En-1992 (Design of Concrete Structures 1st Draft)

EUROPEAN STANDARD prEN 1992-1 (1st draft)
NORME EUROPÉENNE FOR COMMENT ONLY
EUROPÄISCHE NORM December 1999
ICS 00.000.00 Supersedes ENV 1992-1-1, ENV 1992-1-3, ENV 1992-1-4,

ENV 1992-1-5, ENV 1992-1-6 and ENV 1992-3
Descriptors: Buildings, concrete structures, computation, building codes, rules of calculation
English version
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -

Part 1: General rules and rules for buildings
Eurocode 2: Calcul des structures en béton - Eurocode 2: Planung von Stahlbeton- und
Partie 1: Règles générales et règles pour les bâtiments Spannbetontragwerken - Teil 1: Grundlagen und
Anwendungsregeln für den Hochbau
This European Standard was approved by CEN on 199?-??-??. CEN members are bound to comply with the CEN/CENELEC
Internal Regulations which stipulate the conditions for giving this European Standard the status of a national standard without
any alteration.
Up-to-date lists and bibliographical references concerning such national standards may be obtained on application to the
Central Secretariat or to any CEN member.
The European Standards exist in three official versions (English, French, German). A version in any other language made by
translation under the responsibility of a CEN member into its own language and notified to the Central Secretariat has the same
status as the official versions.
CEN members are the national standards bodies of Austria, Belgium, Denmark, FInland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland,
Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.
CEN
European Committee for Standardization

Comité Européen de Normalisation
Europäishes Komitee für Normung
Central Secretariat: rue de Stassart, 36 B-1050 Brussels
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prEN 1992-1: 2001 (1st draft) FOR COMMENT ONLY
Foreword
Contents List
1. General
1.1 Scope
1.1.1 Scope of Eurocode 2
1.1.2 Scope of Part 1 of Eurocode 2
1.1.3 Further parts of Eurocode 2
1.2 Distinction between principles and application rules
1.3 Assumptions
1.4 Definitions
1.4.1 Terms common to all Eurocodes
1.4.2 Special terms used in Part 1 of Eurocode 2
1.5 S.I. units
1.6 Symbols common to all Eurocodes
1.6.1 Latin upper case letters
1.6.2 Latin lower case letters
1.6.3 Greek lower case letters
1.6.4 Subscripts
1.7 Special symbols used in this Part 1 of Eurocode 2
1.7.1. General
1.7.2 Latin upper case symbols
1.7.3 Latin lower case symbols
1.7.4 Greek symbols
2. Basis of design
2.1 General
2.1.1 Fundamental requirements
2.1.2 Fire resistance
2.1.3 Design by testing
2.1.4 Supplementary requirements of precast concrete elements
2.2 Matters Specific to this Eurocode
2.2.1 Shrinkage and Creep
2.2.2 Partial factors for imposed deformations, creep and shrinkage
2.2.3 Prestress
2.2.3.1 Definition of Prestress
2.2.3.2 Types of Prestress
2.2.4 Partial factors for prestress
2.3 Partial factors for materials
2.3.1 Modification of Partial factors
2.4 Combinations of actions
2.4.1 Combinations of actions for ultimate limit states types EQU and STR
2.4.2 Combinations of actions for ultimate limit states of types EQU and STR for buildings
2.4.3 Combinations of actions for serviceability limit states
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FOR COMMENT ONLY prEN 1992-1: 2001 (1st draft)
3. Materials
3.1 Concrete
3.1.1 Strength
3.1.2 Elastic deformation
3.1.3 Creep and shrinkage
3.1.4 Stress-strain relation for structural analysis
3.1.5 Stress-strain relations for the design of cross-sections
3.1.6 Flexure tensile strength
3.1.7 Design compressive strength of concrete in a parallel compression field or in
prismatic struts
3.2 Reinforcing steel
3.2.1 Notation
3.2.2 General
3.2.3 Properties
3.2.3.1 Strength
3.2.3.2 Ductility characteristics
3.2.3.3 Fatigue
3.2.3.4 Bond and anchorage
3.2.3.5 Weldability
3.2.4 Design assumptions
3.3 Prestressing steel
3.3.1 Notation
3.3.2 General
3.3.3 Properties
3.3.3.1 Strength
3.3.3.3 Fatigue
3.3.5 Technological properties
3.3.5.1 Surface condition
3.3.5.2 Relaxation
3.3.5.3 Susceptibility to stress corrosion
3.3.6 Prestressing steel in internal unbonded tendons
3.4 Prestressing devices
3.4.1 Anchorages and couplers
3.4.1.1 General
3.4.1.2 Mechanical properties
3.4.1.2.1 Anchored tendons
3.4.1.2.2 Anchored devices and anchorage zones
3.4.2 External unbonded tendons
3.4.2.1 General
3.4.2.2 Anchorages
3.4.3 Deviators
3.4.3.1 General
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4. Durability
4.1 General
4.2 Environmental exposure conditions
4.3 Concrete cover
4.3.1 General
4.3.2 Minimum cover
4.3.3 Design tolerance
5. Structural analysis
5.1 General provisions
5.1.1 General
5.1.2 Additional rules for buildings partly or entirely made of precast concrete elements
5.1.3 Load cases and combinations
5.1.4 Imperfections
5.1.5 Second order effects
5.1.6 Time dependent deformations of concrete
5.1.7 Indirect effects
5.2 Geometric imperfections
5.3 Idealisation of the structure
5.3.1 Structural models for overall analysis
5.3.2 Geometric data
5.3.2.1 Effective width of flanges (all limit states)
5.3.2.2 Effective span of beams and slabs in common buildings
5.4 Linear elastic analysis
5.5 Linear analysis with limited redistribution
5.6 Plastic methods of analysis
5.6.1 General
5.6.2 Plastic analysis for beams, frames and slabs
5.6.3 Rotation capacity
5.7 Non-linear analysis
5.8 Second order effects
5.8.1 Symbols and definitions
5.8.1.1 Symbols
5.8.1.2 Definitions
5.8.2 General
5.8.3 Slenderness of isolated members
5.8.3.1 Criterion for neglecting second order effects
5.8.3.2 Effective length
5.8.4 Creep
5.8.5 Methods of analysis
5.8.6 General method
5.8.7 Linear second order analysis
5.8.7.1 General
5.8.7.2 Estimation of stiffness
5.8.7.3 Practical methods of analysis
5.8.8 Method based on estimation of curvature
5.8.8.1 General
5.8.8.2 Design moment
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5.8.8.3 Second order moment

5.8.8.4 Curvature
5.8.9 Biaxial bending
5.8.10 Lateral instability of slender beams
5.9 Prestressed members and structures
5.9.1 General
5.9.2 Prestressing force
5.9.3 Losses of prestress
5.9.4 Effects of prestressing under service conditions
5.9.5 Effects of prestressing at the ultimate limit state
5.10 Analysis with struts and ties
5.11 Flat slabs
5.11.1 Definition
5.11.2 Equivalent frame analysis of flat slabs
5.12 Shear walls
6. Ultimate limit states

6.1 Bending of beams and slabs with or without normal force
6.2 Shear
6.2.1 General verification procedure
6.2.2 Design value of the shear force
6.2.3 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement
6.2.4 Members requiring design shear reinforcement
6.2.5 Shear between web and flanges
6.2.6 Shear between precast and in situ concrete
6.3 Torsion
6.3.1 General
6.3.2 Design procedure
6.3.3 Warping torsion
6.4 Punching
6.4.1 General
6.4.2 Load distribution and basic control perimeter
6.4.3 Calculation of the punching shear capacity
6.4.4 Slabs or column bases without punching shear reinforcement
6.4.5 Slabs or column bases containing punching shear reinforcement
6.5 Design of discontinuity regions with strut-and-tie models
6.5.1 General
6.5.2 Design of nodes
6.6 Anchorages and laps
6.7 Partially loaded areas
6.8 Fatigue
6.8.1 Verification conditions
6.8.2 Internal forces and stresses for fatigue verification
6.8.3 Combination of actions
6.8.4 Verification procedure for reinforcing steel and prestressing steel
6.8.5 Verification using damage equivalent stress
6.8.6 Simplified verifications
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7. Serviceability limit states

7.1 General
7.1.1 Notation
7.1.2 Scope
7.2 Stresses
7.2.1 Basic considerations
7.2.2 Assumptions for checking stresses
7.3 Cracking
7.3.1 General considerations
7.3.2 Minimum reinforcement areas
7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation
7.3.4 Calculation of crack widths
7.4 Deformation
7.4.2 Cases where calculations may be omitted
7.4.3 Checking deflections by calculation
8 Detailing of reinforcement - General

8.1 General
8.1.1 Notation
8.2 Spacing of bars
8.3 Permissible bending
8.4 Anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement
8.4.1 Ultimate bond stress
8.4.2 Anchorage of longitudinal bars
8.4.2.1 General
8.4.2.2 Basic anchorage length
8.4.2.3 Design anchorage length
8.4.2.4 Anchorage methods
8.4.3 Anchorage by mechanical devices
8.5 Anchorage of links and shear reinforcement
8.6 Laps and mechanical connections
8.6.1 General requirements
8.6.2 Laps
8.6.3 Lap length
8.6.4 Transverse reinforcement in the lap zone
8.6.4.1 Transverse reinforcement for bars in tension
8.6.4.2 Transverse reinforcement for bars permanently in compression
8.6.5 Laps for welded mesh fabrics made of high bond wires
8.6.5.1 Laps of the main reinforcement
8.6.5.2 Laps of secondary or distribution reinforcement
8.7 Additional rules for high bond bars exceeding 32 mm in diameter
8.7.1 General
8.7.2 Anchorage and joints
8.8 Bundled high bond bars
8.8.1 General
8.8.2 Anchorage of bundles of bars
8.8.3 Lapping bundles of bars
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8.9 Prestressing tendons

8.9.1 Arrangement of the prestressing tendons and ducts
8.9.1.1 Pre-tensioned tendons
8.9.1.2 Post-tension ducts
8.9.2 Anchorage of pre-tensioned tendons
8.9.2.1 Transfer of prestress
8.9.2.2 Anchorage of stresses above prestress (ultimate limit state)
8.9.3 Anchorage zones of post-tensioned members
8.9.4 Anchorages and couplers for prestressing tendons
9. Detailing of members and particular requirements

9.1 Beams
9.1.1 Longitudinal reinforcement
9.1.1.1 Minimum and maximum reinforcement areas
9.1.1.2 Other detailing arrangements
9.1.1.3 Curtailment of the longitudinal tension reinforcement
9.1.1.4 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at an end support
9.1.1.5 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports
9.1.2 Shear reinforcement
9.1.3 Torsional reinforcement
9.1.4 Surface reinforcement
9.1.5 Indirect supports
9.1.6 Specific rules for buildings partly or entirely made of precast concrete elements
9.2 Solid slabs
9.2.1 Minimum thickness
9.2.2 Flexural reinforcement
9.2.2.1 General
9.2.2.2 Reinforcement in slabs near supports
9.2.2.3 Corner reinforcement
9.2.2.4 Reinforcement at the free edges
9.3 Columns
9.3.1 Minimum dimensions
9.3.3 Transverse reinforcement
9.4 Walls
9.4.1 General
9.4.2 Vertical reinforcement
9.4.3 Horizontal reinforcement
9.4.5.1 Wall to floor connections
9.4.5.2 Sandwich panels
9.5 Deep beams
9.6 Precast floor systems
9.7 Connections and supports for precast elements
9.7.1 Materials
9.7.1.1 General
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9.7.1.2 Supporting pads

9.7.1.3 Metal fastenings for cladding
9.7.2 Design and detailing of connections
9.7.2.1 General requirements
9.7.2.2 Connections transmitting compressive forces
9.7.2.3 Connections transmitting shear forces
9.7.2.4 Connections transmitting bending moments or tensile forces
9.7.2.5 Half joints
9.7.2.6 Anchorage of reinforcement at supports
9.7.3 Bearings
9.7.3.1 General
9.7.3.2 Bearings for connected members
9.7.3.3 Bearings for isolated members
9.8 Anchorage zones for post-tensioning forces
9.9 Foundations
9.9.1 Pile caps
9.9.2 Column and wall footings
9.9.3 Tie beams
9.9.4 Column footing on rock
9.9.5 Bored piles
9.9.6 Pocket foundations
9.9.7 Anchorage by welded bars
9.9.8 Anchorage of bars in column and wall footings
9.10 Regions with discontinuity in geometry
9.10.1 Frame corners with closing moments
9.10.2 Corbels
9.10.3 Deep Beams
9.11 Tying systems
9.11.1 General
9.11.2 Proportioning of ties
a) Peripheral ties
b) Internal ties
c) Horizontal ties to columns and/or walls
d) Vertical ties
9.11.3 Continuity and anchorage of ties
10. Lightweight aggregated concrete structures
11. Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures

11.1 Introduction
11.2 Scope
11.3 Special symbols used in this chapter
11.3.1 Additional Latin upper case letters
11.3.2 Additional Latin lower case letters
11.3.3 Additional Greek symbols
11.4 Basis of design
11.4.1 Additional partial safety factors for materials
11.5 Analysis
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11.5.1 Ultimate Limit states

11.6 Materials
11.6.1 Concrete: Additional Design assumptions
11.7 Ultimate limit states for bending and longitudinal force
11.7.1 Design resistance to bending and longitudinal force
11.7.2 Local Failure
11.8 Shear
11.9 Torsion
11.10 Ultimate limit states induced by structural deformation (buckling)
11.10.1 Slenderness of Isolated Columns and Walls
11.10.2 Simplified Design Method for Walls and Isolated Columns
11.11 Serviceability limit states
11.12 Detailing provisions
11.12.1 Structural members
11.12.2 Construction joints
11.12.3 Strip and pad footings
Informative annexes
A Basic equations for determining the creep coefficient

B Indicative Strength Classes for durability
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SECTION 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Scope
1.1.1 Scope of Eurocode 2
(1)P Eurocode 2 applies to the design of buildings and civil engineering works in plain,
reinforced and prestressed concrete. It is subdivided into various separate parts, see 1.1.2
and 1.1.3.
(2)P Eurocode 2 is only concerned with the requirements for resistance, serviceability and
durability of structures. Other requirements, e.g. concerning thermal or sound insulation, are
not considered.
(3)P Other rules may be used where relevant.
(4) Specific additional information for concrete products may be found in the relevant
standards.
(5)P Eurocode 2 does not cover the execution of concrete structures. Provisions related to such
requirements are given in pr ENV 13670 “Execution of concrete structures”. Its reference to
tolerances may effect the safety of the structure.
(6)P Eurocode 2 does not cover the special requirements of seismic design. Provisions related
to such requirements are given in Eurocode 8 "Design of Structures in Seismic Regions"
which complements, and is consistent with, Eurocode 2.
(7)P Numerical values of the actions on buildings and civil engineering works to be taken into
account in the design are not given in Eurocode 2. They are provided in Eurocode 1
"Actions on Structures" applicable to the various types of construction.
1.1.2 Scope of Part 1 of Eurocode 2
(1)P Part 1 of Eurocode 2 gives a general basis for the design of structures in reinforced and
prestressed concrete made with normal and light weight aggregates together with specific
rules for buildings (see 1.1.3 for supplementary Parts covering additional methods of
construction, materials, and types of structure).
(2)P In addition, Part 1 gives detailed application rules which are mainly applicable to ordinary
buildings. The applicability of these rules may be limited, for practical reasons or due to
simplifications; their use and any limits of applicability are explained in the text where
necessary.
(3)P The following subjects are dealt with in Part 1.
- Section 1 : Introduction
- Section 2 : Basis of Design
- Section 3 : Materials
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- Section 4 : Durability
- Section 5 : Structural Analysis
- Section 6 : Ultimate Limit State
- Section 7 : Serviceability States
- Section 8 : Detailing of Reinforcement
- Section 9 : Detailing of Members
- Section 10 : Lightweight aggregate Concrete Structures
- Section 11 : Plain or Lightly Reinforced concrete Structures
(4)P Sections 1 and 2 provide additional clauses to those given in EN 1990 “Basis of design”.
(5)P This Part 1 does not cover:
- resistance to fire;
- particular aspects of special types of building (such as tall buildings);
- particular aspects of special types of civil engineering works (such as viaducts,
bridges, dams, pressure vessels, offshore platforms or liquid-retaining structures);
- no-fines concrete and aerated concrete components, and those made with heavy
aggregate or containing structural steel sections (see Eurocode 4 for composite
steel-concrete structures).
1.1.3 Further Parts of Eurocode 2
(1)P This Part 1 of Eurocode 2 is supplemented by Part 1.2 “Fire resistance of concrete
structures” which will complement or adapt it for particular aspects of special types of
buildings, special methods of construction and certain other aspects of design which are of
general practical importance.
(2)P Further Parts of Eurocode 2 which, at present, are being prepared include the following:
Part 2 - Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Bridges

Part 3 - Liquid-retaining Structures
1.2 Distinction between principles and application rules
(1)P Depending on the character of the individual clauses, distinction is made in this Eurocode
between Principles and Application Rules.
(2)P The Principles comprise:
- general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative, as well as
- requirements and analytical models for which no alternative is permitted unless

specifically stated.
(3)P In this code the Principles are followed by the letter P.
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(4)P The Application Rules are generally recognised rules which follow the Principles and satisfy
their requirements.
(5)P It is permissible to use alternative design rules different from the Application Rules given in
the Eurocode, provided that it is shown that the alternative rules accord with the relevant
Principles and are at least equivalent with regard to the resistance, serviceability and
durability achieved for the structure with the present Eurocode.
(6)P In this code Application Rules are off-set to the right.
1.3 Assumptions
(1)P The following assumptions apply:
- Structures are designed by appropriately qualified and experienced personnel.
- Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, in plants, and on

site.
- Construction is carried out by personnel having the appropriate skill and experience.
- The construction materials and products are used as specified in this Eurocode or in
the relevant material or product specifications.
- The structure will be adequately maintained.
- The structure will be used in accordance with the design brief.
(2)P The design procedures are valid only when the requirements for execution and
workmanship given in prENV 13670 are also complied with.
1.4 Definitions
1.4.1 Terms common to all Eurocodes
(1)P Terms common to all Eurocodes are given in EN 1990 “Basis of Design”
1.4.2 Special terms used in Part 1 of Eurocode 2
(1)P Precast structures are characterised by structural elements manufactured elsewhere than in
the final position in the structure. In the structure, elements are connected to ensure the
required structural integrity.
(2)P Plain concrete member. Structural concrete member having no reinforcement (plain
concrete) or less reinforcement than the minimum amounts defined in Section 9.
(3)P Unbonded and external tendons. Unbonded tendons for post-tensioned members having
ducts which are permanently ungrouted, and tendons external to the concrete cross-section
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(which may be encased in concrete after stressing, or have a protective membrane).
1.5 S.I. Units
(1)P S.I. Units shall be used in accordance with ISO 1000.
(2) For calculations, the following units are recommended:
- forces and loads : kN, kN/m, kPa (= kN/m2)

- unit mass : kg/m3
- unit weight : kN/m3
- stresses and strengths : MPa (= N/mm2 or MN/m2), GPa (= kN/mm2)
- moments (bending ...) : kNm
1.6 Symbols
For the purposes of this standard, the following symbols apply.
Note: the notation used is based on ISO 3898:1987
1.6.1 Latin upper case letters
A Accidental action
A Area
C Fixed value
E Modulus of elasticity
E Effect of action
F Action
F Force
G Permanent action
G Shear modulus
I Second moment of area
M Moment in general
M Bending moment
N Axial force
P Prestressing force
Q Variable action
R Resistance
S Internal forces and moments
T Torsional moment
V Shear force
W Section modulus
X Value of a property of a material
1.6.2 Latin lower case letters
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a Distance
a Geometrical data
?a Additive or reducing safety element for geometrical data
b Width
d Diameter ; Depth
e Eccentricity
f Strength (of a material)
h Height
i Radius of gyration
k Coefficient ; Factor
l (or l or L) Length; Span
m Mass
r Radius
t Thickness
u,v,w Components of the displacement of a point
x,y,z Coordinates
1.6.3 Greek lower case letters
α Angle ; Ratio
β Angle ; Ratio
γ Partial safety factor
ε Strain
λ Slenderness ratio
µ Coefficient of friction
ν Poisson's ratio
ρ Mass density
σ Normal stress
τ Shear stress
ψ Factors defining representative values of variable actions
ψ 0 for combination values
ψ 1 for frequent values
ψ 2 for quasi-permanent values
1.6.4 Subscripts
a Structural steel
c Concrete
c Compression
cr (or crit) Critical
d Design
dst Destabilising
dir Direct
eff Effective
ext External
f Flange
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F (or P) Action
g (or G) Permanent action
h High ; Higher
ind Indirect
inf Inferior ; Lower
int Internal
k Characteristic
l Low ; Lower
m (or M) Material
m Bending
m Mean
max Maximum
min Minimum
nom Nominal
p (or P) Prestressing force
pl Plastic
ps Prestressing steel
q (or Q) Variable action
R Resistance
rep Representative
s Reinforcing steel
S Internal moments and forces
stb Stabilising
sup Superior ; Upper
t (or ten) Tension
t (or tor) Torsion
u Ultimate
v Shear
w Web
x,y,z Coordinates
y Yield
1.7 Special symbols used in this Part 1 of Eurocode 2
1.7.1. General
In general, the symbols used in Part 1 of Eurocode 2 are based on the common symbols in
1.6 and on derivatives of these as, for example,
Gd,sup Upper design value of a permanent action
Ac Total cross-sectional area of a concrete section
fyd Design yield strength of reinforcement.
Such derivations are defined in the text where they occur, for ease of use. However, in
addition, the most frequently occurring symbols are listed and defined below; those that are
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local, and unique to a particular Section, are listed at the beginning of that Section. If, in
reading the text, the user is unsure of the meaning of a particular symbol, he will be able to
find it either in 1.7.2 - 1.7.4 below or at the start of the relevant Section.
1.7.2 Latin upper case symbols
Ac Total cross-sectional area of a concrete section
Ap Area of a prestressing tendon or tendons
As Area of reinforcement within the tension zone
As2 Area of reinforcement in the compression zone at the ultimate limit state
Asw Cross-sectional area of shear reinforcement
Ecd Design value of the secant modulus of elasticity
Ec(t) Tangent modulus of elasticity of normal weight concrete at a stress of s c = 0

and at time t
Ec, Ec(28) Tangent modulus of elasticity of normal weight concrete at a stress of s c = 0

and at 28 days
Ecm Secant modulus of elasticity of normal weight concrete
Es Modulus of elasticity of reinforcement or prestressing steel
Ic Second moment of area of a concrete section
J(t, t0) Creep function at time t
M Ed Design value of the applied internal bending moment
NEd Design value of the applied axial force (tension or compression)
Pm,t Mean value of the prestressing force at time t, at any point distance x along
the member
P0 Initial force at the active end of the tendon immediately after stressing
TEd Design value of the applied torsional moment
VEd Design value of the applied shear force at the ultimate limit state
1.7.3 Latin lower case symbols
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1/r Curvature at a particular section
b Overall width of a cross-section, or actual flange width in a T or L beam
d Effective depth of a cross-section
dg Largest nominal maximum aggregate size
bw Width of the web on T, I or L beams
fc Compressive strength of concrete
fcd Design value of concrete cylinder compressive strength
fck Characteristic compressive cylinder strength of concrete at 28 days
fcm Mean value of concrete cylinder compressive strength
fctk Characteristic axial tensile strength of concrete
fctm Mean value of axial tensile strength of concrete
fp Tensile strength of prestressing steel
fpk Characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel
fp0.1 0,1% proof-stress of prestressing steel
fp0.1k Characteristic 0,1% proof-stress of prestressing steel
ft Tensile strength of reinforcement
ftk Characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement
fy Yield strength of reinforcement
fyd Design yield strength of reinforcement
fyk Characteristic yield strength of reinforcement
fywd Design yield strength of stirrups
h Overall depth of a cross-section
l Length; span
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leff Effective span of a beam
s Spacing of stirrups
t Time being considered
t0 Time at initial loading of the concrete
u Perimeter of concrete cross-section, having area Ac
x Neutral axis depth
z Lever arm of internal forces
1.7.4 Greek symbols
γA Partial safety factors for accidental actions A
γC Partial safety factors for concrete material properties
γF Partial safety factors for actions, F
γG Partial safety factors for permanent actions, G
γM Partial safety factors for a material property, taking account of uncertainties in

the material property itself and in the design model used
γP Partial safety factors for actions associated with prestressing, P
γQ Partial safety factors for variable actions, Q
γs Partial safety factors for the properties of reinforcement or prestressing steel
γf Partial safety factors for actions without taking account of model uncertainties
γg Partial safety factors for permanent actions without taking account of model
uncertainties
γm Partial safety factors for a material property, taking account only of

uncertainties in the material property
εc Compressive strain in the concrete
ε c1 Compressive strain in the concrete at the peak stress fc
ε cu Ultimate compressive strain in the concrete
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εu Elongation of reinforcement or prestressing steel at maximum load
ε uk Characteristic uniform elongation of reinforcement or prestressing steel at

maximum load
µ Coefficient of friction between the tendons and their ducts
ρ Oven-dry density of concrete in kg/m3
ρl Reinforcement ratio for longitudinal reinforcement
ρw Reinforcement ratio for shear reinforcement
σc Compressive stress in the concrete
σcu Compressive stress in the concrete at the ultimate compressive strain ε cu
φ (t,t0) Creep coefficient, defining creep between times t and t0 , related to elastic
deformation at 28 days
φ Diameter of a reinforcing bar or of a prestressing duct
φn Equivalent diameter of a bundle of reinforcing bars
φ (∞,t0) Final value of creep coefficient
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SECTION 2 BASIS OF DESIGN
2.1 General
2.1.1 Fundamental requirements
(1)P The design of concrete structures for safety, serviceability and durability shall be based on
the procedure given in EN 1990 (Section 2). There remain some particular topics specific
to Eurocode EN1992-1-1 which are related to materials and prestress which are addressed
in this section. In addition, for convenience, this section also includes some principals and
application rules necessary for design.
(2)P Eurocode EN 1990 is based on the limit state design (see EN 1990 Section 3) used in
conjunction with the partial factor method (see EN 1990 Section 6).
(3)P Consideration of durability implies appropriate choice of the design working life. Values for
this choice are given in EN 1990 Clause 2.3 .
(4)P Actions for use in design shall be obtained from the relevant parts of EN 1991 defined as
follows:
EN 1991-1.1 Densities, self-weight and imposed loads

EN 1991-1.2 Fire actions
EN 1991-1.3 Snow loads
EN 1991-1.4 Wind loads
EN 1991-1.5 Thermal actions
EN 1991-1.6 Actions during execution
EN 1991-1.7 Accidental actions due to impact and explosions
EN 1991-2 Traffic loads on bridges
EN 1991-3 Actions induced by cranes and other machinery
EN 1991-4 Actions in silos and tanks
(5) Rules for the combination of actions using partial factors γ and factors ψ are given in
EN 1990 section 6 subclause 6.4.3 and their numerical values in relevant annexes
for specific structures, i.e. Annex A1 for buildings, A2 for bridges, etc.
2.1.2 Fire resistance.
(1)P This Part 1-1 does not cover resistance to fire which should be found in EN1992-1-2 " Fire
resistance of concrete structure ". Only general principles are given as follows.
(2)P For the required period of fire resistance (prescribed in national regulations), the structure
shall:
- have adequate load bearing capacity;
- have limited temperature rise on the far face by sufficient insulation, and
- have sufficient integrity to prevent the formation of cracks that will allow the passage
of fire and gases.
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(3)P The above requirements for fire resistance can dictate sizes for members greater than
those required for structural strength in the cold design and will be met by following the
recommendations in ENV 1992-1-2.
2.1.3 Design by testing
(1)P The design of structures or structural elements can be assisted by testing, see EN1990
clause 5.2.
(2) In this case, a specification for the test program and interpretation of the results
should be approved nationally or by a competent authority.
2.1.4 Supplementary requirements for precast concrete elements
(1)P For buildings partly or entirely made of precast concrete elements, specific attention shall
be given in the design to assembly and maintenance.
(2) Where required, appropriate mechanical devices should be detailed in order to allow
ease of assembly, ease of inspection and ease of replacement.
2.2 Matters specific to this Eurocode
2.2.1 Shrinkage and Creep
(1) Shrinkage and creep, which are time-dependent properties of concrete, may be
classified as imposed deformations in addition to temperature changes and uneven
settlements (see EN1990 1.5.3.1). In this Part 1-1, for the sake of clarity, creep and
shrinkage are referred to where appropriate, and the term ‘imposed deformations’ is
used only to describe temperature changes and uneven settlements.
(2) Shrinkage and creep effects should generally be taken into account for the
verification for serviceability limit states. They need be considered for ultimate limit
states only where they are significant, for example in the verification of ultimate limit
states of stability. In most common cases for ultimate limit states they need not be
considered, provided that the ductility and rotation capacity of the elements are
sufficient.
(3) For common buildings temperature effects and shrinkage may also be omitted in
global analysis where structures are divided by joints which accommodate the
resulting deformations.
2.2.2 Partial factors for imposed deformations, creep and shrinkage
(1) In persistent and transient design situations, imposed deformations, creep and
shrinkage should be given the following partial factor values:
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Table 2.1: Partial factor for imposed deformations, creep and shrinkage
imposed deformations
thermal effects support settlement
creep shrinkage
leading accomp. unfavo. favour. linear 2nd order
action action analysis analysis
U.L.S. 1,5 ψ 0 . 1,5 1,35 1,00 1,0 ??
S.L.S. 1,0 ψ 0 . 1,0 1,00 1,00 1,0 1,0 1,0
NOTE: Table is shown for illustration. Further discussion is needed concerning values
2.2.3 Prestress
2.2.3.1 Definition of Prestress
(1) The process of prestressing consists in applying forces to the concrete structure by
stressing tendons relative to the concrete member.
(2) Prestress is used globally to name all the permanent effects of the prestressing
process, which comprise internal forces in the sections and deformations of the
structure.
(3) Other means of prestressing are not considered in this standard.
2.2.3.2 Types of Prestress
(1) The prestress considered in this Eurocode is exerted by tendons made of high-
strength steel (wires, strands or bars).
(2) Tendons may be used internally to the concrete; either pretensioned and bonded or
post-tensioned and bonded or unbonded.
(3) Tendons may also be used externally. Points of contact occur at deviators and
anchorages.
2.2.4 Partial factors for prestress
(1) As prestress is intended to be favourable in most cases, for the ultimate limit state
verification the value of γP should be 1,0. The design value is based on the
characteristic value, taken as the mean value of the prestressing force (see EN1990
4.1.2 (6)).
(2) In some particular cases where an increase of a value can be unfavourable e.g.
verification for local effects, limit state of stability with external prestress, a value of
1,20 may be appropriate.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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Table 2.3: Partial factor for prestress
Design situations γP for favourable γP for unfavourable

prestress prestress
Persistent & Transient 1,00 1,20
Accidental 1,00 -
Seismic 1,00 -
(3) For the serviceability limit state check the value of γP should also be 1,0 but the
design values are obtained from the upper and lower characteristic values as
defined in 5.9.4.
2.3 Partial factors for materials 1
(1) Partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states are given in Table 2.2
Table 2.4: Partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states
Design situations γc for concrete γs for steel γs for prestressing

reinforcement tendons
Persistent & Transient 1,5 1,15 1,15
Accidental 1,2 1,0 1,0
Seismic see EN1998 see EN1998 see EN1998
(2) Partial factors for materials for serviceability limit state verification are taken as 1,00
except where stated otherwise for particular clauses.
2.3.1 Modification of Partial factors
(1) For common buildings with small members or elements lower values of γc and γs may
be used if these are justified by adequate control procedure and relevant documents.
(2) This is particularly relevant for precast elements and the specific conditions
associated to the use of lower values are defined in Tables ??, see Annex ??.
2.4 Combination of actions
(1)P The general formats for combinations of actions are found in EN 1990 section 6 sub-
clauses 6.4.3 and 6.5.3 for the ultimate and serviceability limit states respectively and the
relevant normative annexes for specific structures.
As γ values for actions and materials can not be independently defined, the values for γc and γs given
1
here are assumed to be consistent with existing values in prEN1990 (second draft dated 5 November
1999).They should be reviewed accordingly in case of modifications in prEN1990.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
Page 24
(2) For EN 1992-1-1 and most common load cases the simple forms of combinations
given below may be used for the appropriate limit state considered.
It should be noted that ultimate limit state verification for static equilibrium (EQU) and
ultimate limit state verification for strength (STR), see EN1990 6.4.1 are normally
relevant for this Part. Ultimate limit state verification for fatigue (FAT) should only be
performed where relevant and ultimate limit state verification for ground failure or
deformation (GEO) is not considered in this Part.
(3) In the combinations defined below, those permanent actions that increase the effect
of the variable actions (i.e. produce unfavourable effects) should be represented by
their upper design values Gki,sup, those that decrease the effect of the variable actions
(i.e. produce favourable effects) by their lower design values Gkj,inf . The expressions
Gki,sup and Gkj,inf symbolise two independent families of permanent actions whenever
they exist simultaneously.
(4) For each permanent action either the lower or the upper design value (whichever
gives the more unfavourable effect) should be applied throughout the structure (e.g.
self-weight in a structure).
(5) An exception to this rule occurs when verification of static equilibrium is performed
(ultimate limit state verification of type EQU, see EN1990 6.4.1). Generally in this
case a different set of partial factors (Set A) should be used. An example valid for
buildings can be found in EN1990 Annex A1 Table A1.2(A)
2.4.1 Combinations of actions for ultimate limit states types EQU and STR
(1) For the ultimate limit states in transient and permanent design situations the
combination of actions to be considered is :
∑γ
i
Gi ,sup Gki ,sup + ∑γ j
Gj ,inf Gkj ,inf + γ P P + γ Q1Qk 1 + ∑γ
i≠ 1
Qi ψ 0i Qki (2.1)
or alternatively for a more refined approach the most unfavourable of the couple of
expressions
∑γ
i
Gi ,sup Gki ,sup + ∑γ j
Gj ,inf Gkj ,inf + γ P Pk + γ Q1ψ 01Qk 1 + ∑γ
i ≠1
ψ 0i Qki
Qi (2.1a)
and
∑ 0,85γ
i
Gi ,sup Gki ,sup + ∑γ
j
Gj ,inf Gkj ,inf + γ P Pk + γ Q1Qk 1 + ∑γ
i ≠1
Qi ψ 0i Qki (2.1b)
(2) For accidental design situations:
∑G ki ,sup + ∑G kj ,inf + γ P Pk + Ad + (ψ 11 or ψ 21 )Qk 1 + ∑ψ 2i Qki (2.2)

i j i ≠1
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2.4.2 Combinations of actions for ultimate limit states of types EQU and STR for
buildings
(1) For buildings and for ultimate limit state verification the combination of actions in
transient and permanent design situations to be considered is :
∑ 1,35 G
i
ki ,sup + ∑G
j
kj ,inf + Pd + 1,5 Qk 1 + ∑
i ≠1
1,5ψ 0i Qki (2.3)
or alternatively for a more refined approach the most unfavourable of the couple of
expressions
∑ 1,35 G
i
ki ,sup + ∑G
j
kj ,inf + Pd + ∑i
1,5ψ 0i Qki (2.3a)
and
∑ 115
i
, G ki ,sup + ∑G
j
kj ,inf + Pd + 1,5 Qk 1 + ∑
i ≠1
1,5ψ 0i Qki (2.3b)
(2) For accidental design situations:
∑G ki ,sup + ∑G kj ,inf + Pd + Ad + (ψ 11 or ψ 21 )Qk 1 + ∑ 1,5ψ 2i Qki (2.4)

i j i ≠1
The choice between ψ 1,1 Qk 1 or ψ 2,1 Qk 1 should be related to the relevant accidental
design situation.
2.4.3 Combinations of actions for serviceability limit states
(1) For serviceability limit state verification three combinations of actions are defined by
the following expressions:
(a) Characteristic combination
∑G
i
ki ,sup + ∑G j
kj ,inf + Pd + Qk 1 + ∑ψ 0i Qki
i ≠1
(2.5)
(b) Frequent combination
∑G
i
ki ,sup + ∑G j
kj ,inf + Pd + ψ 11Qk 1 + ∑ ψ 2i Qki
i ≠1
(2.6)
(c) Quasi-permanent combination
∑G
i
ki ,sup + ∑G j
kj ,inf + Pd + ∑ ψ 2i Qki
i
(2.7)
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SECTION 3 MATERIALS
3.1 Concrete
3.1.1 Strength
(1)P The compressive strength of concrete is classified by concrete strength classes which
relate to the characteristic (5%) cylinder strength fck, or the cube strength fck,cube, in
accordance with ENV 206, Clauses 7.3.1.1 and 11.3.5.
(2) The characteristic strengths for fck and the corresponding mechanical characteristics
necessary for design, are given in Table 3.1..
(3) The strength classes in this code are based on the characteristic cylinder strength fck
(see Table 3.1) determined after 28 days.
(4) In certain situations it may be appropriate to assess the compressive strength for a
concrete before or after 28 days, or on the basis of test specimens stored under
other conditions than prescribed in ISO 2736.
(5) In precast construction it is required to specify the concrete compressive strength, fc,
at a number of stages of construction (e.g. demoulding, transfer of prestress).
(6)P The mechanical property tensile strength refers to the highest stress reached under
concentric tensile loading.
(7) When the tensile strength is determined as the splitting tensile strength fct,sp an
approximate value of the concentric tensile strength may be taken as:
fct = 0,9fct,sp (3.1)
(8) The compressive strength of concrete at an age t depends on the type of cement,
temperature and curing conditions. For a mean temperature of 20°C and curing in
accordance with ISO 2736/2 the relative compressive strength of concrete at various
ages fcm (t) may be estimated from Expressions (3.2) and (3.3).
fcm (t) = ßcc(t) fcm (3.2)
with
   28 1/ 2  
β cc (t ) = exp s 1 −     (3.3)
   t / t1   
where
fcm (t) is the mean concrete compressive strength at an age of t days

fcm is the mean compressive strength after 28 days according to Table 3.1
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
Page 27
ßcc(t) is a coefficient which depends on the age of the concrete t

t is the age of the concrete (days)
t1 1 day
s is a coefficient which depends on the type of cement: s = 0,20 for rapid
hardening high strength cements, 0,25 for normal and rapid hardening
cements and 0,38 for slowly hardening cements.
The development of tensile strength with time is strongly influenced by curing and
drying conditions as well as by the dimensions of the structural members. As a first
approximation it may be assumed that for a duration of moist curing ts ≤ 7 days and a
concrete age t > 28 days the development of the tensile strength is similar to that of
the compressive strength. For a concrete age t < 28 days residual stresses may
cause a temporary decrease of the tensile strength.
In cases where the development of the tensile strength with time is important it is
recommended to carry out experiments taking into account the exposure conditions
and the dimensions of the structural member.
3.1.2 Elastic deformation
(1)P The elastic deformations of concrete largely depend on its composition (especially the
aggregates). Therefore, the values given have to be regarded as indicative for general
applications. However, they should be specifically assessed if the structure is expected to
react sensitively to deviations of these general values.
(2) The values for the modulus of elasticity Ecm (secant value between σ c = 0 and 0,4fck)
can be taken from table 3.1.
(3) Poisson’s ratio for elastic deformation should be taken equal to 0,2.
(4) If no more accurate information is available, the linear coefficient of thermal

expansion may be taken equal to 10 ⋅10-6 K -1 .
3.1.3 Creep and shrinkage
(1) Creep and shrinkage of the concrete depend mainly on the ambient humidity, the
dimensions of the element and the composition of the concrete. Creep is also
influenced by the maturity of the concrete when the load is first applied and on the
duration and magnitude of the loading. Any estimation of the creep coefficient φ(t, t0),
and of the shrinkage strain, ε cs, should take these parameters into account.
(2) In cases where great accuracy is not required, the values given in the Figures 3.1
and 3.2 can be considered as the final creep coefficients φ(∞, t0) for a concrete
which is subjected to a stress lower than 0,45 fckj at an age t0 at first loading. The final
creep coefficient φ(∞, t0) is related to Ecm according to Table 3.1. For calculations
with greater accuracy, reference is made to Annex 1.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Page 28
(3) When the compressive stress of a concrete at an age t0 exceeds the value 0,45 fcmj
then creep non-linearity should be considered. Such a high stress can occur as a
result of pretensioning, e.g. in precast concrete members at tendon level. In such
cases the notional creep coefficient should be modified as follows:
φ k(∞, t0) = φ(∞, t0) exp (1,5 (ks – 0,45)) (3.4)
where
φ k(∞, t0) is the non-linear creep coefficient, which replaces φ(∞, t0).
kσ is the stress-strength ratio s c/fcm , where s c is the compressive
stress and fcm is the average concrete compressive strength at
the time of loading.
(4) The values which can be read in Figures 3.1 and 3.2 are valid for an average
concrete temperature between 10°C and 20°C. In this respect seasonal variations
between -20°C and +40°C are admissible. Also deviations of the relative humidity
between RH = 20% and 100% are permitted.
In the Figures 3.1 and 3.2 the following symbols are used:
φ(∞, t0) final creep strain

t0 age of the concrete at first loading in days
h0 notional size = 2Ac /u, where Ac is the concrete cross-section and u is
the cross-section perimeter
s slowly hardening cement
n normally hardening cement
r rapidly hardening cement
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Strength classes for concrete Analytical relation
/ Explanation
1 fck (MPa) 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80 90
2 fck,cube 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 67 75 85 95 105
(MPa)
3 fcm 20 24 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 78 88 98 fcm = fck+8(MPa)

