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Perceived Waiting Time and Waiting Satisfaction: a Systematic Literature

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Perceived Waiting Time and Waiting Satisfaction: a Systematic Literature
Review
Jane Worlitz M.Sc.; Chair of Quality Management, Brandenburg University of Technology;
jane.worlitz@b-tu.de; Siemens-Halske Ring 14, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
Duy Linh Vu B.Sc.; Chair of Quality Management, Brandenburg University of Technology;
duylinh.vu@b-tu.de; Siemens-Halske Ring 14, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
Laura Hettling B.Sc.; Chair of Quality Management, Brandenburg University of
Technology; laura.hettling@b-tu.de; Siemens-Halske Ring 14, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ralf Woll; Chair of Quality Management, Brandenburg University of
Technology; woll@b-tu.de; Siemens-Halske Ring 14, 03046 Cottbus, Germany
Keywords: waiting satisfaction, waiting time, acceptable waiting time, customer satisfaction,
service quality, positive waiting, literature review
Category: Literature review

Abstract
Purpose: The waiting time of the customer has an impact on the quality evaluation of
services. Therefore, strategies to reduce waiting time are required. In addition to strategies to
reduce actual waiting time, strategies to reduce the perceived waiting time are investigated.
Several factors influencing perceived waiting time and waiting satisfaction of customers. The
purpose of the following research is to capture the current state of perceived waiting time and
waiting satisfaction through a systematic literature review.
Design/methodology/approach: Among other, the paper will answer the following
questions. “In which industries are perceived waiting time and waiting satisfaction
particularly frequently investigated?” “How does the interest of the topic change over time?”
“Which factors influence perceived waiting time and customer waiting satisfaction?”
The work presented in this paper is based on a systematic literature review of 152 empirical
studies that were published on perceived waiting time and waiting satisfaction in academic
databases from 1984 to 2018.
Findings: Pre-process waiting is the waiting period before the service is provided. Pre-
process waiting is considered in a large number of studies. The majority of the studies relate
to the health sector. Mostly surveys were based on questionnaires. 121 different
characteristics of factors were identified in the studies.
Originality/Value of paper: Research results on the topic of perceived waiting time and
waiting satisfaction were structured and presented thematically, by a systematic literature
analysis. This provides the basis for further developments in the subject area. The results
enable new ways to apply strategies to reducing perceived waiting time and increasing
waiting satisfaction.
Purpose
For companies it is essential to design the experience for customers in such detail that they are
bound to the company in the long term. Waiting time is a decisive factor in evaluating service
quality (Thompson, et al., 1996). On average, customers waiting longer are more dissatisfied
(Davis & Vollmann, 1990; Taylor, 1995; Dube-Rioux, et al., 1989).
There are different approaches to reduce the real waiting time. The service can be expedited,
which means that the value of the service may be underestimated by the customer, e.g. the
doctor. Without emergencies and walk-ins the scheduling of services can be optimized. More
personnel can be hired, as long as the economic efficiency and the available space are given.
Process systematics, which can be used for the identification and realization of the
improvement potentials are e.g. Six Sigma and Lean management (Ev, et al., 2013).
There are situations in which the real waiting period cannot be further reduced for economic
reasons or is determined by factors that do not have an influence. Among other things, this
can be the unpunctuality of customers who arrive too early or too late. In these cases,
strategies to increase waiting satisfaction are necessary. For this it is necessary to know the
influencing factors on the perceived waiting time and waiting satisfaction (Karmann & Rösel,
2018).
The first relevant publication with theoretical considerations about the topic was published by
Maister (1985). He wrote a chapter on waiting in a book about services activities. In the
chapter he counts factors that lead to negatively perceived waiting times. He names the
factors presented in the second column of the table below. They were summarised by
Durrande-Moreau (1999) under the keywords shown in column one.
Table I: Factors influencing perceived waiting times

Distraction Unoccupied time feels longer than occupied time

Moment Pre-process waits feel longer than in-process waits
Anxiety Anxiety makes waits seem longer
Uncertainty Uncertain waits are longer than certain waits
Explanation Unexplained waits are longer than explained waits
Fairness Unfair waits are longer than fair waits
Value The more valuable the service, the longer the customer will wait
Solo wait Solo waits feel longer than group waits

The eight principles can be used by organizations or companies to influence customer

