have (have, has)

- to make perfect tenses (You have moved out without telling me?)

do (do, does)
- to make negatives (Lindsay does not reply my messages)
- to ask questions (Do you plan to invite me on you wedding?)
- to show emphasis (Our parents do insist that we stay at home this weekend)
- to stand for a main verb in some constructions (You drive better than she does)

B. Modal Verbs (source: https://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/modal-verbs.html)

Here's a list of the modal verbs in English:

can could may might will
would must shall should ought to

Modals are different from normal verbs:

1: They do not use -s for the third person singular.
2: They make questions by inversion ('she can go' becomes 'can she go?').
3: They are followed directly by the infinitive of another verb (without 'to').

Modal Verbs (Probability)

First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that something happened / is happening / will
happen. We often call these 'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'.

For example:
- It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.
- I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
- This bill can't be right. £200 for two cups of coffee!
- Don’t worry, the doctor should come within minutes.

Modal Verbs (Ability)

We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.

For example:
- She can speak six languages.
- My grandfather could play golf very well.
- I can't drive.

Modal Verbs (Obligation and Advice)

We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is necessary or unnecessary, or to give
advice.

For example:
- Children must do their homework.
- We have to wear a uniform at work.
- You should stop smoking.

Modal Verbs (Permission)

We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give permission. We also use modal verbs to
say something is not allowed.

For example:
- Could I leave early today, please?
- You may not use the car tonight.
- Can we swim in the lake?

Modal Verbs (Habits)

We can use 'will' and 'would' to talk about habits or things we usually do, or did in the past.

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For example:
- When I lived in Italy, we would often eat in the restaurant next to my flat.
- John will always be late!

To understand more about modal verbs, look at the table below!

Modal
Expressing Example
Verb

Strong obligation You must stop when the traffic lights turn red.
must
logical conclusion / Certainty He must be very tired. He's been working all day long.

must not prohibition You must not smoke in the hospital.

ability I can swim.

can permission Can I use your phone please?

possibility Smoking can cause cancer.

ability in the past When I was younger I could run fast.

could polite permission Excuse me, could I just say something?

possibility It could rain tomorrow!

permission May I use your phone please?

may
possibility, probability It may rain tomorrow!

polite permission Might I suggest an idea?

might
possibility, probability I might go on holiday to Australia next year.

lack of necessity/absence of I need not buy tomatoes. There are plenty of tomatoes in
need not
obligation the fridge.

50 % obligation I should / ought to see a doctor. I have a terrible headache.

should / advice You should / ought to revise your lessons

ought to
He should / ought to be very tired. He's been working all
logical conclusion
day long.

had better advice You 'd better revise your lessons

EPISTEMIC MODALITY vs DEONTIC MODALITY

Epistemic modality is possibility and necessity relative to a speaker's knowledge, while deontic modality has
to do with permissions and obligations according to some system of rules.
For examples:
- Gwen must be a rich YouTuber. (expressing epistemic modality)
- You must go home now and get some rest. (expressing epistemic modality)
- Tina broke the law by doing money laundering, she therefore must go to jail. (expressing deontic modality)
- No passengers should use cellphone during a flight. (expressing deontic modality)

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PAST MODALS (COULD HAVE, SHOULD HAVE, WOULD HAVE)

These past modal verbs are all used hypothetically, to talk about things that didn't really happen in the past.

COULD HAVE + PP

1. Could have means that something was possible in the past, or you had the ability to do something in the
past, but that you didn't do it.
- I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early.
- They could have won the race, but they didn't try hard enough.
- Julie could have bought the book, but she borrowed it from the library instead.
- He could have studied harder, but he was too lazy and that's why he failed the exam.

2. We use could have when we want to make a guess about something that happened in the past. (See also
modals of probability.) In this case, we don't know if what we're saying is true or not true. We're just talking
about our opinion of what maybe happened.

Why is John late?

- He could have got stuck in traffic.
- He could have forgotten that we were meeting today.
- He could have overslept.