(MPa)
4 fctm 1,6 1,9 2,2 2,6 2,9 3,2 3,5 3,8 4,1 4,2 4,4 4,6 4,8 5,0 fctm=0,30×fck(2/3) ≤C50/60
(MPa) fctm=2,12·In(1+(fcm/10))
> C50/60
5 fctk; 0,05 1,1 1,3 1,5 1,8 2,0 2,2 2,5 2,7 2,9 3,0 3,1 3,2 3,4 3,5 fctk;0,05 = 0,7×fctm
(MPa) 5% fractile
6 fctk;0,95 2,0 2,5 2,9 3,3 3,8 4,2 4,6 4,9 5,3 5,5 5,7 6,0 6,3 6,6 fctk;0,95 = 1,3×fctm
(MPa) 95% fractile
7 Ecm 27 29 30 31,5 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 41 42 44 E cm = 9,5 (fck+8)1/3

(GPa ) (fck in MPa)
FOR COMMENT ONLY
8 -1,8 -1,9 -2,1 -2,2 -2,3 -2,4 -2,5 -2,55 -2,6 -2,65 -2,7 -2,8 -2,9 -2,95 see Figure 3.3
εc1 (‰)
9 -3,5 -3,4 -3,3 -3,2 -3,1 -3,0 see Figure 3.3
εcu (‰)
10 -2,0 -2,03 -2,06 -2,1 -2,14 -2,17 see Figure 3.4
εc2 (‰)
11 -3,5 -3,1 -2,7 -2,5 -2,4 -2,3 see Figure 3.4

εc2u (‰)
12 n 2,0 2,0 1,9 1,8 1,7 1,6
13 εc3 -1,35 -1,35 -1,4 -1,5 -1,6 -1,65 see Figure 3.5
Table 3.1 Stress and deformation characteristics for normal concrete
14 εc3u -3,5 -3,5 -2,7 -2,5 -2,4 -2,3 see Figure 3.5
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Page 29
prEN 1992-1: 2001 (1st draft)
Page 30
C100/115
C90/105
C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
C55/67
C60/75
C70/85
C80/95
h0 [cm]
150
RH = 50%
130
110
90
70
50
30
0 10
1,0
2,0
3
3,0
4,0
4
s
2
5,0
5
n
6,0
ϕ t=∞
1
l
7,0
1
10
20
30
50
t0
Figure 3.1 Final creep coefficient f (∞, t0) for concrete under normal environmental
conditions (outside, RH = 50%).
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Page 31
C90/105
C55/67
C100/115
C20/25
C25/30
C30/37
C35/45
C40/50
C45/55
C50/60
C60/75
C70/85
C80/95
h0 [cm]
150
RH = 80%
130
110
90
70
50
30
0 10
1,0
2,0
3
3,0
4
s
2
4,0
5
n
5,0
ϕ t=∞
1
l
6,0
1
10
20
30
50
t0
Figure 3.2 Final creep coefficient f (∞, t0) for concrete under normal
environmental conditions (outside, RH = 80%).
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For concrete strength classes up to C60/75, the values given in Figures 3.1 and 3.2
apply to concretes having a plastic consistency when fresh of class S2 or S3,
according to ENV 206 Clause 4.2.1. For concretes with other consistencies, in
those strength classes, the values should be multiplied by 0,70 (stiff consistency, S1)
or 1,20 (soft consistency, S4). For concretes in strength classes higher than C60/75
the values given in Table 3.1 apply to concretes having a plastic consistency of the
classes F4 and F5 (for these concretes no other consistency classes are allowed).
For concrete made with superplasticisers, the consistency before adding the
superplasticisers controls.
(5) The values of the final shrinkage strain ε cs follow from
ε cs = ε cd + ε ca (3.5)
where
ε cs = final shrinkage strain
ε cd = drying shrinkage strain
ε ca = autogenous shrinkage strain
The drying shrinkage strain ε cd given in Table 3.2 applies for concrete with a fresh
concrete consistency according to the classes S2 and S3. For concretes with other
consistencies the values should be multiplied by 0,7 (stiff consistency, S1) or 1,2
(weak consistency, S4). For concretes made with superplasticisers the fresh
concrete consistency before adding the superplasticiser controls.
Table 3.2 Final drying shrinkage values ε cd∞ (in 0/00) for concrete
Nominal thickness 2 Ac/u (mm)

Environment Relative humidity (%)
≤ 150 600
Inside 50 -0,60 -0,50
Outside 80 -0,33 -0,28
The autogenous shrinkage strain follows from:
f cm ( t )
ε ca = ξ ⋅ ⋅ 0,30 ⋅ 10 − 3 (3.6)
fcm,28
where
f cm,28 − 25
ξ = >0 (3.7)
100
3.1.4 Stress-strain relation for structural analysis
(1) The relation between σc and ε c in Figure 3.3 for short term uniaxial loading is
described by the Expression (3.8):
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Page 33
sc k? − ?2
= (3.8)
f cm 1 + (k − 2)?
where
η = ε c/ε c1 (ε c < 0)
ε c1 = strain at peak stress according to Table 3.1, line 8
k = -1,1 Ecm × ε c1/fcm (fcm according to Table 3.1)
Expression 3.8 is valid for 0 > ε c > ε cu where ε cu is the nominal ultimate strain
(2) Other idealised stress-strain relations may be applied, if they are equivalent to the
formulation given in (1).
σ c (‹0)
fcm
0.4f cm
Ec,nom
εcu εc (‹0)
εc1
Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of the stress-strain relation for structural

analysis.
3.1.5 Stress-strain relations for the design of cross-sections
(1) The relation between σc and ε c that is valid for the design of cross-sections is shown
in Figure 3.4. It is described by the following expressions:
  εc  
n
σ c = fcd 1 − 1 −   for 0 ≤ εc < ε c2

ε c2  
(3.9)
  
σ c = f cd for ε c2 ≤ εc ≤ ε c2u (3.10)
where
n Exponent according to Table 3.1, line 12
ε c2 Strain at reaching the maximum strength according to Table 3.1, line
10
ε c2u Ultimate strain according to Table 3.1, line 11
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
Page 34
(2) The value of the design strength is defined as
fcd = fck/γc (3.11)
The design diagram is derived from the chosen idealised diagram by means of a
reduction of the stress ordinate of the idealised diagram by a factor α/γc, in which
γc is the partial safety factor for concrete, see 2.5, and α is a coefficient taking
account of long term effects on the compressive strength and of unfavourable effects,
resulting from the way the load is applied. The value of α may be assumed to be
0,85.
σ c (‹0)
αfcd
0 εc2 εc2u εc (‹0)
Figure 3.4. Parabola-rectangle diagram for concrete in compression.
(3) Idealised stress-strain relations according to Figure 3.5 can be applied, provided
that they are equivalent to the parabola-rectangle diagram in Figure 3.4. The values
for ε c3 and ε c3u in Figure 3.5 are found in Table 3.1.
σc (‹0)
fck
αfcd
εc
εc3 εc3u
Figure 3.5. Bilinear stress-strain relation.
(4) A rectangular stress distribution (as given in Figure 3.6) may be assumed. The α
factor as given for the idealised diagram is valid, except that it should be reduced to
0,80 when the width of compression zone decreases in the direction of the extreme
compression fibre. The factor λ, defining the effective height of the compression
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
Page 35
zone, follows from:
λ = 0,8 for fck ≤ 50 MPa (3.12.a)

fck
λ = 0.9 − for fck ≥ 50 MPa (3.12.b)
500
f
εc3u α γck
c
- Fc
λ.x
x
Ac
d
As - Fs
εs
Figure 3.6. Rectangular stress-distribution
3.1.6 Flexural tensile strength
(1) The relation between the flexural tensile strength and the axial tensile strength follows
from the expression:
1 + 0,06h 0,7 
fctm,f l = fctm  0, 7 
(3.13)
 0,06h 
where
h is the total member depth in mm
fctm is the mean axial tensile stress following from Table 3.1.
3.1.7 Design compressive strength of concrete in a parallel compression field or in

prismatic struts
(1) In a parallel compression field, such as that occurring in a truss, the design
compressive strength of the concrete in struts which are crossed by transverse
reinforcement follows from:
σRd,max = ν fcd (3.14)
where
f ck
ν = 0,7 − > 0,5 (3.15)
200
(2) The design compressive strength within nodes of a strut and tie systems follows
from:
(a) σRd,max = 1,1αfcd (3.16)
in compression nodes (without anchorage ties). If triaxial compression is assured,

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
Page 36
higher design compression stresses may be used depending on the ratios of the
principal stresses (see 6.6).
(b) σRd,max = 0,8αfcd (3.17)
in compression nodes (with anchorage ties), if all angles between struts and ties are
at least 45°. If nodes are modelled and detailed carefully, higher design values up to
1,0α fcd may be assumed.
(3) The design compressive strength of single struts in strut and tie systems follows
from:
(a) σRd,max = 0,8αfcd (3.18)
for struts with cracks parallel to the struts and bonded transverse reinforcement.
(b) σRd,max = 0,7αfcd (3.19)
for struts transferring compression across cracks with normal crack widths, e.g. in
webs of beams.
(c) σRd = 0,5αfcd (3.20)
for struts transferring compression across large cracks, e.g. in members with axial
tension or flanges in tension.
For struts between directly loaded areas, like in corbels or short deep beams, more
accurate calculation methods are given in Clause 6.2.3
3.2 Reinforcing steel
3.2.1 Notation (See also 1.6 and 1.7)
fR Projected rib factor

fRk Characteristic projected rib factor
f0.2k Characteristic 0,2% proof-stress of reinforcement
ft Tensile strength of reinforcement
ftk Characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement
eu Strain of reinforcement at maximum load
euk Characteristic strain of reinforcement at maximum load
fy,act Actual yield strength or 0,2% proof stress of reinforcement
3.2.2 General
(1)P This section applies to steel reinforcement for use in concrete structures.
(2)P The application rules of this standard apply to reinforcement which is in the form of bars, de-
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
Page 37
coiled rods and welded fabric in accordance with EN 10080. They do not apply to specially
coated bars.
(3)P The requirements for the properties of the reinforcement are for the material as placed in
the hardened concrete . Operations carried out on site or at manufacture that might damage
the properties of the material must be avoided. Where the methods of production, testing
and attestation of conformity for reinforcement are carried out in accordance with EN 10080
it may be assumed that the requirements of this standard are met.
(4)P Where other steels are used, which are not in accordance with EN10080, the properties
must be verified to be in accordance with this standard.
(5)P The required properties of reinforcing steels given in Table 3.5 are fulfilled if the testing
procedures and results are in accordance with EN 10080.
(6)P EN 10080 refers to a yield stress Re, which includes the characteristic, minimum and
maximum values based on the long-term quality of production. In contrast fyk is the
characteristic yield stress based on only that reinforcement required for the structure. There
is no direct relationship between fyk and the characteristic Re. However the methods of
evaluation and verification of yield strength given in EN 10080 provide a sufficient check for
obtaining fyk.
(7)P The application rules apply to lattice girders made with deformed bars. The use of lattice
girders made with other types of reinforcement/steel requires special rules or
documentation of the results of tests to show that the application rules apply.
3.2.3 Properties
(1)P The behaviour of reinforcing steel is specified by the following properties:
- yield strength (fyk or f0.2k)

- tensile strength (ft)
- ductility (eu and ft/fyk)
- bendability
- bond characteristics (fR)
- section sizes and tolerances
- fatigue
- weldability
(2)P The application rules and detailing provisions in this standard apply to reinforcement of
characteristic yield strength given in Table 3.5. They do not apply to a specified yield
strength exceeding 550 MPa. All other properties given in Table 3.5 apply to such
reinforcement except that the value of fy,act should be altered according to the specified yield
strength exceeding.
(3)P Reinforcement complying with this standard is ribbed (high bond) and weldable. The
properties of the reinforcement shall comply with the specification given in Tables 3.5 and
3.6. The values are valid for temperatures between –50°C and 150°C for reinforcement in
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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the structure.
(4)P Three classes of ductility are defined, Class A, B and C (see 3.2.3.4). These correspond to
the “Classes of Convenience” given in EN 10080. Where other reinforcement is used it
shall be demonstrated that it complies with the requirements given in this standard.
(5)P The application rules assume that only reinforcement with ribbed surface is used (see
3.2.4). The surface is described by the value of the projected rib factor fR. Where bars with
other properties are used it shall be demonstrated that suitable application rules and
detailing provisions are used.
(6)P The reinforcement shall have adequate bendability to allow the use of the minimum mandrel
diameters specified in Table 8.1, and to fulfil the rebend requirements as specified in Table
3.5.
3.2.3.1 Strength
(1)P The yield stress fyk (or the 0.2% proof stress, f0.2k) and the tensile strength ftk are defined
respectively as the characteristic value of the yield stress, and of the characteristic
maximum load in direct axial tension, each divided by the nominal cross sectional area.
(2)P The actual yield stress fy,act shall not exceed the values specified in Table 3.5.
(1)P The reinforcement shall have adequate ductility, as specified in Table 3.5 (see Figure 3.7).
σ σ
ft
ft
f0.2k
fy
ε ε
εu 0.2%
εu
a) Hot rolled steel b) Cold worked steel rods
Figure 3 7: Typical stress-strain diagrams of reinforcing steel
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Table 3.5: Properties of reinforcement.
Product form Bars and de-coiled rods Wire Fabrics Requirement or

quantile value
(%)
Class A B C A B C -
Characteristic yield strength fyk 500 450 or 500 450 or 5,0

or f0.2k (MPa) 500 500
(ft/fy)k ≥1,05 ≥1,08 ≥1,15 ≥1,05 ≥1,08 ≥1,15 min.

<1,35 <1,35 10,0
Total elongation at maximum 2,5 5,0 7,5 2,5 5,0 7,5 10,0
force, εuk (%)
fy,act (MPa) 650 540 or 650 540 or max.

650 650 10,0
Fatigue stress range2 (N = 2 x 150 100 10,0

106) (MPa)
Bendability Rebend test1 -
Shear strength (%) - 0,3 A fyk

Nominal
Bond3 bar size (mm)
Projected rib 5-6 0,035 min.
factor, fR,min 6,5 to 12 0,04 5,0
>12 0,056
max.
Deviation from nominal mass ± 4,5 5,0
(individual bar or wire) (%)
Notes:
1. The rebend test must be carried out in accordance with EN 10080 using a mandrel size no greater than that
specified for bending in Table 8.1 of this standard. In order to check bendability a visual check shall be carried out
after the first bend.
2. If higher values are shown by testing and approved by an appropriate authority, the design values in Table 6.3
may be modified. Such testing should be in accordance with EN 10080.
3. Where it can be shown that sufficient bond strength is achievable with fR values less than specified above the
values may be relaxed. In order to ensure sufficient bond strength is achieved, the bond stresses must satisfy
expressions (3.21) and (3.22) when tested using the CEB/RILEM beam test:
τm ≥ 0,098 (80 - 1,2φ) (3.21)
τr ≥ 0,098 (130 - 1,9φ) (3.22)

where
φ = the nominal bar size (mm)
τm = mean value of bond stress (MPa ) at 0,01, 0,1 and 1 mm slip
τr = the bond stress at failure by slipping
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3.2.3.3 Fatigue
(1)P The reinforcement shall have fatigue strength as specified in Table 3.5, when tested in
accordance with EN 10080.
3.2.3.4 Bond and anchorage
(1)P The surface characteristics of ribbed bars shall be such that adequate bond is obtained with
the concrete, permitting the full force that is assumed in design, to be developed in the
reinforcement.
(2) Ribbed bars, having a surface shape as defined in EN 10080 and a minimum
projected rib factor (fR ) not less than that given in Table 3.5 may be assumed to be
high bond bars.
(3) The behaviour in bond of reinforcing steels with other surface shapes should be
verified.
(4)P The strength of the welded joints along the anchorage length of welded fabric shall be
adequate.
(5) The strength of the welded joints of welded fabric may be assumed to be adequate if
each welded joint can withstand a shearing force not less than 30% of a force
equivalent to the specified characteristic yield stress times the nominal cross
sectional area of the anchored wire. This force should be based on the area of the
thicker wire if the two are different.
3.2.3.5 Weldability
(1)P Reinforcing steels shall have weldability properties adequate for the following welding
methods:
- flash-welding (welding process 24 according to EN 24063)
- gas pressure welding (welding process 47 according to EN 24063)
- manual metal arc welding (welding process 111 according to EN 24063)
- metal arc welding with filling electrode (welding process 114 according to EN 20463)
- metal arc active welding with massive wire electrode (welding process 135 according to
EN 20463)
- friction welding (welding process 42 according to EN 24063)
- resistance spot welding (welding process 21 according to EN 24063)
Permitted welding methods and examples of their application are given in Table 3.6.
(2)P All welding shall be carried out in accordance with EN ISO 17760
3.2.4 Design Assumptions
(1)P Design shall be based on the nominal cross-section area of the reinforcement and the
design values derived from the characteristic values given in 3.2.3.
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(2) For the design of member cross sections, the steel strain ε s should be limited to the
value of strain, ε uk, at maximum force given in Table 3.5.
(3) For simplification, the idealised bi-linear diagrams shown in Figure 3.8 may be used
for normal design. The value of K may be taken as that for (ft /fy)k given in Table 3.5.
(4) For section design, either of the following assumptions may be made:
- a horizontal top branch to the design curve in Figure 3.8, i.e. the stress in the
reinforcement is limited to fyk/γs, with no limit to the steel strain, although in some
cases it may be convenient to assume a limit.
- an inclined top branch, with the steel strain limited to 0,01. This is not applicable
for hot rolled steel, for which the horizontal top branch should be used.
(5) The mean value of density may be assumed to be 7850 kg/m3.
Table 3.6: Permitted welding methods and examples of application
Loading case Welding method Bars in tension Bars in compression
flash-welding butt joint

gas pressure welding butt joint
1 3
Predominantly manual metal arc welding splice, lap, cruciform joints & joint with other steel
static members plus butt joint with φ ≥ 16 mm
2
metal arc active gas welding splice, lap, cruciform3 joints & joint with other steel
members
butt joint with φ ≥ 16 mm butt joint with φ ≥ 20 mm
resistance spot welding (with lap joint with 5 – 16 mm, cruciform joint
one-point welding machine)
friction welding2 butt joint & joint with other steel members
flash-welding butt joint
Not gas pressure welding butt joint with φ ≥ 14mm
predominantly Manual metal arc welding - butt joint with φ ≥ 14mm
static metal arc active gas welding - butt joint with φ ≥ 14mm
Notes:
1. The nominal diameter of bars of welded fabric shall be at least 8mm
2. The nominal diameter of bars of welded fabric shall be at least 6mm
(6) A mean value of the modulus of elasticity may be assumed to be 200 GPa.
(7) The coefficient of thermal expansion maybe assumed to be 12 x 10-6 K-1 . The
difference between this and the value for concrete may normally be neglected.
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σ Idealised
k = (f t /fy )k
kfyk
fyk kfyk /γs

fyk /γs
Design
Es = 200 GPa
ε ud ε
Figure 3.8: Design stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel
3.3 Prestressing steel
3.3.1 Notation (See also 1.6 and 1.7)
fp Tensile strength of prestressing steel

fpk Characteristic tensile strength of prestressing steel
fp0.1 0,1% proof-stress of prestressing steel
fp0.1k Characteristic 0,1% proof-stress of prestressing steel
eu Elongation of prestressing steel at maximum load
euk Characteristic elongation of prestressing steel at maximum load
3.3.2 General
(1)P This section applies to wires, bars and strands used as prestressing tendons in concrete
structures.
(2)P The requirements for the properties of the prestressing tendons are for the materials as
placed in its final position. Where the methods of production, testing and attestation of
conformity for reinforcement are in accordance with EN 10138 it may be assumed that the
requirements of this standard are met.
(3)P Where other steels are used, which are not in accordance with EN 10138, the properties
must be verified to be in accordance with this standard.
(4)P Each product shall be clearly identifiable with respect to the classification system in 3.3.3.
(5)P For steels complying with this Standard, tensile strength, 0,1% proof stress, and elongation
at maximum load are specified in terms of characteristic values; these values are
designated respectively fpk, fp0.1k and euk.
(6)P Each consignment shall be accompanied by a certificate containing all the information
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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necessary for its identification with regard to (i) - (iv) in (1) above and additional information
where necessary.
(7)P There shall be no welds in wires and bars. Individual wires of strands may contain
staggered welds made only before cold drawing.
(8)P For coiled products, after uncoiling a length of wire or strand the maximum bow height shall
comply with EN 10138 or other relevant standards.
3.3.3 Properties
(1)P The properties of prestressing steel are given in EN 10138, Parts 2 to 4.
(2)P The products (wires, strands and bars) shall be classified according to:
(i) Grade, denoting the value of the 0,1% proof stress (fp0.1k ) and the value of the tensile
strength (fpk ) in MPa.
(ii) Class, indicating the relaxation behaviour
(iii) Size
(iv) Surface characteristics.
(3)P The actual cross sectional area of the products shall differ from the nominal cross sectional
area by not more than the limits specified in EN 10138 or other relevant standards.
(4)P In this Standard, three classes of relaxation are defined (see 3.3.5.2);
Class 1: for wires and strands, high relaxation

Class 2: for wires and strands, low relaxation
Class 3: for bars.
(5)P Where required, surface characteristics of prestressing steel shall comply with EN 10138 or
other relevant Standards.
(6)P Information about isothermic relaxation, cyclic fatigue life and the minimum single-values to
be met in the stress corrosion test and the mean life duration are given in ENV 10138, Parts
2 to 4.
(7) For design calculations, the values, which may be taken into account for losses due
to relaxation of 1000 h, are either those given in the certificate or those assumed in
Figure 3.9 for the three classes of steel shown. The long-term values of the
relaxation losses may be assumed to be 2.5 times the relaxation losses after 1000h.
(8) An indication of how relaxation losses increase between 0 -1000 hours is given in
Table 3.7.
(9) The method for determining long term (final) values of relaxation losses is given in
EN 13369.
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Relaxation
∆σ pr /fp0(%)
12
10 9,5
bars Y1100H (Class 3)
8 7,0
bars except Y1100H (Class 2)
6,0
6
4,5
4,0 strands, wires (Class 1)
4
3,0
2 2,5
1,5
1,1
0
60 70 80 σpr /fp0(%)
Figure 3.9: Relaxation losses after 1000 h at a mean temperature of 20°C

Table 3.7: Indication of relationship between relaxation losses and time up to 1000
hours.
Time in hours 1 5 20 100 200 500 1000
Relaxation losses as
percentages after 1000 hours 15 25 35 55 65 85 100
3.3.3.1 Strength
(1)P The 0.1% proof stress (fp0.1k ) and the specified value of the tensile strength (fpk ) are defined
as the characteristic value of the 0.1% proof load and the characteristic maximum load in
axial tension respectively, divided by the nominal cross sectional area.
(1)P The products shall have adequate ductility in elongation, as specified in EN 10138.
(2) Adequate ductility in elongation may be assumed if the products obtain the specified
value of the elongation at maximum load (euk) given in EN 10138 (see Figure 3.10).
(3) Adequate ductility in bending may be assumed if the products satisfy the
requirements for bendability of the relevant standards.
(4) Stress-strain diagrams for the products, based on production data, shall be
prepared and made available by the producer as an annex to the certificate
accompanying the consignment (see 3.3.2 (6)P).
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fp
f p0.1
ε
0.1%
εu
Figure 3.10: Typical stress-strain diagram of prestressing steel
3.3.3.3 Fatigue
(1)P The products shall have adequate fatigue strength.
(2) For fatigue requirements of prestressing steel, see 6.8 and relevant Standards.
(1)P Structural analysis is performed on the basis of the nominal cross-section area of the
prestressing steel and the characteristic values f0.1k, fpk and euk.
(2) The idealised stress-strain diagram is shown in Figure 3.11. It may be generally be
used for structural analysis for the structure as a whole, for local analysis and the
verification of the cross-sectional resistance.
(3) For local analysis or verification of the cross-sectional resistance, Figure 3.11 may
be modified, e.g. by using a horizontal upper branch of the curve.
(4)P For cross-sectional design, the steel strain eu shall be limited to eud = 0,02.
(5) A mean value for the modulus of elasticity, Ep equal to 200 GPa may be assumed
for wires and bars. The actual value can range from 195 to 205 GPa, depending on
the manufacturing process.
(6) A value of 195 GPa may be assumed for strand. The actual value can range from
185 GPa to 205 GPa., depending on the manufacturing process.
Certificates accompanying the consignment should give the appropriate value.

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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(7) For design purposes, the following mean values may be assumed:
- density: 7850 kg/m3
- coefficient of thermal expansion: 12 × 10-6 K-1
(8) The values given above may be assumed to be valid within a temperature range
between -20°C and +150°C.
(9) Design values for the steel stress are derived from the idealized characteristic
diagram by dividing by γs, the partial safety factor for prestressing steel (see 2.3).
(10) For section design, either of the following assumptions may be made:
− a horizontal top branch to the design curve in Figure 3.11, i.e., the stress in the
prestressing steel is limited to 0,9fpk/γs with no limit to the steel strain, although in
some cases it may be convenient to assume a limit.
− an inclined top branch, with the increasing steel strain limited to 0,01.
σ Idealised
f pk
fpk/γs
0.9fpk
0.9fpk/γs
Design
E p = 200 GPa - Wires & bars

E p = 195 GPa - Strand
ε
εud
Figure 3.11: Design stress-strain diagram for prestressing steel
3.3.5 Technological properties
3.3.5.1 Surface condition
(1)P The products shall be free from defects which could impair their performance as
prestressing tendons.
(2) Longitudinal cracks need not be considered as defects if their depth is less than the
values specified in EN 10138 or other relevant standards.
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3.3.5.2 Relaxation
(1)P The products shall be classified for relaxation purposes according to 3.3.3 (4)P or other
relevant Standards.
3.3.5.3 Susceptibility to stress corrosion
(1)P The products shall have an acceptably low level of susceptibility to stress corrosion.
(2) The level of susceptibility to stress corrosion may be assumed to be acceptably low if
the products comply with the criteria specified in EN 10138 or in other relevant
Standards.
3.3.6 Prestressing steel in internal unbonded tendons
(1)P The prestressing steel in internal unbonded tendons shall be adequately and permanently
protected against corrosion.
(2)P Adequate and permanent protection of the prestressing steel shall be obtained by
satisfying the requirements for sheathed prestressing steel defined in relevant documents.
(3)P If required in the project specification, the external or unbonded internal tendons shall
receive permanent protection against the effects of fire.
3.4 Prestressing devices
3.4.1 Anchorages and couplers
3.4.1.1 General
(1)P This section applies to anchoring devices (anchorages) and coupling devices (couplers) for
application in post-tensioned construction, where:
(i) anchorages are used to, transmit the forces in tendons to the concrete in the
anchorage zone
(ii) couplers are used to connect individual lengths of tendon to make continuous
tendons
(2)P The performance requirements, the methods of testing and the methods of attestation of
conformity shall be defined in relevant standards or in European Approval documents (to be
developed).
(3)P Requirements for the use of anchorages and couplers shall be defined in technical approval
documents. Detailing of anchorage zones shall comply with 5.9 and 8.9.6.
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3.4.1.2 Mechanical properties
3.4.1.2.1 Anchored tendons
(1)P Tendon-anchorage assemblies and tendon-coupler assemblies shall have strength,

elongation and fatigue characteristics sufficient to meet the basic requirements of Chapter
2.
(2) This may be assumed if:

(i) The geometry and material characteristics of the anchorage and coupler
components are such that their premature failure is precluded.
(ii) The elongation at failure of the assemblies is not excessive.
iii) Tendon-anchorage assemblies are not located in otherwise highly-stressed
zones.
For the fatigue requirements of anchorages and couplers, see relevant Approval
documents.
3.4.1.2.2 Anchorage devices and anchorage zones
(1)P The strength of the anchorage devices and zones shall be adequate for the transfer of the
tendon force to the concrete and the formation of cracks in the anchorage zone does not
impair the function of the anchorage.
(2) This may be assumed if:

(i) The strength of the anchorage devices exceeds the characteristic breaking load
of the tendon, either under static loading conditions or a limited number of load
cycles.
(ii) The detailing provisions of this Standard are met.
3.4.2 External unbonded tendons
3.4.2.1 General
(1)P An external unbonded tendon is a tendon situated outside the original concrete section and
is connected to the structure by anchorages and deviators only.
(2)P The post-tensioning system shall receive a specific approval by relevant authorities for the
use as external tendons.
(3) In anchorage zones, the tendon is usually embedded in a concrete bulkhead, blister
or steel assembly.
(4) The deviators may consist of concrete blocks, steel assemblies or cross beams. In
the deviators, the tendon is bent and exerts a radial pressure.
(4) The anchorages and deviators should enable removal of the tendon without
damaging the structural elements, unless stated otherwise in the project
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specification.
3.4.2.2 Anchorages
(1) In the absence of indication in the approval documents of the system, the minimum
radius of curvature of the tendon in the anchorage zone beyond the anchor plate may
be taken from Table 3.8.
Table 3.8: Minimum radii of deviation in the anchorage zone
Units Minimum
radius
Strands Wires
(m)
19φ13 mm or 12φ15 mm 54 φ 7 mm 3,5
31φ13 mm or 19φ15 mm 91 φ 7 mm 4,0
55φ13 mm or 37φ15 mm 140 φ 7 mm 5,0
Linear interpolation between the values in Table 3.8 is permitted.
3.4.3 Deviators
3.4.3.1 General
(1)P A deviator shall satisfy the following requirements
- withstand both longitudinal and transverse forces that the tendon applies to it and transmit
these forces to the structure;
- ensure without unacceptable angular discontinuity the connect ion between two straight
sections of the tendon
(2) In the deviation zones, the tubes forming the sheaths may made of steel or high
density polyethylene, provided in the latter case that it has been demonstrated that
they are able to sustain the radial pressure and longitudinal movement of the tendon,
without damage and without impairing its proper functioning. If made of steel, the
sheaths should be prebent to the radius specified by the design
(3) In the absence of a requirement in the approval documents of the system, the radius
of curvature of the tendon in a deviation zone may be taken from Table 3.9.
(4) Designed tendon deviations up to an angle of 0, 02 rad are permitted without

particular deviation saddle, as specified in the approval documents. The forces
developed in the deviation should be taken into account in the design calculations.
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Table 3.9: Minimum radii of deviation in the deviation zone
Units Minimum
radius
Strands Wires
(m)
19φ13 mm or 12φ15 mm 54 φ 7 mm 2,5
31φ13 mm or 19φ15 mm 91 φ 7 mm 3,0
55φ13 mm or 37φ15 mm 140 φ 7 mm 5,0
Linear interpolation between the values in Table 3.9 is permitted.
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SECTION 4 DURABILITY
4.1 General
(1)P The requirement of a durable structure is met if, throughout its required life, a structure fulfils
its intended function with respect to serviceability, strength and stability without significant
loss of utility or excessive unforeseen maintenance.
(2)P To provide the required overall durability, as defined in (1)P above, the intended use of the
structure shall be established, together with the load specifications to be considered. The
required life of the structure and the maintenance programme shall also be considered, in
assessing the level of protection required.
(3)P Durability may be affected by direct actions resulting from the environmental exposure
conditions, and by the consequential effects of indirect actions inherent in the performance
of the structure (e.g. deformations, cracking, water absorption, etc). The possible
significance of both direct and indirect effects shall be considered.
(4) Durability of concrete structures, with regard to steel corrosion, is determined by the
quality and the thickness of the concrete cover as well as possibly by the crack
widths. As a simplification in this code durability is defined by the thickness of the
concrete cover and the strength class of the concrete (see Annex B). Other
possibilities may be given in a National Annex.
(5) Durability is considered to be ensured if, in addition to the rules in this chapter and
the rules for detailing, the requirements for the verification of the serviceability and
ultimate limit states are fulfilled. Modifications to the recommended measures may
be required in certain circumstances, e.g. for temporary or monumental structures, or
for structures subjected to extreme or unusual actions (either direct or indirect effects
- see P(3) above).
4.2 Environmental exposure conditions
(1)P Environmental exposure conditions, in this context, mean those chemical and physical
conditions to which the structure as a whole, the individual elements, or the concrete or steel
itself is exposed, and which result in effects not included in the loading conditions
considered in structural design.
(2) For the design of normal buildings, environmental conditions should be classified in
accordance with Table 4.1 (corrosion induced by carbonation, chlorides and
chlorides from sea water, freeze/thaw attack and chemical attack), to establish the
overall level of protection required in accordance with the provisions of prEN 206.
(3) The choice of a durable concrete requires consideration of its composition and may
result in a high compressive.
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Table 4.1: Exposure classes related to environmental conditions according to prEN 206
Class Description of the environment Informative examples where exposure classes may
designation occur
1 No risk of corrosion or attack
X0 For concrete without reinforcement or
embedded metal: All exposures except
where there is freeze/thaw, abrasion or
chemical attack
For concrete with reinforcement or
embedded metal: Very dry
Concrete inside buildings with very low air humidity
2 Corrosion induced by carbonation
XC1 Dry or permanently wet Concrete inside buildings with low air humidity
Concrete permanently submerged in water
XC2 Wet, rarely dry Concrete surfaces subject to long-term water contact
Many foundations
XC3 Moderate humidity Concrete inside buildings with moderate or high air humidity
External concrete sheltered from rain
XC4 Cyclic wet and dry Concrete surfaces subject to water contact, not within
exposure class XC2
3 Corrosion induced by chlorides
XD1 Moderate humidity Concrete surfaces exposed to airborne chlorides
XD2 Wet, rarely dry Swimming pools
Concrete components exposed to industrial waters containing
chlorides
XD3 Cyclic wet and dry Parts of bridges exposed to spray containing chlorides
Pavements
Car park slabs
4 Corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
XS1 Exposed to airborne salt but not in Structures near to or on the coast
direct contact with sea water
XS2 Permanently submerged Parts of marine structures
XS3 Tidal, splash and spray zones Parts of marine structures
5. Freeze/Thaw Attack
XF1 Moderate water saturation, without Vertical concrete surfaces exposed to rain and freezing
deicing agent
XF2 Moderate water saturation, with deicing Vertical concrete surfaces of road structures exposed to
agent freezing and airborne deicing agents
XF3 High water saturation, without deicing Horizontal concrete surfaces exposed to rain and freezing
agents
XF4 High water saturation with deicing Bridge decks exposed to deicing agents
agents or sea water Concrete surfaces exposed to direct spray containing de-icing
agents and freezing
Splash zone of marine structures exposed to freezing
6. Chemical attack
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XA1 Slightly aggressive chemical Natural soils and ground water

environment according to prEN 206,
Table 2
XA2 Moderately aggressive chemical Natural soils and ground water
Table 2
XA3 Highly aggressive chemical Natural soils and ground water
Table 2
Crack width control and minimum reinforcement should be based on a realistic

concrete strength. Therefore it is advised to use indicative strength classes
appropriate to the relevant classes as given in Table B1. Indicative strengths are
given in the Informative Annex B.
(4) In addition, it may be necessary to consider certain forms of aggressive or indirect

action individually (see 4.2 (5), (6), 4.3).
(5) Chemical attack may arise from:

- the use of the building (storage of liquids, etc);
- contact with gases or solutions of many chemicals, but usually from exposure
to ground containing acidic solutions or solutions of sulphate salts (see prEN
206 and ISO 9690).
(6) Physical attack can occur because of:

- abrasion,
- temperature change.
4.3 Concrete cover
4.3.1 General
(1)P The nominal concrete cover is the distance between the outer surface of the reinforcement
(including links and stirrups) and the nearest concrete surface. The nominal cover shall be
specified on the drawings. Embedded metals other than reinforcement steel according to
Table 3.5 need special consideration with regard to the required cover.
(2)P The nominal concrete cover (cnom ) contains the minimum cover (cmin ) and design tolerance
(∆c) and is determined by the following formula:
cnom = cmin + ∆c (4.1)
(3) Where surface reinforcement is used (see Chapter 8), the cover should comply with
2(P) above.
(4)P Permanent metal fastenings which are not fully protected by concrete cover shall be of a
protective coated material, if inspectable and replaceable, or of a corrosion resistant
material, if not inspectable and replaceable.
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4.3.2 Minimum cover
(1)P A minimum concrete cover shall be provided in order to ensure:
- the safe transmission of bond forces (see (5)P below and Chapter 8)
- the protection of the steel against corrosion (see (6)P below and prEN 206)
- an adequate fire resistance (ENV 1992-1-2: Fire Design)
(2)P The greater value for cmin resulting either from the bond requirements ((3)P) or from the
environmental requirements ((4)P) shall be used for design.
(3)P To transmit bond forces safely and to ensure adequate compaction, the minimum concrete
cover to the bar or tendon being considered should never be less than:
cmin φ or φ n
(φ + 5mm) or (φ n + 5mm), if d g > 32mm
where :
φ is the diameter of the bar, the wire , the strand or the duct (post-tensioning)
φn is the equivalent diameter for a bundle
dg is the nominal maximum aggregate size.
(4)P The protection of reinforcement against corrosion depends upon the continuing presence of
a surrounding alkaline environment provided by an adequate thickness of good quality, well-
cured concrete. The minimum concrete cover to all reinforcement, including links and
stirrups, shall not be less than the appropriate values given in Table 4.2, for the relevant
exposure class defined in Table 4.1.
(5) The required minimum covers given in Table 4.2 may be insufficient for fire
resistance in certain cases. Particular requirements for fire resistance are given in
separate documents (ENV 1992-1-2: Fire Design).
(6) Where concrete elements (precast or in-situ), of which the concrete strength class is
at least C25/30, is to have in situ concrete placed against it, and the exposure time
of the concrete surface to an outdoor environment is short, the minimum concrete
cover of the reinforcement to the interface may be reduced to a value corresponding
to the requirement on bond (on the condition that the interface has been made rough)
given in 3(P).
Table 4.2: Minimum cover requirements for normal weight concrete

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Environmental Requirement
Exposure Class according to Table 4.1
No Carbonation-induced Chloride-induced Chloride-induced
risk corrosion corrosion corrosion from sea-water
X0 XC1 XC2 XC3 XC4 XD1 XD2 XD3 2) XS1 XS2 XS3
c min 10 15 25 30 45 45
1)
Reinforcing steel
c min 20 25 35 40 55 55
1)
Prestressing steel
Bond Requirement
c min c min ≥ φ or φn
c min ≥ (φ + 5mm) or (φn + 5 mm) if dg > 32mm
(where: φ is the diameter of the bar, the wire, the strand or the duct ; φn is the equivalent
diameter for a bundle and dg is the nominal maximum aggregate size.
Notes:
1) The minimum concrete cover for slabs and for structural elements which have a strength class two strength
classes higher than indicated in Table A1 (except for exposure class XC 1) may be reduced by 5 mm providing
there are an adequate number of sufficiently stiff spacers. Other relationships between minimum cover and
concrete quality may be given in a National Annex.
2) In extreme cases, special protective measures against corrosion may be required (e.g. stainless steel
reinforcement).
(7) For concrete cast against uneven surfaces, the minimum covers given in Table 4.2
should generally be increased. The increase should comply with the difference
caused by the unevenness, but it should be at least 40 mm for concrete cast against
prepared ground (including blinding) and 75 mm for concrete cast directly against
soil.
(8) Surfaces having design features, such as ribbed finishes or exposed aggregate,
require increased cover.
(9) For pre-tensioned members, the minimum cover should not be less than 2φ, where φ
is the diameter of a wire or strand. Where ribbed wires are used, the minimum cover
should not be less than 3φ.
(10) For post-tensioned members, the minimum cover to the duct should not be less than
the diameter of the duct or 50 mm. For rectangular ducts, the cover should not be
less than the lesser dimension of the duct cross-section nor half the greater
dimension. However it is not necessary to provide a minimum cover larger than 80
mm
(11) For tendons, the minimum cover of the anchorage should be provided in accordance
with the relevant approval documents.
4.3.3 Design tolerance

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P(1) The minimum cover is increased by a design tolerance (∆c), which is dependent on the
type and size of structural element, the type of construction, standards of workmanship and
quality control, and detailing practice.
(2) The design tolerance should normally be ∆c = 10 mm taking into account EN

13670.
(3) In certain cases, the allowance in design for tolerances ∆c may be reduced. If
fabrication is subjected to a quality assurance system, in which the monitoring
includes measurements of the concrete cover and non conforming members are
rejected (especially in the case of precast elements), the allowance in design for
tolerances ∆c may be reduced:
∆cred = ∆c-x (∆c>x>0) (4.2)
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SECTION 5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
5.1 General provisions
5.1.1 General
(1)P The purpose of analysis is to establish the distribution of either internal forces and mo-
ments, or stresses strains and displacements, over the whole or part of a structure. Ad-
ditional local analysis shall be carried out where necessary.
(2) In most normal cases analysis will be used to establish the distribution of internal
forces and moments; however, for certain complex elements, the methods of
analysis used (e.g. finite element analysis) give stresses, strains and displace-
ments rather than internal forces and moments. Special methods are required to
use these results to obtain appropriate reinforcement areas.
(3)P Analyses are carried out using idealisations of both the geometry and the behaviour of
the structure. The idealisations selected shall be appropriate to the problem being con-
sidered.
(4) The geometry is commonly idealised by considering the structure to be made up

of linear elements, two dimensional elements and, occasionally, shells. Geomet-
rical idealisations are considered in 5.3.
(5) Common idealisations of the behaviour used for analysis are:

- elastic behaviour (see 5.4)
- elastic behaviour with limited redistribution (see 5.5)
- plastic behaviour (see 5.6), including strut and tie models (see 5.10)
- non-linear behaviour (see 5.7)
(6) Additional local analyses may be necessary where the assumption of linear strain
distribution is not considered valid, e.g.
- supports
- under concentrated loads
- beam and beam-column intersections
- anchorage zones
- changes in section.
(7) For linear elements and slabs in buildings, the effects of shear and longitudinal
forces on the deformations may be ignored where these are likely to be less than
10% of those due to bending.
5.1.2 Additional rules for buildings partly or entirely made of precast concrete elements
(1)P The analysis of precast concrete structures shall account for:
- the behaviour of the structural units at all stages of construction using the
appropriate geometry and properties for each stage and their interaction
with other elements (e.g. composite actions with insitu concrete, other pre-
cast units);
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- the behaviour of the structural system influenced by the behaviour of the

connections between elements, with particular regard to actual deforma-
tions and strength of connections;
- the uncertainties influencing restraints and force transmission between

elements arising from deviations in geometry and in the positioning of units
and bearings.
(3) Horizontal restraint caused by friction due to the weight of any supported element
may only be considered for non seismic zones (using γG,inf). In addition it may only
be considered where
- the friction is not solely relied upon for overall stability of the structure; and
- the bearing arrangements preclude the possibility of accumulation of irre-
versible sliding of the elements, such as caused by uneven behaviour un-
der alternate actions (cyclic thermal effects on the contact edges of simply
supported elements).
- the possibility of significant impact loading is eliminated
(4) The effects of horizontal movements should be considered in design with respect
to the resistance of the structure and the integrity of the connections.
5.1.3 Load cases and combinations
(1)P In considering the combinations of actions, the relevant cases shall be considered to
enable the critical design conditions to be established at all sections, within the structure
or part of the structure considered.
(2) Depending on the type of structure, its function or the method of construction, de-
sign may be carried out primarily for either the ultimate limit state or the service-
ability limit or both with the relevant combinations of actions.
5.1.4 Imperfections
(1)P In the ultimate limit state, consideration shall be given to the effects of possible imper-
fections in the geometry of the unloaded structure. Where significant, any possible un-
favourable effect of such imperfections shall be taken into account. Imperfections need
not be considered in combinations of accidental actions.
(2)P Individual sections shall be designed for the internal forces and moments arising from
global analysis, combining effects of actions and imperfections of the structure as a
whole.
(3) In the absence of other provisions, the influence of structural imperfections may
be assessed by representing them as an effective geometrical imperfection, see
5.2.
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5.1.5 Second order effects
(1)P Second order effects see EN1990 1.5.6 shall be taken into account where they can sig-
nificantly affect the overall stability of a structure or the attainment of the ultimate limit
state at critical sections.
(2) For normal buildings, second order effects should be assessed according to 5.8.
5.1.6 Time dependent deformations of concrete
(1)P Time dependent deformations of concrete from creep and shrinkage shall be taken into
account where significant.
(2) Creep and shrinkage effects should generally be taken into account for the serv-
iceability limit states. They can often be neglected in the ultimate limit states.
However, creep should be considered in such cases where second order effects
are significant, see 5.8.
5.1.7 Indirect Effects
(1)P Deformation of the structure as a whole, of individual structural elements or non-load

bearing elements (due to e.g. imposed loads, temperature, creep, shrinkage, micro-
cracking, etc.) can lead to consequential indirect effects, and these shall be considered
in design.
(2) For most buildings, the influence of indirect effects can be accommodated by
complying with general requirements, given elsewhere in this Eurocode, for dura-
bility, cracking, deformation, detailing, - and for strength, stability and robustness
of the structure as a whole. Additionally, consideration may have to be given to
the following:-
- minimising deformation and cracking due to time-dependent factors (e.g.

early-age movement, creep, shrinkage, etc) - see 3.1;
- minimising restraints due to deformation (e.g. by the provision of bearings
or joints, while ensuring that these do not permit the ingress of aggressive
agents);
- if restraints are present, ensuring that any significant effects are taken into
account in design.
5.2 Geometric Imperfections
(1)P In the analysis of members and structures, possible deviations in geometry and posi-
tion of loads shall be included as geometrical imperfections, related to execution toler-
ances. The provisions in the following are mainly applicable to buildings.
(2) For members with axial compression and structures with vertical load, deviations
according to (1)P can be represented by an inclination αi. With normal execution
tolerances (class 1 in EN13670), the following design value (radians) may be
used for one member:
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αi = 0,01 l -1/2 ≥ 0,0025 (5.1)
where l is length of member (in m), see (4)
With other execution tolerances (class 2) αi should be adjusted accordingly.
(3) A mean value αim can be used for estimating the combined effect of imperfections
from a number of laterally connected members:
α im = α i 0,5(1 + 1/m ) (5.2)
where m is number of vertical members contributing to the total effect, see (4)
(4) In expressions (5.1) and (5.2), the definition of l and m depends on the effect
considered. Three main cases can be distinguished, see also Figure 5.1:
a) Effect on isolated member:

l = actual length of member, m =1.
b) Effect on bracing system:

Members which are continuous throughout the height of the building:
l = height of building, m = number of continuous members.
Storey high elements:
l = storey height, m = number of elements contributing to total effect.
c) Effect on floor diaphragm distributing the horizontal loads:

l = storey height, m = number of vertical elements in the two storeys contrib-
uting to the total horizontal force on the floor.
ei ei αim
Hi Na
αim /2
Nb l Hi Na
l= l=
l0 /2 l0 Nb l
αim /2
a) Isolated members b) Bracing system c) Floor diaphragm

ei = αi l0 /2 Hi = αim(Nb - Na ) Hi = αim(Nb + Na )/2
Figure 5.1. Effect of geometric imperfections in three main cases.
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(5) For isolated compression members (see 5.8.1.2), the effect of imperfections can
be taken into account by
either an eccentricity ei, see also case (a) in Figure 5.1:

ei = αi lo / 2 (5.3)
where lo is effective length, see 5.8.3.2
or a transverse load Hi in the position that gives maximum moment:

Hi = 2αi N (for non-sway members, see 5.8.1.2) (5.4a)
Hi = αi N (for sway members, see 5.8.1.2) (5.4b)
where N is axial load
Eccentricity should be used only for statically determinate members. Transverse

load can be used for both determinate and indeterminate members. The concen-
trated force Hi can be substituted by some other equivalent transverse action.
(6) For structures, the effect of imperfections can be taken into account by transverse
forces, included in the analysis together with other actions:
Hi = αim(NI - Na) case (b), see Figure 5.1 (5.5)
Hi = αim(Nb + Na) / 2 case (c), see Figure 5.1 (5.6)
where
αim mean value of inclination according to (3)
Na, Nb vertical loads above and below the level of Hi respectively
5.3 Idealisation of the structure
5.3.1 Structural models for overall analysis
(1)P The elements of a structure are normally classified, by consideration of their nature and
function, as beams, columns, slabs, walls, plates, arches, shells etc. Rules are provided
for the analysis of the commoner of these elements and of structures consisting of com-
binations of these elements.
(2) To be considered as an ordinary beam, the span or length of the element should
not be less than 3 times the overall section depth. Otherwise the element should
be considered as a deep beam
(3) To be considered as a slab, the minimum panel dimension should not be less
than four times the overall slab thickness.
(4) A slab subjected to dominantly uniformly distributed loads may be considered to

be one-way spanning if either:
(a) it possesses two free (unsupported) and sensibly parallel edges

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or
(b) if it is the central part of a sensibly rectangular slab supported on
four edges with a ratio of the longer to shorter span greater than 2.
(5) Ribbed or waffle slabs may be treated as solid slabs for the purposes of analysis,
provided that the flange or structural topping and transverse ribs have sufficient
torsional stiffness. This may be assumed provided that:
- the rib spacing does not exceed 1500 mm.
- the depth of the rib below the flange does not exceed four times its width.
- the depth of the flange is at least 1/10 of the clear distance between ribs or
50 mm, whichever is the greater.
- transverse ribs are provided at a clear spacing not exceeding 10 times the
overall depth of the slab.
The minimum flange thickness of 50 mm may be reduced to 40 mm where per-

manent blocks are incorporated between the ribs.
(6) A column is considered as having a height not less than 3 times the overall sec-
tion depth, which should not itself exceed 4 times the width.
(7) A wall is considered as having a horizontal length of at least four times its thick-
ness. Otherwise it should be treated as a column.
5.3.2 Geometrical data
5.3.2.1 Effective width of flanges (all limit states)
(1)P In T beams the effective flange width depends on the web and flange dimensions, the
type of loading, the span, the support conditions and the transverse reinforcement.
2) For the calculation of effective breadth width a conventional distance l0 between

points of zero moment may be obtained from Figure 5.2 for typical cases with the
following conditions:
i) The length of the cantilever should be less than half the adjacent span.
ii) The ratio of adjacent spans should lie between 1 and 1,5.
l0 =
l 0 = 0,85 l 1 l 0 = 0,7 l 2 l 0 = 0,15 l 2+ l 3
0,15(l1+ l2 )
l1 l2 l3
Figure 5.2: Definition of l0, for calculation of flange width
(3) The effective flange width beff for a T beam or L beam may be then derived as:
beff = beff,i +bw (5.7)
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with
beff,i =0 ,2 bi + 0 ,1l 0 ≤0 ,2 l 0 (5.7a)
and beff,i ≤ bi (5.7b)
(for the notations see figures 5.2 above and 5.3 below).
beff
beff1 beff2
bw
bw
b1 b1 b2 b2
b
Figure 5.2: Definition of parameters to determine effective flange width
(4) It should be noted that as defined, the effective flange width is different for sup-
port and span situations. But for analysis, a constant width may generally be as-
sumed over the whole span. It should take the value applicable to the span sec-
tion.
(5) For the effective flange width for the dispersion of prestressing forces in T beams
see 8.9.4.
5.3.2.2 Effective span of beams and slabs in common buildings
(1) The effective span (leff ) of a member may be calculated as follows :
leff = ln + a1 + a2 (5.8)
where:
ln is the clear distance between the faces of the supports
values for a1 and a2 , at each end of the span, may be determined from the
appropriate ai values in Figure 5.4 where t is the thickness of a supporting
element.
(2) Continuous slabs and beams may generally be analysed on the assumption that
the supports provide no rotational restraint.
(3) Regardless of the method of analysis used, where a beam or slab is continuous
over a support which may be considered to provide no restraint to rotation, the
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design support moment, calculated on the basis of a span equal to the centre-to-
centre distance between supports, may be reduced by an amount ∆M Ed where:
∆M Ed = FEd,sup bsup / 8 (5.9)

FEd,sup is the design support reaction
bsup is the breadth of the support
centre line of support
h
a i = 1/2 t ln
ln
l eff l eff
t
ai = 0
(a)
(d)
a i = 1/2 t
ln h
leff a i = 1/2 t
t ln
l eff
(b)
t
(e)
centre line of bearing
h
leff
≤ 1/2 t ln
ai
≤ 1/2 h
l eff ai ln
t
(c) (f)
Figure 5.4: Determination of effective Span (leff ) according to Expression (5.8), for
different support conditions
(a) Non-continuous members (d) Isolated cantilever

(b) Continuous members (e) Continuous cantilever
(c) Supports considered fully restrained (f) Bearing provided
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(4) Where a beam or slab is cast monolithically into its supports, the critical moment
at the support may be taken as that at the face of the support.
5.4 Linear elastic analysis
(1)P Linear analysis of elements based on the theory of elasticity may be used for both the
serviceability and ultimate limit states.
(2)P For the determination of the action effects of loads, linear analysis generally assumes
uncracked cross sections, linear stress-strain relationships and mean values of the
elastic modulus.
(3)P For imposed deformations effects at the ultimate limit state (ULS) a reduced stiffness
corresponding to the full cracked sections may be assumed. For the serviceability limit
state (SLS) a gradual evolution of cracking should be considered.
(4)P Linear analysis applied for ultimate limit states requires careful detailing of the rein-
forcement to cover all zones where tensile stresses may appear.
5.5 Linear analysis with limited redistribution
(1)P Linear analysis with limited redistribution may be applied to the analysis of beams and
frames for the verification of ULS.
(2)P The moments at ULS calculated using a linear elastic analysis may be redistributed pro-
vided that the resulting distribution of moments remains in equilibrium with the applied
loads.
(3)P The possible influence on all aspects of the design of any redistribution of the moments
shall be taken into account.
(4) In continuous beams where the ratio of adjacent spans is 0,5 < l1/l2 < 2, in beams
of non sway frames and in elements subject predominantly to flexure (including
slabs) and where δ is the ratio of the final moment to the original moment, the
conditions given below should be satisfied:
(i) With reinforcement of Class B and Class C
δ==≥ 0.64 + 0.8(x/d) ≥ 0,70 (5.9)

for concrete grades not greater than C50/60
δ==≥ 0.72 + 0.8(x/d) ≥=0,80 (5.10)

for concrete grades C55/67 and C60/75
(ii) With reinforcement of Class A

δ==≥ 0,64 + 0,8(x/d) ≥ 0,85 (5.11)
for concrete grades not greater than C 50/60
δ =1 (5.12)
for concrete grades C55/67 and C60/75
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(5) Redistribution should not be carried out in circumstances where the rotation
capacity cannot be defined with confidence (e.g. in the corners of prestressed
frames).
(6) For the design of columns the elastic moments from frame action should be used
without any redistribution.
5.6 Plastic methods of analysis
5.6.1 General
(1)P Methods based on plastic analysis shall only be used for the check at ULS.
(2)P The plastic rotation capacity must be checked. Indirect actions (imposed or restrained
deformations) need only to be considered if a significant part of the plastic range in the
moment−curvature−diagram is used for the redistribution of the indirect action effects.
(3)P The plastic analysis is either based on the lower bound (static) method or on the upper
bound (kinematic) method.
(4) The static method includes: the strip method for slabs, the strut and tie approach
for deep beams, corbels, anchorages, walls and plates loaded in their plane.
(5) The kinematic method includes: yield hinges method for beams, frames and one
way slabs; yield lines theory for slabs.
(6)P The effects of previous applications of loading may generally be ignored, and a mono-
tonic increase of the intensity of actions may be assumed.
5.6.2 Plastic analysis for beams, frames and slabs
(1)P Kinematic plastic analysis without any direct check of rotation capacity may be used for
the ultimate limit state if appropriate conditions are met.
(2) Conditions for adequate ductility include:

i) the area of tensile reinforcement should not exceed, at any point or in any
direction, a value corresponding to x/d = 0,25;
ii) use of class B or C reinforcing steel.
iii) the ratio of the moments at supports to the moments in the span should
be between 0,5 and 2.
(3) when considering the kinematic method, a variety of possible mechanisms should
be examined in order to determine the minimum capacity.
(4) In frames, columns should be checked for the maximum plastic moment which
can be transmitted to connecting beams.
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(5) The methods above may be extended to non solid slabs (ribbed, hollow, waffle
slabs) if their response is similar to that of a solid slab, particularly with regard to
the torsional stiffness.
5.6.3 Rotation capacity
(1) The allowable rotations ϑpl for reinforcing steel classes A, B or C and for concrete
grades up to C50/60 (εc2u=0.0035) are given in Figure 5.5 and in Expressions
(5.13) to (5.18). For concrete grades C55/67 and C60/75, these values for ϑpl
have to be reduced with the factor |εc2u| / 0.0035 where εc2u is given in Table 3.1:
- Reinforcement of Class C
( d)
3.738⋅ x
for 0.05 ≤ x/d ≤ 0.14 ϑ pl = 4.740 ⋅ ε c 2u ⋅ e (5.13)
−3.480⋅ x ( d)
for 0.14 < x/d ≤ 0.50 ϑ pl = 13.020 ⋅ ε c 2u ⋅ e (5.14)
- Reinforcement of Class B
( d)
4.644⋅ x
for 0.05 ≤ x/d ≤ 0.16 ϑ pl = 2.178 ⋅ ε c 2u ⋅ e (5.15)
( d)
−3.351⋅ x
for 0.16 < x/d ≤ 0.50 ϑ pl = 9.768 ⋅ ε c 2u ⋅ e (5.16)
- Reinforcement of Class A
( d)
6.301⋅ x
for 0.05 ≤ x/d ≤ 0.16 ϑ pl = 0.834 ⋅ ε c 2u ⋅ e (5.17)
( d)
−1.382⋅ x
for 0.16 < x/d ≤ 0.50 ϑ pl = 2.851 ⋅ ε c 2u ⋅ e (5.18)
In these expressions:
x/d is the relative depth of neutral axis at ULS
εc2u depends on fck and is given in Table 3.1
ϑ pl
(rad.)
0,025
Class C
0,020
0,015
Class B
0,010
0,005
Class A
0
0,00 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50
(x/d)
Figure 5.5: Allowable plastic rotation of reinforced concrete sections
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5.7 Non-linear analysis
(1)P Non-linear methods of analysis may be used for both ULS and SLS, provided that
equilibrium, compatibility are satisfied and an adequate non linear behaviour for
materials is assumed. The analysis can be first or second order.
(2) Non linear behaviour of concrete in compression, cracking, tension stiffening and
non linear behaviour of steel should be considered.
(3) The behaviour of concrete in compression may be in accordance with 3.1.4.
(4) Tension stiffening may be modelled using the method described in Appendix B.
(5)P At the ultimate limit state, the ability of local critical sections to withstand any inelastic
deformations implied by the analysis shall be checked, taking appropriate account of un-
certainties.
(6) For structures dominantly subjected to static loads, the effects of previous
applications of loading may generally be ignored, and a monotonic increase of the
intensity of the actions may be assumed.
(7)P The problem of structural safety when using non-linear analysis cannot be dealt with as
defined in section 2, since it is necessary to work with material characteristics which
represent the stiffness in a realistic way and yet take account of the uncertainties of
failure. Different design formats are proposed which are valid within restricted fields of
application.
(8) The deformations, and hence the distribution of internal forces and moments
within the structure, should be calculated on the basis of the mean values of the
material properties (such as Ecm, fctm etc.). However at the critical zones where
the ultimate resistance are calculated on the basis of 6.1, the design values of the
properties should be assumed.
(9) For slender structures, in which second order effects cannot be neglected, the
design method given in 5.8.6 may be used.
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5.8 Second order effects
5.8.1 Symbols and definitions
5.8.1.1 Symbols
1/r curvature; 5.8.8.3, 5.8.8.4

1/ro basic value of curvature in simplified method; 5.8.8.4
Ac area of concrete cross section
As total area of longitudinal reinforcement
b width of cross section or compression flange
c factor depending on the curvature distribution; 5.8.8.3
e2 second order deflection (eccentricity); 5.8.8.3
EI bending stiffness
ex eccentricity in x-direction (bending around y-axis); 5.8.9
ey eccentricity in y-direction (bending around x-axis); 5.8.9
h total depth of cross section
i radius of gyration of cross section; 5.8.3
is radius of gyration of reinforcement area; 5.8.8.4
lo effective length; 5.8.3.2
lof unbraced length of compression flange in slender beam; 5.8.10
M bending moment (general)
M0 first order bending moment, including the effect of imperfections
M2 nominal second order bending moment in simplified methods
M Rd capacity for uniaxial bending
M Ed design value of total bending moment (including 2nd order moment)
M ...x bending moment in x-direction (bending around y-axis)
M ...y bending moment in y-direction (bending around x-axis)
N axial force
n relative axial force, = N / (Ac fcd)
nbal relative axial force giving maximum moment capacity; 5.8.8.4
NB buckling load; 5.8.3.2
nu maximum relative axial force, = 1 + ω; 5.8.8.4
Ke correction factor for stiffness, 5.8.7.3
Kr correction factor for curvature; 5.8.9.4
Kϕ factor taking into account creep; 5.8.7.3, 5.8.8.4
ε yd design value of yield strain; 5.8.8.4
ϕ basic creep coefficient; 3.1.3
ϕef effective creep ratio; 5.8.4
λ slenderness ratio; 5.8.3.1
ω mechanical reinforcement ratio, = As fyd / (Ac fcd); 5.8.8.4
5.8.1.2 Definitions
Biaxial bending: simultaneous bending around two principal axes
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Braced members or systems: structural members or subsystems, which are assumed in

analysis not to contribute to the overall stability of a structure
Bracing members or systems: structural members or subsystems, which are assumed in

analysis to contribute to the overall stability of a structure
Buckling: failure due to instability of a member or structure under centric compression
Buckling load: the load at which buckling occurs; for isolated members synonymous with the
Euler load (even if pure buckling is not a relevant limit state in real structures, due to the
presence of imperfections and transverse loads, a nominal buckling load can be a useful
parameter in second order analysis)
Effective length: a length used in second order analysis to account for the shape of the
deflection curve; it can also be defined as buckling length, i.e. the length of a pin-ended
column with constant axial load, having the same cross section and buckling load as the
actual member
First order effects: action effects (usually moments), calculated without the effect of structural
deformations, but including geometrical imperfections
Isolated members: members which are isolated, or members in a structure which for design
purposes can be considered as being isolated, e.g. columns in a braced frame; examples
of isolated members with different boundary conditions are shown in Figure 5.7
Nominal second order moment: a second order moment used in certain design methods,
giving a total moment compatible with the ultimate cross section capacity; 5.8.5 (2)
Non-sway member: isolated member in which there is no significant lateral deformation of

one end relative to the other (examples, see Figure 5.7 a), c), d) and g))
Non-sway structure: structure for which global second order effects can be neglected, 5.8.2
(7)
Second order effects: additional action effects (usually bending moments) caused by
structural deformations
Sway member: isolated member in which significant lateral deformation can occur at one
end relative to the other (examples, see Figure 5.7 b), e) and f))
Sway structure: structure for which global second order effects can not be neglected, 5.8.2
(7)
5.8.2 General
(1)P This section deals with members and structures in which the structural behaviour is
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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significantly influenced by second order effects. This can be the case in slender members
subjected to a compressive axial force, e.g. columns, walls, arches and shells; structures
with a flexible bracing system can have global second order effects; second order effects
and instability can occur also in slender beams with unbraced compression flange.
(2)P Where second order effects are considered (cf. (7)), equilibrium and resistance shall be
verified in the deformed state. Deformations shall be calculated taking into account the
relevant effects of cracking, non-linear material properties and creep.
(4)P Analysis shall include the effect of flexibility of adjacent members. Where relevant, the
flexibility of foundations (soil-structure interaction) shall also be taken into account.
(5)P The structural behaviour shall be considered in any direction in which deformations can
occur, and biaxial bending shall be considered when necessary.
(6)P Uncertainties in geometry and position of axial loads shall be taken into account as an
additional first order effect based on a geometrical imperfection, see 5.2.
(7) Global second order effects in structures may be neglected if they are less than 10 %
of the corresponding first order effects. Second order effects in isolated members
may be neglected under the same condition, or if the slenderness is below a certain
limit, see 5.8.3.1.
(8) Creep is dealt with in 5.8.4. Methods for second order analysis are given in 5.8.5 to
5.8.8. Biaxial bending is dealt with in 5.8.9. Lateral instability of beams is dealt with
in 5.8.10.
5.8.3 Slenderness of isolated members
5.8.3.1 Criterion for neglecting second order effects
(1) Second order effects may be neglected if the following condition is satisfied:
λ ≤ 25⋅(2 - M 01 / M 02) (5.19)
where
λ slenderness ratio, see (2)
M 01/2 first order end moments in non-sway members, M 02 ≥ M 01
The ratio M 01/M 02 is inserted with positive sign in Expression (5.19) if both moments
give tension on the same side, otherwise with negative sign.
For non-sway members with first order moments mainly from transverse loading,
and for sway members in general, Expression (5.19) should be used with M 01/M 02 =
1.
The constant 25 in Expression (5.19) may be increased to 35, if the reinforcement is

known and the total reinforcement area satisfies ω = Asfyd/Acfcd ≥ 0,5.
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(2) The slenderness ratio is defined as follows:
λ = lo / i (5.20)
where
lo effective length, see 5.8.3.2
i radius of gyration of uncracked cross section (reinforcement may be
taken into account, but can be disregarded for simplicity)
(3) In cases with biaxial bending, the slenderness criterion can be checked separately
for each direction. The outcome of this check can be that second order effects (a)
can be neglected in both directions, (b) should be considered in one direction, or (c)
should be considered in both directions.
5.8.3.2 Effective length
(1) For a general definition of the effective length, see 5.8.1.2. Examples of effective
length for isolated members with constant axial load and cross section are given in
Figure 5.7. For other cases see (2).
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)
l0 = l l0 = 2 . l l0 = 0,7 .l l0 = l / 2 l0 = l l0 > 2 .l l/2 < l 0 < l
Figure 5.7 Examples of different buckling modes and corresponding effective

lengths for isolated members. For (f) and (g), the exact value depends
on the relative stiffness of end restraints.
(2) For other cases than those in (1), e.g. members with varying axial load and/or cross
section, the slenderness criterion in 5.8.3.1 can be checked with an effective length
based on the buckling load (calculated e.g. by a numerical method):
l0 = π EI / NB (5.21)
where
EI represents flexural stiffness
NB is the buckling load expressed in terms of this EI
In Expression (5.20), í should then be based on the same cross section as EI.
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(3) In the absence of a more refined analysis, compression members in frames can be
analysed as isolated members with an effective length determined in the following
way.
Non-sway members:
l0 = l ⋅ min { 0,7 + 0,05(ka+kb) ; 0,85 + 0,05kmin ; 1,0 } (5.22)
Sway members:
l0 = l ⋅ min { 1,0 + 0,15(ka+kb) ; 2,0 + 0,3kmin } (5.23)
where
l clear height of column between end restraints
ka ratio of EI/l for column to sum of EI/l for beams at end 'a'
kb same for end 'b'
kmin the lesser of ka and kb
EI flexural stiffness, see (4)
(4) In the definition of effective lengths, the stiffness EI can normally be determined
without taking into account cracking, creep etc.
(This normally applies to cases where the result depends on relative stiffness values.
However, stiffness reductions should be taken into account where the result depends
on absolute stiffness values; see 5.8.2 (2)P and 5.8.7.)
5.8.4 Creep
(1)P The effect of creep in a second order analysis shall reflect the general conditions for creep
according to 3.1.3, as well as the duration of different loads in the load combination
considered.
(2) The duration of loads can be considered in a simplified way by means of an effective
creep ratio ϕef, intended to give the same creep deformation (curvature) with the
design load, as the basic creep coefficient with the quasi-permanent load. With
some simplification the following definition of ϕef can then be used:
φ ef = φ ⋅M Eqp / M Ed (5.24)
where
φ basic creep coefficient according to 3.1.3
M Eqp bending moment in load combination with quasi-permanent load (SLS)
M Ed bending moment in design load combination (normally ULS)
(3) Total moments including second order moments can be used in (5.27). To avoid
iterations, with second order moments depending on φ ef, first order moments can be
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used as a simplification.
(4) If M Eqp / M Ed varies in a member or structure, the ratio can be calculated for the
section with maximum moment, or a representative mean value can be used.
(5) When considering creep in practical methods of analysis, see 5.8.6 to 5.8.8.
5.8.5 Methods of analysis
(1) Four basic types of methods are distinguished here:
(a) General method, based on non-linear second order analysis, see 5.8.6
(b) Linear second order analysis with reduced stiffness, see (2)
(c) Method based on estimation of curvature, see (2)
(d) Methods for direct design of members with formally centric load, see (3)
(2) Methods of type (b) and (c) should be calibrated to give total moments, for which
cross sections can be designed to their ultimate capacity according to 6.1.
Consequently, in cases where failure is governed by instability before reaching the
cross section capacity, the analysis should give a nominal second order moment
which is greater than that corresponding to instability.
Methods of type (b) can be used for both isolated members and whole structures, if
nominal stiffnesses are estimated in an appropriate way, see 5.8.7.
Methods of type (c) are mainly suitable for isolated members, see 5.8.8.
(3) Methods of type (d) are suitable for isolated members with a certain geometrical
imperfection as the only first order effect. Analysis and cross section design can then
be combined into one step, including the effect of the imperfection.
Drafting note: It was proposed in some national comments to include a

method of type (d). No such method is included in the present draft, but
could be introduced later, if so desired.
(4) Other simplified methods than those given below may be used, if justified by
comparisons with the general method.
5.8.6 General method
(1)P The general method is defined here as a method based on non-linear analysis, including
second order effects. The general rules for non-linear analysis in 5.7 can be applied, except
for the safety format described in 5.7.1 (3)P, which is not generally applicable to second
order analysis.
(2)P Stress-strain curves for concrete and steel suitable for overall analysis shall be used. The
effect of creep shall be taken into account to an extent relevant to the duration of loads in the
combination considered.
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(3) Stress-strain relationships according to Expression (3.5) for concrete and Figure 3.3
for steel can be used. For isolated members, a design value of the ultimate load can
be obtained directly from the analysis, if stress-strain diagrams are based on design
values. In expression (3.5), fcm is then substituted by the design compressive strength
including the factor α, and Ecm is substituted by:
Ecd = Ecm /1,2 and Esd = Esm (5.25)
(4) In the absence of more refined models, creep can be taken into account by
multiplying all strain values in the concrete stress-strain diagram with a factor (1 +
φ ef), where φ ef is the effective creep ratio according to 5.8.4.
(5) The favourable effect of tension stiffening can be taken into account according to
5.7.2. It can always be neglected for simplicity.
(6) Normally, conditions of equilibrium and strain compatibility are satisfied in a number
of cross sections, and deflection is calculated by integration of curvature. A simplified
alternative is to consider only the most stressed cross section, and to assume a
relevant variation of the curvature along the rest of the member, e.g. like that of the
first order moment or otherwise simplified in an appropriate way.
5.8.7 Linear second order analysis
5.8.7.1 General
(1) Linear second order analysis can be done using nominal stiffness(es), reduced to
take into account cracking, material non-linearity and creep. The possibility of
cracking in adjacent members that may be involved in the analysis, such as beams
or foundations, should also be considered. Where relevant, soil-structure interaction
should be taken into account.
(2) The nominal stiffness should be defined in such a way that total bending moments
resulting from the analysis can be used for design of cross sections with regard to
their capacity for bending moment and axial force, cf 5.8.6 (2). In practice the
stiffness is estimated by a convenient method.
5.8.7.2 Estimation of stiffness
(1) In the absence of more accurate models, the following simple one can be used to
estimate the stiffness of compression members:
EI = Ke Kϕ EcdIc + K s EsdIs (5.26)
where
Ecd design value of the modulus of elasticity of concrete, see 5.8.6 (3)
Ic moment of inertia of concrete cross section
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Esd design value of the modulus of elasticity of reinforcement, 5.8.6 (3)