satisfaction with waiting times.
In 1984, Hornik published his first field study on retail waiting. He investigated the
relationship between waiting conditions and time perception. Most customers overestimated
the waiting time or estimated the waiting time accurately. One third underestimated the
waiting time. No significant effect of other factors such as queue length, queue type, shopping
preference, frequency of service use could be identified (Hornik, 1984).
In the following years, more studies were published analyzing various factors that have an
effect on waiting time or waiting satisfaction, for example by Davis & Vollmann (1990), Katz
et al. (1991) or Watt (1991).
These studies show new approaches how managers can influence the perceived waiting time
through influencing factors. Over time, more and more factors are discovered that have an
influence on the perceived waiting time. But in some situations the same influencing factor,
e.g. waiting information, can have different effects on waiting perception under given
circumstances and services (Hui, et al., 2006; Chebat, et al., 2010).
Durrande-Moreau (1999) summarizes 18 published empirical studies on the topic. She
included papers published between 1984 and 1997. She examines the effect of influencing
factors during waiting. The study identifies factors with a significant effect, such as real
waiting time, expectation and environmental factors. All factors recorded could be categorised
into three groups: temporal factors, individual factors and situational factors. The study
considers a period slightly longer than 10 years. Due to the current social change, the results
may be obsolete. Only a small number of studies are evaluated. It is not shown which sources
were used for identifying the studies.
Chatterjee (2013) considers 44 empirical studies in his meta-analysis. He uses studies
published until 2012. He identifies three dependent variables: service quality evaluation,
satisfaction of customers and affective and behavioral response. These are influenced by a
number of independent variables. He divides these into external, internal and controllable
situation variables. The meta-analysis shows that service delays affect satisfaction but not
service quality.
As the study analyses publications up to 2012, social changes might lead to outdated results.
The sources were identified in three steps. An index search was carried out first, then cross-
references were used, and the authors were contacted to find out whether previously
unpublished papers had been made available. It is not shown how the index search is done.
In their literature review, Cooke et al. (2005) consider 12 studies that deal with the
influencing factor music and the effect on the anxiety of patients during short waiting periods.
The authors included papers published between 1985 and 2004. In their review, they focus on
a critical examination of the design of the studies. They give recommendations for action to
strengthen the significance of studies in this area.
Garlin und Owen (2006) analysed 32 studies that deal with the influencing factor music and
the effect on customer behaviour in retail situations. The authors included papers that were
published until 2006. 11 of the 32 papers examined the influence of music on the customer's
perception of time.
Oakes und North (2008) also analyzed studies investigating the effect of music on service
environments. The authors included papers that were published until 2007. 6 Studies
investigate the influence of music on perceived wait and stay duration.
In addition, Magnini und Parker (2009) considered studies investigating the effect of music in
hotels. The authors included papers that were published until 2008. 8 studies examine the
influence of music on the customer while waiting.
Dziekan & Kottenhoff (2007) consider studies investigating the effect of real-time
information displays in public transport on customers. The authors included papers that were
published until 2006. They looked more closely at 14 studies. 7 of them examined the effect
on the reduction of perceived waiting time.
Ryan et al. (2018) indicate that waiting has changed as a result of technological progress. The
number of possible waiting situations is increasing. Ryan et al. refer to studies that investigate
waiting on the phone (Munichor and Rafaeli, 2007, Mehrotra et al., 2012), waiting on the
Internet (Ryan and Valverde, 2005, Ryan and Valverde, 2006, Lee et al., 2012) and waiting in
virtual environments (Hwang, Yoon, & Bendle, 2012). Further studies on "online waiting"
were carried out e.g. by Chebat et al. (2010) and Kim et al. (2017).
Ryan et al. (2018) argue that investigations primarily consider negative aspects of waiting.
The following theses are formulated in the study:
Table II: positive waiting theses (Ryan, et al., 2018)

Value queues and waiting lists attract more consumers

Value waiting increases perceived value
Value queues provide information that facilitates decision-making
Value slowing down the service improves customer evaluations
Value waiting encourages positive anticipation

One of the implications is that waiting is not necessarily negative.

The aim of this study is to summarize the previous studies on the influence of waiting
conditions on customer sensations. It is examined whether technological progress has changed
the type of services and the influencing factors. It is reviewed whether new forms of waiting
as well as new possibilities of information provision and entertainment are considered. The
aim is to represent the wide range of influencing factors investigated.
For this purpose, a systematic literature analysis is carried out. The aim of this study is to
consider a higher number of papers than in previous reviews and to present the process of
selecting studies transparently.
The following research questions (RQ) are pursued:
RQ1: How are the publications distributed regionally?
RQ2: Does the number of publications change over time?
RQ3: Which services are examined?
RQ4: Which factors of influence are investigated?
RQ5: Which waiting phases are examined?
By answering these questions, the paper makes a contribution in the areas of service quality,
service marketing and consumer research.
Methodology

Search field limitation and eligibility criteria

To answer the research question, the search field is first limited. The PICO scheme is
modified for the problem. The PICO scheme comes from evidence-based medicine. It is used
to formulate a researchable problem in health care (Huang, et al., 2006) The following table
shows how the search field limitation was proceeded. Studies are included which deal with
factors for reducing the perceived waiting time and increasing waiting satisfaction in service
situations. Studies dealing with long-term waiting, e.g. waiting for an operation appointment
or a package delivery, are excluded.
Table III: Search field limitation
Core What? Perceived waiting time
Who? Customer, test person
Environment Where? Service
Consequence? Waiting satisfaction
Effect Consequence? Service satisfaction
Cause? Influencing factors

The following eligibility criteria are defined:

 Study examines influencing factor(s) on perceived waiting time and/or study examines
influencing factor(s) on waiting satisfaction.
 Studies investigating acceptable waiting time
 Studies that examine waiting expectations
 It is an empirical study.
 It is a published paper.
Excluded are studies which only

 focus on the impact of waiting time on customer satisfaction.

 concentrate on the influence of waiting satisfaction on customer satisfaction.
 focus on reducing the actual waiting time through process improvement.
 concentrate on queuing models.
 concentrate on transfer times.
 concentrate on long-term waits, for example, waiting for a surgery date or a package
delivery.

Definition of terms

waiting time
Most studies carried out focus on three different phases of the waiting period (Sanmartin,
2003). The pre-process, in-process and post-process waiting period. The waiting time before,
during and after the provision of the service (Dube-Rioux, et al., 1989). Waiting times can be
further divided into four different aspects, which are described in the following table.
Table IV: Aspects of waiting time (Bielen & Demoulin, 2007; Pruyn & Smidts, 1998).
objective waiting time
 time between the arrival of the customer and the beginning of the service,,
 is measurable,
 leaves no room for interpretation.
subjective, perceived waiting time
 depends on objective waiting time, usually differs from it,
 is not measurable, can be collected through customer surveys,
 depends on the customer's perception of time.
cognitive aspect of waiting time
 The customer's assessment of whether the waiting is acceptable, justified, tolerable, long or short.
affective aspect of the waiting time
 Emotions that arise while waiting, such as boredom, stress, frustration or even positive emotions
such as anticipation.

service
According to ISO 9000:2015, the term service is defined as following: “output of an
organization with at least one activity necessarily performed between the organization and the
customer.” The standard also refers to the following points: “The dominant elements of a
service are generally intangible. Service often involves activities at the interface with the
customer to establish customer requirements as well as upon delivery of the service and can
involve a continuing relationship […]. A service is generally experienced by the customer.
The service sector is very heterogeneous. In a special meeting of the Advisory Board of the
Services Coordination Office (KDL) of the German Institute for Standardization (DIN), the
service sector was divided into 18 service fields. In addition, these were assigned to the
economic sector classifications of the Federal Statistical Office of 2008 (Fachbeirat der
Koordinierungsstelle Dienstleistungen im DIN e.V, 2015).

customer satisfaction
According to ISO 9000:2015, the term service is defined as follows: “customer’s perception
of the degree to which the customer’s expectations have been fulfilled.”
The standard also refers to the following points:“[…] Complaints are a common indicator of
low customer satisfaction but their absence does not necessarily imply high customer
satisfaction. Even when customer requirements have been agreed with the customer and
fulfilled, this does not necessarily ensure high customer satisfaction.”

