INTERNATIONAL INDIAN SCHOOL, RIYADH

This is to certify that Mstr.IQBAL KABEER of class XI-H

has completed the investigatory project report
prescribed by the CBSE course in the laboratory of
International Indian School, Riyadh in the academic
year
2022-2023.

Sign of Internal Teacher

Date: / / 2022
• IQBAL KABEER
• XI-H
• 51887
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
In the successful accomplishment of this project, many people
have offered upon me their blessings and guidance for which I
would like to thank and appreciate all those who have been
concerned with this project. Primarily, I would like to thank The
Almighty for his unlimited support which resulted in the
completion of this project. Moreover, I would like to thank my
Biology Teacher Mrs. Anjana K Pillai, whose valuable
guidance and knowledge offered me to patch this project and
make it a full proof success. The suggestions and instructions by
my teacher served as a major contribute towards the completion
of this project. Finally, I would like to thank my parents who
have helped me with their precious suggestions, ideas and
encouragement throughout the journey of accomplishing this
project
 INTRODUCTION
The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of
life forms. Every cell consists of a cytoplasm enclosed
within a membrane, and contains many biomolecules such
as proteins, DNA and RNA, as well as many small
molecules of nutrients and metabolites. The term comes
from the Latin word cellula meaning 'small room'.
 ABOUT THE SCIENTIST

Robert Hooke FRS was an English polymath active as a scientist

and architect, who, using a microscope, was the first to visualize
a micro-organism. An impoverished scientific inquirer in young
adulthood, he found wealth and esteem by performing over half
of the architectural surveys after London's great fire of 1666.
While observing cork through his microscope, Hooke saw tiny
boxlike cavities, which he illustrated and described as cells. He
had discovered plant cells! Hooke's discovery led to the
understanding of cells as the smallest units of life—the
foundation of cell theory.
 THE THEORY OF CELL
cell theory is a scientific theory first formulated in the mid-
nineteenth century, that living organisms are made up of cells,
that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all
organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells
are the basic unit of structure in all organisms and also the basic
unit of reproduction.
FOUNDATION
In 1665, Robert Hooke published Micrographia, a book filled
with drawings and descriptions of the organisms he viewed
under the recently invented microscope. The invention of
the microscope led to the discovery of the cell by Hooke. While
looking at cork, Hooke observed box-shaped structures, which
he called “cells” as they reminded him of the cells, or rooms, in
monasteries. This discovery led to the development of
the classical cell theory.

The classical cell theory was proposed by Theodor Schwann in

1839. There are three parts to this theory. The first part states
that all organisms are made of cells. The second part states that
cells are the basic units of life. These parts were based on a
conclusion made by Schwann and Matthias Schleiden in 1838,
after comparing their observations of plant and animal cells. The
third part, which asserts that cells come from preexisting cells
that have multiplied, was described by Rudolf Virchow in 1858,
when he stated omnis cellula e cellula (all cells come from
cells).
Since the formation of classical cell theory, technology has
improved, allowing for more detailed observations that have led
to new discoveries about cells. These findings led to the
formation of the modern cell theory, which has three main
additions: first, that DNA is passed between cells during cell
division; second, that the cells of all organisms within a
similar species are mostly the same, both structurally and
chemically; and finally, that energy flow occurs within cells.
WHAT ARE PROKARYOTIC CELL?
A prokaryote is a single-celled organism that lacks a nucleus and
other membrane-bound organelles. The word prokaryote comes
from the Greek πρό and κάρυον. In the two-empire system
arising from the work of Édouard Chatton, prokaryotes were
classified within the empire Prokaryota.
EG: Bacteria and Archaea
WHAT ARE EUKARYOTIC CELL?
Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus enclosed within the nuclear
membrane and form large and complex organisms. Protozoa,
fungi, plants, and animals all have eukaryotic cells. They are
classified under the kingdom Eukaryota.
They can maintain different environments in a single cell that
allows them to carry out various metabolic reactions. This helps
them grow many times larger than the prokaryotic cells.
EG: All animals, plants, fungi, and protists