Is moment of inertia of reinforcement referred to CG of concrete
Ke correction factor for effects of cracking etc, see (2)
Kϕ correction factor for effects of creep, see (2)
Ks correction factor for contribution of reinforcement, see (2)
(2) The following correction factors can be used in Expression (5.26) for arbitrary cross
sections, not necessarily symmetric.
- if ρ ≥ 0,01: Ke = 0,4 and Ks = 0 (5.27a)

- if ρ ≥ 0,005: Ke = 0,2 and Ks = 1 (5.27b)
- if uncracked under M Ed and NEd: Ke = 0,8 and Ks = 0 (5.27c)
where ρ is geometrical reinforcement ratio, As/Ac
Factor for creep: Kφ = 1 / (1 + φ ef) (5.28)
where φ ef = effective creep ratio according to 5.8.4
(3) Alternative Expression (5.27a) can be used as a first estimation, or for a simplified
calculation - it requires no iteration, but it should be checked that ρ ≥ 0,01.
Expression (5.27b) is often more favourable than Expression (5.27a), but may
require an iteration since reinforcement is included. Expression (5.27c) can be used
if the cross section is shown to be uncracked.
(4) For statically indeterminate members, stiffness reduction due to cracking and creep
should be considered also for adjacent members. Expression (5.26) is not generally
applicable to members without axial load and with reinforcement mainly on the
tension side. Instead, methods for calculation of deflections can be used, see 7.4.3,
with the concrete modulus of elasticity taken as
Ecef = Ecd/(1+φ ef) (5.29)
where
Ecd design value according to 5.8.6 (3)
φ ef effective creep ratio; same value as for the column can be used
5.8.7.3 Practical methods of analysis
(1) The result of a linear analysis can often be formulated in terms of a magnification
factor for bending moments. The total design moment, including second order
moment, can then be expressed as:
 β 
M Ed = M 0Ed 1 +  (5.30)
 NB / NEd − 1
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where
M 0Ed first order moment
β depends on distribution of 1 st and 2 nd order moments, see (2)-(3)
NEd design value of axial load
NB buckling load based on reduced stiffness
(2) For isolated members with constant cross section and axial load, the second order
moment can normally be assumed to have a sine-shaped distribution. Then
β = π 2 / c0 (5.31)
where co depends on the distribution of first order moment (for instance, c0 = 8 for a
constant first order moment, c0 = 12 for a triangular distribution etc.).
(3) In global analysis of structures, or otherwise where (2) is not applicable, β = 1 is

usually a good approximation. Expression (5.30) can then be reduced to:
M 0Ed
M Ed = (5.32)
1 − NEd / NB
(5) In cases where the buckling load NB can not be defined easily, the following
expression can be used instead:
M 0Ed
M Ed = (5.33)
1 − M1Ed / M 0Ed
where
M 0Ed first order moment
M 1Ed moment caused by axial load and first order deformations (i.e.
deformations corresponding to M 0Ed)
Expression (5.33) can be seen to be the first approximation in a stepwise numerical

calculation, where moments caused by the axial load and the deformation increment
from the previous step are added in consecutive steps. These moments will soon
form a geometrical series, the sum of which can be expressed as in Expression
(5.33).
5.8.8 Method based on estimation of curvature
5.8.8.1 General
(1) This method can be used for isolated members with a known effective length l0, see
5.8.3.2. The method gives a nominal second order moment based on a deflection,
which is in turn based on the effective length and an estimated curvature.
(2) The resulting design moment is used for design of cross sections to their capacity for
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bending moment and axial force according to 6.1, cf. 5.8.6 (2).
5.8.8.2 Design moment
(1) The design moment is:
M Ed = M 0Ed+ M 2 (5.34)
where
M 0Ed 1st order moment, including the effect of imperfections, see also (2)
M2 nominal second order moment, see 5.8.8.3
For statically indeterminate members, M 0Ed is determined for the actual boundary
conditions, whereas M 2 depends on these via the effective length, cf. 5.8.8.1 (1).
(2) For non-sway members, differing first order end moments M 01 and M 02 can be
replaced by an equivalent first order moment M 0e:
M 0e = 0,6 M 02 + 0,4 M 01 ≥ 0,4 M 02

(5.35)
M 01 and M 02 should be inserted with the same sign if they give tension on the same
side, otherwise with opposite signs. Further, M 02≥M 01.
5.8.8.3 Second order moment
(1) The nominal second order moment M 2 in expression (5.37) is
M 2 = NEd e2 (5.36)
where
NEd design value of axial force
e2 deflection = (1/r) lo2 / c
c factor depending on the curvature distribution, see (2)
lo effective length, see 5.8.3.2
1/r curvature, see 5.8.8.4
(2) Normally c = 10 (≈ π 2) can be used, corresponding to a sine-shaped curvature

distribution. If the first order moment is constant, a lower value should be considered
(for constant total curvature the value would be 8).
5.8.8.4 Curvature
(1) For symmetrical cross sections (including the reinforcement), the following simple
estimation of the curvature can be used:
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1/r = K r Kφ 1/ro (5.37)

where
Kr general correction factor, see (2)
Kφ correction factor for creep, see (3)
1/ro = ε yd / (0,45 d)
ε yd = fyd / Es
d effective depth
If reinforcement is distributed in the direction of bending, d can be defined as
d = h/2 + is (5.38)
where is is the radius of gyration of the reinforcement
(2) The following factor Kr can be used in Expression (5.37). It gives good results for low
to moderate slenderness, but can give quite conservative results for high
slenderness ratios. See also (4).
Kr = (nu - n) / (nu - nbal ) ≤ 1 (5.39)
where
n = NEd / (A c f1cd), relative axial force
NEd design value of axial force
nu =1+ω
nbal value of n at maximum moment capacity; the value 0,4 can be used
ω = As fyd / (Ac f1cd)
As total area of reinforcement
Ac area of concrete cross section
(3) With Kr according to (2), Kφ = 1 can normally be used; for high slenderness the
method is conservative enough to cover moderate effects of creep, and for low
slenderness the effect of creep is less important in any case. However, for high
values of φ ef, moderate slenderness and concrete strengths above C50, creep
should be taken into account with Kφ > 1, e.g. Kφ = 1 + φ ef /4.
(4) More accurate factors Kr and Kφ can be defined by calibration against the general
method according to 5.8.6. The factors would then include further parameters, such
as the slenderness.
Drafting notes:
(3) A factor Kϕ = 1 + ϕ ef/4 was proposed in earlier versions of this draft,
but was considered to be too conservative as a general factor, and has
therefore been replaced by the present ”warning”.
(4) ”Improved” correction factors can be introduced later if so desired.
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5.8.9 Biaxial bending
(1) Separate design in each principal direction, disregarding biaxial bending, can be
made as a first step, using any of the previous methods. If imperfections are taken
into account in the direction where they will have the most unfavourable effect, they
may be disregarded in the other direction.
(2) No further check is necessary if the relative eccentricities ey/h and ex/b satisfy the
following condition:
ey / h ex / b
≤ 0,2 or ≤ 0,2 (5.40)
ex / b ey / h
where (see also Figure 5.8)

b, h width and depth for rectangular section
b = i x ⋅ 12 and h = i y ⋅ 12 for arbitrary section
ix, iy radius of gyration in x- and y-direction respectively
ey = M Edy / NEd
ex = M Edx / NEd
M Edx design moment in x-direction, including second order moment
M Edy design moment in y-direction, including second order moment
NEd design value of axial load in the respective load combination
y
ex
iy N ey
x
iy
ix ix
Figure 5.8. Definition of eccentricities ex and ey.
(3) If the condition in (2) is not fulfilled, biaxial bending should be considered. The
following design criterion can be used:
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a
 M Edx   M Edy 
a
  +   ≤ 1,0 (5.41)
 
 MRdx   MRdy 
where
M Edx/y design moment in x- and y-direction, incl. nominal 2nd order m.
M Rdx/y moment resistance in x- and y-direction
A exponent depending on the relative axial force NEd/Acfcd:
NEd/Acfcd ≤0,2 0,4 0,6 ≥0,8

a 1,0 1,33 1,67 2,0
5.8.10 Lateral instability of slender beams
(1)P Lateral instability of slender beams shall be considered where necessary, e.g. for beams
without sufficient lateral bracing in the finished structure, for precast beams during transport
and erection etc. Geometrical imperfections shall be taken into account.
(2) A lateral deflection of l / 300 may be assumed as a geometrical imperfection for

checking lateral stability and balance at supports, with l = total length of beam. In
finished buildings, bracing from connected members may be taken into account.
(3) No further check which regard to lateral instability is necessary, provided one of
Expressions (5.42) or (5.43) is fulfilled:
lof / b ≤ 35 (5.42)
h / b ≤ 1,5 (5.43)
where
lof unbraced length of compression flange
h total depth of beam in central part of lof
b width of compression flange
In the definition of lof, boundary conditions can be taken into account in a way
analogous to that for defining the effective length of compression members.
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5.9 Prestressed members and structures
5.9.1 General
(1) Prestressing with tendons shall be considered as an action of anchorage-, lateral-

and radial forces or as internal forces.
(2) Alternatively, it is possible to consider prestressing as a strain condition with com-

plying pre-curvature. Then, the pre-strain shall be considered on the resistance side
of the member cross section.
(3)P The methods according to (1)P and (2)P shall lead to the same design result. Prestress is
defined as the stress in tendons, corresponding to a (fictitious) situation in which the con-
crete stress at the same level is equal to zero. Prestress can alternatively be expressed in
terms of strain.
(4) For prestressed members, structural analysis may be applied as described in 5.5-
5.8. For second order effects it shall be considered that internal tendons are de-
flected in the same way as the concrete axis and thus no second order moments are
generated. For external prestressing the prestressing force acts in the same way as
an axial load.
Drafting note: Reformulation of this Clause (5) is made as soon as the relevant sections
are finished
(5) In linear structural analysis the statically indeterminate effect of prestress should
be considered as action. Where linear analysis with redistribution is used, the mo-
ments to which the redistribution is applied should be calculated including any
statically indeterminate effects of prestress. In nonlinear structural analysis and for
the determination of the required rotation according to the theory of plasticity,
prestress should be considered as prestrain with complying precurvature. Then the
statically indeterminate moment does not have to be determined.
(6) If plastic analysis is used for linear concrete members in the ultimate limit state, rota-
tion capacity should always be proved.
(7) For unbonded tendons structural analysis should be applied according to (1)P. If the
stress condition of the concrete given in (3)P is exceeded as a result of structural
deformation this increase of the prestressing force should be considered.
(8) For bonded tendons structural analysis should be applied by assuming the
prestressing steel to be in rigid bond with the concrete. Before the bond is provided
by grouting, the increase of the prestressing force in the tendon due to structural de-
formations may be neglected.
(9) External tendons may be assumed to be straight on the free length between the sad-
dles of deviation.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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Drafting Note: National Comment: Currently, minimum reinforcement is defined only for
reinforced concrete members. Minimum reinforcement should also be defined for
prestressed sections!
(10)P Sudden failure of prestressed concrete members without previous indication must be
avoided. This requirement should be verified by one of the following methods:
- Minimum reinforcement according to 7.3.2 and 9.1.1.1.

- Regular supervision and good accessibility to prestressed concrete members in or-
der to control the condition of tendons by non-destructive testing methods or by
monitoring.
5.9.2 Prestressing force
(1)P The maximum force applied to a tendon P0 which is the force at the active end during ten-
sioning shall not exceed the following value.
P0=Ap ⋅ σ0,max
(5.42)
where:
Ap is the cross-sectional area of the tendon

σ0,max is the maximum stress applied to the tendon
= 0,80 ⋅ fpk or
= 0,90 ⋅ fp0.1k
(whichever is the lesser)
(2) Overstressing is permitted if the jack can secure an accuracy of the applied tension-
ing force of ± 5 % related to the final value of the prestressing force; under this as-
sumption the maximum prestressing force P0 may be increased to 0,95 fp0,1k in cer-
tain cases (e.g. for the occurrence of an unexpected, high friction).
(3)P The prestressing force at the time t = t0 applied to the concrete immediately after tensioning
and anchoring (post-tensioning) or after transfer (pre-tensioning) shall not exceed the fol-
lowing value:
Pm0 = Ap ⋅ σpm0 , (5.43)
where:
σpm0 is the stress in the tendon immediately after tensioning or transfer

=0,75 ⋅ fpk or
=0,85 ⋅ fp0,1k
(whichever is the lesser)
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(4)P When determining the prestressing force Pm0 the following influences subjected to the
prestressing method shall be considered:
- elastic deformations ∆Pc
- short time relaxation ∆Pr
- losses due to friction ∆Pµ(x)
- anchorage slip ∆Ps1
(5)P The actual value of the loss of prestress (e.g. as a result of friction during tensioning) shall be
checked by measurements of the prestressing force and the related elongation of the ten-
don.
(6)P The mean value of the prestressing force Pmt at the time t > t0 shall be determined with re-
spect to the prestressing method. In addition to the influences given in (4)P the losses of
prestress as a result of creep and shrinkage of the concrete and the long time relaxation of
the prestressing steel shall be considered by estimated values.
(7) For unbonded tendons the temperature difference between tendon and adjacent
concrete does not have to be considered in normal cases.
(8)P The concrete compressive stress in the structure due to the prestressing force, together with
other loads acting at the time of tensioning or release of prestress, shall be limited to the
following value according to the requirement given in 7.2.1:
σc ≤ 0,6 fck(t) (5.44)
where fck(t) is the characteristic compressive strength of the concrete at time t when it is
subjected to the prestressing force.
(9)P If the technical approval documents do not give specifications concerning prestressing in
steps the required concrete strength may then be linearly reduced according to the reduc-
tion of the final prestressing force. The minimum strength fcm (t) at the time t should be 0,3 fck*
(the concrete strength given in the approval documents).
(10)P Local stresses behind post-tensioning anchors shall be limited with regard to concrete
crushing or splitting. Technical approval documents or national standards for the prestress-
ing system concerned should be considered.
5.9.3 Losses of prestress
(1) For the determination of losses of prestress according to 5.9.2 (4)-(6) the
recommendations of this section may be used.
(2) The losses due to friction ∆Pµ(x) in post-tensioned tendons may be estimated from:
∆ Pµ ( x ) = P0 (1 − e − µ ( θ + kx ) )
(5.45)
where
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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θ is the sum of the angular displacements over a distance x (irrespective

of direction or sign)
µ is the coefficient of friction between the tendons and their ducts
k is an unintentional angular displacement (per unit length)
x is the distance along the tendon from the point where the prestressing
force is equal to P0
The values µ and k are given in the approval documents. The value µ depends on the
surface characteristics of the tendons and the duct, on the presence of rust, on the
elongation of the tendon and on the tendon profile. The value k for unintentional an-
gular displacement depends on the quality of workmanship, on the distance between
tendon supports, on the type of duct or sheath employed, and on the degree of vibra-
tion used in placing the concrete.
The recommended values for µ and k below are mean values. The actual values used
in design may be increased or decreased, depending on standards of control,
workmanship, special precautions, etc., provided that the selected values can be jus-
tified.
(3) In the absence of more exact data in technical approvals for tendons which fill about
50% of the duct, the following values for µ may be assumed, when using expression
(5.45).
cold drawn wire 0,17

strand 0,19
deformed bar 0,65
smooth round bar 0,33
For external unbonded tendons, from which the dimensions of the tubes are defined
in 3.4.3, the following values for µ may be assumed, when using expression (5.45).
lubricated strands/wires (Steel tube) 0,18/0,16

lubricated strands/wires (HDPE tube) 0,12/0,10
non lubricated strands/wires (Steel tube) 0,25/0,24
non lubricated strands/wires (HDPE tube) 0,14/0,12
(4) In the absence of more exact data in technical approvals, values for unintended
regular displacements will generally be in the range 0,005 < k < 0,01 per metre.
(5) For external tendons consisting of parallel wires or strands the losses of prestress
due to unintentional angles may be neglected.
(6) Time dependent losses for bonded tendons at location x for the quasi permanent
combination of actions may be calculated from:
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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ε s ( t , t 0 ) Es + 0,8 ∆σ pr + αφ( t , t 0 )( σ c( g+ q ) + σ cp0 )

∆σ p, c+s+ r = (5.46)
A A
1 + α p (1 + c z2cp )[1 + 0,8φ( t , t 0 )]
Ac Ic
where
∆σp,c+s+r is the variation of stress in the tendons due to creep, shrinkage and
relaxation at location x, at time t
ε s (t,t0) is the estimated shrinkage strain, derived from the values in Table 3.2
for final shrinkage
α is Ep / Ecm
Ep is the modulus of elasticity for the prestressing steel, taken from 3.3.3
(9)
Ecm is the modulus of elasticity for the concrete (Table 3.1)
∆σpr is determined for a stress of σp = σp(g0+q)
where σpg0 is the initial stress in the tendons due to prestress and quasi-
permanent actions.
φ (t,t0 ) is a creep coefficient, as defined in Figure 3.1, 3.2
σc(g+q) is the compressive stress in the concrete adjacent to the tendons, due
to self-weight and any other quasi-permanent actions
σcp0 is the initial stress in the concrete adjacent to the tendons, due to
prestress
Ap is the area of all the prestressing tendons at the level being
considered.
Ac is the area of the concrete section.
Ic is the second moment of area of the concrete section.
zcp is the distance between the centre of gravity of the concrete section
and the tendons
Compressive stresses in expression 5.46 shall be used with negative sign.
(7) Time dependent losses for unbonded tendons may be determined by equation 5.46.
but the local values of stresses shall be replaced by mean values as described
below.
- for external tendons in regions between straight sections limited by the idealised
deviation points
- for unbonded tendons located in the concrete along the entire length of the
tendon.
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5.9.4 Effects of prestressing under service conditions
(1)P For serviceability calculations, allowance shall be made for possible variations in prestress.
Two characteristic values of the prestressing force at the serviceability limit state are esti-
mated from:
Pk.sup = rsup Pm,t (5.48)
Pk.inf = rinf Pm,t (5.49)
where :
Pk.sup is the upper characteristic value
Pk.inf is the lower characteristic value
(2) In general the following assumed values for rsup and rinf are considered to be suffi-
cient:
rsup = 1,05 and rinf = 0,95 for pre-tensioning and unbonded tendons
rsup = 1,10 and rinf = 0,90 for post-tensioning
When appropriate measures are taken rsup and rinf may be assumed to 1,0.
5.9.5 Effects of prestressing at the ultimate limit states
(1) In general, the design value of the prestressing force Pd = γp Pmt may be determined
by using γp = 1,0.
(2) Members with unbonded tendons are generally analysed according to

5.9.1(1). The stress increase in the tendons due to external actions should be taken
into account. The therefore necessary calculation of the deformation state of the en-
tire system should be done using mean values of the material properties. The design
value of the stress increase ∆σpd =∆σp ⋅ γ ∆P shall be determined by applying partial
safety factors as follows:
γ∆p,sup = 1,2
γ∆p,inf = 0,8
If linear analysis with uncracked sections is applied, a lower limit of deformations

may be assumed and γ∆p,inf = 1,0 or γ∆p,sup= 1,4 may be used.
5.10 Analysis with struts and ties
(1)P Strut and tie models are the basis for design in ULS of continuity regions (cracked state of
beams and slabs, see 6.1 - 6.4) and the basis for design in ULS and detailing of disconti-
nuity regions (see 6.5).
(2) If approximate compatibility for strut-and-tie models is ensured (in particular the
position and direction of important struts to be oriented according to the theory of
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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linear elasticity) certain verifications in SLS may also be performed for strut and tie
models, e.g. verification of steel stresses and crack width control.
(3)P Strut-and-tie models consist of struts representing compressive stress fields, of ties repre-
senting the reinforcement, and of the connecting nodes. The forces in the elements of a
strut-and-tie model shall be determined by maintaining the equilibrium with the applied
loads in the ultimate limit state. The elements of strut-and-tie models shall be dimensioned
according to the rules given in 6.5.1 and 6.5.2.
(4)P The ties of a strut-and-tie model shall coincide in position and direction with the corre-
sponding reinforcement.
(5) Possible resources for the development of adequate strut-and-tie models are e.g.
stress trajectories, distributions from linear-elastic theory or the load path method.
The strut-and-tie models may be optimised by energy criteria.
(6) Strut-and-tie models may be kinematic chains (sway) if geometry of the strut-and-tie
model is adapted to the specific load case.
(7) Superposition of the results for different load cases is possible only if the same strut-
and-tie model is used.
5.11 Flat Slabs [This section has not yet been amended from the first informal draft]
5.11.1 Definition
(1)P Slabs supported only on columns are defined as flat slabs. Their behaviour is distinctly dif-
ferent to that of slabs supported on all edges by beams or walls.
(2)P Flat slabs may be of uniform thickness or they may incorporate drops (thickenings over col-
umns).
3(P) Flat slabs shall be analysed using a proven method of analysis, such as grillage, finite ele-
ment, yield line or equivalent frame. Appropriate geometric and material properties shall be
employed.
5.11.2 Equivalent frame analysis of flat slabs
(1) The structure should be divided longitudinally and transversely into frames consisting
of columns and strips of slabs contained between the centre lines of adjacent panels.
The stiffness of members may be based on gross cross section of members. For
vertical loading the stiffness may be based on the full width of the panels. For
horizontal loading half this value should be used to reflect the increased flexibility of
flat slab structures. Total load on the panel should be used for the analysis in each
direction.
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(2) The total bending moments obtained from analysis should be distributed across the
width of the slab. In elastic analysis hogging moments tend to concentrate towards
the centre lines of the columns.
(3) The panels should be assumed to be divided into column and middle strips (see
Figure 5.10) and the bending moments should be apportioned as given in Table 5.2.
Figure 5.11. Division of panels in flat slabs
Table 5.2. Simplified apportionment of bending moment for a flat slab
Hogging moments Sagging moments
Column Strip 60 - 80% 50 - 70%
Middle Strip 40 -20% 50 – 30%
Note: Total hogging and sagging moments to be resisted by the column and middle
strips together should always add up to 100%.
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Where the width of the column strip is different to 0,5lx as shown in Figure 5.11 (e.g.)
equal to width of drops, then the design moments to be resisted by the column and
middle strips should be adjusted in proportion to their revised widths.
Unless there are perimeter beams, which are adequately designed for torsion, mo-
ments transferred to edge or corner column should be limited to 0,17 bed2 fck (see
Figure 5.12 for definition of be). The sagging moment in the end span should be ad-
justed accordingly.
Figure 5.12. Definition of effective breadth, b e
[The following clauses should be added to Section 9]
(1) Where it is found that shear reinforcement is required at the first critical perimeter,
further perimeters at 0,75d spacings should be checked until a perimeter is reached
where no shear reinforcement is required.
(2) The shear reinforcement required at a perimeter should be provided in two

perimeters within a zone of width 1,5d from the perimeter being considered
(towards the column). The reinforcement spacing should not exceed 0,75d in any
direction.
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SECTION 6 ULTIMATE LIMIT STATES
6.1 Bending of beams and slabs with or without normal force
(1)P The sections 6.1 to 6.4 apply to undisturbed regions of beams, slabs and similar types of
members for which plane sections remain approximately plane. The discontinuity regions
of members like deep beams and other members in which plane sections do not remain
plane can be designed and detailed according to 6.5.
(2)P When determining the ultimate bearing capacity of reinforced concrete cross-sections,
the following assumptions are made:
• plane sections remain plane.
• the strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or in compression, is the same
as that in the surrounding concrete.
• the tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.
• the stresses in the concrete in compression are derived from the design stress strain
curve according to Section 3.1.
• the stresses in the reinforcing or prestressing steel are derived from the design
curves in the Sections 3.2 and 3.3.
• the initial strain in prestressing tendons is taken into account when assessing the
stresses in the tendons at the ultimate limit state.
(3) In cross-sections subjected to concentric compression the limiting compressive

strain in the cross-section is ε c2 (or ε c3 if the bilinear relation of Figure 3.5 is used).
(4) In cross-sections subjected to combinations of bending and compression the

compressive strain in the concrete is limited to a maximum of ε c2u (or ε c3u if the
bilinear relation of Figure 3.5 is used).
(5) The possible range of strain distributions is shown in Figure 6.1.
As2 bending +
compression
in g
en d
hd pur
eb pure compression
εpm+∆ εp
Ap
As1
εs,ε p εc
maxε s εc2 εc2u
(εc3) ( εc3u )
Figure 6.1 Possible strain distributions in the ultimate limit state
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(6) For prestressed members with permanently unbonded tendons, it is generally
necessary to take the deformation of the whole member into account when
calculating the increase of the stress in the prestressing steel.
(7)P For external prestressing tendons the strain in the prestressing steel between two
subsequent contact points (anchors or deviation saddles) is assumed to be constant.
The strain in the prestressing steel is then equal to the initial strain, realised just after
finishing the prestressing operation, increased with the part resulting from the structural
deformation between the contact areas considered.
6.2 Shear
6.2.1 General verification procedure
(1)P For the verification of the capacity in regions with shear forces the following design
values are defined:
VRd,ct the design shear resistance of the member without shear reinforcement
VRd,sy the design value of the shear force which can be transmitted by the yielding
shear reinforcement
VRd,max the design value of the maximum shear force which can be sustained by
the member, limited by crushing of the compression struts
(2) In regions of the member where the condition VEd,w < VRd,ct applies, no calculated
shear reinforcement is necessary. For the definition of V Ed,w , the design value of
the shear force, see Expression (6.1) in Section 6.2.2.
(3) When, on the basis of the design shear calculation, no shear reinforcement is
necessary, a minimum shear reinforcement according to 9.1.2 should be provided.
The minimum shear reinforcement can be deleted in members such as slabs
(solid, ribbed or hollow core slabs) and those of secondary importance.
(4) In regions where the design shear force VEd,w is larger than V Rd,ct according to
Expression 6.2 or 6.3, sufficient shear reinforcement should be provided in order
that V Ed,w <VRd,sy (see 6.2.4)
(5) In no region of the member should the design shear force exceed the value VRdmax
(see 6.2.4).
(6) With regard to the design of the longitudinal reinforcement in regions subjected to
shear, the increase of the force in this reinforcement, according to the truss
analogy, should be taken into account.
6.2.2 Design value of the shear force
(1) In members with variable cross-sectional depths or inclined prestressing tendons

the design value of the shear force V Ed,w , taking account of the shear carrying
components in the inclined compression- and tensile chords, is given by:
VEd,w = VEd - Vccd - Vtd - Vpd (6.1)

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where
VEd design value of the shear force in the section considered caused by
external loading.
Vccd design value of the shear component of the force in the compression
area, in the case of an inclined compression chord.
Vtd design value of the shear component of the force in the tensile area,
in the case of an inclined tensile chord.
Vpd shear component of inclined prestressing cables, at the ultimate limit
state.
In members with constant cross-sectional depths the terms Vccd and Vtd are 0.
(2) For the calculation of the shear reinforcement in members subjected to uniform
loading the design shear force in the cross-section can be calculated at a distance
d from the inner edge of the support. This is because the loads between this
section and the support are transmitted directly to the support through concrete
compression, without participation of the shear reinforcement. For the control of
the maximum shear capacity V Rd,max , reached by concrete crushing in the web of
the member, no reduction applies.
6.2.3 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement
(1) The design value for the shear capacity VRd,ct is given by:
VRd,ct = [0,12k(100 ρl fck)1/3 - 0,15 σcd]bw d (6.2)
where
fck in MPa
200
k = 1+ ≤ 2,0 with d in mm
d
Asl
ρl = ≤ 0,02
bw d
Asl Cross-sectional area of the tensile reinforcement, which continues at
least over an additional distance d beyond the section considered
and is effectively anchored (Figure 6.2).
bw smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area
σcd = NE/Ac in MPa
NE axial force in the cross-section due to loading or prestressing
(NE<0 for compression)
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lb.net lb.net Asl section considered
Vsd Vsd
45° 45°
45° d
Asl Asl lb.net

Vsd
Figure 6.2 Definition of Asl in Expression (6.3)
(2) In single span members without shear reinforcement, prestressed with strands or
wires with direct bond, the shear capacity of the regions cracked in bending
should be controlled using Expression (6.3). In regions uncracked in bending
(where the flexural tensile stress is smaller than fctk,0.05/γc ), however, the shear
capacity is limited by the tensile strength of the concrete in the web. For those
regions the shear capacity is given by:
2
I ⋅ bw  f ctk,0,05  f
VRd, ct =   − 0,9α lσ cpm ctk,0,05 (6.3)
S  γ  γc
 c 
where
I Moment of inertia
S static moment
αI lx /lbpd < 1,0
lx distance of section considered from the starting point of the
anchorage length
lbpd upper bound value of the transmission length of the prestressing
element according to Expression 8.18.
σcpm mean concrete compressive stress due to axial loading or
prestressing (σcpm = N E/Nc ).
(3) The calculation of the shear capacity according to Expression (6.3) need not be
carried out for cross-sections that are nearer to the support than the point which is
the intersection of the member axis and a line inclined from the inner edge of the
loading area at an angle of 45o.
(4) For the design of the longitudinal reinforcement the M d -line should be shifted over
a distance a l in the unfavourable direction (see Figure 9.2).
(5) If a concentrated load acts at a distance av < 2.5 d from the edge of a support
such as in a short beam or a corbel (Figure 6.3) the load is assumed to be
transmitted to the support by a concrete strut.
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A0
A0 av av
Figure 6.3 Direct strut action
By virtue of this strut action, the shear capacity in the region between the loads is
increased to:
 1/ 3  2,5  
VRd, ct = 0,12k (100 ρl fck )   − 0,15σ cd  bwd (6.4)
  av /d  
which is directly transmitted to the support.
The increased shear capacity may only be allowed if the anchorage of the longitudinal
reinforcement at the node is designed for the full tensile force.
The value VRd,ct in Expression (6.4) shall not exceed
 A0 
VRd,max =  4fctk,0,05  bw d (6.5)
 bd 
where A0 is the area of the bearing plate (Figure 6.3)
6.2.4 Members requiring design shear reinforcement
(1) The design of members with shear reinforcement is based on a truss model
(Figure 6.4). Limiting values for the angle of the inclined struts in the web are
given in Section 6.2.4 (2).
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compression chord
struts
Fc
α ½z M
θ Vcotθ N
d z=0.9d
V ½z V
Fs
s
shear
reinforcement tensile chord
bw
bw=(b1 +b2 )/2
b1 bw
b2
Figure 6.4 Truss model and notation for shear reinforced members
In Figure 6.4 the following notations are shown:
α angle between shear reinforcement and the main steel

θ angle between concrete compression struts and the main steel
FEd design value of the tensile force in the longitudinal reinforcement
Fcd design value of the concrete compression force in the direction of the
longitudinal member axis.
bw smallest web width
z denotes, for a member with constant depth, the inner lever arm
corresponding to the maximum bending moment in the element under
consideration. In the shear analysis, the approximate value z = 0.9d can
normally be used. In elements with inclined prestressing tendons,
longitudinal reinforcement at the tensile chord should be provided to carry
the longitudinal tensile force due to shear defined by Expression (6.16).
(2) The maximum possible value for θ follows from the Expression
cotθ = 2,5 (6.6)
The design may be based on this value of cotθ but smaller values are also
permitted (with a limit cotθ > 1,0).
(3) For members not subjected to axial forces, with vertical shear reinforcement, the
shear capacity is the smaller value of
Asw
VRd, sy = z f ywd cotθ (6.7)
s
and
VRd, max = bw z ν fcd /(cot θ + tanθ ) (6.8)

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with
Asw fywd 1
≤ 2 νf cd (6.9)
bw s
f ck
where ν = 0,7 − ≥ 0,5 (f ck in MPa) (6.10)
200
4) For members not subjected to axial forces, with inclined shear reinforcement, the
shear resistance is the smaller value of
Asw
VRd, sy = z fywd (cot θ + cot α ) sinα (6.11)
s
and
VRd, max = bw z ν f cd (cot θ + cot α ) / 1 + cot 2 θ ) (6.12)
with
Asw f ywd 1
νfcd sinα
≤ 2
(6.13)
bw s 1 − cos α
(5) For members subjected to axial compressive forces, the Expressions for the
maximum shear capacity (6.8) and (6.12) should be calculated with VRd,max
reduced to the value of V Rd,red according to the following Expression:
VRd,red = 1,67 VRd,max (1 - σcp,eff /fcd) < VRd,max

(6.14)
where
σcp,eff = NEd/Ac
(6.15)
and
VRd,red is the reduced value of VRd,max
σ cp,eff is the effective stress in the concrete due to the design axial force,
obtained by averaging it over the concrete section
NEd is the design axial force
Ac is the gross area of the concrete cross-section
(6) In tensile members cotθ should be taken as 1,0
(7) Where the web contains grouted ducts with a diameter φ > bw /8 the shear
resistance V Rd,max should be calculated on the basis of a nominal web thickness
given by:
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bw ,nom = bw - 1/2 Σφ (6.16)
where φ is the outer diameter of the duct and Σφ is determined for the most
unfavourable level.
For non-grouted ducts the nominal web thickness is:
bw ,nom = bw - 1,2 Σφ (6.17)
(8) The additional tensile force in the longitudinal reinforcement due to shear Td can
be calculated from:
Td = 1/2 VEd,w (cot θ - cot α ) (6.18)
(9) If a concentrated load acts at a distance av < 2,5 d from the edge of a support, as
in a short beam or a corbel the shear capacity V Rd is given by:
VRd = VRd,ct + Asw · fy w d sin α