Search term definition

The search terms for further research are defined on the basis of the search field limitation.
From the preliminary considerations, a term is selected from each category (core,
environment, effect) in order to narrow down the search field. Only English terms are used for
the search. The terms "wait*", "service" and "*satisf*" are searched. The truncation symbols
("*"), also called wildcard, guarantee that all relevant terms are searched. Synonyms are
included. For the search, the terms are merged with the Boolean operator "AND". Only
studies whose summary contains all three terms are included.
The search field is extended by studies which name at least one of the aspects of the waiting
time in their summary.
For the search, the aspects of the waiting time are linked with the Boolean operator "OR" and
supplement the results of the previous "AND" link. The following table shows the search term
combination.
Table V: Search terms
Search wait* AND service AND *satisf*
terms:
OR objective* wait* time OR subjective* wait* time OR accept* wait* time
OR cognitive* wait* time OR affective* wait* time OR perceived wait* time
OR wait* time perception

Database selection

For literature research the database systems Web of Science, EBSCOhost and Google Scholar
are used.

Web of Science was selected as the leading database in the field of

"General/Interdisciplinary" and EBSCOhost as the leading database in the field of
"Economics". Google Scholar is also selected as the largest database with an estimated 176
million documents (Orduna-Malea, et al., 2015).

All three are some of the best-known literature database systems. Not only do they have
access to high-quality literature, but they also have an enormously large database and can
access the archives of various data sources. Accordingly, the literatures that can be found with
these database systems are broad and can cover almost all areas of science.

Database research
The literature search is carried out according to the PRISMA-P guidelines. In contrast to other
protocols such as CONSORT, which was introduced in 1996, STRICTA, which was
introduced in 2001, and post-STARD, which was introduced in 2004, PRISMA-P is very
current. In addition, these guidelines have been developed by a special committee of experts
through many discussions and revisions (Moher, et al., 2015).
The first phase is identification. In this phase all relevant literatures are identified in the
database. Literatures that occurred several times were subsequently sorted out. The second
phase is screening. After a title screening an abstract screening and full text screening was
performed. For the title screening and abstract screening, three experts evaluated the studies
independently with regard to the approval criteria. The exclusion of one study required
agreement of the experts. The full-text screening was carried out by one expert and in the case
of uncertainty by two. The literature that was found and sorted out was always documented.
In the last phase, a statement is made about the number of studies used. Figure 1 illustrates the
four phases in a flow diagram.
Figure 1: Screening phase
147 papers were selected for full text analysis. 9% of the papers were viewed in all three
databases and 62% in one of the three databases only (13% Ebsco; 24% Google Scholar; 24%
Web of Science). The use of several databases is recommended.
In 5 of the 147 papers 2 studies are presented. A total of 152 studies are considered. In the
appendix, you can find the list of studies included in the literature review.

Findings

RQ1: How are the publications distributed regionally?

47% of the paper comes from or refers to the USA, followed by Canada (9%), Taiwan (7%)
and the UK (5%). All other regions are covered by ≤5 Paper. The following chart (Figure 2)
shows the geographical distribution.
Figure 2: geographical distribution of literatures (marked in blue)
Various approaches are possible to explain this distribution. The topic is mainly investigated
in industrial nations and some emerging markets. An important aspect is certainly the
relevance of the topic to other problems in the country. A related issue is the potential funding
for such a research project. Regions with highly frequented local and long-distance traffic
should have an interest in the results. Furthermore, regions that would like to improve
satisfaction with their health care system benefit from the results. Suitable industrial partners
are financial service providers, trading companies and call centers. Regions with many
resident service providers benefit from the results. Another aspect is to be assumed in cultural
differences regarding the attitude to waiting times.

RQ2: Does the number of publications change over time?

The following graph shows the number of studies over time. The publication years of the
studies were used. The first empirical studies were published in the late 1980s and early 1990s
at the beginning of the information age. As a result, many studies dealt with the topic at the
end of the 1990s. At the beginning of the 2000s, interest declined slightly and increased again
in the following years. The renewed interest in the topic could be due to the fact that towards
the end of the 2000s service providers and customers had access to technologies that
redesigned the waiting experience. For example, the smartphone gained popularity during this
period.

50
40
number of studies

40
30
30 26 27
18
20
10 7
4
0
before 1990 1990-1994 1995-1999 2000-2004 2005-2009 2010-2014 since 2015
year of publication

Figure 3: Number of studies during time course

RQ3: Which services are examined?
Waiting situations are waiting queues, integrated waiting rooms, separate waiting rooms,
waiting halls, bus stops, telephone attendances, web/computer attendances, etc..
In order to record which service sectors are being investigated, the identified studies were
assigned to 12 of the 18 service fields of the Advisory Board of the DIN e.V. Services
Coordination Office (2015) (Figure 4).
7 % of the studies could not be assigned to any service, these were laboratory tests. 4% of the
studies do not consider an industry-specific waiting situation, e.g. in cases in which data was
collected using CIT technology and a self-chosen waiting situation was asked to be
remembered.
Most studies (28%) come from health services. Of these, 27 studies looked at inpatient
admission to a hospital or an outpatient clinic, 7 at an emergency room and 7 at a doctor's
office and once at a blood donation service.
18% of the studies are from tourism services. Of these, the largest share is accounted by
restaurants (20 studies), followed by fast food restaurants (5 studies) and cafeterias and hotels,
each with one study.
11% of the studies can be assigned to logistics and transport services. Of these, 14 studies
relate to land transport and 2 to air transport.
10% of the studies deal with information technology services, of which 14 studies are on web
and one study on app applications.
8% of the studies deal with commercial services, 7 of them involving a supermarket, 2
including a bakery and one a boutique, a drugstore and an unspecified commercial service.
5% of the studies dealt with financial services and 5% with business services. Business
service includes call centers (7 studies) and career consulting (1 study).
3% of the studies focused on educational services such as course enrolment and 1% of the
studies focused on advisory services and sports, recreational and cultural services.
 health service 42
tourism service 27
logistics and transport services 16
information technology service 15
trading service 12
sectors

no service situation 11
business services 9
financial services 8
cross-industry 6
educational services 5
sports, leisure and cultural services 1