ORGANALLES PRESENT IN
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Cell Membrane/Plasma membrane:
• Cell Membrane is mainly composed of Proteins and Lipids(
major lipids are Phospholipids) and are arranged in bilayer
• Membrane proteins can be classified into Integral and
Peripheral protein
 • Structure of cell membrane was proposed by Singer and
Nicolson(1972) widely accepted as Fluid Mosaic Model
• Fluid nature of the membrane is also important for
functions like Cell growth, formation of intercellular
junctions, secretions, endocytosis and cell division etc.
• Important function of Plasma membrane is the transport of
the molecules across it
• It is known as selectively permeable membrane because it
allows the entry or exit of only selected molecules across it
Endomembrane System
Endomembrane system includes Endoplasmic reticulum,
Vacuoles, Lysosomes and Golgi apparatus
Endoplasmic reticulum
 Endoplasmic Reticulum is a complex network of
tubular membranes exclusively present in the cytoplasm
of the eukaryotic cell.
 ER divides its intracellular spaces into two
compartments, namely Luminal space and extra luminal
space
 The endoplasmic reticulum bearing Ribosomes on
their surface is called Rough endoplasmic
reticulum(RER)
 Those without Ribosomes that is absence of
Ribosomes is called Smooth endoplasmic
reticulum(SER)
 The majority of the functions of rough ER is
associated with protein synthesis. The rough
endoplasmic reticulum also plays a vital role in protein
folding.
 Smooth ER is responsible for the synthesis of
essential lipids such as phospholipids and cholesterol. It
is also responsible for the metabolism of carbohydrates.
9 Golgi apparatus
 The Golgi apparatus has multiple names such as
Golgi complex or Golgi body. The name is given on the
name of the scientist, who discovered the organelle, i.e.
Camillo Golgi. They are membrane-bound organelle
present in the cytosol of the cell
 The Golgi body comprises 5 to 8 cup-shaped, series
of compartments known as cisternae
 Its main function is the packaging and secretion of
proteins. It receives proteins from Endoplasmic
Reticulum. It packages it into membrane-bound vesicles,
which are then transported to various destinations, such
as lysosomes, plasma membrane or secretion. They also
take part in the transport of lipids and the formation of
lysosomes.
 The Golgi cisternae are concentrically arranged near
the nucleus with distinct convex cis(forming face) and
concave trans(maturing face)
  Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of

glycoproteins and glycolipids.

Lysosomes
 These are membrane bound vesicular structures
formed by the process of packaging in the Golgi
apparatus
 The main function of lysosomes is to help with cell
metabolism by ingesting and dissolving unwanted
particles of the cell, foreign substances that have entered
the cell.
 The enzymes are passed on to the Golgi apparatus
where the lysosomes are produced. The lysosomes use
the acid hydrolases from the endoplasmic reticulum to
digest complex proteins and organelles that are no longer
needed.
 The acidic interior of the lysosome can break down
molecules such as complex carbohydrates, large proteins
and lipids.
 Lysosomes are known as suicide bags of cell because
it contains digestive enzymes. If something burst, the
lysosomes release digestive enzymes with digests all the
 cells. This leads to the death of cells.

Vacuoles
 Vacuoles are the membrane-bound space found in the
cytoplasm
 It consists of water, sap, excretory products and other
materials which are not useful for the cell
 The membrane surrounding the vacuole is known as
tonoplast. In plant cell the vacuoles can occupy upto 90
per cent of the volume of the cell.
 The membranes are embedded with proteins that help
in transporting molecules across the membrane.
Different combinations of these proteins help the
vacuoles to hold different materials.
 The important functions of vacuole include: Storage,
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
  The substances are taken in by a vacuole through
endocytosis and excreted through exocytosis
 Lysosomes are vesicles that intake food and digest it