In this case, we can also choose to use might have to mean the same thing:
- He might have got stuck in traffic.
- He might have forgotten that we were meeting today.
- He might have overslept.

3. Couldn't have means that something wasn't possible in the past, even if you had wanted to do it.
- I couldn't have arrived any earlier. There was a terrible traffic jam ( it was impossible for me to have
arrived any earlier).
- He couldn't have passed the exam, even if he had studied harder. It's a really, really difficult exam.

Sometimes it is also common to use can’t have in this case, especially when we are sure that something did
not happen in the past.
- He can't have been at the meeting, he's on a business trip this week.
- They can't have bought it today because the shops are closed.

SHOULD HAVE + PP

1. Should have can mean something that would have been a good idea, but that you didn't do it. It's like
giving advice about the past when you say it to someone else, or regretting what you did or didn't do when
you're talking about yourself. Shouldn't have means that something wasn't a good idea, but you did it
anyway.
Examples:
- I should have studied harder! (I didn't study very hard and so I failed the exam. I'm sorry about this now.)
- I should have gone to bed early (I didn't go to bed early and now I'm tired).
- I shouldn't have eaten so much cake! (I did eat a lot of cake and now I don't feel good.)
- You should have called me when you arrived (You didn't call me and I was worried. I wish that you had
called me).
- John should have left early, then he wouldn't have missed the plane (but he didn't leave early and so he did
miss the plane).

2. We can also use should have to talk about something that would have happened if everything was fine,
but hasn't happened.
His plane should have arrived by now.
John should have finished work by now.

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WOULD HAVE + PP

1. Part of the third conditional. (We’ll learn about it later in chapter 11 of this book)
- If I had had enough money, I would have bought a car (but I didn't have enough money, so I didn't buy a
car).

2. Because 'would' (and will) can also be used to show if you want to do something or not (volition), we can
also use would have to talk about something you wanted to do but didn't. This is very similar to the third
conditional, but we don't need an if clause.
- I would have gone to the party, but I was really busy.
- I would have called you, but I didn't know your number.
- I would have helped you. (I didn't know you needed help).

2. MAIN VERBS

Main verbs are also called lexical verbs.

Unlike helping verbs, main verbs have meaning on their own. There are thousands of main verbs, and we
can classify them in several ways:

A. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

- A transitive verb takes a direct object

For example:
I always eat oatmeal for breakfast. (oatmeal = direct object)

- An intransitive verb does not have a direct object

For example:
I sleep late at night. (no direct object)

B. Linking Verbs (appear, be, become, feel, get, go, grow, look, prove, remain, seem, smell, sound, stay,
taste, turn)

A linking verb does not have much meaning in itself. It is called a linking verb because it links the subject to
a complement. A complement is either an adjective, a noun, or a pronoun that identifies or describes the
subject.

Look at some examples below:

Willy is a lawyer. (linking verb = is | complement = lawyer)

Peter looks taller. (linking verb = looks | complement = taller)
That sounds creepy. (linking verb = sounds | complement = creepy)
The teacher became mad. (linking verb = became | complement = mad)
The bread has gone bad. (linking verb = has gone | complement = bad)

C. Dynamic and Stative Verbs

Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with continuous tenses. Other verbs
describe state (non-action, a situation). They are called "stative", and cannot normally be used with
continuous tenses (though some of them can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).

- dynamic verbs (examples): eat, dance, build, speak, sleep …

- stative verbs (examples): be, like, love, prefer, wish, impress, please, surprise, hear, see, sound, belong to,
consist of, contain, include, need, appear, resemble, seem

D. Regular and Irregular Verbs

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This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference between regular and
irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past tense and past participle forms. For regular
verbs, the past tense ending and past participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past
tense ending and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
- regular verbs (example): look  looked  looked
- irregular verbs (example): go  went  gone

E. PHRASAL VERBS
A phrasal verb is a verb that is made up of a main verb together with an adverb or a preposition, or both.
Typically, their meaning is not obvious from the meanings of the individual words themselves.