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
number of studies

Figure 4: Number of studies by sectors

The first study on information services appeared in 1999. 12 of the 15 studies in this service
sector appeared after 2005. This supports the assumption that the increase in the number of
studies in Figure 3 can be explained by the growing interest in this service sector. The topic is
still relevant. 3 of the studies were published in 2018, one of which dealt with waiting time
when loading app pages (Cao & Hu, 2018).
Web/computer waiting and telephone waiting are not limited to the information technology
and call center sectors. These forms of waiting also exist in the other service fields, e.g.
computer maintenance for course enrolment (educational services) and telephone maintenance
in medical practices (health services).
Digital technologies extend the diversity of waiting situations and the strategies for designing
them, for example through entertainment offerings and real-time information.
The OneBusAway Transit Travel Information System provides real-time bus countdown
information to King County Metro drivers via website, phone, SMS and smartphone
applications (Watkins, et al., 2011).
Gammer et al. (2014) investigate the effect of QR codes at bus stops associated with real-
time arrival information. They found that the use of QR codes depends very much on the
geographical area and less on the day and time of day. People using the QR code show
improved acceptance of waiting times and feelings of security and well-being. Low marginal
costs make QR codes an attractive information medium.
Digital technologies also enable new forms of data acquisition for waiting situations.
For example, in the study by Hwang et al. (2012). With the help of VR technology (Real
Scale, Interactive Virtual Reality), which enables highly precise representations of real
environments, the authors created a navigable, photorealistic three-dimensional model of a
waiting area in a restaurant. Through an experimental study that manipulated crowding in the
VR restaurant, they interviewed the respondents' reactions to crowding conditions. By using
VR simulation, this study complements a new approach to crowding studies.
Carrel et al. (2016) combine satisfaction surveys of public transport passengers with
smartphone tracking data and automatic vehicle location data (AVL). The high resolution of
the smartphone tracking data makes it possible to break down the travel times into their
individual components, and the connection with AVL data provides objective information
about the personal experiences of the respondents. Analyses show how this data can provide a
quantitative understanding of the relationship between planned and delivered service and
customer satisfaction.

RQ4: Which factors of influence are investigated?

The studies were reviewed and all considered dependent and independent variables were
documented. Furthermore, the type of influence was recorded. The independent variables
were then categorized. In some studies several independent and dependent variables were
considered. The real waiting time was not the focus of the review, but it is recorded how
many studies also deal with it.
The following dependent variables have been identified:
Table VI: Dependent variables
Dependent variables Number of studies
perceived waiting time (wWZ) 88
Perceived waiting satisfaction (wZuf) 89
affective aspects of the waiting period (afWZ) 15
affective aspects of waiting satisfaction (afWZuf) 4
expected waiting time (eWZ) 5
expected waiting satisfaction(eWZuf) 3
acceptable waiting time (akWZ) 8
Acceptable waiting satisfaction (akWZuf) 1
real waiting time (rWZ) 21
real waiting satisfaction (rWZuf) 6
estimation error (SF) 2

Some of the dependent variables have an influence on other dependent variables. The
independent variables have been divided into ten categories (see Figure 5).
 categories of independent variables waiting times 56
entertainment offer 43
waiting information 41
services and personnel 27
environmental factors 22
personal characteristics 20
demographic characteristics 18
waiting organization 15
benefit through service 12
situational factors 2

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
number of studies

Figure 5: Categories of independent variables

Many of the independent variables can be influenced by service providers. In particular, the
influencing factors of the categories entertainment offer, waiting information and
environmental factors can be influenced by the service provider and are not directly related to
the service. These three categories cover 41% of the influencing factors. In the following
table, the independent variables from the studies are assigned to the categories (see Table
VII).
Table VII: Categories of independent variables
Independent variable number of studies
1. waiting times 56
1.1. delay of the waiting phase 10
1.1.1. delays_in_pre-process 10
1.1.2. delays_in_the_in-process 7
1.1.3. delays_in_the_post-process 5
1.2. waiting time anchor 1
1.2.1. short_waiting_time_anchor 1
1.2.2. long waiting time anchor 1
1.3. perception of waiting time 19
1.3.1. long_perceived_ waiting_satisfaction 15
1.3.2. long_perceived_ waiting_satisfaction2 1
1.3.3. falling_perceived_waiting_time 3
1.3.4. long_perceived_wasted_waiting_satisfaction 1
1.3.5. little_perceived_control_over_the_ waiting_satisfaction 1
1.3.6. high_perceived_control_over_the_ waiting_satisfaction 1
1.4. waiting time expectation 10
1.4.1. expectation_to_wait 2
1.4.2. wait_time_exact_as_expected 1
1.4.3. Waiting_time_shorter_than_expected 4
1.4.4. wait_time_longer_than_expected_(promised) 6
1.5. real waiting time 21
1.5.1. short_waiting_time 9
1.5.2. long_waiting_time 17
1.5.3. sinking_real_waiting_satisfaction 3
1.6. arrival time 2
1.6.1. patients appearing earlier 2
1.6.2. patients who appear later 0
Independent variable Anzahl der Studien
2. entertainment offer 43
2.1. music 24
2.1.1. loud music 7
2.1.2. quiet music 0
2.1.3. fast music tempo 6
2.1.4. slow music tempo 1
2.1.5. subjective experience of music 3
2.1.6. music favourites (music selection) 3
2.1.7. bad music 3
2.1.8. music awareness 2
2.1.9. music presence 1
2.2. time filler 5
2.3. television sets 5
2.3.1. presence of television sets 3
2.3.2. television sets without sound 2
2.4. motion design in the loading screen 3
2.5. pictures, art 3
2.6. journal 2
2.7. video 2
2.7.1. videos with congruent content from retail environment 1
2.7.2. videos of non-congruent retail environment content 2
2.8. menu card 1
2.9. form and embellishments 1
2.10. animals 1
2.11. fill interface 1
2.12. advertising 1
2.13. personal effects 0
2.13.1. smartphones 0
2.13.2. smartwatch 0