Ribosomes
 Ribosomes are specialized cell organelles and are
found in both prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
 Ribosomes are the granular structures first observed
by George Palade(1953)
 It is a complex molecular machine found inside the
living cells that produce proteins from amino acids
during a process called protein synthesis
 A ribosome is a complex of RNA and protein and is,
therefore, known as a ribonucleoprotein. It is composed
of two subunits – smaller and larger.
 Ribosomes are located inside the cytosol found in the
plant cell and animal cells
 Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis.
 The proteins synthesized in the cytoplasm are utilized
in the cytoplasm itself, the proteins synthesized by bound
ribosomes are transported outside the cell.
 Prokaryotes have 70S ribosomes while eukaryotes
have 80S ribosomes.
 Several ribosomes attach to a single mRNA and form
a chain called polyribosomes or polysome
Mitochondria
 Mitochondria are membrane-bound cell organelles
(mitochondrion - singular) that generate most of the
chemical energy needed to power the cell's biochemical
reactions
 They play a major role in breaking down nutrients
and generating energy-rich molecules for the cell
 The outer membrane and the inner membrane are
made of proteins and phospholipid layers separated by
the inter membrane space.
 The inner membrane of mitochondria is rather
complex in structure. It has many folds that form a
layered structure called cristae, and this helps in
increasing the surface area inside the organelle
 The mitochondrial matrix is a viscous fluid that
contains a mixture of enzymes and proteins
 Mitochondria are the sites for aerobic respiration
 They produce cellular energy in the form of ATP,
hence they are called ‘Power house of the cell’
  Mitochondria divide by Fission

Plastids
 Plastids are double-membrane organelles which are
found in the cells of plants and algae
 Plastids are responsible for manufacturing and storing
of food
 These often contain pigments that are used in
photosynthesis and different types of pigments that can
change the colour of the cell.
 Chloroplasts : It contains chlorophyll and carotenoid
pigments which are responsible for trapping light energy
essential for photosynthesis
 Chromoplasts : It contains carotenoid pigments like
carotene, xanthophyll etc. it gives part of the plant a
yellow, red and orange colour
 Leucoplasts : These are colourless plastids and stores
nutrients  Chloroplasts are double membrane bound
  The space limited by the inner membrane of the
chloroplast are called Stroma  Organized flattened
membranouse sacs called Thylakoids
 Chlorophyll pigments are present in the Thylakoids

Nucleus
 Nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by
Robert Brown in 1832
 The most integral component of the cell is the
nucleus (plural: nuclei).
 A nucleus is defined as a double-membrane cell
organelle that contains the genetic material.
 The nucleus is completely bound by membranes.
 It contains the cell’s hereditary information and
controls the cell’s growth and reproduction.
 The nucleus has been clearly explained as a
membranebound structure that comprises the genetic
material of a cell.
  The nucleus is the site of transcription. Transcription
creates different types of RNA from DNA.
 One or more spherical bodies with nuclear matrix is
called nucleoli
 Space between the parallel membranes are called
peri nuclear space
 The nuclear matrix or Nucleoplasm contains
nucleolus and chromatin
Chromosomes
 Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of
protein and a single molecule of DNA that serve to carry
the genomic information from cell to cell.
 The substance consisting of all the chromosomes in a
cell and all their associated proteins is known as
chromatin
 Chromatin contains DNA and some basic proteins
histones, non-histone proteins and RNA
 Chromosomes have a very complex structure.
DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid) makes the base of the
structure
 Every chromosomes essentially has a primary
constriction called Centromere
 Centromere consists of two-disc shaped structures
called Kinetochores(site where spindle fibres are
attached)
  Centromere holds the two chromatids(arms) of the
chromosomes
 Based on the position of centromere, chromosomes
can be classified into Metacentric(two equal arms),
Submetacentric(short and long arm), Acrocentric( a very
long arm and a very short arm) and Telocentric(long
arm)

Conclusion
The smallest unit of life is a cell. Multicellular organisms
contain cells independent of each other, while some cells
are themselves organisms. The same four categories of
organic molecules make up all living cells: nucleic acids,
proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Cells provide
structure and function to all living things, from bacteria
to humans. Every cell in our body is responsible for
making the proteins, chemicals, and signals that make up
our body. Thus, each cell with its organelles and
membrane is capable of performing specific function. In
 the current conditions on Earth, both on land and in
water, life can only exist within the confines of a
membrane-bound vesicle called a Cell. Cells come in
different shapes and sizes. No living organism can have
life without being cellular because cell is a unit of both
its structure and function. All life begins as a single cell.
A number of organisms are made of single cells.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. NCERT BIOLOGY TEXTBOOK CLASS –
2. https://byjus.com/biology/
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/biology
4. https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary
5. https://www.vedantu.com/biology
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
7. https://sciencing.com/
8. https://biologydictionary.net/
9. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource