface increases ‘but the energy of each photon remains the same. This is the third law of photoelectric emission. (iv) The phenomenon of photoelectric emission has been conceived as an effect of an elastic collision between a photon and an electron inside the metal. As a result of it, the absorption of energy by the electron cof metal from the incident photon is a single event 'which involves transfer of energy at once without any time lag. Due to it, there is no time lag between the incident photon and the ejected photoelectron. This is the fourth law of photoelectric emission. Consequences of photoelectric emission ‘The photoelectric emission is possible only if the incident light is in the form of packets of energy, cach having a definite value, more than the work function of the metal. This shows that light is not of wave nature but of particle nature. It is due to this reason that photoelectric emission was accounted by quantum theory of light., c., Particle nature of light. Read YourFlow.Com 718 Clar\Qm When the radiation interacts with matter it behaves rm as if it is made of particles called photons. During MEMORY ee ee ee transferred to the matter. to Einstein's theory of photo- electric emission, one ‘As already established, from Einstein i i Se fwace Ce Max. kinetic energy is of metal. Butit does not mean that Kya = AV ~ 0 If Vo is the cut off potential or stopping potential and ¢ is the Sit be equal to the a fe charge on the electron, then hott focideot on i. fee al Kyax = €V0 (8) the falling on the metal is i are involved not only in If Vo is the threshold frequency, the work function, = owe 90 = hv (9) surface but in many other From (7), (8) and (9) we have processes also. As a result of it, the ratio of number of <£¥0= Kina = 1 — hvo= hv) ~(10) photoelectrons ejected to the CAL = wavelength of the incident radiation, number of the photons falling on 7” Ao threshold wavelength for the metal surface, the metal surface is less than one. ‘This ratio can be increased by > (Za Welocity of light gy Then, y=" and a Putting values in (10), we get Vy = Kinax =f (SamplelPrabiem) The work function of caesium is 2-14 eV. Find (a) the threshold frequency for caesium, and (b) the wavelength of the incident light if the photo current is brought to zero by a stopping potential of 0-60 V. Given h = 6-63 x 10 Js. Sol. Here, Vp = 0-60 V, $9 = 2:14 eV = 2-14 x 1-6 x 10-19 J, % _ 214x16x10719 “ (a) Threshold frequency, vy = hee = 5-16 x 10 Hz he 6-63x 10" x(3x108) (eV +9) (1-6x107!9 x06 + 2141-61079) = 471 x 10% m= 471 nm 7.9. IMPORTANT GRAPHS RELATED TO PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT (@ Frequency (v) and Stopping potential (V9) graph hy % As, eV =hv 9p oF Yrcv-2 So Vo=v () ea or A= Read YourFlow.Cor ‘Therefore, v - Vo graph is a straight line as shown in Fig. 7.6. Comparing the yma C. we note thatthe slope of V~ Vo graph is We. The x-intercept is vq and the intercept is” @/e Frequency (v) and stopping potential (Vp) graphs for different materials wil be represented by Paras seuight Ines sx shown in Fig. 77, It i so because, the slope of each straight line is fe but the threshold frequency for different materials is .. ea - - lr le (ii) Frequency (v) and maximum kinetic energy (Kyuax) BTaph. AS, Kux = #¥ -% So, Kmax © The V~ Koay Braph is a straight line as shown in Fig. 7.8. Comparing the above relation with y= mx + C, we bot that slope of V~ Kage BFraph is h, x-intercept is vq and y-intercept is ~ #y (iii) Frequency (v) and photoelectric current (1) graph. - 780 It is shown in Fig. 7.9. This graph shows that the photoelectric current J is independent of frequency of the incident light, till intensity remains constant. (jv) Intensity and stopping potential (V,) graph. It is shown in Fig. 7.10. This graph shows that the magnitude of the stopping is independent of the intensity of the incident radiation, till the frequency remains ‘Time (¢) and photoelectric current (I) graph. is shown in Fig. 7.11. This shows that the photoelectric current ‘attains the saturation value in 10° s from the start of radiation falling on photosensitive material, irrespective of the intensity of incident radi 7.10. PARTICLE NATURE OF LIGHT (The photon) Photoelectric effect established the fact that light in interaction with matter behaves as if it was made of quanta or packets of energy, each of energy /tv, where h is Planck's constant and v is the frequency of light. Einstein also made an important conclusion that the light quantum can be associated with momentum vic, where c is the velocity of light. A definite value of energy as well as momentum gives a strong indication thatthe light quantum is a particle which was later named as ‘photon’. The particle like bebaviour of light was later on confirmed by the