(6.19)
where VRd,ct is given by Expression (6.4) and where Asw · fy w d is the resistance of
the shear reinforcement crossing the inclined shear crack between the loaded
areas (see Figure 6.5). Only the shear reinforcement in the middle 0,75 au may be
taken into account.
The value VRd from Expression (6.19) shall not exceed the value V Rd,max given by
α α
Expression (6.5)
Figure 6.5 Shear reinforcement in short shear spans with direct strut action
6.2.5 Shear between web and flanges of T-sections
(1)P The shear strength of the flange may be calculated by considering the flange as a
system of compressive struts combined with ties in the form of tensile reinforcement.
(2) The ultimate limit state may be attained by compression in the struts or by tension
in the ties which ensure the connection between flange and web. A minimum
amount of reinforcement shall be provided, as specified in 9.1.2.
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Fd
Fd
bf av
sf
hf
Fd +∆F d
A sf
(along depth h)
f F d +∆ Fd
bw
Figure 6.6. Notations for the connection between flange and web.
(3) The longitudinal shear per unit length of the axis of the beam is determined by the
change in the normal (longitudinal) forces in the effective part of the flange
(bf in Figure 6.6 or beff in Expression (5.2))
vEd = ∆F/∆x (6.20)
where
∆x is the length under consideration
∆F is the change in the normal force in the flange over the length ∆x.
(4) The transverse reinforcement per unit length Asf /sf can be determined on the basis
of the following requirement:
(Asf /sf ) > vEd fyd cot θf (6.21)
To prevent crushing of the compression struts in the flange, the following

condition should be satisfied:
vEd < νfcdhf sinθf cosθf (6.22)
In the absence of a more rigorous calculation, the following values for θf may be
used:
cot θf = 2,0 for compression flanges (θf = 26,5°)
cot θf = 1,25 for tension flanges ( θf = 38,6°)
(5) In the case of combined shear between the flange and the web, and transverse
bending, the area of steel shall be the sum of that given by Expression (6.21) and
that required for transverse bending.
6.2.6 Shear between precast and in situ concrete
(1) Further to the requirements of 6.2.1-6.2.5 the shear stress at the interface
between precast and in situ concrete should satisfy the following condition:
vEdi = v Rdi
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where
vEdi is the design value of the shear stress in the interface which follows
from:
VEdi S VEdi
v Edi = < (6.23)
bi I bi d
bi is the width of the interface (see Figure 6.7)

vRdi is the design shear resistance at the interface and is given by:
vRdi = c fctk,0.05 + µ σn + ρ fyd (µ sin α + cos α) = 0,2 fcd (6.24)
c = 0,05 and µ = 0,4 for very smooth interfaces

c = 0,15 and µ = 0,6 for smooth interfaces
c = 0,22 and µ = 0,8 for rough interfaces
c = 0,30 and µ = 1,0 for indented interfaces
More detailed descriptions for the classification of interfaces are
given in 9.7.2.3
fctk,0,05 is the characteristic tensile strength of the weakest concrete,
following from Table 3.1
σn is the stress per unit area caused by an external normal force across
the interface, positive for compression and negative for tension, with
a maximum of σn < 0,6 fcd
ρ = As / Ai
As is the area of reinforcement crossing the interface, including ordinary
shear reinforcement (if any)
Ai is the area of the joint
α is defined in Figure 6.8, but 45° < α < 90°
bi
bi
bi
Figure 6.7 Examples of interfaces
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h2 ≤ 10d
an
insitu
ch o
concrete Nsd
rag
α
e
Vsd
d ≥ 5mm
an
precast
cho
element Vsd 45°≤ α ≤90° h1 ≤ 10d
ra
ge
Nsd
Figure 6.8 Indented construction joint
Vsdj
c.fctk + µ.σ N
Figure 6.9 Shear diagram representing the required joint reinforcement
6.3 Torsion
6.3.1 General
(1)P Where the static equilibrium of a structure depends on the torsional resistance of
elements of the structure, a full design covering both ultimate and serviceability limit
states will be necessary.
(2) Where, in statically indeterminate structures, torsion arises from consideration of

compatibility only, and the structure is not dependent on torsional resistance for its
stability, then it will normally be unnecessary to consider torsion at the ultimate
limit state. In those cases a minimum reinforcement, given in Sections 7.3 and 9.1,
in the form of stirrups and longitudinal bars should be provided in order to prevent
excessive cracking.
(3)P The torsional resistance of sections is calculated on the basis of a thin-walled closed
section, in which equilibrium is satisfied by a closed shear flow. Solid sections are
replaced by equivalent thin-walled sections. Sections of complex shape, such as T-
sections, are divided into a series of sub-sections, each of which is modelled as an
equivalent thin-walled section, and the total torsional resistance is taken as the sum of
the capacities of the individual elements.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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(4)P The distribution of the acting torsional moments over the sub-sections should be in
proportion to their uncracked torsional stiffnesses. For non-solid sections the equivalent
wall thickness should not exceed the actual wall thickness.
(5) The design of any sub-section may be carried out individually.
6.3.2 Design procedure
(1) The shear-flow due to a pure torsional moment follows from
TEd
τ t,i t ef,i = (6.25)
2Ak
The shear force Vsd,i in a wall i is given by
Vsd,i = τ t,i t ef,i zi (6.26)
where
TEd is the applied design torsion
Ak is the area enclosed by the centre-lines of the composing walls,
including inner hollow areas. The centre lines are defined by the
axes of the longitudinal bars in the corners
τt,i is the torsional shear stress
tef,i is the effective thickness of the wall. In the case of a solid section,
tef,i denotes the effective thickness of the wall. In the case of a hollow
cross-section tef,i may not be larger than the real wall thickness.
Furthermore tef,i may not be smaller than twice the cover c to the
longitudinal bars
tef,i = A/u
A is the total area of the cross-section within the outer circumference,
including inner hollow areas
u is the outer circumference of the cross-section
zi is the depth of a wall defined by the distance between the
intersection points with the adjacent walls
effective cross section

centre line
T t
cover c
circumference u
circumference u k
t/2
Figure 6.10. Notations and definitions used in Section 6.3
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(2) In most structural members the effects of torsion and shear should be
superimposed. For the determination of the shear reinforcement in any wall the
shear reinforcement has to be designed for the sum of the shear forces resulting
from the various actions. The principles given for the determination of the shear
reinforcement have been given in 6.2.4
(3) The required cross-sectional area of the longitudinal reinforcement for torsion ΣAsl
can be calculated from the Expression:
∑A f
sl y d
=
TEd
cotθ (6.27)
uk 2 Ak
where
uk perimeter of the area Ak
fyd yield stress of the longitudinal reinforcement Asl
In compressive chords, the longitudinal reinforcement may be reduced in

proportion to the available compressive force. In tensile chords the longitudinal
reinforcement for torsion should be added to the other reinforcement. The
longitudinal reinforcement should be distributed over the walls. In the corners at
least one longitudinal bar should be provided.
(4) The maximum bearing capacity of a member subjected to torsion and shear is
limited by the capacity of the compression struts. In order not to exceed this
capacity the following condition should be satisfied:
- for compact cross-sections:
2 2
 TEd   VEd, w 
  +   ≤ 1 (6.28)
T  V 
 Rd,max   Rd,max 
- for hollow cross-sections:
TEd VEd, w
+ ≤ 1 (6.29)
TRd, max VRd,max
where
TEd the design torsional moment
VEd,w the design shear force according to Expression (6.1)
TRd,max the design torsional resistance moment according to
TRd,max = 2ν red fcd Ak t sinθ cosθ (6.30)
ν red = 0,7ν, with ν as given in Expression (6.10)

VRd,max design shear resistance according to Expression (6.8) or (6.12).
(5) For a solid, approximately rectangular section no shear and torsion reinforcement
is necessary, apart from the minimum reinforcement given in Clause 9.1.3, if the
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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following conditions are satisfied:
VEd bw
TEd ≤ (6.31)
4,5
 4,5 TEd 
VEd 1 + V b  ≤ VRd, ct (6.32)
 Ed w 
6.3.3 Warping torsion
(1) Generally it will be safe to ignore warping torsion in the ultimate limit state.
(2) For closed thin-walled sections and solid sections, warping torsion may normally
be neglected.
(3) In open thin walled members it may be necessary to consider warping torsion.
The calculation should be carried out on the basis of a beam-grid model in the
case of very slender cross-sections, or on the basis of a truss model in other
cases. In those cases the design should be carried out according to the design
rules for bending and longitudinal normal force, and for shear.
6.4 Punching
6.4.1 General
(1) The application rules given in this Section complement those given in 6.2. They
are concerned with punching shear in slabs containing flexural reinforcement
determined according to 6.1; they also cover punching shear in foundations and
waffle slabs with solid areas extending at least 2,0d from all sides of the columns.
(2) Punching shear may result from a concentrated load or reaction acting on a
relatively small area, called the loaded area Aload of a slab or of a foundation.
(3) An appropriate verification model for checking punching failure at the ultimate limit
state is shown in Figure 6.9.
(4) The shear resistance should be checked along defined control perimeters.
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basic control
a area A cont
radius of control area rcont
slab d h
β β
basic control section basic control section
2.0d loaded area Aload
control perimeter
parallel to loaded area
loaded area
b
r cont
basic control perimeter
Figure 6.11 Verification model for punching shear at the ultimate limit state
6.4.2 Load distribution and basic control perimeter
(1) Provided that the concentrated force is not opposed by a high distributed
pressure, e.g. soil pressure on a base, or by the effects of a load or reaction within
a distance equal to 2,0d from the periphery of area of application of the force, the
basic control perimeter u1 may be taken to be at a distance 2,0d from the
periphery mentioned before and should be constructed so as to minimise its
length (see Figure 6.12).
The effective depth of the slab is assumed constant and may normally be taken
as
d eff =
(d x + dy )
(6.33)
2
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where dx and dy are the effective depths of the reinforcement in two orthogonal
directions.
2.0d 2.0d
2.0d
2.0d
Figure 6.12 Basic control perimeters around loaded areas
(2) For loaded areas situated near openings, if the shortest distance between the
perimeter of the loaded area and the edge of the opening does not exceed 6d,
that part of the control perimeter contained between two tangents drawn to the
outline of the opening from the centre of the loaded area is considered to be
ineffective (see Figure 6.13).
≤ 6d l1≤ l2
for l1 > l2 replace
l2 by l1 . l2
l2
opening
2.0d
Figure 6.13 Critical perimeter near an opening.
3) For a loaded area situated near to an unsupported edge or a corner, the control
perimeter should be taken as shown in Figure 6.14, if this gives a perimeter
(excluding the unsupported edges) smaller than that obtained from (1) and (2)
above.
(4) For loaded areas situated near or on an unsupported edge or near or on a corner,
i.e. at a distance smaller than d, special edge reinforcement along the edge is
always required, see 9.2.
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2d
2d
slab edge
2d 2d
a b
Figure 6.14. Control perimeters near unsupported edges
(5) The control section is the section which follows the control perimeter and extends
over the effective depth d. For slabs of constant depth, the control section is
perpendicular to the middle plane of the slab. For slabs or footings of variable
depth it is assumed to be perpendicular to the tension face and to extend over the
effective depth, determined as shown in Figure 6.15.
Figure 6.15 Depth of control section in a footing with variable depth.
(6) Further perimeters inside and outside the control area should have the same
shape as the basic control perimeter.
(7) For slabs with circular column heads for which lH < 2,0hH (see Figure 6.16) a
check of the punching shear stresses according to 6.4.3 is only required on the
control section outside the column head. The distance of this section from the
centroid of the column rcont may be taken as:
rcont = 2,0d + lH + 0,5c (6.34)
where
lH is the distance from the column face to the edge of the column head
c is the diameter of a circular column
For rectangular columns with a rectangular head with lH < 2,0d (see Figure 6.14)
and overall dimensions c1 and c2, the value rcont can be taken as the lesser of:
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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rcont = 1,5d + 0,56 l1l 2 (6.35)
and
rcont = 1,5d + 0,69 I1 (6.36)
For columns with column heads with l H < 2,0 hH, such as that shown in Figure
6.16, the area of the column head shall be taken as the loaded area Aload.
r cont r cont
basic control section
β β d
hH hH
loaded area A load

β = arctan (1/2)
= 26.6° l H ≤ 2.0 hH lH ≤ 2.0 hH
Figure 6.16 Slab with enlarged column head where lH < 2,0 h H
(8) For slabs with enlarged column heads where lH > 2.0(d + h H) (see Figure 6.17) the
critical sections both within the head and in the slab shall be checked.
(9) The provisions of 6.4.2 and 6.4.3 also apply for checks within the column head
with d taken as d H according to Figure 6.17.
(10) The distances from the centroid of the column to the control sections in Figure
6.17 may be taken as:
rcont,ex = lH + 2,0d + 0,5c (6.37)
rcont,in = 2,0(d + hH) +0,5c (6.38)
(11) For column heads where 1,5 h H < lH < 1,5(h H + d), the distance from the centroid
of the column to the control section may be taken as:
rcont = 2,0 l H + 0,5c (6.39)
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r cont,ext r cont,ext
r cont,int rcont,int
d β dH β d
dH
hH hH
β
β
lH > 2.0 (d+hH) lH > 2.0 (d+hH) control sections
β = arctan (1/2)
= 26.6°
Figure 6.17 Slab with enlarged column head where l H > 2,0 (d + hH)
6.4.3 Calculation of the punching shear capacity
(1)P The design procedure for punching shear is based on checks at a series of control
sections (see Figure 6.18), which have a similar shape as the basic control section. The
following design shear stresses, per unit area along the control sections, are
distinguished:
vRd,c design value of the punching shear capacity of a slab without punching shear
reinforcement along the control section considered
vRd,cs design value of the punching shear capacity of a slab with punching shear
reinforcement along the control section considered
vRd,max design value of the maximum punching shear resistance along the control section
considered
(2) The following checks should be carried out:
(a) Punching shear reinforcement is not necessary if, at the control perimeter,
the punching shear capacity is not exceeded:
vEd < v Rd,c
(b) At the control section the maximum punching shear capacity may not be
exceeded:
vEd < v Rd,max
(c) Where v Ed exceeds the value vRd,c in the control section punching shear
reinforcement has to be provided, according to 6.4.5.
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(d) In order to avoid failure outside the shear reinforced area, the punching
shear shall be checked by considering various control perimeters, see
Figure 6.18.
3 2 1
Figure 6.18 Various control perimeters at the edge of the area with punching
shear reinforcement.
(3) For concentrated loads or support reactions the applied shear per unit area is:
β ⋅VEd
v Ed = (6.40)
u ⋅d
where
VEd design value of the punching shear force
u perimeter of the control section considered
β eccentricity factor taking account of the effect of bending moments in
the junction between slab and loading area on the punching
capacity. If no moments or load eccentricities are possible β can be
taken equal to 1,0. For structures where the lateral stability does not
depend on frame action between the slabs and the columns the
values given in Figure 6.19 may be taken, if no more accurate
calculation is made.
If a more accurate analysis of the effect of load eccentricity is
required, such as in the case in which the lateral stability depends
on frame action between slabs and columns, the methods given in
(4), (5) and (6) can be used.
d mean effective depth of the slab
d = (dx + dy )/2
dx , dy are the effective depths in the x- and the y- directions in the control
section.
Corner
β
= 1,5
Internal
β
= 1,15
Edge
β = 1,4
Figure 6.19 Approximate values for β

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(4) If in a slab-internal column connection the dispersion of the force is non-

symmetrical due to the transfer of an unbalanced moment M Ed from the slab to a
column the maximum shear at the control perimeter may be calculated as
VEd KMEd
v Ed = + (6.41)
u1d W1d
where
u1
W1 is a function of the control perimeter u1: W1 = ∫ e dl

0
The property W1 corresponds to a distribution of shear as illustrated

in Figure 6.20. For a rectangular column:
c2
W1 = 1 + c1c 2 + 4c 2 d + 16d 2 + 2πdc1 (6.42)
2
dl is an elementary length of the perimeter
e is the distance of dl from the axis about which the moment M Ed acts
c1 is the column dimension parallel to the eccentricity of the load
c2 is the column dimension perpendicular to the eccentricity of the load
K is a coefficient dependent on the ratio between the column
dimensions c1 and c2: its value is a function of the proportions of the
unbalanced moment transmitted by uneven shear and by bending
and torsion.
Values of K may be obtained from
c1/c2 0,5 1,0 2,0 3,0

K 0,45 0,60 0,70 0,80
2d
c1
c2 2d
Figure 6.20 Shear distribution due to an unbalanced moment at a slab-internal

column connection
(5) In a slab-edge column connection the distribution of shear around the perimeter,
given in Figure 6. 13 should be determined to calculate v Ed.
However, provided that the eccentricity of loading in the direction perpendicular to

the slab edge is toward the interior of the slab, and that there is no eccentricity
parallel to the edge, v Ed may be calculated on the assumption of uniform shear on
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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the perimeter u*1 shown in Figure 6.21(a).
In such cases the maximum shear is:
VEd KMEd
v Ed = *
+ (6.43)
u1d W1d
where K may be determined from the table above with the ratio c1 /c2 replaced by
c1/2c2. W1 is calculated for the full perimeter u1 (see Figure 6.13).
(6) In a slab-corner column connection the distribution of the shear stresses around
the perimeter given in Figure 6.13 should be determined to calculate v Ed.
However, provided the eccentricity of loading is toward the interior of the slab, v Ed
may be calculated on the assumption of uniform shear on the perimeter u1∗ shown
in Figure 6.21(b).
lesser of
1.5d and 0.5c 1
2d
c lesser of
1.5d and 0.5c 1
2d
slab edge
2d
a b
Figure 6.21 Equivalent control perimeter u*1 at an edge column (a) and at a corner
column (b)
(7) A reduction of the design shear force for concentrated loads near to the supports,
according to Section 6.2.2 (5) is not allowed.
(8) The punching shear force V Ed in a foundation slab may be reduced by the
favourable action of the soil pressure.
(9) The vertical component Vpd resulting from inclined prestressing cables crossing
the control section may be taken into account as a favourable action.
6.4.4 Slabs or column bases without punching shear reinforcement
(1) The punching shear capacity of a slab has to be assessed for the basic control
section according to Section 6.4.2. The punching shear resistance per unit area is
given by:
v Rd, c = 0,12 k (100 ρl f ck )1 / 3 − 0,15σ cd (6.44)

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where
200
k = 1+ ≤ 2,0 d in mm
d
ρl = ρlx ⋅ ρ ly ≤ 0,02
ρlx , ρly relate to the tension steel in x- and y- directions respectively. The
values ρlx and ρly should be calculated taking into account a slab
width equal to the column width plus 3d to either side.
N
σcd = E (negative if compression). For compression or tension in two
Ac
principal directions σcd follows from:
σ cd = − σ c,x ⋅ σ c,y
NE is the longitudinal force in the control section due to load or
prestressing.
σc,x , σc,y are the normal concrete stresses in the critical section in x- and y-
directions:
N N
σ c,x = E, x and σ c,y = E, y
Ac Ac
(2) The punching resistance of column bases shall be verified at the critical control
perimeter at a distance up to 2.0d from the periphery of the column.
For concentric loading the net applied force is
VEd,red = V Ed - ∆V Ed (6.45)
where
VEd is the column load
∆VEd is the net upward force within the control perimeter considered i.e.
upward pressure from soil minus self weight of base.
vEd = V Ed,red/ud (6.46)
vRd = 0,12 k (100 ρfck)1/3 × 2d/a = 0,5νfcd (6.47)
where
a is the distance from the periphery of the column to the control
perimeter in question
 f 
ν = 0,60 1 − ck  (6.48)
 250 
For eccentric loading
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 M u 
v Ed = VEd, red 1 + K Ed 1  (6.49)
 VEdW1 
K is defined in Clause 6.4.3 (4)
6.4.5 Slabs or column bases containing punching shear reinforcement
(1)P The punching shear capacity of slabs with punching shear should be verified in three
zones:
- the zone immediately adjacent to the column or loaded area
- the zone in which the shear reinforcement is placed
- the zone outside the shear reinforcement
(2) Adjacent to the column the punching shear capacity is limited to a maximum of
VEd
v Ed = ≤ 0,5ν fcd (6.50)
u 0d
where
ν is defined in Expression (6.48)
u0 For an interior column u0 = length of column periphery
For an edge column u0 = cx + 3d < cx + 2cy
For a corner column u0 = 3d < cx + cy
cx , cy are the column dimensions, with cx parallel to the slab edge where
applicable
(3) In the zone with shear reinforcement the punching shear capacity is given by:
vRd,cs = 0,75vRd,c + ΣAsw fydsinα /ud (6.51)
where
ΣAsw fydsinα is the sum of the components of the design forces in the shear
reinforcement placed between the loaded area and the control
perimeter (see Figure 6.11) in the direction of the applied force
fyd is the design strength of the shear reinforcement and shall not be
taken to be greater than 300 MPa
α is the angle between the reinforcement and the plane of the slab
(4) In the zone outside the shear reinforcement Expression 6.44 applies. For
checking the transition region between the shear-reinforced and the non-shear
reinforced zone reference is made to Figure 6.18.
(5) For other types of shear reinforcement (e.g. shear heads), vRd,cs may be
determined by tests.
(6) Detailing requirements for punching shear reinforcement are given in Section
9.2.3. Minimum shear reinforcement should be provided in accordance with 9.2.3
(2).
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SECTION 7 SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
7.1 General
7.1.1 Notation
Ac.eff Effective area of concrete in tension
Act Area of concrete within the tension zone
As.req Area of tension reinforcement required
As.prov Area of tension reinforcement provided
fct.eff The tensile strength of the concrete effective at the time when cracks may first be
expected to occur
k Coefficient which allows for the effects of non-uniform self-equilibrating stresses
kc Stress distribution coefficient
k1 Coefficient to take into account the influence of the bond properties of bars on the
crack spacing
k2 Coefficient to take into account the influence of the form of the strain distribution
on the crack spacing
srm Average final crack spacing
srmx , srmy Average final crack spacing in the x and y directions respectively
wk Design or characteristic crack width
Coefficient relating the average crack width to the design value
β1 Coefficient to take into account the influence of the bond properties of bars on the
average strain
β2 Coefficient to take into account the influence of the duration of the loading or of
repeated loading on the average strain
εsm Mean strain in the reinforcement taking into account tension stiffening
ε1 Greater tensile strain at the boundary of a section subject to eccentric tension
ε2 Lesser tensile strain at the boundary of a section subject to eccentric tension
θ Angle between the reinforcement in the x direction and the direction of the
principal tensile stress
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φs Adjusted maximum bar diameter
φ *s Unadjusted maximum bar diameter (Table 7.2)
ρr Effective reinforcement ratio
σs Stress in the tension reinforcement calculated on the basis of a cracked section
σsr Stress in the tension reinforcement calculated on the basis of a cracked section
under the loading conditions causing first cracking.
7.1.2 Scope
(1)P This section covers the common serviceability limit states. These are:
- stress limitation (see 7.2)
- crack control (see 7.3)
- deflection control (see 7.4)
Other limit states (such as vibration) may be of importance in particular structures but
these are not covered in this code.
7.2 Stresses
7.2.1 Basic considerations
(1)P Excessive compressive stress in the concrete under the service load may promote the
formation of longitudinal cracks and lead to micro-cracking in the concrete or higher than
linearly predicted levels of creep. If the proper functioning of a member is likely to be
adversely affected by these, measures shall be taken to limit the stresses to an
appropriate level.
(2) Longitudinal cracks may occur if the stress level under the characteristic
combination of loads exceeds a critical value. Such cracking may lead to a
reduction in durability. In the absence of other measures, such as an increase in
cover of reinforcement in the compressive zone or confinement by transverse
reinforcement, it may be appropriate to consider limiting the compressive stress to
0,6 fck in areas exposed to environments of exposure classes XD, XF and XS (see
Table 4.1).
(3) In pretensioned elements at transfer of prestressed, the limiting stress may be

increased to 0,7 fck, provided it is justified by tests or experience.
(4) If the stress in concrete under the quasi-permanent loads is lower than 0,45 fck,
linear creep can be assumed, in accordance with 3.1.3. If the stress in concrete
exceeds 0,45 fck, non linear creep should be considered, in accordance with 3.1.3.
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(5) Durability requirements for prestressed concrete may impose other limits on the
stresses in the concrete; for example, that the section should remain in
compression (see 7.3.1).
(6) Stress under anchorages and bearings. No check will be necessary under
serviceability conditions where the provisions of 3.4.1, 9.7.3 and 9.8 have been
complied with.
(7)P Stresses in the steel under serviceability conditions which could lead to inelastic
deformation of the steel shall be avoided as this will lead to large, permanently open,
cracks.
(8) This requirement will be met provided that, under the characteristic combination of
loads the tensile stress in ordinary reinforcement does not exceed 0,8 fyk. Where
the stress is due only to imposed deformations, a stress of fyk will be acceptable.
The stress in prestressing tendons should not exceed 0,75 fpk after allowance for
losses.
7.2.2 Assumptions for checking stresses
(1)P In calculating the stress, account shall be taken of whether or not the section is expected
to crack under service loads and also of the effects of creep and shrinkage. Other
indirect actions which could influence the stress, such as temperature, may also need to
be considered.
(2) The stress limitations given in 7.2.1 may generally be assumed to be satisfied
without further calculations provided not more than the δ = 0,85 redistribution has
been carried out in the analysis for the ultimate limit state.
(3) Long term effects may be taken into account by assuming a modular ratio of 15
for the situations where more than 50% of the stress arises from quasi-permanent
actions. Otherwise they may be ignored.
(4) Stresses are checked employing section properties corresponding to either the
uncracked or the fully cracked condition, whichever is appropriate.
(5) In general, where the maximum tensile stress in the concrete, calculated on the
basis of an uncracked section and under the characteristic combination of loads,
exceeds fctm (see Table 3.1), the cracked state should be assumed.
(6) Where an uncracked section is used, the whole of the concrete section is
assumed to be active and both concrete and steel are assumed to be elastic in
both tension and compression.
(7) Where a cracked section is used, the concrete is assumed to be elastic in

compression but to be incapable of sustaining any tension. (In checking stresses
in accordance with these rules, no allowance should be made for the stiffening
effect of the concrete in tension after cracking.)
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7.3 Cracking
(1)P Cracking shall be limited to an extent that will not impair the proper functioning of the
structure or cause its appearance to be unacceptable.
(2)P Cracking is almost inevitable in reinforced concrete structures subject to bending, shear,
torsion or tension resulting from either direct loading or restraint of imposed
deformations.
(3)P Cracks may also arise from other causes such as plastic shrinkage or expansive
chemical reactions within the hardened concrete. Such cracks may be unacceptably
large but their avoidance and control lie outside the scope of this Section.
(4)P Alternatively, cracks may be permitted to form without any attempt to control their width
or be avoided by measures which can accommodate the movement, such as the
provision of joints, provided they do not impair the functioning of the structure.
(5)P Appropriate limits, taking account of the proposed function and nature of the structure
and the costs of limiting cracking, should be agreed with the client.
(6) In the absence of specific requirements (e.g. watertightness), it may be assumed

that the limitations of the maximum design crack width given in Table 7.1, under
the quasi-permanent combination of loads, will generally be satisfactory for
reinforced concrete members in buildings with respect to appearance and
durability.
Table 7.1 Limitations of maximum design crack width.
Reinforced members Prestressed members

Exposure
Class
Quasi-permanent load
Frequent load combination
combination
X0, XC1 0,4 1 0,2
XC2, XC3, XC4,
0,2 2
XF1, XF3
XA1, XA2, XD1, 0,3
XD2, XS1, XS2, Decompression
XS3, XF2
1
For reinforced concrete members and X0, XC1 exposure classes, crack width has no influence on
durability and this limit is set to guarantee acceptable appearance. In absence of appearance conditions
this limit may be relaxed.
2
For these exposure classes, in addition, decompression has to be checked under the quasi-permanent
combination of loads.
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(7) The durability of prestressed members may be more critically affected by
cracking. In the absence of more detailed requirements, it may be assumed that
the limitations of the maximum design crack width given in Table 7.1, under the
frequent combination of loads, will generally be satisfactory for prestressed
concrete members. The decompression limit requires that all parts of the tendons
or duct lie at least 25 mm deep within concrete in compression.
(8) Special crack limitation measures may be necessary for members subjected to
exposure classes XA3, XD3 and XF4. The choice of appropriate measures will
depend upon the nature of the aggressive agent involved.
(9) When using strut and tie models oriented according to an elastic pattern, it is
possible to use the forces in the ties to obtain the corresponding steel stresses to
estimate the crack width.
(10) An estimation of the crack width can be obtained according to 7.3.4.
As a simplified conservative alternative, limitation of cracks to acceptable widths

can be achieved by ensuring provision of a minimum area of reinforcement
defined in 7.3.2, and bar spacing and diameters within the limits defined in 7.3.3.
This also applies to parts of prestressed members where tension could develop in
the concrete.
7.3.2 Minimum reinforcement areas
(1)P If crack control is required, a minimum amount of bonded reinforcement is needed to

control cracking in areas where tension can be expected. The amount can be estimated
from equilibrium between the tensile force in concrete just before cracking and the tensile
force in reinforcement at yielding or at a lower stress if necessary to limit the crack width.
When important compressive axial loads are present, equilibrium may not require the
contribution of steel reinforcement. In this case, a minimum amount of steel shall be
provided to ensure that the crack width will not be greater than 0,2 mm and 0,3 mm for
prestressed and reinforced members respectively. Bonded prestressing steel can be
included in the minimum reinforcement if its special bond characteristics are considered.
(2) Unless more rigorous calculation shows lesser areas to be adequate, the required
minimum areas of reinforcement may be calculated from:
As σs + ξ 1Ap∆σp = kc k fct.eff Act (7.1)
where:
As area of reinforcing steel within tensile zone
Ap area of prestressing steel within an area of not more than 300 mm
around the steel reinforcement in the tensile zone.
ξ1 adjusted ratio of bond strength taking into account the different
diameters of prestressing and reinforcing steel:
φ
ξ1 = ξ s
φp
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φs largest diameter of reinforcing steel

φp equivalent diameter of prestressing steel:
φ p = 1,60 Ap for tendons with several strands or wires
φ p = 1,75φ wire for single strands with 7 wires
φ p = 1,20φ wire for single strands with 3 wires
ξ ratio of bond strength of prestressing steel and high bond reinforcing
steel. In the absence of appropriate data, ξ may be taken from Table
7.2
Act area of concrete within tensile zone. The tensile zone is that part of
the section which is calculated to be in tension just before formation
of the first crack
σs the maximum stress permitted in the reinforcing steel immediately
after formation of the crack. This may be taken as the yield strength
of the reinforcement, fyk. A lower value may, however, be needed to
satisfy the crack width limits according to the maximum bar size
(Table 7.3) or the maximum bar spacing (Table 7.4)
∆σp stress increase in prestressing steel from zero stress in the concrete
at the same level
fct.eff the mean value of the tensile strength of the concrete effective at
the time when the cracks may first be expected to occur (fct,eff = fctm).
In many cases, such as where the dominant imposed deformation
arises from dissipation of the heat of hydration, this may be within 3-
5 days from casting depending on the environmental conditions, the
shape of the member and the nature of the formwork. Values of fct,eff
= fctm may be obtained from Table 3.1 by taking as the class the
strength at the time cracking is expected to occur. When the time of
cracking cannot be established with confidence as being less than
28 days, it is suggested that a minimum tensile strength of 3 MPa is
adopted or its value based on the relevant indicative strength class
according to Table B1 in the Informative Annex B
kc a coefficient which takes account of the nature of the stress
distribution within the section immediately prior to cracking and of
the change of the lever arm.
For pure tension:
kc = 1,0
For rectangular sections and webs of box sections and T-sections :
 σc 
k c = 0,4 ⋅ 1 + ∗  ≤1
 k1( h / h )fct,eff 
For flanges of box sections and T-sections:
Fcr
k c = 0,9 ≥ 0,5
Actfct,eff
σc mean stress of the concrete acting on the part of the section under
consideration. (σc <0 for compression force):
N
σ c = Ed
bh
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NEd axial force at the serviceability limit state acting on the part of the
cross section under consideration (Compressive force negative). N Ed
should be determined considering the characteristic values of
prestress and axial forces under the quasi-permanent combination
of actions
h* h* = h for h < 1,0 m
h* = 1,0 m for h ≥ 1,0 m
k1 a coefficient considering the effects of axial forces on the stress
distribution:
k1 = 1,5 if NEd is a compressive force
∗
2h
k1 = if NEd is a tensile force
3h
Fcr tensile force within the flange immediately prior to cracking due to
the cracking moment calculated with fct,eff
k coefficient which allows for the effect of non-uniform self-
equilibrating stresses, which lead to a reduction of restraint forces
k = 1,0 for webs with h ≤ 300 mm or flanges with widths less than
300 mm
k = 0,65 for webs with h ≥ 800 mm or flanges with widths greater
than 800 mm
intermediate values may be interpolated
Table 7.2 Nominal ratio ξ of mean bond stress of prestressing steel and high bond
reinforcing steel for crack control
Type of Tendon Pre-tensioned Post-tensioned

members members
Smooth prestressing steel - 0,4
Strands 0,6 0,5
Ribbed prestressing wires 0,8 0,7
Ribbed prestressing bars 1,0 0,8
7.3.3 Control of cracking without direct calculation
(1) For reinforced or prestressed slabs in buildings subjected to bending without

significant axial tension, specific measures to control cracking are not necessary
where the overall depth does not exceed 200 mm and the provisions of 9.2 have
been applied.
(2) Where at least the minimum reinforcement given by 7.3.2 is provided, crack
widths will not generally be excessive if:
- for cracking caused dominantly by restraint, the bar sizes given in Table
7.3 are not exceeded where the steel stress is the value obtained
immediately after cracking [i.e. σs in Expression (7.1) in 7.2.2 (2)]
- for cracks caused dominantly by loading, either the provisions of Table 7.3
or the provisions of Table 7.4 are complied with
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For prestressed concrete sections, the stresses in the reinforcement should be

calculated regarding the prestress as an external force without allowing for the
stress increase in the tendons due to loading.
Table 7.3 Maximum bar diameters φ *s for high bond bars
Steel stress Maximum bar size [mm]

2
[N/mm ] wk =0,4 mm wk =0,3 mm wk =0,2 mm
160 40 32 25
200 32 25 16
240 20 16 12
280 16 12 8
320 12 10 6
360 10 8 5
400 8 6 4
450 6 5 -
For reinforced concrete the maximum bar diameter may be modified as follows:
hcr
φ s = φ∗ s (fct,eff / 2,5) ≥ φ∗ s (fct,eff / 2,5) for restraint cracking
10 ( h-d )
hcr
φ s = φ∗ s ≥ φ∗ s for load induced cracking
10 ( h-d )
where
φs is the adjusted maximum bar diameter

φ∗ s is the maximum bar size given in the Table 7.3
h is the overall depth of the section
hcr is the depth of the tensile zone immediately prior to cracking,
considering the characteristic values of prestress and axial forces
under the quasi-permanent combination of actions
d is the effective depth to the centroid of the outer layer of
reinforcement
Table 7.4 Maximum bar spacing for high bond bars
Steel stress Maximum bar spacing [mm]