3. waiting information 41
3.1. waiting information on reason or time 30
3.2. provision of information 2
3.2.1. information board 1
3.2.2. personal 1
3.2.3. app 1
3.3. information on the reason explanation 4
3.4. information at present 1
3.5. information on the waiting position 6
3.5.1. progress functions 3
3.5.2. delay removal 2
3.5.3. control room number 1
3.6. uncertainty 10
3.6.1. no_waiting_information 7
3.6.2. delayed_waiting_information 3
3.6.3. non_confirmation_of_information 2
Indenpendent variable Anzahl der Studien
4. services and personnel 27
4.1. compensation 1
4.2. equipment 1
4.3. image_of_the_service 3
4.4. qualification_of_the_personnel 6
4.5. service 20
4.5.1. good_service_quality 17
4.5.2. poor_service_quality 8
4.5.3. courtesy_of_the_employees 3
4.5.4. intensive_care 2
4.5.5. poor_care 1
4.5.6. eye contact 2
4.6. contact duration_with_staff 2
4.7. speed_of_the_service 1
4.7.1. slow speed 1
4.7.2. fast speed 0
4.8. treatment_of_the_accompanying_persons 1
4.8.1. good treatment of the accompanying person 1
4.8.2. bad treatment of the accompanying person 0
4.9. perceived_neglect 1
4.9.1. high perceived neglect 1
4.9.2. low perceived neglect 0

5. environmental factors 22
5.1. comfort 14
5.1.1. comfortable waiting environment 14
5.1.2. uncomfortable waiting environment 6
5.2. number of waiting persons 4
5.2.1. many waiting people 3
5.2.2. more privacy 1
5.3. colour 2
5.3.1. cool colour 2
5.3.2. warm colour 2
5.3.3. pleasant colour 0
5.3.4. unpleasant colour 0
5.4. ambient noises 2
5.5. room scent 1
5.6. lighting 0
5.6.1. bright 0
5.6.2. dimmed 0
5.7. temperature 0
5.7.1. warm 0
5.7.2. cold 0
5.7.3. pleasant 0
5.7.4. unpleasant 0
5.8. 1.8. draught 0
5.8.1. breezy 0
5.8.2. sticky 0
5.9. air humidity 0
5.9.1. high 0
5.9.2. low 0
 Independent Variable Anzahl der Studien
6. personal characteristics 20
6.1. immersive_experience 1
6.2. impulsive_people 0
6.3. time style 2
6.3.1. quantitative_time_style 1
6.3.2. economic_temporary_style 1
6.4. suggestions 3
6.5. emotional_valence 1
6.6. inclination_to_boredom 1
6.7. high_estimation_error 1
6.8. time sensitivity 2
6.9. mood 11
6.9.1. positive_tuning 8
6.9.2. negative_tuning 8

7. demographic characteristics 18
7.1. educational attainment 4
7.2. citizenship 5
7.3. sex 10
7.3.1. female 10
7.3.2. male 8
7.4. age 12
7.4.1. high_age 10
7.4.2. young_age 5
7.5. income 1
7.5.1. high_income 1
7.5.2. low income 0
7.6. type of health insurance 0
7.6.1. private patients 0
7.6.2. national health patients 0
7.7. type_of_health_centers 0

8. waiting organisation 15
8.1. queue 6
8.1.1. multiple queue 3
8.1.2. single queue 2
8.1.3. structured_queue 1
8.1.4. many_people_before_one 1
8.1.5. many_people_after_one 1
8.2. number_of_waiting_attendants 5
8.2.1. group_waiting_(alternate) 4
8.2.2. solo waiting 2
8.3. waiting justice 6
8.3.1. high_social_justice 5
8.3.2. low_social_justice 3
8.4. web_based_appointment_system 0
 Independent variable Anzahl der Studien
9. benefit through service 12
9.1. unpleasant transactions 1
9.2. high risk 1
9.3. importance of the service 1
9.3.1. high_personal_importance_of_the_service 1
9.3.2. planned activities (e.g. travel purpose) 0
9.4. willingness to pay 1
9.5. purchase value 1
9.5.1. high_purchase_value 1
9.5.2. low_purchase_value 2
9.6. waiting costs 3
9.7. time pressure 1
9.8. self-selection 3
9.9. requency_of_service_use 5
9.9.1. rare_service usage 1
9.9.2. occasional_service use 5
9.9.3. frequent use of_serviceL 0

10. situational factors 2

10.1. time of day 2
10.2. location 2

Possible other influencing factors which were not considered in the literature are marked in
grey. In the environmental factors category, for example, it is conceivable that, in addition to
room scent, the factors of lighting (bright light, dimmed light), temperature (pleasant,
unpleasant, warm, cold), humidity and draught have an influence. Personal items such as
smartphones, tablets and Smartwatch were not examined in the studies.

RQ5: Which waiting phases are examined?

In 5% of the studies, all three waiting phases were considered (see Figure 6). 123 papers
considered pre-process wait situations, 35 paper-in-process wait situations and 10 paper post-
process wait situations.