experiments of A.H. compton, on scattering of X-rays from electrons. The photon picture of electromagnetic radiations and the characteristic properties of photons are given below : (1) In interaction of radiation with matter, radiation behaves as if it is made of particles like photons. (2) Each photon has energy E (= hv = hc/h) and momentum of = =f), mrer ais Planck's constant, v and 2 are the frequency and wavelength of radiation and c is the velocity of light. {@) Iespective of the intensity of radiation, all the photons of a particular frequency V or wavelength ‘A have the same energy E (= hv = hc/) and same momentum a x} c (4) By increasing the intensity of radiation of a given frequency or wavelengh on a metal surface, there is only increase in the number of photons per second falling on that surface, while each photon is having the same energy. It shows that the photon energy is independent of the intensity of radiations. Read YourFlow.Com (5) All the photons emitted from a source of radiations travel through space with the same speed ¢ (equal to the speed of light). (6) The frequency of photon gives the radiation, a definite energy (or colour) which does not change when photon travels through different media. (1) The velocity of photon in different media is different which is due to change in its wavelength. (8) The rest mass of a photon is zero. According to theory of relativity, the mass m of a particle moving with velocity v, comparable with the velocity of light c is given by = = -vifct ~ m jor or m=mvi-v4e (12) where m is the rest mass of particle. As a photon moves with the speed of light i., v = c, so from (12), img = 0. Hence photon has zero rest mass. (9) Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields, This shows that photons are electrically (10) In a photon-particle collision (such as photo-electron collision), the energy and momentum are conserved. However the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. One photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created. (SSHPISIETSSISH) The momentum of photon of electro- magnetic radiation is 3-3 x 10-9 kg msé!. What is the frequency and wavelegth of the waves associated with it ? h = 66 x 10-4 Js. Sol. Here, p = 3-3 x 10-9 kg ms! ; v=; A=? Energy of a photon = hy = mc? = (me) x ¢ = pe = Pe _ 33x10 x3x108 —————s is or : Sexo 15 x 108 Hz © The intensity of af = 3x108 ‘ont depends upon the y x08 "= photons present in it. . * The energy of photon depends ETSe UIs The total energy of a sirigle photon of frequency vis upon the frequency of the IN E=h. 4 photon always moves with the speed radiation and is independent of memory Maas relation shows that the photon is a _the intensity of the radiation. relativistic particle. valent mass of a photon | When a material particle of rest mass mig, moves with hole? oF hike. "velocity v which is comparable with the speed of light © The momentum of a photon of y energy E is Ele and of 4 ; then its momentum is p= Ta ‘wavelength J =v Ve? ©The velo tn in ‘Total energy of a particle of rest mass mp while moving sen od with velocity v (comparable to c) having momentum Mats enaenen k pis gre by galPeumee ake nae Cumsosrry QUESTION [El ny photographers use red light and not blue light while developing the exposed films 7 ‘The red light has lower energy per photon than that of biue | Therefore, the red not ss Ski crcl ange ie ged tn wore Rn aitae roca atten Tesdty ‘while developing the exposed films. Read YourFlow.Com 7.11, FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT TO EXPLAIN THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT Huygen’s wave theory of light could not explain the photoelectric emission due to the following main reasons. 1, According to wave theory of light, the energy carried by a beam of light is measured in terms of intensity of the beam. If the intensity of the beam of light is increased, there will be increase in amplitude of waves and hence energy carried by waves will increase. When beam of light falls on a metal surface, the energy carried by light is distributed uniformly over the entire surface of metal. All the free electrons present in the surface of metal will receive the light energy and they will be ejected out of metal surface. ‘When the waves of light of higher intensity falls on a metal surface it will impart more energy to the electrons in metal. Due to it, the kinetic energy of the ejected electrons will increase. This is against the experimental facts that the maximum kinetic energy of the ejected photoelectrons is independent of the intensity of incident light. 