2
[N/mm ] wk =0,4 mm wk =0,3 mm wk =0,2 mm
160 300 300 200
200 300 250 150
240 250 200 100
280 200 150 50
320 150 100 -
360 100 50 -
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(3) In Tables 7.3 and 7.4 the steel stresses used should be evaluated for reinforced
concrete on the basis of the quasi-permanent loads and for prestressed concrete
on the basis of the frequent loads and the relevant estimated value of prestress.
The steel stress used is the modified stress in the reinforcing steel σs , unless
there is prestressing steel alone, in which case it is equal to ∆σp. These values
may be calculated using the following Expressions which take into account the
different bond behaviour of prestressing and reinforcing steel:
 1 1 
σ s = σ s + 0,4fct,eff  −
II
(7.2)
ρ 
 p, eff ρ tot,eff 
 ξ12 1 
∆σ p = σ s + 0,4fct,eff  −
II
(7.3)
ρ 
 p, eff ρ tot,eff 
where
σ II
s steel stress in the reinforcing steel or prestressing steel,
respectively, calculated in the cracked state assuming full bond
under the relevant combination of actions
As + ξ12 Ap
ρp,eff =
Ac,eff
As + Ap
ρtot,eff =
Ac,eff
Ac,eff effective tension area. Ac,eff is, generally, the area of concrete
surrounding the tension reinforcement of depth equal to 2,5 times
the distance from the tension face of the section to the centroid of
the reinforcement (see Figure 7.1). For slabs or for prestressed
members where the depth of the tension zone may be small, the
height of the effective area should not be taken as greater than (h-x)
/ 3.
(4) Beams with a total depth of 1000 mm or more, where the main reinforcement is
concentrated in only a small proportion of the depth, should be provided with
additional skin reinforcement to control cracking on the side faces of the beam.
This reinforcement should be evenly distributed between the level of the tension
steel and the neutral axis and should be located within the stirrups. The area of
the skin reinforcement should not be less than the amount obtained from 7.3.2 (2)
taking k as 0,5 and σs as fyk. The spacing and size of suitable bars may be
obtained from Table 7.3 or 7.4 assuming pure tension and a steel stress of half
the value assessed for the main tension reinforcement.
(5) It should be noted that there are particular risks of large cracks occurring at
sections where there are sudden changes of stress, e.g.
- at changes of section
- near concentrated loads
- sections where bars are curtailed
- areas of high bond stress, particularly at the ends of laps
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x
ε2 = 0
d 2,5 (h - d)
h level of steel
centroid
hc,ef
ε1
effective tension
area
a) Beam
x
hc,ef
ε2 = 0
d
h
ε1
hc,ef effective tension
area
b) Slab
ε2
d
h
ε1
hc,ef
effective tension
area
c) Member in tension
hc,ef = lesser of 2,5 (h - d), (h-x)/3 or h/2
Figure 7.1: Effective area (typical cases)
Care should be taken at such sections to minimise the stress changes wherever
possible. However, the rules for crack control given above will normally ensure
adequate control at these points provided that the rules for detailing reinforcement
given in Sections 8 and 9 are complied with.
Cracking due to tangential action effects may be assumed to be adequately

controlled if the detailing rules given in 9.1.2, 9.1.3, 9.2.3 and 9.3.3 are observed.
7.3.4 Calculation of crack widths
(1)P The design crack width may be obtained from the relation:
wk = srmax (ε sm - ε cm) (7.4)
where
wk design crack width
srmax maximum crack spacing
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εsm mean strain in the reinforcement, under the relevant combination of loads,
taking into account the effects of tension stiffening, etc.
εsm mean strain in concrete between cracks
(2) εsm - ε cm may be calculated from the Expression:
σ s − 0.4
fct, eff
ρ p, eff
(1 + α e ρ p, eff )
σs
ε sm − ε cm = ≥ 0,6 (7.5)
Es Es
where
αe ratio Es /Eci
(3) The maximum final crack spacing can be calculated, in mm, from the expression:
φs σ sφ s
srmax = ≤ (7.6)
3,6 ρp, eff 3,6f ct,eff
(4) where cracks form at a significant angle (>15°) to the direction of the
reinforcement, in members reinforced in two orthogonal directions, then the crack
spacing srmax may be calculated from the following Expression:
1 (7.7)
srmax =
cosθ sinθ
+
s rmax,x s rmax,y
where
θ is the angle between the reinforcement in the x direction and the
direction of the principal tensile stress
srmax,x srmax,y are the crack spacing calculated in the x and y directions
respectively using Expression (7.4)
(5) Where the crack widths are to be calculated for design situations where tensile
stresses arise from a combination of restrained imposed deformations and
loading, Expression (7.4) may be used, but the strain due to loading, calculated
on the basis of a cracked section, should be increased by that resulting from
imposed deformations.
(6) The methods given in this section calculate design crack widths in a region close
to the bonded reinforcement (i.e. within the effective tension area). Outside this
region, larger cracks may occur (see 9.1.4 and 7.3.2(4)).
(7) In cases where bonded reinforcement is not provided in the region where cracking
is to be checked, an upper bound to the crack width may be established for
situations where the forces and moments in the section ensure that parts of the
section remain in compression. In such cases the average crack spacing may be
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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assumed to be equal to the height of the cracks. Examples of situations where

this may be applied are:
Flexural members with very wide bar spacing. In this case crack widths
may be calculated on the assumption that srmax = 1.3 (h - x), where h is the
overall depth of the member and x is the neutral axis depth.
Walls subjected to early thermal contraction where the bottom of the wall is
restrained by a previously cast base. In this case, srmax may be assumed to
be equal to the height of the wall.
7.4 Deformation
(1)P The deformation of a member or structure should not be such that it adversely affects its
proper functioning or appearance.
(2)P Appropriate limiting values of deflection taking into account the nature of the structure, of
the finishes, partitions and fixings and upon the function of the structure should be
agreed with the client.
(3) Deformations should not exceed those that can be accommodated by other
connected elements such as partitions, glazing, cladding, services or finishes. In
some cases limitation may be required to ensure the proper functioning of
machinery or apparatus supported by the structure or to avoid ponding on flat
roofs.
(4) The limiting deflections given in (5) and (6) below are derived from ISO 4356 and
should ensure generally satisfactory performance for buildings such as dwellings,
offices, public buildings or factories. Care should be taken to ensure that there are
no special circumstances that would render them inappropriate for the structure
considered. Further information on problems resulting from deflections and
limiting values can be obtained from ISO 4356.
(5) The appearance and general utility of the structure may be impaired when the
calculated sag of a beam, slab or cantilever subjected to the quasi-permanent
loads exceeds span/250. The sag is assessed relative to the supports. Precamber
may be used to compensate for some or all of the deflection but any upward
deflection incorporated in the formwork should not generally exceed span/250.
(6) Deflections may cause damage to partitions, to members attached to, or in

contact with, the member considered, and to fixtures or finishes, if the calculated
deflection, considering the quasi-permanent values of live load, occurring after
construction of the elements which could suffer damage, is excessive. An
appropriate limit will depend upon the nature of the elements that could suffer
damage but, as a guide, a limit of span/500 is considered reasonable for most
circumstances. This limit may be relaxed in cases where the elements which
might suffer damage have been designed to accommodate greater deflections or
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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where they are known to be capable of withstanding greater deformations without
damage.
(7) Checking of this limit state may be done either by comparing a calculated
deflection, according to 7.4.3 with a limit value, or by limiting the span/depth ratio,
according to 7.4.2.
7.4.2 Cases where calculations may be omitted
(1)P Generally, it is not necessary to calculate the deflections explicitly as simple rules, such
as limits to span/depth ratio may be formulated which will be adequate for avoiding
deflection problems in normal circumstances. More rigorous checks are necessary for
members which lie outside such limits or where deflection limits other than those implicit
in simplified methods are appropriate.
(2) Provided that reinforced concrete beams or slabs in buildings are dimensioned so
that they comply with the limits of span to depth given in this Clause, their
deflections should not normally exceed the limits set out in 7.4.1 (5) and (6). The
limiting span/depth ratio is obtained by taking a basic ratio from Table 7.5 and
multiplying this by correction factors to allow for the type of reinforcement used
and other variables. No allowance has been made for any precamber in the
derivation of these tables.
Table 7.5: Basic ratios of span/effective depth for reinforced concrete members
without axial compression 1
Concrete Concrete
Structural System highly lightly
stressed stressed
Simply supported beam, one or two-way spanning 14 20
simply supported slab
End span of continuous beam or one way 18 26

continuous slab or two-way spanning slab
continuous over one long side.
Interior span of beam or one-way or two-way 20 30

spanning slab.
Slab supported on columns without beams (flat 17 24

slab) (based on longer span)
Cantilever 6 8
(3) The value obtained from Table 7.5 should be reduced in the following cases:
1
Table 7.5 is the same as Table 4.14 of ENV-1992-1-1:1991 and table 7.5.2 of Model Code 1990 adapted for
steels with fyk =500 MPa. In any case, this table is provisional and subject to revision as a result of a parametric
study presently under way.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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For flanged sections where the ratio of the flange breadth to the rib breadth
exceeds 3, the values should be multiplied by 0,8.
For beams and slabs, other than flat slabs, with spans exceeding 7 m, that
support partitions liable to be damaged by excessive deflections, the value should
be multiplied by 7 / leff (leff in metres).
For flat slabs where the greater span exceeds 8 ,5 m, and that support partitions
liable to be damaged by excessive deflections, the values should be multiplied by
8,5 / leff (leff in metres).
The values in Table 7.5 have been derived on the assumption that the steel
stress, under the design service load at a cracked section at the mid-span of a
beam or slab or at the support of a cantilever, is 310 MPa, (corresponding roughly
to fyk = 500 MPa). Where other stress levels are used, the values in Table 4.14
should be multiplied by 310/σs . It will normally be conservative to assume that
310 / σs = 500 /(fyk As,req / As,prov ),
where
σs is the stress at the section given above under the design service
load
As,prov is the area of steel provided at the defined section
As,req is the area of steel required at the section to give the required
design ultimate moment of resistance
(5) In interpreting Table 7.5 the following additional points may be noted:
(a) The values given have been chosen to be generally conservative and
calculation may frequently show that thinner members are possible.
(b) Members where the concrete is lightly stressed are those where ρ < 0,5%
(ρ = As / bd). It may normally be assumed that slabs are lightly stressed.
(c) If the reinforcement ratio is known, values intermediate between those for
highly stressed and lightly stressed cases may be obtained by
interpolation, assuming the 'lightly stressed' values to correspond to ρ =
0,5% and the 'highly stressed' values to correspond to ρ = 1,5%.
(d) For 2-way spanning slabs, the check should be carried out on the basis of
the shorter span. For flat slabs the longer span should be taken.
(e) The limits given for flat slabs correspond to a less severe limitation than a
mid span deflection span/250 relative to the columns. Experience has
shown this to be satisfactory.
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7.4.3 Checking deflections by calculation
(1)P Where a calculation is deemed necessary, the deformations shall be calculated under
load conditions which are appropriate to the purpose of the check.
(2)P The calculation method adopted shall represent the true behaviour of the structure under
relevant actions to an accuracy appropriate to the objectives of the calculation.
(3) Members which are not expected to be loaded above the level which would cause
the tensile strength of the concrete to be exceeded anywhere within the member
will be considered to be uncracked. Members which are expected to crack will
behave in a manner intermediate between the uncracked and fully cracked
conditions and, for members subjected dominantly to flexure, an adequate
prediction of behaviour is given by Expression (7.8) below.
α = ζα II + (1 - ζ )α I (7.8)
where
α is a deformation parameter considered which may be, for example, a
strain, a curvature, or a rotation. (As a simplification, α may also be
taken as a deflection - see (3) below)
α I and α II are, respectively, the values of the parameter calculated for the
uncracked and fully cracked conditions
ζ is a distribution coefficient given by Expression (7.9) below:
2
 σ sr 
ζ = 1 - β1   (7.9)
σs
(Note: σsr/σs can be replaced by M cr/M for flexure or Ncr/N for pure
tension)
ζ is zero for uncracked sections

β1 is a coefficient taking account of the influence of the duration of the
loading or of repeated loading on the average strain
β 1 = 1,0 for a single short-term loading
β 1 = 0,5 for sustained loads or many cycles of repeated loading
σs is the stress in the tension reinforcement calculated on the basis of a
cracked section
σsr is the stress in the tension reinforcement calculated on the basis of a
cracked section under the loading conditions causing first cracking
The critical material properties required to enable deformations due to loading to

be assessed are the tensile strength and the effective modulus of elasticity of the
concrete.
Table 3.1 indicates the range of likely values for tensile strength. In general, the
best estimate of the behaviour will be obtained if fctm is used.
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An estimate of the modulus of elasticity of the concrete may be obtained from

Table 3.2. Creep may be allowed for by using an effective modulus calculated
from Expression (7.10):
Ecm
Ec,eff = (7.10)
1+ φ
where
φ is the creep coefficient (see Table 3.3)
Shrinkage curvatures may be assessed by using Expression (7.11)
1 S
= ε csα e (7.11)
rcs l
where
1/rcs is the curvature due to shrinkage
εcs is the free shrinkage strain (see Table 3.4)
S is the first moment of area of the reinforcement about the centroid of
the section
I is the second moment of area of the section
αe is the effective modular ratio
α e = Es / Ec,eff
S and I should be calculated for the uncracked condition and the fully cracked
condition, the final curvature being assessed by use of Expression (7.8).
(4) The most rigorous method of assessing deflections using the method given in (3)
above is to compute the curvatures at frequent sections along the member and
then calculate the deflection by numerical integration. The effort involved in this is
not normally justified and it will be acceptable to compute the deflection twice
assuming the whole member to be in the uncracked and fully cracked condition in
turn and then employ Expression (7.8).
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SECTION 8 DETAILING OF REINFORCEMENT - GENERAL
8.1 General
(1)P The rules given in this Section apply to all reinforcement, mesh and prestressing tendons
subjected to predominantly static loading. They do not apply to elements subjected to
impact loading and they do not apply to specially painted, epoxy coated and zinc coated
bars.
(2)P The requirements concerning minimum concrete cover shall be satisfied for all
situations.
(3) For lightweight aggregate concrete, supplementary rules are given in Section 10.
(4) Rules for structures subjected to fatigue loading are given in 6.8.
8.1.1 Notation (See also 1.7.1 to 1.7.4)
As,min Minimum area of longitudinal tensile reinforcement
As,prov Area of steel provided
As,req Area of steel required
As,surf Area of surface reinforcement
Ast Area of additional transverse reinforcement parallel to the lower face
Asv Area of additional transverse reinforcement perpendicular to the lower face
Fs Force in the tensile longitudinal reinforcement at a critical section at the

ultimate limit state (ULS)
FRdu Concentrated resistance force
a Horizontal clear distance between two parallel laps
b lateral concrete cover in the plane of a lap
c Minimum concrete cover
dg Largest nominal maximum aggregate size
fbd Design value for ultimate bond stress
lb Basic anchorage length for reinforcement
lb,min Minimum anchorage length
lb,req Required anchorage length

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lo Necessary lap length
lo,min Minimum lap length
n Number of transverse bars along anchorage length
n1 Number of layers with bars anchored at the same section
n2 Number of bars anchored in each layer
nb Number of bars in a bundle
p Mean transverse pressure (MPa) over the anchorage length
sl Spacing of longitudinal wires in a welded mesh fabric, or in surface

reinforcement
smax Maximum longitudinal spacing of successive series of stirrups
st Spacing of transverse wires in a welded mesh fabric or in surface

reinforcement
uk Circumference of area Ak
α Acute angle of the shear reinforcement with the longitudinal reinforcement

(main steel)
αa A coefficient for determining the effectiveness of anchorage lengths
α1 Coefficients for effectiveness of laps
α2 Coefficient for the calculation of the lap length of welded mesh fabrics
φ Diameter of either reinforcing bar, prestressing tendon or prestrestressing

duct
θ Acute angle between the concrete struts and the longitudinal axis
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8.2 Spacing of bars
(1)P The spacing of bars shall be such that the concrete can be placed and compacted
satisfactorily and that the development of adequate bond is assured.
(2) The clear distance (horizontal and vertical) between individual parallel bars or
horizontal layers of parallel bars should be not less than the maximum bar
diameter, (dg + 5 mm) or 20 mm.
(3) Where bars are positioned in separate horizontal layers, the bars in each layer
should be located vertically above each other. There should be sufficient space
between the resulting columns of bars to allow access for vibrators and good
compaction of the concrete.
(4) Lapped bars may touch one another within the lap length.
8.3 Permissible bending
(1)P The minimum diameter to which a bar is bent shall be such as to avoid bending cracks in
the bar, and to avoid failure of the concrete inside the bend of the bar.
(2) Table 8.1 gives minimum values of the mandrel diameter to avoid cracks in
reinforcement due to bending. These values may be used if one of the following
conditions is fulfilled (φ is diameter of bent bar):
a) the bar does not extend more than 5φ past the end of the bend
b) the bar is not stressed beyond 5φ past the end of the bend
c) there is a cross bar of diameter ≥ φ inside the bend
(3) If neither of conditions of a) and b) in (2) above is fulfilled, concrete failure should
be considered. Table 8.2 gives minimum values of mandrel diameter to avoid
splitting. The minimum madrel diameter to avoid crushing, φm, is given by:
φm=≤ φ Fbt(1+ (ab=/ 2φ)/φ abfcd) (8.1)
where
Fbt is the tensile force from ultimate loads in a bar or group of bars in
contact at the start of a bend;
φm is the mandrel diameter;
ab for a given bar (or group of bars in contact) is the centre-to-centre

distance between bars (or groups of bars) perpendicular to the
plane of the bend. For a bar or group of bars adjacent to the face of
the member, ab should be taken as the cover plus φ=/2
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Table 8.1: Minimum mandrel diameter to avoid damage to reinforcement.
a) for bars and wire
Bar diameter Minimum mandrel diameter for

bends, hooks and loops (see
Figure 8.3)
φ ≤ 16 mm 4φ=
φ > 16 mm 7φ=
b) for welded bent reinforcement and mesh bent after welding
Minimum diameter mandrel
or or
d
d ≥ 3φ : 5φ=
5φ= d < 3φ or welding inside the
curved zone: 20φ=
Table 8.2: Minimum mandrel diameters for bends, hooks and loops to avoid
splitting of concrete
Value of minimum concrete cover, Bent-up bars or other curved

perpendicular to plane of curvature or bars
half the free distance between adjacent bars
> 100 mm and > 7φ 10φ=
> 50 mm and > 3φ 15φ=
≤ 50 mm or ≤ 3φ 20φ=
8.4 Anchorage of longitudinal reinforcement
8.4.1 Ultimate bond stress
(1)P The ultimate bond stress shall be such that no significant relative displacement between
the steel and concrete occurs under service loads, and that there is an adequate safety
margin against bond failure.
(2) The design value of the ultimate bond stress, fbd may be taken as
fbd = 2,25 η1 η2 fctd (8.2)
where
fctd is the design value of concrete tensile strength (γc = 1,5)
= fctk,0.05 /γc= 0,7 x 0,3 x fck2/3 / γc. Unless the concrete tensile strength can
be shown to be greater than that calculated for fck = 55 MPa, it should be
limited to that value.
prRef. No. EN 1992-1:2001
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η1 is related to the quality of the bond condition and the position of the bar
during concreting (see Figure 8.1):
η1 = 1,0 when good conditions are obtained (see Table 8.3), such as
- all bars with an inclination of 45° - 90° to the horizontal (Figure
8.1a) and
- all bars with an inclination less than 45° to the horizontal, which
are:
placed in members whose depth does not exceed 250 mm
(Figure 8.1b) or
in members with a depth greater than 250 mm and, when the
concrete is cast, are either in the lower half of the section (see
Figure 8.1c) or at least 300 mm from the top surface (see Figure
8.1d). Where justified (e.g. by more effective external vibration)
the limit of 250 mm may be increased.
η1 = 0,7 for all other cases and for bars in structural elements built with
slip-forms, unless it can be shown that good bond conditions exist.
Table 8.3: Design values fbd (MPa) for good bond conditions, incorporating γc = 1,5.
Strength class
fck / fcu 12/15 16/20 20/25 25/30 30/37 35/45 40/50 45/55 50/60 ≥55/70
High-bond bars
With φ ≤ 32 mm or 1,7 2,0 2,3 2,7 3,0 3,4 3,7 4,0 4,3 4,6
Welded mesh fabrics
made of ribbed wires
Direction of concreting Direction of concreting
α h/2
o o
a) 45 ≤=α=≤ 90 c) h >=250 mm
for all values of h
Direction of concreting
Direction of concreting
≥ 300
h h
b) h ≤=250 mm d) h >=600 mm
a) and b) provide good c) and d) provide good bond conditions for

bond conditions for all bars bars in the hatched zones only. Bars in
other areas have poor bond conditions.
Figure 8.1: Description of bond conditions
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η2 considers the bar diameter:
η2 =1,0 for φ ≤ 32 mm
η2 = (132 - φ)/100 for φ > 32 mm
where φ is in mm.
8.4.2 Anchorage of longitudinal bars
8.4.2.1 General
(1)P The reinforcing bars, wires or welded mesh fabrics shall be so anchored that the internal
forces to which they are subjected are transmitted to the concrete and that longitudinal
cracking or spalling of the concrete is avoided. Transverse reinforcement shall be
provided if necessary.
(2)P Where mechanical devices are used, their effectiveness shall be proven by tests and
their capacity to transmit the concentrated force at the anchorage shall be examined with
special care.
8.4.2.2 Basic anchorage length
(1)P The basic anchorage length, lb, is the straight length required for anchoring the force
As.fyd in a bar assuming constant bond stress equal to fbd ; in setting the basic anchorage
length, the type of the steel and the bond properties of the bars shall be taken into
consideration.
(2) For bent bars the anchorage length may be assumed to be that measured along
the centre-line of the bar from the point considered to the end of the bar.
(3) The basic anchorage length required for the anchorage of a bar of diameter φ=is:
lb = (φ=/ 4) (fyd / fbd) (8.3)
Values for fbd are given in 8.4.1.
Table 8.4 gives values of lb for high bond bars (S 500) expressed as the number
of diameters.
Table 8.4: Basic bond length, lb, for high bond bars (S 500) expressed as the
number of diameters, lb /φ
Strength class 12/15 16/20 20/25 25/30 30/37 35/45 40/50 45/55 50/60 ≥55/70
fck / fcu
lb /φ 66 54 47 40 36 32 30 27 25 24
Reduction in
length for bends 13,3 9,7 7,6 5,5 4,3 3,1 2,5 1,6 1,0 0,7
and hooks (∆lb /φ)
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(4) The basic anchorage length, lb, of a bend or hook may be reduced for bars in
tension by a length ∆lb = {0,075(fyd / fbd)– 6,5}φ==mm provided that
- the length of straight bar beyond the bend or hook is at least
5φ===and
- cd > 3φ. (see Figure8.2)
Values of this reduction are given in Table 8.4 for each class of concrete.
For standard bends, hooks and loops the equivalent basic anchorage length, lb,eq,
as shown in Figure8.3 may be taken to be equal to 0,7lb
(5) For double bar welded fabrics the diameter, φ, in Expression (8.3) should be
replaced by the equivalent diameter φn = φ√2.
c1 a
c1 a
c c
cd = min (a/2, c1, c) cd = min (a/2, c1) cd = c
Figure 8.2: Values of cd for beams and slabs
5φ

α
φ l b,eq
o o
l b (measured along centre-line)
90 ≤=α=< 150
a) Basic length for any shape b) Equivalent basic length

for standard bend
≥=5φ
≥5φ
≥150
φ==≥
t 0.6
φ
l b,eq l b,eq l b,eq
c) Equivalent basic length d) Equivalent basic length e) Welded transverse bar

for standard hook for standard loop
Figure 8.3: Methods of anchorage
8.4.2.3 Design anchorage length
(1) The design anchorage length, lbd, is

lbd = α1 α2 α3 α4 lb As,req / As,prov ≥ lb,min (8.4)
Where
As,req is the area of reinforcement required by design
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As,prov is the area of reinforcement actually provided

α1 , α2 , α3 and α4 are coefficients, values for which are given in table 8.5
α1 takes into account the effect of confinement by the concrete cover
α2 takes into account the effect of confinement by transverse
reinforcement
α3 takes into account the influence of one or more welded transverse
bars (φ1 > 0,6φ) along the design anchorage length lbd
α4 takes into account the effect of the pressure transverse to the plane
of splitting along the design anchorage length
lb is taken from expression (8.3)
lb,min denotes the minimum anchorage length if no other limitation is
applied:
- for anchorages in tension: lb,min > max{0,3lb; 15φ; 100 mm} (8.5)
- for anchorages in compression: lb,min > max{0,6lb; 15φ; 100 mm} (8.6)
In some particular situations lb,min may be reduced further (see 9.??).
The product (α1α2α4) is limited

- for high-bond bars: α1α2α4 > 0,7
- for plain bars: α1α2α4 = 1
Table 8.5: α1, α2, α3 and α4 coefficients
Type of Reinforcement bar

Influencing factor anchorage In tension In compression
α1 = 1 – 0,15 (cd – φ)/φ
Straight ≥ 0,7 α1 = 1,0
Confinement by ≤ 1,0
concrete cover
α1 = 1 – 0,15 (cd – 3φ)/φ
Other than ≥ 0,7 α1 = 1,0
straight ≤ 1,0
Confinement by α2 = 1 – K λ
non-welded ≥ 0,7 α2 = 1,0
All types
transverse ≤ 1,0
reinforcement
Confinement by
welded transverse All types α3 = 0,7 α3 = 0,7
reinforcement*
Confinement by α4 = 1 – 0,04p
transverse pressure All types ≥ 0,7
≤ 1,0
* This is generally valid for ribbed bars anchored by transverse welded bars, provided that there are at least three
transverse wires welded within this length. Otherwise partial anchorage pro-rata to the number of transverse
wires welded to the reinforcement may be assumed. Expression (8.4) may be used directly if bars/wires are
treated as high bond bars with no transverse wires welded to them. For direct supports lbd may be less than lb,min
provided that there is at least one transverse wire welded within the support. This should be at least 15 mm
from the face of the support.
where
λ = (ΣAst - ΣAst,min)/ As
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ΣAst is the cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement along the

design anchorage length lbd
ΣAst,min is the cross-sectional area of the minimum transverse
reinforcement = 0,25 As for beams and 0 for slabs
As is the area of a single anchored bar with maximum bar diameter
K values are shown in Figure8.4
p is the transverse pressure (MPa) at ultimate limit state along lbd
As φ t , Ast As φ t , Ast As φ t , Ast
K = 0.1 K = 0.0.5 K=0
Figure 8.4: Values of K for beams and slabs
8.4.2.4 Anchorage methods
(1) The normal methods of anchorage are shown in Figure 8.3.
(2) Straight anchorage lengths or bends (Figures 8.3a or 8.3b) should not be used to
anchor smooth bars of more than 8 mm diameter.
(3) Bends and hooks do not contribute to compression anchorages. The required
anchorage length should be restricted to lb,eq (Figures 8.3b and 8.3c).
(4) Spalling or splitting of the concrete may be prevented by complying with 8.3.1 (3)
and avoiding concentrations of anchorages.
8.4.3 Anchorage by mechanical devices
(1) The suitability of mechanical anchorage devices should be demonstrated by

appropriate documents.
(2) For the transmission of the concentrated anchorage forces to the concrete, see
8.9.5.
8.5 Anchorage of links and shear reinforcement
(1) The anchorage of links and shear reinforcement should normally be effected by
means of bends and hooks, or by welded transverse reinforcement. High bond
bars or wires can also be anchored by bends. A bar should be provided inside a
hook or bend.
(2) For the permissible curvature of hooks and bends, see 8.3.2.(2)
(3) The anchorage as a whole is considered to be satisfactory:
- where the curve of a hook or bend is extended by a straight length which is not
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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less than:
5φ or 50 mm if it is a continuation of an arc of 135° or more (Figure 8.5a);
10φ or 70 mm if it is a continuation of an arc of 90° (Figure 8.5b).
- where there are near to the end of a straight bar:
either two welded transverse bars (see Figure 8.5c),
or a single welded transverse bar, the diameter of which is not less than
1,4 times the diameter of the bar (see Figure 8.5d)).
5φ=, but 10φ, but

≥ 70 mm ≥2φ
≥ 50 mm ≥ 20 mm ≥10 mm
≥10 mm ≤
50 mm
≥1,4φ
≥ 0,7φ
φ φ φ φ
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Figure 8.5: Anchorage of links
8.6 Laps and mechanical connections
8.6.1 General requirements
(1)P Forces may be transmitted from one bar to another by:

- lapping of bars, with or without bends or hooks;
- welding;
- mechanical devices assuring load transfer in tension-compression or in compression
only.
(2) The arrangement of lapped should comply Figure 8.6:
- the clear transverse distance between two lapped bars should not be greater
than 4φ or 50 mm, otherwise the lap length should be increased by the amount
by which the clear space exceeds 4φ or 50 mm ;
- the longitudinal distance between two adjacent laps should not exceed 0,3
times the lap length, l0, and should not be locate in areas of high stress;
- In case of adjacent laps, the clear distance between adjacent bars should not
be less than 2φ or 20 mm. It is recommended to stagger laps longitudinally by
a distance of at least l0
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Fs ≤=4φ
φ Fs
≥0,3 l 0 l0
Fs ≥2φ
≥20 mm Fs
Fs
Fs
Figure 8.6: Adjacent laps
(3) When the provisions comply with (2), Table 8.6 applies for bars in tension. All
bars in compression and secondary (distribution) reinforcement may be lapped in
one section.
Table 8.6: Permissible percentage of lapped bars in tension in one section, if

transverse link reinforcement is not provided
Type of bar Static load effects Dynamic load effects
Laps in one layer only 100% 100%

Laps in several layers 50% 50%
8.6.2 Laps
(1)P The detailing of laps between bars shall be such that:

- the transmission of the forces from one bar to the next is assured;
- spalling of the concrete in the neighbourhood of the joints does not occur;
- large cracks (greater than 0,3 mm) are avoided, see also 7.3.
(2) As far as possible:

- laps between bars should preferably be staggered and not located in areas
of high stress, (see also Section 5.4, 5.5 and 5.6);
- laps at any one section should be arranged symmetrically and parallel to

the outer face of the member;
- lapping of all tension reinforcing bars of an element at a single cross-

section should be avoided;
- laps at any one section should be arranged symmetrically and parallel to

the outer face of the member.
8.6.3 Lap length
(1) The design lap length is:
l0 = α1 α2 α3 α4 α5 ib As,req / As,prov ≥ l0,min (8.7)

where:
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lb is calculated from Expression (8.3)

l0,min > max{0,3 α5lb; 15φ; 200 mm}
(8.8)
Values of α1, α2, α3 and α4 may be taken from Table 8.5; however, for the
calculation of α2, ΣAst,min should be taken as 1,0As, with As = area of one
lapped bar.
α5 = (ρ1/25)0.5 but not exceeding 1,5, where ρ1 is the percentage of

reinforcement lapped within 0,65 l0 from the centre of the lap length
considered. Values of α5 are given in Table 8.7.
8.6.4 Transverse reinforcement in the lap zone
8.6.4.1 Transverse reinforcement for bars in tension
(1) Transverse reinforcement is required in the lap zone to deal with transverse
tension forces.
Table 8.7: Values of the coefficient α5
Percentage of lapped bars relative < 25% 33% 50% >50%

to the total cross-section area
α5 1 1,15 1,4 1,5
(2) For situations where the transverse tension forces in the plane created by the
lapped bars are parallel to the concrete surface:
- if the diameter, φ of the lapped bars is less than 20 mm, or if the percentage of
lapped bars in any one section is less than 25%, then the transverse
reinforcement or links necessary for other reasons may be assumed sufficient
for the transverse tensile forces without further justification.
- otherwise the transverse reinforcement should have a total area, Ast (sum of all
legs parallel to the layer of the spliced reinforcement) of not less than the area
As of one spliced bar (ΣAst ≥ 1,0As). It should be placed perpendicular to the
layer of the lapped reinforcement and between that and the surface of the
concrete.
If more than 50% of the reinforcement is lapped at one point and the distance,
a, between adjacent laps is ≤ 10φ (see Figures 8.2 and 8.6) transverse bars
should be formed by links.
(3) The transverse reinforcement should be placed along the outer sections of the lap
(l0/3) (Figure 8.7a), between the longitudinal reinforcement and the concrete
surface.
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8.6.4.2 Transverse reinforcement for bars permanently in compression
(1) In addition to the rules for bars in tension one bar of the transverse
reinforcement should be placed outside each end of the lap length and
within 4φ=of the ends of the lap length (Figure 8.7b)
ΣAst /2 ΣAst /2
≤150 mm
Fs Fs
l o /3 lo l o /3
concrete surface
a) bars in tension
ΣAst /2 ΣAst /2
≤150 mm
Fs Fs
lo
4φ l o /3 l o /3 4φ
concrete surface
b) bars in compression
Figure 8.7: Transverse reinforcement for lapped splices
8.6.5 Laps for welded mesh fabrics made of high bond wires
8.6.5.1 Laps of the main reinforcement
(1) The splices can be made either by intermeshing or by layering of the fabrics
(Figure 8.8).
(2) Where fatigue loads occur, intermeshing should be adopted
(3) For intermeshed fabric, the lapping arrangements for the main longitudinal bars
should conform with 8.6.1. Any favourable effects of the transverse bars should
be neglected: thus taking α3 = 1,0.
(4) For layered fabric, the laps of the main reinforcement should generally be situated
in zones where the design stress of the reinforcement at ultimate limit state is not
more than 80% of the design strength.
(5) Where condition (4) is not fulfilled, the effective depth of the steel taken into
account in the calculations in accordance with 6.1 should apply to the layer
furthest from the tension face. In addition, because of the discontinuity at the
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Page 156
ends of the laps, when carrying out a crack-verification next to the lap end, the
steel stress used in Tables 7.2 and 7.3 should be increased by 25%.
Fs Fs
lo
a) Intermeshed fabric (longitudinal section)
Fs Fs
lo
b) Layered fabric (longitudinal section)

Figure 8.8: Lapping of welded fabric: (a) intermeshed fabric (longitudinal section);
(b) layered fabric (longitudinal section)
(6) The permissible percentage of the main reinforcement which may be lapped in
any one section, referred to the total steel cross section is:
For intermeshed fabric, the values given in Table 8.6 are applicable.
For layered fabric the permissible percentage of the main reinforcement that may
be spliced by lapping in any section depends on the specific cross-section area of
the welded fabric provided (As/s)prov:
- 100% if (As/s)prov ≤ 1200 mm2/m
- 60% if (As/s)prov > 1200 mm2/m.
The joints of the multiple layers should be staggered by at least 1,3l0 (l0 is
determined from 8.6.2).
(7) Additional transverse reinforcement is not necessary in the lapping zone.
8.6.5.2 Laps of secondary or distribution reinforcement
(1) All transverse reinforcement may be lapped at the same location.
The minimum values of the lap length l0 are given in Table 8.8; at least two
transverse bars should be within the lap length (one mesh).
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Table 8.8: Required lap lengths for secondary layered fabric
Diameter of wires Lap lengths

(mm)
φ==≤ 6 ≥ 150 mm; at least 1 wire pitch within the lap
length
6 < φ==≤ 8,5 ≥ 250 mm; at least 2 wire pitches
8,5 < φ==≤ 12 ≥ 350 mm; at least 2 wire pitches
8.7 Additional rules for high bond bars exceeding 32mm in diameter
(1) For high bond bars of diameter φ > 32 mm, the following rules supplement those given in
8.4 and 8.6
8.7.1 General
(1) When such large diameter bars are used more attention should be given to
ensure adequate crack control. This can be achieved either by using surface
reinforcement (see 9.1.4) or by calculation (see 7.3).
(2) Splitting forces are higher and dowel action is greater with the use of large
diameter bars. Bars should be anchored with mechanical devices or if anchored
as straight bars links should be provided as confining reinforcement.
(3) Laps of large diameter bars are not recommended. Exceptions include sections
with a minimum dimension 1,0 m or where the stress is not greater than 80% of
the design ultimate strength.
8.7.2 Anchorages and joints
(1) In the absence of transverse compression, transverse reinforcement, additional to

that provided for shear, is required in the anchorage zone.
(2) For straight anchorage lengths (see Figure 8.9 for the notation used) the
additional reinforcement in (1) above should not be less than the following:
- in the direction parallel to the tension face:
Ast = 0.25 As n1 (8.9)
- in the direction perpendicular to the tension face:
Asv = 0.25 As n2 (8.10)
where:
As denotes the cross sectional area of an anchored bar,
n1 is the number of layers with bars anchored at the same point in the
member,
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n2 is the number of bars anchored in each layer.
(3) The additional transverse reinforcement should be uniformly distributed in the

anchorage zone and the spacing of bars should not exceed five times the
diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement.
Asv / 2 Asv / 2
As Anchored bar
Continuing bar
Ast
Figure 8.9: Additional reinforcement in an anchorage zone where the bar
diameter is greater than 32 mm and there is no transverse compression. In
this case n1 = 1, n2 = 2 and Ast = Asv/2 = 0.25 As.
(4) For surface reinforcement, 9.14 applies, but the area of surface reinforcement
should not be less than 0,01 Act,ext in the direction perpendicular to large diameter
bars, and 0,02 Act,ext parallel to those bars.
8.8 Bundled high bond bars
8.8.1 General
(1) Unless otherwise stated, the rules for individual bars also apply for bundles of
bars. In a bundle, all the bars should be of the same characteristics (type and
grade). Bars of different sizes may be bundled provided that the ratio of
diameters does not exceed 1,7.
(2) In design, the bundle is replaced by a notional bar having the same sectional area
and the same centre of gravity as the bundle.
The "equivalent diameter" φn of this bar is such that:
φn = φ √nb ≤ 55 mm (8.12)
where nb is the number of bars in the bundle, which is limited to:
nb ≤ 4 for vertical bars in compression and for bars in a lapped joint,
nb ≤ 3 for all other cases.
(3) For a bundle, 8.4.2.2 applies, while using the equivalent diameter φn, but
measuring the clear distance from the actual external contour of the bundle of
bars. The concrete cover measured from the actual external contour of the
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bundles should be c ≥ φn.
(4) Where two touching bars are positioned one above the other and where the bond
conditions are good such bars need not be treated as a bundle.
8.8.2 Anchorage of bundles of bars
(1) Bundles of bars in tension may be curtailed over end and intermediate supports.
Bundles with an equivalent diameter < 32 mm may be curtailed near a support
without the need for staggering bars. Bundles with an equivalent diameter ≥ 32
mm which are anchored near a support should be staggered in the longitudinal
direction as shown in Figure 8.10.
(2) For cases where bars are anchored with widely spaced theoretical anchor points
(E) (see Figure 8.10a), the diameter of the bar may be use in assessing the lbd,
otherwise the equivalent diameter of the bundle, φn, should be used (see Figure
8.10b).
(3) For compression anchorages bundled bars need not be staggered. For bundles
with an equivalent diameter ≥ 32 mm, at least four links having a diameter ≥ 12
mm should be provided at the ends of the bundle. A further link should be
provided just beyond the end of the curtailed bar.
≥0 ≥0
2 1 1
3 E Fs
E E
l0 1,3l0 1,3l0 2 3
a) Widely spaced theoretical cut-off points (E).
l 0 is based on the diameter of the bar
≥0,3l 0 ≥0,3l 0 l0
1
3 2 E E 1 Fs
≥l 0 E ≥0 2 3
≥l 0 ≥0
b) Closely spaced theoretical cut-off points (E).