Figure 6: Number of studies per waiting phase

The high proportion of studies in the pre-process phase can be explained by the high
importance of the phase for the choice of service and satisfaction with the service. Table VIII
shows the influence of the waiting phase on the dependent variables.
Table VIII: Influence of the wait phase on the dependent variables (Tom & Lucey, 1997;
McCarthy, et al., 2011; Friman, 2010; Hudson, et al., 2017; Dubé, et al., 1991; Dube-Rioux,
et al., 1989; Hensley & Sulek, 2007; Hwang & Lambert, 2006; Taylor, 1995)
Independent Influence on dependent variables
variables + positive / - negativ / o no influence (number of studies))
(number of
wWZ wZuf afWZ afWzuf eWZ eWzuf akWZ akWZuf rWZ rWZuf SF
studies)
Delays in pre-
- (7) - (1) - (1) - (1)
process (10)
Delays in in- - (3)
- (1) o (1) - (2)
process (7) o (1)
Delays in
- (2)
post-process - (1) - (1)
o (1)
(5)

Rhonda L. Hensley & Joanne Sulek (2007) found in their study that pre-process waiting
satisfaction was the only one that affected the perception of service quality. Pre-process
waiting times arouse more negative emotions than in-process waiting times (Friman, 2010) .
Negative affective reactions are stronger in the pre-process and post-process waiting phase
(Dubé, et al., 1991). Management strategies to increase waiting satisfaction are effective in
the in-process and post-process waiting phase (Kim, 2011).