2. According to wave theory of light, the photoelectric emission is possible from a metal surface by the waves of light of all frequencies, provided the intensity of light is sufficient to provide the required energy to the electron for its emission. It means, by increasing the intensity of the incident wave of light, the energy can be increased and photo electric emission will take place even if the frequency of the incident light is less than threshold frequency. But it is against the experimental fact that no photoelectric emission takes place from a metal surface if the frequency of the incident light is less than the threshold frequency, no matter whatsoever may be its intensity. 3, When the wave of light falls on a metal surface, the energy of the wave of light will not go to a particular electron in metal but will be distributed to all the electrons present in the illuminated portion of metal surface. As a result of it, the electrons will take sometime in accumulating the energy required for their emission from metal surface. This is also against the experimental fact that the emission of takes place immediately after the light is incident on the metal surface. PHOTOELECTRIC CELL x _ nai > mie energy. ’ ae Photo electric cell (also called photo tube) is shown in Fig. 7.12. It consists of an evacuated glass or quartz tube. Inside the tube, there is a semi-cylindrical photo-sensitive metal plate C and a wire loop A which serve as cathode and anode respectively. The tube is provided with insulating base on which metallic pins are projected. The elements inside the tube are To connected to these pins and through these pins, photocell is fitted into a PUFIER ‘socket and is connected to the external circuit having a battery (B), and microammeter (j1A), and a load resistance R in the circuit. Working. When light of suitable frequency is allowed to fall on the cathode, photoelectrons are emitted, These are attracted by anode which is kept at positive potential w.r.t. cathode. So a current starts flowing in the circuit. Due to it, micro-ammeter shows a deflection. The photoelectric current is very small, so itis to be amplified first before itis used for some useful purpose. When the light is cut off, no photoelectrons ‘are ejected from the cathode and hence there is no current in the external circuit. Applications of photo electric cells. 1. Photoelectric cells are used in television camera for telecasting scenes and in phototelegraphy. 2. Photocells are used for the reproduction of sound recorded on films along with pictures in the movie theatre. 3. Photocells are used in counting devices, e.g., to count the persons entering the hall provided they ‘come one by one. 4. Photocells are also used in burglar alarm and fire alarms. 5. Photocells are also used to measure the temperature of stars and to study the spectrum of the heavenly bodies. ReadYourFlow.Co 72 6. They ar edt vith on and ff he tre ihing sem at dsk nd a, without ny manual attention. 1. They are used in photometry to compare the illuminating powers of two sources. 8. They are used in industries for locating minor flaws or holes in metallic sheets. 9. They are used as photoelectric sorters ; to sort out the materials of different shades. 10. They are used to determine the opacity of solids and liquids. 11. They are used to control the temperature and chemical reactions. 12. They are used for the determination of Planck’s constant. Cunsossry QUESTION [Gi Many public buildings have doors that open automatically as people approach. What is the basic concept involved in it ? Ans. The automatic opening of the doors in a building is often operated by “electric eyes.” On the door of a public building, a light beam from a strong source of light shines across the door opening on to a photo voltaic cell. It causes the ejection of electrons, resulting in photoelectric current in the ceil circuit which keeps the door closed. ‘When some person approaches the door for entering into the building, Led pees ioemeta frome aaligion phosvcealc oak: Due to it, the current stops in the cell circuit. A mechanism triggered that opens the door automatically. 7.13, DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION The phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation of light were explained si dering that the radiation is of wave nature. On the other hand the phenomena like, pho! compton effect etc. could be explained on the basis of quantum nature of radiation, i.e., particle nature. For example, in photoelectric effect, when a single photon of radiation of strikes a metal surface, it gives up all its energy to a single electron in an atom and the ¢1 knocked out of the metal. The emitted electron carries part of the energy of incident photon. In effect when an X-ray photon is incident on a metal of light element, like aluminium, the free electron of the metal recoils along a definite direction with some energy depending upon the direction along which the incident photon is scattered. From above two effects, it is clear that a particle (photon of radiation) is colliding against another particle (electron). It is due to this reason it was concluded that in photo electric effect and compton effect, the radiation possesses particle nature. It means radiation sometimes behaves as a wave and sometimes as a particle, i.c., radiation has dual nature. It is to be noted that in a particular experiment, the radiation has a particular nature, ie., either it possesses wave nature or particle nature. The various phenomena related to radiation can be divided into three categories. 