Examples of common phrasal verbs and their meaning:

o call off / call (something) off – cancel

o call for – require
o calm down – relax after being angry
o catch up – get to the same point as another person.
o do over / do (something) over – do again
o eat out – eat at a restaurant
o figure out / figure (something) out – understand or find the answer
o give up / give (something) up – stop trying, quit
o go over (something) – review
o hang out – spend time relaxing (informal)
o hold on – wait for a moment
o keep on (doing something) – continue what you are doing
o look for / look for (something or somebody) – search for, or try to find
o pass out – faint, lose consciousness
o put off / put (something) off – postpone
o put on / put (something) on – put clothing or accessories on your body
o throw away / throw (something) away – put in the garbage, dispose of
o turn on/off – turn (something) on/off – start or stop the power or energy source
o turn up/down – turn (something) up/down – increase or decrease the volume or strength
o turn up – appear suddenly
o turn down / turn (something) down - refuse
o wake up – stop sleeping
o work out – exercise
o work out – be successful

Or else, the following table (taken from the book BTA SMP) should help you remember more …

200 common phrasal verbs, with meanings and example sentences

PHRASAL VERB MEANING EXAMPLE SENTENCE

ask somebody out invite on a date Brian asked Judy out to dinner and a movie.

ask around ask many people the same question I asked around but nobody has seen my wallet.

add up to something equal Your purchases add up to $205.32.

back something up reverse You'll have to back up your car so that I can get
out.

back somebody up support My wife backed me up over my decision to quit

my job.

blow up explode The racing car blew up after it crashed into the
fence.

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03. He is the best soccer player in the world. 
04. She was great in her new performance. 
05. He seems perplexed. 
06. They tasted the pizza. 
07. The pizza tasted good. 
08. That sounds fantastic. 
09. The bugle sounds loudly. 
10. He grew tired of running. 
11. My mom grows some soybeans and tomatoes in the garden. 

EXERCISE 3 (From Exercise 2, Find the Complement)

01. She looks pale.  complement = pale

02. She looked into the street.  complement = looked
03. He is the best soccer player in the world.  complement = best
04. She was great in her new performance.  complement = great
05. He seems perplexed.  complement = perplexed
06. They tasted the pizza.  complement = tasted
07. The pizza tasted good.  complement = pizza
08. That sounds fantastic.  complement = fantastic
09. The bugle sounds loudly.  complement = loudly
10. He grew tired of running.  complement = tired
11. My mom grows some soybeans and tomatoes in the garden.  complement = grows

EXERCISE 4 (Fill in the Blanks With Correct Modal Verbs)

can
01. He was so weak that he ____________ not walk.
couldn't
02. When I was at school, I ____________ run much better than I can now.
must
03. Richie ____________ not join the Army, she had better join the Navy.
might
04. I ____________ go to the restaurant if I could. Let me ask my boss.
must
05. Rose and Ted _________________ be good players. They have won hundreds of cups !
need not
06. You _________________ pay to use the library. It’s free.
might
07. I’m not sure where my wife is at the moment. She _________________ be at her dance
class.
shouldn't
08. Jerry _________________ be working today. He never works on Sundays.
must
09. You _________________ be 18 to see that film.
should
10. You _________________ hear this story. It’s very funny.
ought to
11. Dad _________________ go and see a doctor. His cough is getting worse all the time.
can
12. You don’t have to shout. I _________________ hear you very well.
couldn't
13. It _________________ be him. I saw him a week ago, and he didn’t look like that.
should
14. You look pretty tired. I think you _________________ go to bed early tonight.
may
15. Let me look. I _________________ be able to help you.