Discussion
Waiting satisfaction is of actual interest. Especially in the industrial nations and emerging
countries. The health care sector is considered the most strongly, followed by the tourism
industry, logistics and transport services and information technology services. There are
relatively few studies that deal with more than one waiting phase.
In most of the studies, only a few influencing factors were investigated. There is still no such
model in which all the influencing factors shown are considered.
A number of other influencing factors are conceivable. Personal objects were not examined in
the studies. Additional findings on the subject are desirable. If an influence could be proven,
service providers could specifically encourage the use of these objects.
The 4th industrial revolution provides new strategies for designing waiting situations and new
possibilities for investigating waiting times. Furthermore, completely new waiting situations
are created. So far, only a few studies have looked at waiting in virtual space.
In further analysis, the results of the empirical studies will be summarized in order to develop
an approach for a new model. Under certain circumstances, the results can also be transferred
to adjacent areas such as transfer times. Due to autonomous driving, it is likely that the topic
of waiting times will become interesting for the automotive industry.
Positive waiting should be further investigated in follow-up studies.
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Appendix A. List of studies included in the Literature Review
Author (year) Title N participants
Areni (Waiting) Time Flies When the Tune Flows: Music Influences
&Grantham Affective Responses to Waiting By Changing the Subjective 86 Students
(2009) Experience of Passing Time.
60 Customer
“It was not that long!”: The effects of the in-store TV screen
Borges, et al. Online
content and consumers emotions on consumer waiting
(2015) 145 plattform
perception.
participants
Ramseook-
A critical incident technique investigation of customers' waiting
Munhurrun 25 Customer
experiences in service encounters
(2016)
Seawright, et al. A cross-cultural examination of consumer wait time perception:
33 Customer
(2008) Russia and the USA
Tom & Lucey A field study investigating the effect of waiting time on
272 Customer
(1997) customer satisfaction
McGuire, et al. 186 Customer
A framework for evaluating the customer wait experience.
(2010) 165 Students
Davis & A framework for relating waiting time and customer satisfaction
723 Customer
Vollmann (1990) in a service operation
A patient satisfaction theory and its robustness across gender in
Aragon & Gesell
emergency departments: A multigroup structural equation 1000 Patients
(2003)
modeling investigation
A Randomized Controlled Trial of the Effect of Service
McCarthy, et al.
Delivery Information on Patient Satisfaction in an Emergency 1011 Patients
(2011)
Department Fast Track
Online
A Research on Motion Design for APP's Loading Pages based
Cao & Hu (2018) 30 plattform
on Time Perception
participants
Phung Tan &
A Study on Patient Satisfaction at Khanh Hoa Provincial
FitzGerald 985 Patients
General Hospital.
(2015)
Seawright &
A video method for empirically studying wait-perception bias 310 Students
Sampson (2007)
Schlagkamp & Computer
Acceptance of Waiting Times in High Performance Computing 24
Renker (2015) users
Friman (2010) Affective dimensions of the waiting experience 75 Students
Psarros, et al. An Empirical Investigation of Passenger Wait Time Perceptions
>1000 Customer
(2011) Using Hazard-Based Duration Models
An Ethological Experiment to Improve Airport Security Gate
Fragniere, et al.
Process Reliability Understanding time perception and personal 140 Customer
(2017)
awareness of older adult travelers
Larkins, et al. An evaluation of patient attitudes to the gastroenterology
227 Patients
(2013) outpatient experience
Brakewood, et al. An experiment evaluating the impacts of real-time transit
268 Customer
(2014) information on bus riders in Tampa, Florida.
McKeever, et al. An investigation of the impact of prolonged waiting times on
85 Patients
(2006) blood donors in Ireland
Antecedents of consumers' time perceptions in a hypermarket
Anic (2011) 262 Customer
retailer
Application of the concept of multi-phase experience to wait
Kim (2011) 800 Students
management in restaurant services
Choi, et al. Assessing the Relationship Between Waiting Services and
160 Customer
(2012) Customer Satisfaction in Family Restaurants.
Associations Between Waiting Times, Service Times, and
Xie & Or (2017) Patient Satisfaction in an Endocrinology Outpatient 49 Patients
Department: A Time Study and Questionnaire Survey
Celan, et al. Bus-stop Based Real Time Passenger Information System - 216 Customer
(2017) Case Study Maribor
Hudson, et al. Call centers: is there an upside to the dissatisfied customer
121 Customer
(2017) experience?
Can online wait be managed? The effects of filler interfaces and
Lee, et al. (2012) 355 Students
presentation modes on perceived waiting time online
Whiting & Closing the gap between perceived and actual waiting times in a
211 Customer
Donthu (2009) call center: results from a field study.
Mantel & Cognitive determinants of consumers' time perceptions: The
92 Students
Kellaris (2003) impact of resources required and available
Chen & Chang Communicating Outpatient Perception To Improve Quality
395 Patients
(2000) Management.
Antonides, et al. Consumer Perception and Evaluation of Waiting Time: A Field 179 Customer
(2002) Experiment. 236 Customer
Dubé, et al. ( Consumers' Affective Response to Delays at Different Phases of
41 Pupils
1991) a Service Delivery
Dube-Rioux, et Consumers' Reactions to Waiting: When Delays Affect the 113 Students
al. (1989) Perception of Service Quality 113 Students
Hensley & Sulek
Customer satisfaction with waits in multi-stage services. 150 Students
(2007)
Customer service in dental offices: Analyses of service
Ford & Snyder
orientations and waiting time in telephone interactions with a 84 Patients
(2000)
potential new customer
Tansik &
Customer stress-relaxation: the impact of music in a hospital
Routhieaux 297 Patients
waiting room
(1999)
Hwang & Customers' Identification of Acceptable Waiting Times in a
270 Alumni
Lambert (2006) Multi-Stage Restaurant System.
Pruyn & Smidts Customers' Reactions to Waiting: Effects of the Presence of
108 Patients
(1999) 'Fellow Sufferers' in the Waiting Room.
Kellaris, et al. Decibels, disposition, and duration: the impact of musical
54 Students
(1996) loudness and internal states on time perceptions
Desired privacy and the impact of crowding on customer
Hwang, et al.
emotions and approach-avoidance responses Waiting in a 61 Students
(2012)
virtual reality restaurant
Brown, et al. Developing an efficient model to select emergency department
20500 Patients
(2005) patient satisfaction improvement strategies
Fullerton & Dissatisfaction and violation: two distinct consequences of the Belong to
181
Taylor (2015) wait experience university
Disseminating real-time bus arrival information via QRcode Online
Gammer, et al.
tagged bus stops: a case study of user take-up and reaction in 99 plattform
(2014)
Southampton, UK. participants
Don't keep your internet customers waiting too long at the
Weinberg (2000) 72 Students
(virtual) front door
Watt (1991) Effect of boredom proneness on time perception 110 Students
Effect of Loading Symbol of Online Video on Perception of
Kim, et al. (2017) 60 Students
Waiting Time
Hitchings & Effect of self-triage on waiting times at a walk-in sexual health Patients <18
193
Barter (2009) clinic years
Effects of actual waiting time, perceived waiting time,
Thompson, et al.
information delivery, and expressive quality on patient 1631 Patients
(1996)
satisfaction in the emergency department
Pruyn & Smidts Effects of waiting on the satisfaction with the service: Beyond
337 Patients
(1998) objective time measures
Evaluation of patients' attitudes to their care during oral and
Dimovska, et al. maxillofacial surgical outpatient consultations: the importance
187 Patients
(2016) of waiting times and quality of interaction between patient and
doctor
Keirnan, et al. Exploring emotions for technology and service design in health
9 Employees
(2016) care setting waiting rooms
Lu, et al. (2018) Factors determining perceptions of fairness in access to hospital 124 Students
 outpatient departments in Taiwan
Syed, et al. Factors determining wait-time and patient satisfaction at post-
80 Patients
(2012) operative orthopaedic follow-up
Feng, et al. Factors of perceived waiting time and implications on
234 Customer
(2016) passengers’ satisfaction with waiting time
Groth & Gilliland Having to wait for service: customer reactions to delays in
111 Students
(2006) service delivery
Hospital outpatient perceptions of the physical environment of
Tsai, et al. (2007) waiting areas: the role of patient characteristics on atmospherics 680 Patients
in one academic medical center
Davis & Heineke How disconfirmation, perception and actual waiting times
723 Customer
(1998) impact customer satisfaction
Hui & Zhou How Does Waiting Duration Information Influence Customers'
96 Students
(1996) Reactions to Waiting for Services?
Dellaert & Kahn How tolerable is delay?: Consumers' evaluations of internet web
200 Students
(1999) sites after waiting
Impact of process change on customer perception of waiting
Luo, et al. (2004) 206 Customer
time: a field study
Nanda, et al. Impact of visual art on patient behavior in the emergency
65 Patients
(2012) department waiting room
Chebat, et al. Impact of Waiting Attribution and Consumer's Mood on
155 Students
(1995) Perceived Quality.