l0 is based on the equivalent diameter of the
bar
Figure 8.10: Anchorage of bundles of bars
8.8.3 Lapping bundles of bars
(1) The lap length should be calculated in accordance with 8.6 using φn (from 8.8.1
(2)) as the equivalent diameter of bar.
(2) For bundles which consist of two bars with an equivalent diameter < 32 mm may
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001
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be lapped without staggering individual bars. In this case the equivalent bar size
should be use to calculate l0.
(3) For bundles which consist of two bars with an equivalent diameter ≥ 32 mm or of
three bars, individual bars should be staggered in the longitudinal direction by at
least 1,3l0 as shown in Figure 8.11. For this case the diameter of a single bar
may be used to calculate l0. Care should be taken to ensure that there are not
more than four bars in any lap cross section.
1 1
3 3
Fs Fs
1,3l0 1,3l 0 1,3l0 1,3l 0 4 2 4
Figure 8.11: Lap joint in tension including a fourth bar
8.9 Prestressing tendons
8.9.1 Arrangement of the prestressing tendons and ducts
(1)P The spacing of ducts or of pre-tensioned tendons shall be such as to ensure that placing
and compacting of the concrete can be carried out satisfactorily and that good bond can
be attained between the concrete and the tendons.
8.9.1.1 Pre-tensioned tendons
(1) The minimum clear horizontal and vertical spacing of individual pre-tensioned
tendons is given in Figure 8.12. Other layouts are acceptable in special cases,
provided that test results show satisfactory ultimate behaviour with respect to:
- the concrete in compression at the anchorage
- the spalling of concrete
- the anchorage of pre-tensioned tendons
- the placing of the concrete between the tendons.
Consideration should also be given to durability and the danger of corrosion of the
tendon at the end of elements.
φ
≥ dg
≥φ
≥ 10
≥ dg + 5
≥φ
≥ 20
Figure 8.12: Minimum clear spacing for pre-tensioned tendons.
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(2) Bundling of tendons is not generally permitted in the anchorage zones, unless
placing and compacting of the concrete can be carried out satisfactorily and
sufficient bond can be attained between the concrete and the tendons.
8.9.1.2 Post-tension ducts
(1)P The ducts shall be located and constructed so that:

- the concrete can be safely placed without damaging the ducts;
- the concrete can resist the forces from the ducts in the curved parts under and
after stressing;
- no grout will leak into other ducts during grouting process.
(2) Bundled ducts for post-tensioned members, are not normally permitted except in
the case of a pair of straight ducts placed vertically one above the other.
(3) The minimum clear spacing between ducts is shown in Figure 8.13.
≥ dg + 5
≥φ
≥ 50 mm
≥φ
≥ 40 mm
≥ dg
≥φ
≥ 40 mm
≥φ φ=< 50 mm
≥ 40 mm
≥ dg + 5
≥φ
≥ 20 mm
Figure 8.13 Minimum clear spacing for ducts (where dg is the maximum aggregate
size).
8.9.2 Anchorage of pre-tensioned tendons
(1) Where tensile forces occur, they should be carried by reinforcement.
(2) A distinction (see Figure 8.14) should be made between:
(i) transmission length lpt, over which the prestressing force (P0) from a
pretensioned tendon is fully transmitted to the concrete.
(ii) dispersion length lp,eff over which the concrete stresses gradually disperse to a
linear distribution across the concrete section.
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(iii) anchorage length lbp, over which the ultimate tendon force (Fpu) in
pretensioned members is fully transmitted to the concrete.
σp,max
d σp
h
lbpd lbpd = β==b φ

lp,eff linear distribution of stress
x
Figure 8.14: transfer of prestress in pretensioned elements
8.9.2.1 Transfer of prestress
(1) At release of tendons, the prestress may be assumed to be transferred to the

concrete by a constant bond stress fbpt, where:
fbpt = ηp1 η1 fctd(t) (8.13)
where
ηp1 considers the bond situation at release, so called ”push-in”
= 2,0 for indented and crimped wires or
= 2,4 for 7-wire strands
η1 = 1,0 for good bond conditions (see 8.4.1) or
= 0,7otherwise, unless it can be shown that good bond conditions
exist.
fctd(t) = fctk,0,05(t) /γc, the design value of tensile strength at time of release
(2) The transmission length, lpt, is given by:

Ap σ pi
lpt = α 1 (8.14)
πφ f bpt
where
α1 = 1,0 for gradual release or
= 1,25 for sudden release
Ap nominal area of tendon
φ nominal diameter of tendon
Ap/πφ = (1/4)⋅φ for tendons with circular cross section
= (7/36)⋅φ for 7-wire strands
σpi stress in tendon just after release
(3) The design value of the transmission length should be taken as the less
favourable of two values, depending on the design situation:
lpt1 = 0,8 lpt (8.15)

or
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lpt2 = 1,2 lpt (8.16)

Normally the lower value should be used for verifications of local stresses at
release, the higher value for ultimate limit states (shear, anchorage etc.).
(4) Concrete stresses can be assumed to have a linear distribution after the
dispersion length, see Figure 8.14.
l disp = l pt2 + d 2 (8.17)
8.9.2.2 Anchorage with stresses above prestress (ultimate limit state)
(1) The bond strength for anchorage of stresses above the prestress is
fbpd = ηp2 η1 fctd (8.18)
where
ηp2 relates to the surface type of the tendon
= 1,4 for indented and crimped wires or
= 1,2 for 7-wire strands
η1 see 8.9.4.1 (1)
α2 considers the higher brittleness of high strength concrete
= 1,0 for fck ≤ 50 or
= 1,0 - (fck - 50) / 250 for fck > 50
fctd = fctk,0,05 /γc, the design value of the concrete tensile strength
Due to increasing brittleness with higher concrete strength, fctk,0,05 should not be
taken higher than the value for C55.
(2) The total anchorage length for anchoring a tendon stress σpd is
Ap σ pd − σ p∞
lbp = lpt2 + (8.19)
πφ f bpd
where
lpt2 upper design value of transmission length, see 8.9.4.1 (3)
Ap/πφ see 8.9.4.1 (1)
σpd tendon stress to be anchored
σp∞ prestress after all losses
(3) Stresses in the anchorage zone are illustrated in Figure 8.15.
8.9.3 Anchorage zones of post-tensioned members
(1) The design of anchorage zones should be in accordance with the application
rules given in this section and those in 9.8.
(2) When considering the effects of the prestress as a concentrated force on the
anchorage zone, the lower characteristic tensile strength of the tendon should be
used.
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Tendon
stress
σpd
σpi
σp oo
(1)
(2)
l pt1 Distance
l pt2 from end
l bp
Figure 8.15: Illustration of stresses in the anchorage zone for different design
situations: (1) at release of tendons, (2) at ultimate limit state
(3) The bearing stress behind anchorage plates should be calculated in accordance
with 9.8.
(4) Tensile forces due to concentrated forces should be assessed by a strut and tie
model, or other appropriate representation (see 6.5). The resulting reinforcement
should be detailed in accordance with 9.8, assuming that it is acting at its design
strength.
(5) The prestressing force may be assumed to disperse at an angle of spread 2β

(see Figure 8.16), starting at the end of the anchorage device, where β may be
assumed to be arc tan 2/3.
β tendon
β
β = arc tan(2/3) = 33.7°
Figure 8.16: Dispersion of prestress
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8.9.4 Anchorages and couplers for prestressing tendons
(1)P The anchorage devices used for post-tensioned tendons and the anchorage lengths in
the case of pre-tensioned tendons shall be such as to enable the full design strength of
the tendons to be developed, taking account of any repeated, rapidly changing action
effects.
(2)P Where couplers are used, these shall be so placed - taking account of the interference
caused by these devices - that they do not affect the bearing capacity of the member
and that any temporary anchorage which may be needed during construction can be
introduced in a satisfactory manner.
(3) Calculations for local effects in the concrete and for the transverse reinforcement
should be made in accordance with 6.5 and 8.9.3.
(4) In general, couplers should be located away from intermediate supports.
(5) The placing of couplers on 50% or more of the tendons at one cross-section
should be avoided unless it can be shown that a higher percentage will not cause
more risk to the safety of the structure.
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SECTION 9 DETAILING OF MEMBERS AND PARTICULAR REQUIREMENTS
(1)P The detailing of reinforcement shall be consistent with the design models adopted.
(2) In order to satisfy the requirements for safety, serviceability and durability the
following detailing rules should be satisfied. These include requirements for
minimum areas of reinforcement in order to prevent a brittle failure, wide cracks and
also to partly resist forces arising from restrained actions.
9.1 Beams
9.1.1.1 Minimum and maximum reinforcement areas
(1) The effective cross-sectional area of the longitudinal tension reinforcement should be
not less than that required to control cracking (see.7.3), nor less than:
0,20 ffctm
yk
bt.d≥0,0012bt .d (9.1)
where
bt denotes the mean width of the tension zone; for a T-beam with the flange in
compression, only the width of the web is taken into account in calculating
the value of bt. Sections containing less reinforcement than that given by
Expression (9.1) should be considered as unreinforced.
fctm should be determined with respect to the relevant indicative strength class
according to Table B1 in the Informative Annex B. Otherwise fctm should
not be smaller than 3 MPa.
(2) The cross-sectional areas of the tension reinforcement or the compression

reinforcement should not be greater than 0,04Ac outside lap locations.
9.1.1.2 Other detailing arrangements
(1) In monolithic construction, even when simple supports have been assumed in design,
the section should be designed for bending moment arising from partial fixity of at
least 15% of the maximum bending moment in the span.
(2) At intermediate supports of continuous beams, the total area of tension

reinforcement As of a flanged cross-section should be spread evenly over the
effective width of flange. (See Figure 9.1).
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EN 1992-1: 2001 (1st draft) FOR COMMENT ONLY
beff2
As
hf
b eff1 bw beff2
Figure 9.1: Placement of tension reinforcement in flanged cross-section.
9.1.1.3 Curtailment of longitudinal tension reinforcement
(1) The envelope of the acting tensile force, including the effect of inclined cracks in
webs and flanges, should be covered by the resistance of the reinforcement at all
sections.
(2) For members with shear reinforcement the additional tensile force Td is calculated
according to 6.2.4 (8). For members without shear reinforcement the additional
tensile force can be estimated by shifting the moment curve a distance al = d
according to 6.2.3 (4). The "shift rule" can be used as an alternative also for
members with shear reinforcement, using al = z (cot θ - cot α)/2 (symbols defined in
6.2.4). The additional tensile force is illustrated in Figure 9.2.
(3) The resistance of bars within their anchorage lengths can be taken into account,
assuming a linear variation of force, see Figure 9.2. As a conservative simplification
this contribution can be neglected.
(4) The anchorage length of a bent-up bar which contributes to the resistance to shear
should be not less than 1,3 lb,net in the tension zone and 0,7 lb,net in the compression
zone. It is measured from the point of intersection of the bent-up bar and the
longitudinal reinforcement.
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lb,net
Envelope of MEd/z + NEd
lb,net
Acting tensile force Fs
Resisting tensile force FRs

lb,net
Td
al
al
lb,net
Td lb,net
lb,net
lb,net l b,net
Figure 9.2: Illustration of the curtailment of longitudinal reinforcement, taking into

account the effect of inclined cracks and the resistance of reinforcement
within anchorage lengths.
9.1.1.4 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at an end support
(1) Over supports with little or no end fixity it is necessary to retain not less than
25% of the area of steel provided in the span.
(2) The force to be anchored may be determined according to 6.2.4 (8) (members with
shear reinforcement) with the contribution of the axial load if any, or according to the
shift rule:
FE = VEd . al / z + NEd (9.2)
Where NEd = axial load, positive in tension; al see 9.1.1.3 (1).
(3) The anchorage length is measured from the line of contact between the beam and its
support; it should generally be taken as lb,net for a direct or an indirect support (see
Figure 9.3 a) and Figure 9.3 b) respectively) with lb,net according to Expression (8.4).
A direct support is the case where the beam is supported by a wall or a column and
so is submitted to compressive stresses at its bottom face, but generally this should
not be taken into account to reduce the anchorage length.
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An indirect support is the case where the beam intersects another supporting beam
which has its own supports.
lb,net
0,7 l b,net
* *
0,7 lb,net
lb,net
a) direct support b) indirect support
Figure 9.3: Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at end supports
9.1.1.5 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at intermediate supports
(1) Area of reinforcement: 9.1.1.4 (1) applies.
(2) The anchorage length should not be less than 10φ (for straight bars) or not less than
the diameter of the mandrel (for hooks and bends) (see Figure 9.4 (a)). These
minimum values are normally valid but a more refined analysis may be performed
according to 6.6.
(3) The reinforcement required to resist accidental positive moment when relevant
(settlement of the support, explosion, etc.) should be specified in contract
documents. This reinforcement should be continuous, see Figure 9.4 (b). Continuity
may be achieved by means of lapped bars.
l b,net
dm φ
l 10 φ l dm l 10 φ
d m : diameter of mandrel
a) b)
Figure 9.4: Anchorage at intermediate supports
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(1) The shear reinforcement should form an angle of between 45° and 90° to the mid-
plane of the structural element.
(2) The shear reinforcement may consist of a combination of:
- links enclosing the longitudinal tension reinforcement and the compression

zone;
- bent-up bars;
- shear assemblies in the form of cages, ladders, etc. of high bond bars which
are cast in without enclosing the longitudinal reinforcement (see Figure 9.5),
but should be properly anchored in the compression and tension zones.
inner link
alternatives
enclosing link
a) b)
Figure 9.5: Examples for combinations of links and shear reinforcement
(3) Links should be effectively anchored. A lap joint on the leg near the surface of a rib is
permitted (for high bond bars only).
(4) At least 50% of the necessary shear reinforcement should be in the form of links.
(5) The ratio of shear reinforcement is given by Expression (9.3):
ρw = Asw / (s . bw . sinα) (9.3)
where:
ρw is the shear reinforcement ratio
Asw is the area of shear reinforcement within length s
s is the spacing of the shear reinforcement measured parallel to the main
bars
bw is the breadth of the web of the member
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α is the angle between the shear reinforcement and the main steel (i.e. for
vertical links α = 90° and sin α = 1)
but not less than the minimum value given by :
ρ w,min =( 0,08 fck ) / f y k
(6) The maximum longitudinal spacing smax of successive series of links or shear
assemblies is defined by
smax = 0,75d ≤ 400 mm
This limit may be exceeded for beams with depths greater than 1000 mm.
(7) The maximum longitudinal spacing of bent-up bars is defined by:
smax = 0,6 d (1 + cot α) (9.4)
(8) The transverse spacing of the legs in a series of shear links should not exceed:
smax = d ≤ 600 mm
9.1.3 Torsional reinforcement
(1) The torsion links should be closed and be anchored by means of laps or according to
Figure 9.5 and should form an angle of 90° with the axis of the structural element.
(2) The provisions of 9.1.2 (3), (5) and (6) are generally sufficient to provide the minimum
torsion links required. Where necessary and as required by analysis they should
comply with 9.1.3 (1) and the following.
(3) The longitudinal spacing of the torsion links should not exceed uk / 8 (see 6.3.2,
Figure 6.8, for the notation).
(4) The spacing in (3) above should also satisfy the requirements in 9.1.2 (7) for
maximum spacing of links.
(5) The longitudinal bars should be so arranged that there is at least one bar at each
corner, the others being distributed uniformly around the inner periphery of the links,
with a spacing not greater than 350mm.
9.1.4 Surface reinforcement
(1) It may be necessary to provide surface reinforcement either to control cracking or to

ensure adequate resistance to spalling of the cover.
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(2) Surface reinforcement to resist spalling (arising, for example, where bundled bars or
bars greater than 32 mm diameter are used) should consist of wire mesh or small
diameter high bond bars, and be placed outside the links as indicated in Figure 9.6.
(3) The minimum cover needed for the surface reinforcement is given in 4.4.(5)P .
(4) The area of surface reinforcement As,surf should be not less than 0,01 Act,ext in the
direction parallel to the beam tension reinforcement.
Act,ext denotes the area of the tensile concrete external to the links, defined by
Figure 9.6.
(5) The longitudinal bars of the surface reinforcement may be taken into account as
longitudinal bending reinforcement and the transverse bars as shear reinforcement
provided that they meet the requirements for the arrangement and anchorage of
these types of reinforcement.
A s,surf 0.01 A ct,ext

A ct,ext
A s,surf
sl st
Figure 9.6: Surface reinforcement
9.1.5 Indirect supports
(1)P In the case of a connection between a supporting beam and a supported beam, supporting
reinforcement shall be provided and designed to resist the total mutual support reaction.
This reinforcement is in addition to that required for other reasons.
(2) The supporting reinforcement should consist of links surrounding the principal
reinforcement of the supporting member. Some of these links may be distributed
outside the volume of concrete which is common to the two beams, as indicated in
Figure 9.7.
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supported beam
≤ h 2 /3
≤ h 2 /2
≤ h 1 /3
supporting beam
≤ h 1 /2
h1 height of the supporting beam
h2 height of the supported beam (h2 < h1)
Figure 9.7: Extent of the intersection zone of two beams (plan view)
(1) Restraining moments may be resisted by top reinforcement placed in the topping or
in the open cores of hollow core units. In the former case the horizontal shear in the
connection should be checked according to 6.2.6. The length of the top
reinforcement should be in accordance with 9.1.1.3.
(2) Unintended restraining effects at the supports of simply supported floors should be
considered when detailing.
9.2 Solid slabs
(1) This section applies to one-way and two-way solid slabs for which b and leff are not
less than 4h (see 5.3.1).
9.2.1 Minimum thickness
(1) The thickness of a solid slab, even one lightly loaded with a small span, should not be
less than 50 mm. For slabs subjected to traffic vehicles this minimum should be
increased to 100 or 120 mm depending on the level of the loads.
9.2.2 Flexural reinforcement
9.2.2.1 General
(1) For the detailing of the main reinforcement, 9.1 applies with al = d.
(2) Generally secondary transverse reinforcement of not less than 20% of the principal
reinforcement should be provided in one way slabs. In areas near supports
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secondary transverse reinforcement to principal top bars is not necessary where
there is no transverse bending moment.
(3) 9.1.1.1 (1) and (2) give the minimum and the maximum steel percentages in the main
direction.
(4) The maximum spacing of the bars are as follows:
- for the principal reinforcement, 3h ≤ 400 mm, where h is the total depth of the
slab;
- for the secondary reinforcement, 3,5h ≤ 450 mm .
In areas with concentrated loads or areas of maximum moment those provisions

become respectively:
- for the principal reinforcement, 2h ≤ 250 mm
- for the secondary reinforcement, 3h ≤ 400 mm .
(5) Rules 9.1.1.3 (1) - (3), 9.1.1.4 (1) - (3) and 9.1.1.5 (1) - (2) also apply.
9.2.2.2 Reinforcement in slabs near supports
(1) In slabs, half the calculated span reinforcement should continue up to the support and
be anchored therein in accordance with 8.4.2.3.
(2) Where partial fixity occurs along a side of slab, but is not taken into account in the
analysis, the top reinforcement should be capable of resisting not less than 25% of
the maximum moment in the adjacent span. This reinforcement should have a length
of not less than 0,2 times the length of the adjacent span, measured from the face of
the support. At an end support the moment to be resisted is reduced to 15% of the
maximum moment in the adjacent span.
9.2.2.3 Corner reinforcement
(1) If the detailing arrangements at a support are such that lifting of the slab at a corner is
restrained, suitable reinforcement should be provided.
9.2.2.4 Reinforcement at the free edges
(1) Along a free (unsupported) edge, a slab should normally contain longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement, generally arranged as shown in Figure 9.8.
(2) The normal reinforcement provided for a slab may act as edge reinforcement.
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U - shaped link
free edge
h
2h longitudinal
reinforcement
Figure 9.8: Edge reinforcement for a slab
(1) A slab in which shear reinforcement is provided should have a depth of at least 200
mm. This value can be reduced to 150 mm where a beam is embedded in a slab.
Where the slab thickness is less than 200mm, special care should be taken in
design and construction to ensure that the shear reinforcement is correctly placed.
Sufficient anchorage lengths should be provided above and below the points where
shear cracks form.
(2) In detailing the shear reinforcement, 9.1.2 applies, with regard to shear reinforcement
ratio and its minimum value, except where modified by the following rules such as for
spacing.
(3) In slabs, if VEd ≤ 1/3 VRd,max, (see 6.2), the shear reinforcement may consist entirely
of bent-up bars or of shear reinforcement assemblies.
(4) The maximum longitudinal spacing of successive series of links is given by smax
=0,75d(1+cotα ) where α is the inclination of the shear reinforcement. The maximum
longitudinal spacing of bent-up bars is smax = d.
(5) The distance between the face of a support, or the circumference of a loaded area,
and the nearest shear reinforcement taken into account in the design should not
exceed d/2 for bent-up bars. This distance should be taken at the level of the flexural
reinforcement; if only a single line of bent-up bars is provided, their slope may be
reduced to 30°. (Figure 9.9)
(6) It may be assumed that one bent-up bar takes up the shear force over a length of 2d.
(7) Only the following reinforcement should be taken into account as punching shear
reinforcement:
- reinforcement located in a zone bounded by a perimeter situated at a

distance not exceeding 1,5d or 800 mm, whichever is the smaller, from the
periphery of the loaded area;
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- bent-up bars passing over the loaded area or at a distance not exceeding
0,25d from this area (see Figure 9.9 d)).
smax ≤ 0,75 d < 0,5 d

d
smax ≤ d
a) Maximum spacing of links b) Maximum spacing of bent-up bars
≤ 0,25d
< 0,5d
≅ 2d
c) Single line of bent-up bars d) Bent-up bars for punching shear
Figure 9.9: Shear reinforcement near to a support
9.3 Columns
(1) This clause deals with columns for which the larger dimension b is not greater than 4
times the smaller dimension h.
9.3.1 Minimum dimensions
(1) The minimum permissible transverse dimension of a column cross-section is:
- 140 mm for columns of solid section, cast in situ (vertically) and for precast
columns cast horizontally.
(1) Bars should have a diameter of not less than 8 mm.
(2) The minimum amount of total longitudinal reinforcement As,min should be derived from
the following condition:
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As,min = 0,10fydNSd or 0,002 Ac whichever is the greater
where:
fyd is the design yield strength of the reinforcement
NEd is the design axial compression force
(3) The area of reinforcement should not exceed the upper limit of 0,04 Ac outside lap
locations. This limit is increased to 0,08 Ac at laps.
(4) For columns having a polygonal cross-section, at least one bar shall be placed at
each corner. For columns of circular cross-section the minimum number of bars is 6.
(1) The diameter of the transverse reinforcement (links, loops or helical spiral
reinforcement) should not be less than 6mm or one quarter of the maximum diameter
of the longitudinal bars, whichever is the greater. The diameter of the wires of welded
mesh fabric for transverse reinforcement should not be less than 5 mm.
(2) The transverse reinforcement should be adequately anchored.
(3) The spacing of the transverse reinforcement along the column should not exceed the
lesser of the following three distances:
- 20 times the minimum diameter of the longitudinal bars
- the lesser dimension of the column
- 400 mm
(4) The maximum spacing required in (3) should be reduced by a factor 0,6:
(i) in sections within a distance equal to the larger dimension of the column
cross-section above or below a beam or slab;
(ii) near lapped joints, if the maximum diameter of the longitudinal bars is greater
than 14 mm.
(5) Where the direction of the longitudinal bars changes, (e.g. at changes in column
size), the spacing of transverse reinforcement should be calculated, taking account of
the lateral forces involved.
(6) Every longitudinal bar (or group of longitudinal bars) placed in a corner should be
held by transverse reinforcement. The rule applies for bars of diameter ≥ 20 mm
even if they are not placed in corners.
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9.4 Walls
9.4.1 General
(1) This clause deals with reinforced concrete walls where length measured horizontally
is equal to at least four times the thickness, and in which the reinforcement is taken
into account in the strength analysis. The amount and proper detailing of
reinforcement may be derived from a strut and tie model (see 6.5). For walls
subjected predominantly to out-of-plane bending the rules for slabs apply (see 9.2).
9.4.2 Vertical reinforcement
(1) The area of the vertical reinforcement should be between 0,002 Ac and 0,04 Ac.
(2) Where the minimum area of reinforcement governs, half of this area should be
located at each face.
(3) The distance between two adjacent vertical bars shall not exceed three times the wall
thickness or 400 mm whichever is the lesser.
9.4.3 Horizontal reinforcement
(1) Horizontal reinforcement running parallel to the faces of the wall (and to the free
edges) should be provided and arranged at each surface between the vertical
reinforcement and the nearest surface. It should not be less than either 25% of the
vertical reinforcement or 0,001 Ac.
(2) The spacing between two adjacent horizontal bars should not be greater than 400
mm.
(1) In any part of a wall where the area of the vertical reinforcement on its two faces
exceeds 0,02 Ac transverse reinforcement in the form of links should be provided in
accordance with the requirements for columns (see 9.3.3)
9.4.5.1 Wall to floor connections
(1) In wall elements installed over floor slabs where the vertical load ≤ 0,5h.fcd, where h is
the thickness in the end of the wall, no specific calculation is required. The load may
be increased to 0,6h.fcd if the reinforcement is as shown in Figure 9.10, with area ≥
h/(8⋅104) per unit length, diameter ≥ 6 mm and spacing ≤ h or 200 mm whichever is
the lesser.
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(2) For loads > 0,5h.fcd (or 0,6h.fcd as above) reinforcement should be provided for
possible eccentricities and concentrations of the vertical load in the end of the wall.
Asw
As h/2
Figure 9.10: Detailing of reinforcement in a wall over a connection between two

floors slabs.
9.4.5.2 Sandwich panels
(1) In the structural leaf of a sandwich panel, the minimum reinforcement on each surface
and in the horizontal and vertical directions should not be less than 130 mm2/m.
Normally edge reinforcement may be placed in one layer.
In a non-structural leaf of sandwich panel, the reinforcement may be placed in one

layer.
9.5 Deep beams
(1) The reinforcement, corresponding to the ties considered in the design model, should
be fully anchored for equilibrium in the node, see 6.5.3 (7), by bending up the bars, by
using U-hoops or by anchorage devices, unless a sufficient length is available
between the node and the end of the beam permitting an anchorage length of lb,net .
(2) Deep beams should be provided with distributed reinforcement near their two
surfaces. This may consist of an orthogonal mesh for each surface with at least 0,001
Ac in each direction.
9.6 Precast floor systems
(1)P The detailing of floor systems shall be consistent with assumptions in analysis and design.
Relevant product standards shall be considered.
(2)P Where transverse load distribution between adjacent units has been taken into account,
appropriate shear connection shall be provided.
(3)P The effects of possible restraints of precast units shall be considered, even if simple
supports have been assumed in design.
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(4) Shear transfer in connections may be achieved in different ways. Three main types
are distinguished here, see Figure 9.10.
a) concreted or grouted connections
b) welded or bolted connections

(figure shows one type of welded
connection as an example)
c) reinforced topping
Figure 9.10 : Examples of connections for shear transfer.
(5) Transverse distribution of loads should be based on analysis or tests, taking into
account possible load variations between precast elements. The resulting shear
force between floor units should be considered in the design of connections and
adjacent parts of elements (e.g. outside ribs or webs).
For floors with uniformly distributed load, and in the absence of a more accurate
analysis, this shear force may taken as
vEd = qEd⋅be (9.5)
where
qEd is the design value of imposed load
be is the width along the connection and may be taken as 0,5 m
(6) Where precast floors are assumed to act as diaphragms to transfer horizontal loads
to bracing units, the following should be considered:
- the diaphragm should form part of a realistic structural model, taking into account
the deformation compatibility with bracing units
- the effects of horizontal deformations should be taken into account for all parts of
the structure involved in the transfer of horizontal loads
- the diaphragm should be reinforced for tensile forces in the assumed structural
model
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- stress concentrations at openings and connections should be taken into account in
the detailing of reinforcement
(7) Transverse reinforcement for shear transfer across connections in the diaphragm
may be concentrated along supports, forming ties consistent with the structural
model. This reinforcement may be placed in a topping, if one exists.
(8) Precast units with a topping of at least 40 mm may be designed as composite

members, if shear in the interface is verified according to 6.2.6, see also 9.7.2.3. The
precast unit should be checked for all stages of construction, before and after
composite action has become effective.
(9) Transverse reinforcement for bending and other action effects may lie entirely within
the topping. The detailing should be consistent with the structural model, e.g. if two-
way spanning is assumed.
(10) Webs or ribs in isolated slab units (i.e. units which are not connected for shear
transfer) should be provided with shear reinforcement as for beams.
(11) Floors with ribs and blocks without topping may be analysed as solid slabs, if there
are transverse ribs at a spacing sT according to Table 9.1.
Table 9. 1. Maximum spacing of transverse ribs for the analysis of floors with ribs
and block as solid slabs. sL = spacing of longitudinal ribs, lL = length
(span) of longitudinal ribs, d = thickness of ribbed floor.
Type of imposed loading sL ≤ lL/8 sL > lL/8
Residential, snow load not relevant sT ≤ 12 d
Other loads sT ≤ 10 d sT ≤ 8 d
9.7 Connections and supports for precast elements
9.7.1 Materials
9.7.1.1 General
(1)P Connection materials shall be

• stable and durable for the lifetime of the structure
• chemically and physically compatible
• protected against adverse chemical and physical influences
• fire resistant in accordance with the fire resistance of the structure.
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9.7.1.2 Supporting pads
(1)P Supporting pads shall have strength and deformation properties in accordance with the
design assumptions.
9.7.1.3 Metal fastenings for cladding
(1)P This clause applies to permanent metal fastenings for cladding, not protected against the
environment, for classes other than X0 and XC1 (table 4.1)P.
(2)P Metals for fastening shall be of corrosion resistant material if not inspectable, and of
corrosion resistant or coated material if inspectable.
(3)P The suitability of the material shall be verified before undertaking welding, annealing or cold
forming.
9.7.2 Design and detailing of connections
9.7.2.1 General requirements
(1)P Connections shall be able to resist action effects consistent with design assumptions, to
accommodate the necessary deformations and to ensure robust behaviour of the structure.
(2)P Premature splitting or spalling of concrete at the ends of elements shall be prevented, taking
into account
• relative movements between elements
• tolerances
• assembly requirements
• ease of execution
• ease of inspection
(3) Resistance and stiffness of connections may be based on analysis or tests.

Imperfections should be taken into account. Design values based on tests should
allow for unfavourable deviations from testing conditions.
9.7.2.2 Connections transmitting compressive forces
(1) Shear forces may be neglected in compression connections if they are less than
10% of the compressive force.
(2) For connections with bedding materials like mortar, concrete or hardening polymers,
relative movement between the connected surfaces should be prevented during
hardening of the material.
(3) Connections without bedding material (dry connections) should only be used where
appropriate quality of workmanship can be achieved. The average bearing stress
between plane surfaces should not exceed 0,4 fcd. Dry connections including curved
(convex) surfaces should be designed with due consideration of the geometry.
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(4) Transverse tensile stresses in adjacent elements should be considered. They may
be due to concentrated compression according to Figure 9.11a, or to the expansion
of a soft padding according to Figure 9.11b. Reinforcement in case a) may be
designed and located according to 6.5. Reinforcement in case b) should be placed
close to the surfaces of the connected elements.
(5) The maximum capacity of compression connections can be determined according to

6.7, or by testing.
a) b)
Figure 9.11 : Transverse tensile stresses at compression connections.

a) Concentrated bearing. b) Expansion of soft padding.
9.7.2.3 Connections transmitting shear forces
(1) This clause deals with connections between adjacent precast units or between a
precast unit and in-situ concrete. The shear capacity depends on the quality of the
surfaces involved. Design rules are given in 6.2.6.
(2) Surfaces are classified as very smooth, smooth, rough or indented, with the
following examples:
- Very smooth: a surface cast against steel, plastic or specially prepared

wooden moulds.
- Smooth: a slip-formed or extruded surface, or a free surface left without

further treatment after vibration.
- Rough: a surface with at least 3 mm roughness at about 40 mm spacing,

achieved by raking, exposing the aggregate or other methods giving an
equivalent behaviour.
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- Indented: a surface with indentations complying with Figure 9.12.
l2
θ d
l1
Figure 9.12 : Indented surface. d ≥ 5 mm, l1 ≤ 10 d, l2 ≤ 10 d, θ ≥ 60°.

Minimum d is net value after taking account of tolerance.
9.7.2.4 Connections transmitting bending moments or tensile forces
(1)P Reinforcement shall be continuous across the connection and anchored in the adjacent
elements.
(2) Continuity may be obtained by, for example

- lapping of bars
- grouting of reinforcement into holes
- overlapping reinforcement loops
- welding of bars or steel plates
- prestressing
- mechanical devices (threaded or filled sleeves)
- swaged connectors
9.7.2.5 Half joints
(1) Half joints may be designed using strut-and-tie models according to 6.5. Two alternative
models and reinforcements are indicated in Figure 9.13. The two models may be
combined.
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Figure 9.13 : Indications of models and reinforcement for half joints.

The figure shows only the main features of strut-and-tie models.
9.7.2.6 Anchorage of reinforcement at supports
(1) Reinforcement in supporting and supported members should be detailed to ensure

anchorage in the respective node, allowing for tolerances. An example is shown in
Figure 9.14.
The effective bearing length a1 can be taken into account at a distance d from the
edge of the respective element:
d = c + ∆a with horizontal loops or otherwise end anchored bars

d = c + ∆a + r with vertically bent bars
See Figure 9.14 and 9.7.3.2 for definitions.
d > a1+∆a3 c
c > a1 +∆a2 d
Figure 9.14. Example of detailing of reinforcement in support.