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 must not
16. “Children, you _________________ cross the street if the lights are red !”
shouldn't
17. You _________________ sit so near the TV. It’s bad for your eyes.
couldn't
18. I’m sorry but I _________________ give you a lift because my car is broken.
must
19. I _________________ stop and talk to you now. I have to get to the library.
should
20. You really _________________ go to the Louvre if you’re in Paris. It’s wonderful.
need not
21. You _________________ come to the party if you don’t feel well.
might
22. I don’t know where Kelly is. She _________________ be at her sister’s .
should
23. You have passed all your tests. You _________________ be very pleased with yourself.
must not
24. You _________________ smoke in your car, especially if there are children sitting in the
back.
shouldn't
25. You _________________ work this evening. I can do the tasks for you.
can
26. John doesn’t need a calculator. He _________________ do sums in his head.
must not
27. Passengers _________________ open the door when the train is moving.
may
28. It _________________ rain today. It’s getting cloudy already.
should
29. I _________________ pay for the tickets because I got them from Sam for free.

30. Easter Island, 3,000 km off the coast of Chile in the Pacific Ocean is very far from land. Today, it is a
small island with few people or trees , but at one time a lot of people lived there. Scientists believe that the
must not have landed
original inhabitants _____________________________________ by accident. Around 100 people
may have landed
_______________________________ on the western coast of the island. But then the number of inhabitants
must have used up all the food on the
increased too quickly. Scientists agree that the inhabitants ________________________________
island and finally all died. The Easter Island statues are famous, but nobody knows why they are there or
might have been gods
why there are so many . The statues _____________________________ , or Easter Island
could have been part
__________________________ of a much bigger island. The statues are very large and heavy , so they
can't have been easy to move.
________________________ Scientists still do not know how the inhabitants
may have discovered the island
__________________________ .

Options for number 30:

may have landed
might have done this
must have used up all the food
can’t have been easy
may have discovered the island
should have done this
could have been part
might have been gods
must not have landed

EXERCISE 5 (Epistemic or Deontic Modality)

01. I must be getting sick. epistemic modality

02. You may be confused. deontic modality
03. Nitric acid will dissolve zinc. epistemic modality
04. John must leave now. epistemic modality

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05. He can miss the class. deontic modality
06. You could clean your room. doentic modality
07. He must have passed the examination. epistemic modality
08. You might have fallen. epistemic modality
09. Pajama parties can be fun. doentic modality
10. She could be discouraged. doentic modality
11. I will call her. epistemic modality
12. You ought to be ashamed of yourself. epistemic modality
13. You can’t be serious. doentic modality
14. Harris has to retire next year. epistemic modality
15. He might try a bit harder to pass the course. doentic modality
16. She can be very obstinate. epistemic modality
17. Guests may not use their cellular phones in the restaurant. doentic modality
18. Only experts can advance to the next stage of the competition. epistemic modality
19. She must be careful with her money. epistemic modality
20. The movie shouldn’t be violent. doentic modality
21. The revised paper could be better. doentic modality
22. My uncle can wiggle his ears. epistemic modality

EXERCISE 6 (Past Modal Verbs)

Choose must have - might have - should have - could have - can't have to complete the sentences.
can't have gone on holiday. I saw him this morning downtown.
1. John ___________
must have
2. Nobody answered the phone at the clinic. It ___________ closed early.
should have revised more for my exams. I think I'll fail!
3. I ___________
might have passed her driving test this morning.
4. Sarah looks really pleased with herself. She ___________
should have told me!
5. I didn't know you were going to Phil's party yesterday. You ___________
must have
6. I can't believe Jim hasn't arrived yet. He ___________ caught the wrong train.
should have caught the correct train.
7. I can't believe Jim hasn't arrived yet. He ___________
can't have
8. Don't lie to me that you were ill yesterday. You ___________ been ill - Don said you were at the ice
hockey match last night.

9. I don't know where they went on holiday but they bought Euros before they left so they
gone to France or Germany.
must have been on the phone continuously for hours.
10. His number was busy all night - he ___________
could have been Mickey I saw at the party. He didn't recognise me at all.
11. It ___________
can't have
12. I know you were in Bali. But I’m sorry, I had a company too. I______________invited you to my flat.

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