De Man, et al. Impact of waiting on the perception of service quality in nuclear
406 Patients
(2005) medicine
Billing, et al.
Improving patient satisfaction through information provision 405 Patients
(2007)
Online
Carrel, et al. In Pursuit of the Happy Transit Rider: Dissecting Satisfaction
723 plattform
(2016) Using Daily Surveys and Tracking Data.
participants
Influences of Patient Demographics on Assessing Subjective
Sanford, et al.
Interpretations of Perceived Wait Times in Surgical Clinic 150 Patients
(2018)
Visitation
Interaction between two types of information on reactions to
Hui et al. (2006) 111 Students
delays
Interactive Amusement Park Queues: Examining the Indirect
Ledbetter (2016) Effect of Task Work Load on Guests' Perception of Wait 173 Students
Duration Through Task Immersion
Chebat, et al. Interactive effects of musical and visual cues on time
427 Customer
(1994) perception: An application to waiting lines in banks
Voorhees, et al. It Depends: Moderating the Relationships Among Perceived
1305 Customer
(2009) Waiting Time, Anger, and Regret
It was not that long!: The effects of the in-store TV screen
Borges, et al.
content and consumers emotions on consumer waiting 148 Customer
(2015)
perception
Weng, et al. Lining up for quick service—The business impact of express
>1000 Customer
(2017) lines on fast-food restaurant operations.
Chen, et al. Managing online wait: Designing effective waiting screens 269 Students
(2018) across cultures 269 Students
Jones & Peppiatt
Managing perceptions of waiting times in service queues. 300 Customer
(1996)
Whiting & Managing Voice-to-Voice Encounters Reducing the Agony of
235 Students
Donthu (2006) Being Put on Hold.
DeLucia, et al. Measurement of the relationship between patient wait time and
126 Patients
(2007) patient satisfaction at each stage of an appointment
Chang & Huang
Measuring service experience: a utility-based heuristic model 413 Customer
(2016)
Modeling repurchase frequency and customer satisfaction for
Law, et al. (2004) 106 Customer
fast food outlets
Droit-Volet Music, emotion, and time perception: the influence of subjective
80 Students
(2013) emotional valence and arousal?
McDonnell
Music, scent and time preferences for waiting lines. 607 Customer
(2007)
Oakes (2003) Musical tempo and waiting perceptions 335 Students
Munichor & Numbers or apologies? Customer reactions to telephone waiting
123 Customer
Rafaeli (2007) time fillers
Parental perception of waiting time and its influence on parental
Waseem, et al.
satisfaction in an urban pediatric emergency department: Are 500 Parents
(2003)
parents accurate in determining waiting time?
Passenger wait time perceptions at bus stops: Empirical results
Mishalani (2006) 83 Customer
and impact on evaluating real-time bus arrival information
Passenger waiting time and information acquisition using
Hall (2001) 1199 Customer
automatic vehicle location for verification
Patterson et al. Patient Satisfaction Is Associated With Time With Provider But
182 Patients
(2017) Not Clinic Wait Time Among Orthopedic Patients
Chan, et al. Patient satisfaction with wait times at an emergency
50 Patients
(2018) ophthalmology on-call service
Donahue et al. Patients Willing to Wait: Arrival Time, Wait Time and Patient
211 Patients
(2017) Satisfaction in an Ambulatory Urology Clinic
Karl, et al. (2010) Perceptions of Service Quality: What's Fun Got to Do With It? 192 Students
Ikwunne,& Orji Persuasive Technology for Reducing Waiting and Service Cost:
1100 Patients
(2016) A Case Study of Nigeria Federal Medical Centers
Yarnold, et al. Predicting patient satisfaction: A study of two emergency
1167 Patients
(1998) departments
Prescription for the Waiting in Line Blues: Entertain, Enlighten,
Katz, et al. (1991) 277 Customer
Engage
Provision of clinically based information improves patients'
Tran, et al. (2002) 699 Patients
perceived length of stay and satisfaction with EP
Queueing management and improving customer experience:
Liang (2016) 418 Customer
empirical evidence regarding enjoyable queues
Chebat et al.
Reactions to waiting online by men and women 240 Students
(2010)
Reduction in the burden of waiting for public transit due to real-
Reed (1995) 1000 Employees
time schedule information: a conjoint analysis study
Thompson & Relating patient satisfaction to waiting time perceptions and
1574 Patients
Yarnold (1995) expectations the disconfirmation paradigm
Bestvater et al. Satisfaction and wait time of patients visiting a family practice
656 Patients
(1988) clinic
Zainol, et al. Service delay of cook to order food: How do Malaysia Gerai
332 Customer
(2014) customers react?
Mekoth, et al. Service Encounter Related Process Quality, Patient Satisfaction,
209 Patients
(2011) and Behavioral Intention.
Holbrook, et al. Shorter Perceived Outpatient MRI Wait Times Associated With
147 Patients
(2016) Higher Patient Satisfaction
Khan, et al. Shorter wait times: The effects of various loading screens on
145 Students
(2016) perceived performance
Study on the interaction between the food and beverage
Yang (2014) 90 Customer
servicescape and customer waiting experience
Subjective vs. objective time measures: A note on the
Hornik (1984) 281 Customer
perception of time in consumer behavior
The competitive impact of service process improvement:
Kumar (2005) 520 Customer
Examining customers’ waiting experiences in retail markets
Becker & The ecology of the patient visit: physical attractiveness, waiting
787 Patients
Douglass (2008) times, and perceived quality of care
The effect of delay type and service stage on consumers'
Hui, et al. (1998) 109 Students
reactions to waiting
Knott, et al. The effect of music choice and announcement duration on
24 Customer
(2004) subjective wait time for call center hold queues
Wonjae & The Effect of Waiting Time and Affective Reactions on
143 Customer
Lambert (2005) Customers' Evaluation of Service Quality in a Cafeteria.
Taylor (1995) The effects of filled waiting time and service provider control 232 Students
 over the delay on evaluations of service
Shieh & Ling The effects of music and queuing information on perception of
410 Students
(2010) download waiting time
Cameron, et al. The effects of music, wait-length evaluation, and mood on a
127 Students
(2003) low-cost wait experience
Bae & Kim The Effects of Offering Menu Information on Perceived
16 Employees
(2014) Waiting Time.
Rafaeli, et al.
The effects of queue structure on attitudes 146 Students
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(2015) Time and Emotions.
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The impact of music on consumers' reactions to waiting for
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services
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200 Patients
(2005) Attitudes and Actions
Kumar, et The impact of waiting time guarantees on customer's waiting
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The influence of affective factors on time perception 53 Students
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150 Students
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The mediating effects of brand music and waiting time updates
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on customer's satisfaction with a telephone service when put on- 197 Customer
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Durrande-
Moreau, & Time styles and the waiting experience: an exploratory study 321 Customer
Usunier (1999)
Mattila & Hanks
Time Styles and Waiting in Crowded Service Environments. 233 Employees
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Cheng & Tsai
Train delay and perceived-wait time: passengers' perspective 992 Customer
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Uncovering the silent language of waiting. 19 Emigrant
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Oakes & North Using music to influence cognitive and affective responses in
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Value of services: The psychology of queuing satisfaction 250 Customer
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150 Customer
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Waiting for the web: how screen color affects time perception 49 Students
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Waiting in the Accident and Emergency Department: Exploring
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Problematic Experiences
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Bielen & Waiting time influence on the satisfaction-loyalty relationship 946 Patients
 Demoulin (2007) in services.
Waiting time perceptions at transit stops and stations: Effects of
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basic amenities, gender, and security
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What does satisfaction with wait times mean to cancer patients? 60 Patients
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Pamies, et al. What is going on when nothing is going on? Exploring the role
19 Emigrant
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What to tell consumers in waits of different lengths: An
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integrative model of service evaluation
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207 Students
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655 Customer
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720 Students
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Giebelhausen, et Worth waiting for: increasing satisfaction by making consumers
918 Students
al. (2011) wait.
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Your life on hold. 60 Employees
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