1. There are the phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarisation etc., which can be explained on the basis of electromagnetic (wave) nature of radiation only. 2, There are the phenomena like photo electric effect, compton effect etc., which can be explained on the basis of quantum (particle) nature of radiati 3. There are the phenomena like rectilinear propagation, reflection, refraction etc., which can be explained on the basis of either of the wave nature or of the particle nature of radiation. 7.14, DE BROGLIE DUALISTIC HYPOTHESIS Dual nature of matter. Since radiation has dual nature, ie., it possesses properties of both wave and particle and universe is composed of radiation and matter, therefore de Broglie concluded that the moving material particle must also possess dual nature, since nature loves symmetry. Read YourFlow.Con De-Broglie hypothesis. According to de-Broglie a moving material particle sometimes acts as a wave and sometimes as a particle or a wave is associated with moving material particle which controls the particle in every respect. The wave associated with moving particle is called matter wave or de-Broglie wave whose wavelength called de-Broglie wavelength, is ‘ a*. siven by an where m and v are the mass and velocity of the particle and h is a Planck's constant. Derivation of de-Broglie wavelength. According to Planck's quantum theory, the energy of a photon of a radiation of frequency v and wavelength 2. is E=hv on(13) where h is a Planck's constant. If photon is considered to be a particle of mass m, the energy associated with it, according to Einstein mass energy relation, is given by E=mc wn(14) From (13) and (14), we get vem? of ne (18) Since each photon moves with the same velocity c, therefore, momentum of photon, p= mass x velocity “ ly ow ohh (:4=§) ie, ea TE “ . po a ied P ‘Broglie assumed that the equation (16) be equally applicable to both the photons of ‘material particles. Ifa material particle of mass m, is moving with velocity v, then momentum of the particle p = mv. According to de-Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength of wave associated with the moving material particle is This is de-Broglie wave equation for material particle From de-Broglie hypothesis, we conclude the following : @If v =0, from(17),A=e and ifv =o, thend=0 It means the waves are associated with the material particles only if they are in motion. The material motion, the waves are associated, which are in nature | (i) Since the position of a wave cannot be located exactly, therefore, the wave nature of material particle introduces the problem of particle” eee location. It means the wavelength of a wave associated with moving particle defines region of uncertainty, within which the whereabouts of particle are unknown, A schematic diagram of a de-Broglic wave is given in Fig. 7.13. cs Relation for de-Broglie wavelength and temperature From kinetic theory of matter, the average kinetic energy of particle at a given temperature T’kelvin is k=2er where k is Boltzmann constant. Read YourFlow.Com Ns If particle of mass m, moving with velocity v, then its kinetic energy is, K= jm? Momentum of particle, p= mu=f2mK = mx kr = imi De-Broglie wavelength, 4=4-—h P [3mkT (SSiBISIETSSIST) What is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with (a) an electron moving with speed of 54 x 106 ms“, and (b) a ball of mass 150 g travelling at 30-0 ms! ? h = 6-63 x 10™ Js, mass of electron = 911 x 107! kg. Sol. (a) For the electron ; m = 9-11 x 107! ; v = 5-4 x 106 mst net 6-63x10-4 mv (911x107!) x (5-4x10%) = 150 g = 150 x 10 kg ; v = 30-0 ms h ___6-63x10-* des _ee inv” (30x1073)x300 ~ P47 * 1m 7.15, DE-BROGLIE WAVELENGTH OF AN ELECTRON Consider an electron of mass m and charge e. Let v be the velocity acquired by electron when accelerated from rest through a potential difference of V volt. Then r4 Gain in kinetic energy of electron = jm? ; > 1 peer = 0-135 x 109 m= 0-135 nm (b) For a ball ; Work done on the electon= eV 2. Smv?=ey or v= Wr. ae deg werlngh acid wit petton, en yak mo =

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