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9.7.3 Bearings
9.7.3.1 General
(1)P The proper functioning of bearings shall be ensured by reinforcement in adjacent members,
limitation of bearing stress and measures to account for movement or restraint.
(2)P For bearings which do not permit sliding or rotation without significant restraint, actions due
to creep, shrinkage, temperature, misalignment, lack of plumb etc. shall be taken into
account in the design of adjacent members.
(3) The effects of (2)P may require transverse reinforcement in supporting and
supported members, and/or continuity reinforcement for tying elements together.
They may also influence the design of main reinforcement in such members.
(4)P Bearings shall be designed and detailed to ensure correct positioning, taking into account
production and assembling tolerances.
(5)P Possible effects of prestressing anchorages and their recesses shall be taken into account.
9.7.3.2 Bearings for connected 1 members
(1) The nominal length a of a simple bearing as shown in Figure 9.15 may be calculated
as
∆ a2 + ∆ a3
2 2
a = a1 + a2 + a3 + (9.6)
where
a1 net bearing length with regard to bearing stress, a1 = FEd / (b1 fRd ), but not less
than minimum values in Table 9.2
FEd design value of support reaction
b1 net bearing width, see (3)
fRd design value of bearing strength, see (2)
a2 distance assumed ineffective from outer end of supporting member, see Figure
9.14 and Table 9.3
a3 same for supported member, see Figure 9.14 and Table 9.4
∆a2 allowance for tolerances of the distance between supporting members, see
Table 9.14
∆a3 allowance for tolerances of the length of the supported member, ∆a3 = ln/2500,
ln is length of member
(2) In the absence of other specifications, the following values can be used for the
bearing strength:
fRd = 0,4 fcd for dry connections according to 9.7.3.2 (3)

fRd = fbed ≤ 0,85 fcd otherwise
1
Proposed to replace the term ”non-isolated”, and to be defined in Section 1.
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where
fcd the lowest design strength of supported and supporting member
fbed design strength of bedding material
(3) If measures are taken to obtain a uniform distribution of the bearing pressure, e.g.
with mortar, neoprene or similar pads, the design bearing width b1 may be taken as
the actual width of the bearing. Otherwise, and in the absence of a more accurate
analysis, b1 should be limited to 600 mm.
Table 9.2. Minimum value of a1 in mm.
Relative bearing stress, σEd / fcd ≤ 0,15 0,15 - 0,4 > 0,4
Line supports (floors, roofs) 25 30 40
Ribbed floors and purlins 55 70 80
Concentrated supports (beams) 90 110 140
a3+∆a3 a1 a2+∆a2
a
b1
a1
Figure 9.15: Example of bearing with definitions.
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Table 9.3. Distance a2 (mm) assumed ineffective from outer end of supporting
member. Concrete repartition beam should be used in cases (-).
Support material and type σEd / fcd ≤ 0,15 0,15 - 0,4 > 0,4
Steel line 0 0 10
concentrated 5 10 15
Reinforced line 5 10 15
concrete ≥ C30 concentrated 10 15 25
Plain concrete and line 10 15 25
rein. concrete < C30 concentrated 20 25 35
Brickwork line 10 15 (-)
concentrated 20 25 (-)
Table 9.4. Distance a3 (mm) assumed ineffective from outer end of supported
member.
Detailing of reinforcement Support

Line Concentrated
Continuous bars over support 0 0
(restrained or not)
Straight bars, horizontal or vertical loops, φ 15, but not less
5
≤ 12 mm, close to end of member than end cover
Tendons or straight bars 5 15
exposed at end of member
Vertical loop reinforcement, end cover + inner
15
φ > 12 mm radius of bending
Table 9.5. Allowance ∆a2 for tolerance on the clear distance between the faces of
the supports. l = span length.
Support material ∆a2

Steel or precast concrete 10 ≤ l/1200 ≤ 30 mm
Brickwork or cast in-situ concrete 15 ≤ l/1200 + 5 ≤ 40 mm
9.7.3.3 Bearings for isolated members
(1)P The nominal length shall be 20 mm greater than for connected members.
(2)P If the bearing allows movements in the support, the net bearing length shall be increased to
cover possible movements.
(3)P If a member is tied to the support at a level away from that of the bearing, the net bearing
length a1 shall be increased to cover the effect of possible rotation around the tie.
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9.8 Anchorage zones for post-tensioning forces.
(1) Anchorage zones should always be provided with distributed reinforcement near all
surfaces in the form of an orthogonal mesh.
(2) Where groups of post-tensioned cables are located at a certain distance from each
other, suitable links should be arranged at the ends of the members, as a protection
against splitting.
(3) The reinforcement ratio should be at least 0.15% in both directions.
(4) All reinforcement should be fully anchored.
(5) where a strut and tie model has been used to determine the transverse tensile force,
the following detailing rules should be followed:
- the steel area actually required to provide the tie force, acting at its design
strength, should be distributed in accordance with the actual tensile stress
distribution, i.e. over a length of the block approximately equal to its greatest
lateral dimension. This tie force is calculated assuming a prestressing force
based on fpk.
- closed links should be used for anchorage purposes.
- all the anchorage reinforcement should preferably be formed into a 3-

dimensional orthogonal grid.
(6) Special attention should be given to anchorage zones having cross sections different
in shape from that of the general cross-section of the beam.
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9.9 Foundations
9.9.1 Pile caps
(1) The distance from the outer edge of the pile to the edge of the pile cap should be
such that the tie forces in the pile cap can be properly anchored. The expected
deviation of the pile on site should be taken into account.
(2) The main tensile reinforcement to resist the action effects should be distributed
across the pile cap but concentrated in the stress zones between the tops of the
piles. The sides and the top surface of the member may be unreinforced if there is
no risk of tension failure in these parts of the member.
(3) Welded transverse bars may be used for the anchorage of the tension
reinforcement, provided that it is a full strength weld. In this case the transverse
bar may be considered to be part of the transverse reinforcement in the
anchorage zone of the reinforcement bar considered.
(4) The compression caused by the support reaction from the pile may be assumed to
spread at 45 degree angles from the edge of the pile (see Figure 9.15). This
compression may be taken into account when calculating the anchorage length.
1 Compressed area
Figure 9.15: Compressed area increasing the anchorage capacity
9.9.2 Column and wall footings
(1) The main reinforcement should be anchored in accordance with the requirements
of 8.4 and 8.5. In footings the design model shown in 9.9.8 may be used
(2) The main reinforcement of circular footings may be orthogonal and concentrated
in the middle of the footing for a width of 50% ± 10% of the diameter of the footing,
see Figure 9.16. In this case the unreinforced parts of the structure should be
considered as plain concrete for design purposes.
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Figure 9.16: Orthogonal reinforcement in circular spread footing on soil
(3) If the action effects cause tension at the upper surface of the footing the resulting
tensile stresses should be checked and reinforced as necessary.
9.9.3 Tie beams
(1) Tie beams may be used to eliminate the eccentricity of loading of the foundations.
The beams should be designed to resist the resulting bending moments and shear
forces.
(2) Tie beams should also be designed for a minimum downward load of 10 kN/m if
the action of compaction machinery can cause effects to the tie beams.
9.9.4 Column footing on rock
(1) Adequate transverse reinforcement should be provided to resist the splitting

forces in the footing, when the ground pressure in the ultimate states exceeds
5 MPa. This reinforcement may be distributed uniformly in the direction of the
splitting force over the height h (see Figure 9.17).
Figure 9.17: Splitting reinforcement in footing on rock

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(2) The splitting force FS may be calculated as follows, see Figure 9.17
FS = 0,25 NSd (h + c) /h (9.7)
Figure 9.18: Geometric model for determination of splitting force
9.9.5 Bored piles
(1) The following clauses apply for reinforced bored piles. Rules for unreinforced
bored piles should be taken from the relevant standards.
(2) In order to allow the free flow of concrete around the reinforcement it is of primary
importance that reinforcement, reinforcement cages and any attached inserts are
detailed such that the flow of concrete is not adversely affected.
(3) Bored piles with diameters not exceeding 600 mm should be provided with the
minimum longitudinal reinforcement area given in Table 9.6, which should be
distributed along the periphery of the section.
Table 9.6: Minimum longitudinal reinforcement area in cast in placed bored piles
Pile cross section: Ac Minimum area of longitudinal

reinforcement: AS
Ac ≤ 0,5 m² AS ≥ 0,005 ⋅ Ac
0,5 m² < Ac ≤ 1,0 m² AS ≥ 2500 mm2
Ac > 1,0 m² AS ≥ 0,0025 ⋅ Ac
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(4) The diameter for the longitudinal bars should not be less than 12 mm. Piles should
have at least 4 longitudinal bars. The clear distance between bars should not
exceed 200 mm measured along the periphery of the pile.
(5) For the detailing of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in bored piles, see
EN 1536.
9.9.6 Pocket Foundations
(1)P Concrete pockets shall be capable of transferring vertical actions, bending moments and
horizontal shears from columns to the soil. The pocket shall be large enough to enable a
good concrete filling below and around the column.
a) Pockets with keyed surfaces
(2) Pockets expressly wrought with indentations or keys may be considered as

monolithic foundations.
(3) Where vertical tension due to moment transfer occurs careful detailing of the
overlap reinforcement of the column and the foundation is needed, allowing for the
fact that the lapped bars are separated. The lap length according to 8.6 should be
increased by at least the horizontal distance between the column bar in the
foundation (see Fig. 9.19 a ) Adequate horizontal reinforcement for the lapped
splice should be provided.
(4) The punching shear design should be as for monolithic column/foundation

connection according to section 6.4, as shown in Figure 9.19 a, provided the
shear transfer between the column and footing is assured. Otherwise the
punching shear design should be as for pockets with smooth surfaces.
b) Pockets with smooth surfaces
(5) The forces and the moment may be assumed to be transferred from column to
foundation by compressive forces F1, F2, F3 through the concrete filling and
corresponding friction forces, as shown in Figure 9.19 b. This model requires l ≥
1,2 h.
(6) The coefficient of friction should not be taken greater than µ = 0,3.
(7) This model requires that special attention is paid to:
- detailing of reinforcement for F1 in top of pocket walls

- transfer of F1 along the lateral walls to the footing
- anchorage of mean reinforcement in the column and pocket walls
- shear resistance of column ends
- punching resistance of the footing slab under the column force, the
calculation for which may take into account the insitu structural concrete
placed under the precast element.
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a) b)
Figure 9.19: (a) Pocket Foundation with Keyed Joint Surface, (b) Pocket
Foundation with Smooth Joint Surface
9.9.7 Anchorage by welded bars
(1) The anchorage should generally comply with sections 8.4 and 8.5.
(2) Welded transverse bars may be used for the anchorage of reinforcing bars, if the
quality of the welded joints are shown to be adequate. The anchoring capacity of
one such welded transverse bar (diameter 14 mm- 32 mm), Fbtd can be calculated
as follows:
Fbtd = ltd φ t σtd ≤ Fwd (9.8)
where: (see also Figure 9.20)
Fwd Design shear strength of weld: Fw d = As ⋅ fyd , where As is the cross-

section of the anchored bar and fyd is its design yield strength.
ltd design length of transverse bar: ltd = 1,16 φ t (fyd/σtd)0,5 ≤ ltd
lt length of transverse bar, but not more than the spacing of bars to be
anchored.
φt diameter of transverse bar
σtd concrete stress; σtd = (ftd 0,05+σcm)/y ≤ 3 fcd, (ftd 0,05 is positive)
σcm compression in the concrete perpendicular to both bars (mean
value, positive for compression)
y function: y = 0,015 + 0,14 e (-0,18x)
x function accounting for the geometry: x = 2 (c/φ t) + 1
c concrete cover perpendicular to both bars
(3) If two bars of the same size are welded on opposite sides of the bar to be
anchored the capacity given by Expression 9.8 should be doubled.
(4) If two bars are welded to the same side with a minimum spacing of 3φ, the
capacity should be multiplied by a factor of 1,41.
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φt
Fwd
Fwd
σcm
Figure 9.20: Welded transverse bar as anchoring device
(5) Anchorage capacity of welded transverse bars in B 500 grade steel is given in
Table 9.7.
(6) For the steel grade B 500 and nominal bar diameters of 12 mm and less, the
anchoring capacity of a welded cross bar is mainly dependent on the design
strength of the welded joint. The anchoring capacity of a welded cross bar for
sizes of maximum 12 mm may be calculated as follows:
Fbtd = Fw d ≤ 16 As fcd φ t / φ l (9.9)
where:
Fwd design shear strength of weld: guaranteed relative weld strength Fw d
= As fyd
φt nominal diameter of transverse bar: φ t ≤ 12 mm
φl nominal diameter of bar to anchor: φ l ≤ 12 mm
If two welded cross bars with a minimum spacing of φ t are used, the anchorage
capacity given by expression 9.9 should be multiplied by a factor of 1,41.
Table 9.7: Relative anchoring capacity for welded transverse reinforcement of

grade B500
Ratio Fbtd / Fwd for concrete grade

C 20/25 C 25/30 C 30/37 C 35/45
σcm [N/mm²] 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2 0 1 2
φt / φ l=16/16 0,26 0,43 0,43 0,30 0,47 0,47 0,34 0,50 0,50 0,39 0,50 0,50
20/20 0,22 0,42 0,43 0,25 0,44 0,47 0,29 0,46 0,50 0,33 0,47 0,50
25/25 0,19 0,36 0,43 0,22 0,39 0,47 0,25 0,42 0,50 0,29 0,44 0,55
32/32 0,17 0,32 0,43 0,19 0,34 0,46 0,22 0,37 0,47 0,25 0,40 0,49
Notes :
1) The size of the transverse bar is the same as the bar to be anchored
2) The effective length of the transverse bar is at least 4 times the bar diameter
3) The concrete cover is at least 50 mm or more.
4) Maximum considered weld strength Fwd = 0,5 As fy d
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9.9.8 Anchorage of bars in column and wall footings
(1) The tensile force in the reinforcement is determined from equilibrium conditions,
taking into account the effect of inclined cracks, see Figure 9.21. The tensile force
Fs at a location x should be anchored in the concrete within the same distance x
from the edge of the footing.
ze NEd
b
e
Fc
zi d h
Fs Fs,max
A B
lb
x
Figure 9.21: Model for tensile force with regard to inclined cracks
(2) The tensile force to be anchored is given by:
FS = R ⋅ ze/zi (9.10)
where:
R resultant of ground pressure within distance x
ze external lever arm, i.e. distance between R and the vertical force NSd
NSd vertical force corresponding to total ground pressure between
sections A and B
zi internal lever arm, i.e. distance between the reinforcement and the
horizontal force Fc
Fc compressive force corresponding to maximum tensile force Fs,max
(3) Lever arms ze and zi can be determined with regard to the necessary compression
zones for NSd and Fc respectively. As simplifications, ze can be determined
assuming e = 0,15 ⋅ b, see Figure 9.21, and zi can be taken as 0,9 ⋅ d.
(4) The available anchorage length for straight bars is denoted lb in Figure 9.21. If this
length is not sufficient to anchor FS, bars can either be bent up to increase the
available length or be provided with end anchorage devices.
(5) For straight bars without end anchorage the minimum value of x is the most
critical. As a simplification x min = h/2 can be assumed. For other types of
anchorage, higher values of x may be more critical.
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9.10 Regions with discontinuity in geometry or action
P(1) D-Regions shall be designed with strut-and-tie models according to section 6.5 and
detailed according to the rules given in chapter 8. The following simple rules are deemed
to satisfy this requirement.
P(2) The reinforcement, corresponding to the ties considered in the strut-and-tie model, shall
be fully anchored beyond the nodes by bending up the bars, by using U-hoops or by
anchorage devices, unless a sufficient length is available between the node and the end
of the considered member permitting an anchorage of lb,net according to 8.4.
9.10.1 Frame corners
(a) Frame corners with closing moments
(1) For approximately equal depths of column and beam (2/3 < h2/h1 3/2) (see Figure
9.22) no check of stirrup reinforcement or anchorage lengths within the beam
column joint is needed, provided that all the longitudinal reinforcement of the
beam is bent around the corner.
a) b)
Figure 9.22: Frame corner with closing moment with approximately equal depths
of column and beam; (a) strut-and-tie model and (b) detailing of
reinforcement
(2) A possible standard solution for a frame corner with a ratio of beam height to
column height > 1,5 is shown in Figure 9.23. An appropriate anchorage length lb,net
for the transverse reinforcement beyond the nodes should be secured for a tensile
force ∆T = T1 - T2 (outer reinforcement).
a) b)
Figure 9.23: Frame corner with closing moments with different depths of column
and beam; (a) strut-and-tie model and (b) detailing of reinforcement
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(b) Frame corners with opening moments
(3) For approximately equal depths of column and beam (2/3 < h2/h1 3/2) (see Fig.
9.24) detailing should be performed with regard to the outer compressive
stresses. For compressive stresses σc ≤ 0,6 fcd Figure 9.24(a) apply and for
compressive stresses σc ≤ 0,8 fcd Figure 9.25(a). An appropriate anchorage length
of the reinforcement shown in Figures 9.24 (b), (c) and 9.25 (b), (c) according to
section 8.4 should be provided.
a) b) c)
Figure 9.24: Frame corner with opening moment with approximately equal depths
of column and beam - σ c ≤ 0,6 fcd; (a) strut-and-tie model and (b),(c)
detailing of reinforcement
a) b) c)
Figure 9.25: Frame corner with opening moment with approximately equal depths
of column and beam - σ c ≤ 0,8 fcd; (a) strut-and-tie model and (b),(c)
detailing of reinforcement
(4) Frame corners with a ratio of beam height to column height > 1,5 can be detailed
according to Figure 9.26. An appropriate anchorage length of the reinforcement
shown in Figures 9.26 (b) according to 8.4 should be provided.
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a) b) c)
Figure 9.26: Frame corner with opening moment with different depths of column
and beam; (a) strut-and-tie model and (b),(c) detailing of
reinforcement
9.10.2 Corbels
(1)P Corbels shall be designed using strut-and-tie models as described in 6.5. If a > z the
corbel may be designed as a linear member (cantilever).
(2) In addition to the main chord reinforcement, closed horizontal or inclined stirrups
with As,stir ≥ 0,5 As,chord should be provided if ac < 0,5 hc (Fig. 9.27) and FSd > 0,3
VRd,max (see 6.2).
Anchorage
devices or loops
Stirrups
a) b)
Figure 9.27: Strut-and-tie model and reinforcement for a corbel with a c ≤ 0,5 hc
(3) If ac > 0,5 hc and FSd > VRd,ct (see 6.2), closed vertical stirrups As,stir ≥ Fwd/fyd
(where F w d=0,7 FSd) should be provided in addition to the main chord
reinforcement (see Fig. 9.28)
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Anchorage
devices or
Structural loops
reinforce-
ment
Stirrups
for 0,7 FSd
a) b)
Figure 9.28: Strut-and-tie model for a corbel with 0,4 hc ≤ ac ≤ hc and reinforcement
for a corbel with a c > 0,5 hc (for reinforcement with a c ≤ 0,5 hc see
Figure 9.27).
(4) For the anchorage of the main chord reinforcement in node 2 of Figure 9.27 and
9.28 it is recommended to use relatively small diameter bars in form of horizontal
U-loops in several layers. Instead of loops, the bars may end with anchor plates or
with a welded transverse bar of equal diameter near the outer surface. For bars
bent in the vertical plain the anchorage length begins below the inner edge of the
loading plate.
(5) For the anchorage of the main chord reinforcement in the column, it should be
verified that the transmission of the forces from the corbel in the column is
guaranteed.
(6) If the forces are transmitted in the upper part of the structure (resulting in an
opening moment at the upper corner of the corbel) inclined reinforcement should
be provided at the corner to prevent cracking (see Figure 9.25).
9.10.3 Deep Beams
(1) Deep Beams (definition see 5.3.1 (2), (3)) should be normally provided with a
distributed reinforcement near both sides, the effect of which being equivalent to
that of an orthogonal mesh with a reinforcement ratio of at least 0,075% in both
directions and a s =1,5 cm²/m, respectively.
(2) The distance between two adjacent bars of the mesh should not exceed twice the
wall thickness or 300 mm whichever is lesser.
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9.11 Tying systems
9.11.1 General
(1)P Structures which are not designed to withstand accidental actions shall have a suitable
tying system, to prevent progressive collapse by providing alternative load paths after
local damage. The following simple rules are deemed to satisfy this requirement.
(2) The following ties should be provided:

a) peripheral ties
b) internal ties
c) horizontal column or wall ties
d) Where required, vertical ties, particularly in panel buildings.
(3) Where a building is divided by expansion joints into structurally independent

sections, each section should have an independent tying system.
(4) In the design of the ties the reinforcement may be assumed to be acting at its
characteristic strength and capable of carrying tensile forces defined in the
following clauses.
(5) Reinforcement provided for other purposes in columns, walls, beams and floors
may be regarded as part of or the whole of these ties.
9.11.2 Proportioning of ties
(1) Ties are intended as a minimum and not as an additional reinforcement to that
according to structural analysis as per section 5.1.3 and other actions.
a) Peripheral ties
(2) At each floor and roof level an effectively continuous peripheral tie within 1,2 m
from the edge should be provided. The tie may include reinforcement used as part
of the internal tie.
(3) The peripheral tie should be capable of resisting a tensile force:
Ftie = li ⋅10 kN/m ≤ 70 kN (9.11)

where:
Ftie is the tie force (here: tension)
li is the length of the end-span
(4) Structures with internal edges (e.g. atrium, courtyard, etc.) should have peripheral
ties in the same way as external edges which shall be fully anchored.
b) Internal ties
(5) These ties should be at each floor and roof level in two directions approximately at
right angles. They should be effective continuous throughout their length and
should be anchored to the peripheral ties at each end, unless continuing as
horizontal ties to columns or walls.
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(6) The internal ties may, in whole or in part, be spread evenly in the slabs or may be
grouped at or in beams, walls or other appropriate positions. In walls they should
be within 0,5 m from the top or bottom of floor slabs, see Figure 9.29.
Figure 9.29: Ties for Accidental Actions
(7) In each direction, internal ties should be capable of resisting a design value of
tensile force FTie (in kN per metre width) equal to:
FTie = 20 kN/m (9.12)
(8) In floors without screeds where ties cannot be distributed across the span
direction, the transverse ties may be grouped along the beam lines. In this case
the minimum force on an internal beam line is:
FTie = (l1 + l2)/ 2 ⋅20 kN/ m ≤ 70 kN (9.13)
where:
l1, l2 are the span lengths (in m) of the floor slabs on either side of the
beam (see Figure 9.26)
(9) Internal ties should be connected to peripheral ties such that the transfer of forces
is assured.
c) Horizontal ties to columns and/or walls
(10) Facade columns and walls should be tied horizontally to the structure at each floor
and roof level.
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(11) The ties should be capable of resisting a tensile force Ftie = 20 kN per metre of the
facade. For columns the force need not exceed Ftie = 150 kN per column.
(12) Corner columns should be tied in two directions . Steel provided for the peripheral
tie may be used as the horizontal tie in this case.
d) Vertical ties
(13) In panel buildings of 5 storeys or more, vertical ties should be provided in

columns/walls to limit the damage of collapse of a floor in the case of accidental
loss of the column / wall below. This tie should form part of a bridging system to
span over the damaged area.
(14) Normally, continuous verticalties should be provided from the lowest to the highest
level and be capable of carrying at least the ultimate load applied by the floor
immediately above the column/wall accidentally lost. Otherwise full justification is
required.
(15) Where a column / wall is supported at its lowest level by an element other than a
foundation (e.g. beam or flat) accidental loss of this element should be considered
in the design and a suitable alternative load path shall be provided.
9.11.3 Continuity and anchorage of ties
(1)P Ties in two horizontal directions shall be effectively continuous and anchored at the
perimeter of the structure
(2) Ties may be provided wholly within insitu concrete topping or at connections.
Where ties are not continuous in one plane, the bending effects resulting from the
eccentricities should be considered.
(3) Ties should not normally be lapped in narrow joints between precast units.
Positive mechanical anchorage should be used in these cases.
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FOR COMMENT ONLY prEN 1992-1: 2001 (1s t draft)
SECTION 10 LIGHTWEIGHT AGGREGATE CONCRETE STRUCTURES
10.1 General
(1)P This Section details additional and alternative requirements when using
lightweight aggregate concrete. Reference is made to the other Sections (1 to
9 and 11) of this document and the Annexes. The corresponding Sections are
indicated, using the original Section number prefixed by 10. If alternatives are
given for Expressions, Figures or Tables in the other Sections, the original
reference numbers are also prefixed by 10.
10.1.1 Scope
(1)P All clauses of the Sections 1 to 9 and 11 are generally EN 1992-1:2000

applicable, unless they are substituted by special clauses given in this Section.
In general, where strength values originating from Table 3.1 are used in
Expressions, those values have to be replaced by the corresponding values
for lightweight concrete, given in this Section in Table 10.3.1
(2)P Section 10 applies to all concretes with closed structure made with natural or
artificial mineral lightweight aggregates, unless reliable experience indicates
that provisions different from those given can be adopted safely.
(3) This part does not apply to aerated concrete either autoclaved or
normally cured nor lightweight aggregate concrete with an open
structure.
(4)P Lightweight aggregate concrete is concrete having a closed structure and an

oven-dry density of not more than 2000 kg/m3 consisting of or containing a
proportion of artificial or natural lightweight aggregates having a particle
density of less than 2000 kg/m3
10.1.7 Special symbols
1(P) The following symbols are used specially for lightweight concrete:
LC The strength classes of lightweight aggregate concrete are preceded by

the symbol LC
ηE conversion factor for the calculation of the modulus of elasticity

η1 coefficient for the determination of the tensile strength
η2 coefficient for the determination of the creep coefficient
η3 coefficient for the determination of the drying shrinkage
ρ oven-dry density of lightweight aggregate concrete in kg/m3
For the mechanical properties an additional subscript l (lightweight) is used.
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prEN 1992-1: 2001 (1s t draft) FOR COMMENT ONLY
1(P) Section 2 is valid for lightweight concrete without modifications
10.3 Materials
10.3.1 Concrete
(1)P In ENV 206, Clause 7.3.2 lightweight aggregate is classified according to its
density as shown in lines 1 and 2 of Table 10.1 below. In addition the Table
gives corresponding densities for plain and reinforced concrete with normal
percentages of reinforcement which may be used for design purposes in
calculating self-weight or imposed permanent loading.
(2) The contribution of the reinforcement to the density may alternatively be

determined by calculation.
Table 10.1 Density classes and corresponding design densities of LWAC

according to prEN 206-1
Density class 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0

Oven-dry density ? (kg/m 3) 901- 1001- 1201- 1401- 1601- 1801-
1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
Density Plain concrete 1050 1250 1450 1650 1850 2050
(kg/m 3) Reinforced concrete 1150 1350 1550 1750 1950 2150
(6)P The tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete can be obtained by

multiplying the fct values given in Table 3.1 by a coefficient
η1 = 0,40 + 0,60ρ/2400 (10.1)
where ρ is the upper limit of the oven-dry density in accordance with Table 9
Section 4.3.2, prEN-206 (see Table 10.1, line 4).
10.3.1.2 Elastic deformation
(1)P An estimate of the mean values of the secant modulus Elcm for LWAC can be
obtained by multiplying the values in Table 3.1, for normal density concrete, by
the coefficient
ηE = (ρ/2400)2 (10.2)
where ρ denotes the oven-dry density in Table 9 Section 4.3.2 prEN 206
(see Table 10.2, line 7)
Where accurate data are needed, e.g. where deflections are of great
importance, tests should be carried out in order to determine the Elcm values in
accordance with ISO 6784.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Strength classes for light weight concrete Analytical
relation
Explanation
1 flck (MPa) 12 16 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 70 80
2 flck,cube 15 20 25 30 37 45 50 55 60 67 75 85 95
(MPa)
3 flcm 20 24 28 33 38 43 48 53 58 63 68 78 88 flcm = flck + 8(MPa)

(MPa)
4 flctm flctm = fctm ⋅ η1 η1=0.40+0.60?/2400

(MPa)
5 flctk;0,05 flctk,0.05 = fctk,0.05 ⋅ η1 5% - fractile

(MPa)
6 flctk;0,95 flctk,0.95 = fctk,0.95 ⋅η1 95% - fractile

(MPa)
FOR COMMENT ONLY
2
7 Elcm Elcm = Ecm ⋅ ηE ηE = (?/2400)
(GPa )
8 εlc1 (‰) -1,8 -1,9 - -2,2 -2,3 -2,4 -2,5 -2,55 -2,6 -2,65 -2,7 -2,8 -2,9 see Figure 3.3
2,1
9 εlcu (‰) -3,5 -3,4 -3,3 -3,2 -3,1 see Figure 3.3
10 εlc2 (‰) -2,0 -2,03 -2,06 -2,1 -2,14 see Figure 3.4
11 εlc2u (‰) -3,5 -3,1 -2,7 -2,5 -2,4 see Figure 3.4
12 n 2,0 2,0 1,9 1,8 1,7
13 εlc3 -1,35 -1,35 -1,4 -1,5 -1,6 see Figure 3.5
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Table 10.2: Stress and deformation characteristics for light weight concrete
14 εlc3u -3,5 -3,5 -2,7 -2,5 -2,4 see Figure 3.5

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prEN 1992-1: 2001 (1s t draft)
Page 208
(4)P The coefficient of thermal expansion of LWAC depends mainly on the type of
aggregate used and varies over a wide range between about 4 ⋅ 10-6 and 14 ⋅
10-6/K
For design purposes where thermal expansion is of no great importance, the

coefficient of thermal expansion may be taken as 8 ⋅ 10-6/K.
The differences between the coefficients of thermal expansion of steel and

lightweight aggregate concrete need not to be considered in design.
10.3.1.3 Creep and shrinkage
(2) For lightweight aggregate concrete the creep coefficient φ can be

assumed equal to the value of normal density concrete multiplied by a
factor (ρ/2400)2 for ρ > 1800 kg/m3 . For ρ < 1500 kg/m3 , a factor
1.3(ρ/2400)2 can be used. For intermediate values of ρ linear
interpolation may be applied
The creep strains so derived shall be multiplied by a factor η2. This

factor is equal to 1.3 for lightweight concrete in strength classes ≤
LC16/20 and 1.0 for concrete in strength classes ≥ LC20/25
(4) The final drying shrinkage values for lightweight concrete can be
obtained by multiplying the values for normal density concrete in Table
3.2 by a factor η3 defined by:
LC12/15 to LC16/20: η3 = 1,5

LC20/25 and higher: η3 = 1,2
(5) The Expressions (3.6) and (3.7) giving information for autogenous
shrinkage give maximum values for lightweight aggregate concretes,
where no supply of water from the aggregate to the drying
microstructure is possible. If water-saturated, or even partially saturated
lightweight aggregate is used, the autogenous shrinkage values will be
considerably reduced.
10.3.1.4 Stress-strain relations for structural analysis
(1) For lightweight aggregate concrete the values ε c1 and ε c1u given in
Figure 3.3 have to be substituted by ε lc1 and ε lc1u given in Table 10.3.1.
10.3.1.5 Stress-strain relations for the design of cross-sections
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(2) For lightweight aggregate concrete the reduction factor α which deals
with sustained loading effects may generally be assumed to be 0,75 for
the parabolic stress-strain relation
(4) For lightweight concrete the factor α which deals with sustained loading
effects may be generally assumed to be 0,80 for the bilinear stress-
strain relation.
10.3.1.7 Design compressive strength of concrete in a parallel compression

field or in prismatic struts
(1) For lightweight aggregate concrete the reduction factor ν is given by:
ν = 0,6 – flck/235 > 0,425 (10.3.15)
10.4 Durability
10.4.2 Environmental conditions
(2) For lightweight aggregate concrete in Table 4.1 the same indicative
strength classes can be used as for normal density concrete.
10.4.3 Concrete cover and properties of concrete
(4/5)P For lightweight aggregate concrete the values of minimum concrete cover
given in Table 4.2 have to be increased with 5 mm.
10.5 Structural analysis
1(P) This Section is valid for lightweight aggregate concrete without modification.
10.6 Ultimate limit states
10.6.2.3 Members not requiring design shear reinforcement
(1) The design value of the shear capacity of a lightweight concrete

member without shear reinforcement VlRd,ct follows from
VlRd,ct = [0,12η1k(100ρl flck)1/3 – 0,15 σcd] bw d
where
η1 is defined in Expression (10.1) and f lck is taken from Table 10.3.1.
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(5) For concentrated loads acting at a distance av < 2.5 d from the edge of
the support the shear capacity in the region between load and support
follows from:
2,5
VRd,ct = [ 0,12 η1k (100ρl flck)1/3 ( ) – 0,15 σcd ]bw d (10.6.4)
a vd
where η1 is defined in Expression (10.1) and f lck is taken from Table

10.3.1
The value VRd,ct in Expression (10.6.4) shall not exceed
 A0 
VRdmax = 4f lctk.0,05 b w d (10.6.5)
 bd 
10.6.2.4 Members requiring design shear reinforcement
(3) The reduction factor ν for the crushing capacity of the concrete struts is
the same as in Expression (10.3.15)
ν = 0.6 – flck/235 > 0.425 (10.6.10)
10.6.3 Torsion
10.6.3.2 Design procedure
(3) In Expression (6.30) ν red = 0,7ν where ν is defined in Expression

(10.6.10)
10.6.4 Punching
10.6.4.4 Slabs or column bases without punching shear reinforcement
(1) The punching shear resistance per unit area of a lightweight concrete
slab follows from
VRd,c = 0,12 k η1(100ρl flck )1/3 – 0,15σcd (10.6.44)
where η1 is defined in Expression (10.1)
(4) The punching shear capacity of lightweight concrete column bases

follows from
VRd = 0,12 η1k (100ρl f lck)1/3 2d/a < 0,5νfcd (10.6.47)
where η1 is defined in Expression (10.1) and ν by
ν = 0,60 [1 – flck/250] (10.6.48)
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10.6.4.5 Slabs or column bases containing punching shear reinforcement
(2) Adjacent to the column the punching shear capacity is limited to a

maximum of
v Ed
v Ed = < 0,5νf lcd (10.6.50)
v0d
where ν is defined in Expression (10.6.48)
(5) In the zone with shear reinforcement the punching shear capacity is
given by
vRd,cs = 0,75 v Rd,c + Σ Asw fyd sin α / ud (10.6.51)
where v Rd,c is defined in Expression (10.6.44)
(1)P This Section can be applied without modifications.
[A modification may be proposed in the next draft for Table 7.4 “Basic ratio’s of
span/effective depth for reinforced concrete members without axial
compression”, after agreement has been reached on this Table for normal
density concrete]
10.8.3.1 Design bearing stress inside bends
(2) For normal density concrete the mandrel size is restricted to the values
given in Table 8.2, in order to avoid splitting of the concrete behind
bends, hooks and loops. For lightweight aggregate concrete those
values must be increased by 30%
(3) As an alternative to (2) the design bearing stress inside the bend fbg
may be calculated from the following Expression, in which γc is assumed
to be 1,5:
fbg = Fbt/rφ < 2,6 flck / {γc ( 1 + 2 (φ/ab))} (10.8.1)
10.8.4.1 Ultimate bond stress
(2) The design value of the ultimate bond stress for bars in lightweight
concrete can be calculated using Expression 8.2, by substituting for fcd
the value flcd, with flcd = flctk.0,05/γc. The values for f lctk.0,05 are found in
Table 10.3.1, and γc = 1,5.
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Because the ultimate bond strength depends on the type of lightweight

concrete, Tables 8.3 and 8.4 do not apply to lightweight aggregate
concrete.
10.9 Detailing of members
(1)P This Section can be applied to lightweight aggregate concrete without

modifications
10.11 Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures
(1)P This Section can be applied to lightweight aggregate concrete without

modifications
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SECTION 11 PLAIN AND LIGHTLY REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
11.1 Introduction
This Section provides supplementary rules to the general rules given in this standard.
11.2 Scope
(1) This Section applies to members, for which the effect of dynamic actions may be
neglected. Such members may include:
- plain concrete members mainly subjected to compression other than that due to
prestressing, e.g. walls, columns, arches, and tunnels;
- plain concrete strip and pad footings for foundations;
- plain concrete retaining walls.
(2) Where members are made with lightweight aggregate concrete with closed structure
according to Section 10 or for precast concrete elements and structures covered by
this standard the design rules shall be modified accordingly.
(3) This Section does not preclude the provision of steel reinforcement needed to satisfy
serviceability and/or durability requirements, nor reinforcement in certain parts of the
members. This reinforcement may be taken into account for the verification of local
ultimate limit state as well as for the checks of the serviceability limit states.
(4) Examples of such reinforcement are the joint reinforcement in the top of a wall to
avoid splitting and the joint reinforcement for columns into a footing.
11.3 Special symbols used in this Section:
11.3.1 Additional Latin upper case letters:
Ac,eff Effective cross section

Iy, Iz Second moment of cross-sectional area related to the y and z-axis
respectively
NRd Resisting design axial compression force
11.3.2 Additional Latin lower case letters
a Projection of a pad footing from the columns face

ea Additional eccentricity covering the effects of geometrical imperfections
e0 First order eccentricity
ey, e2 Components of an eccentricity e in direction of the y- and z-axes respectively
etot Total eccentricity
fctd Design value of the tensile strength of concrete
hF Depth of a pad footing
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hw Overall depth of a wall

i Radius of gyration
lh Clear horizontal length of a wall between vertical restraints
lht Horizontal length of a transverse wall stabilizing the wall under
consideration
lw Clear height of a wall
l0 Effective length of a compression member
11.3.3 Additional Greek symbols
α Reduction coefficient to allow for the effect of long term loading on the
concrete compression strength
β Effective height coefficients β = lo/lw
γn Additional partial safety factor for concrete
λ Slenderness ratio: λ = lo/i
σcm Average concrete compressive stress
σct Concrete tensile stress
σgd Design value of the ground pressure
σEd Design value of the applied normal stress
τEd Design value of the applied shear stress
11.4.1 Additional partial safety factors for materials
P(1) Due to the less ductile properties of plain concrete, the partial safety factor for concrete in compressio
and tension shall be multiplied by a coefficient γn.
(2) It is recommended to multiply the partial safety factors γc for concrete given in [Table
2.3 in ENV 1992-1-1] by γn = 1.2 in compression and γn = 1.2 in tension, that is:
for fundamental combinations: γc = 1.80 in compression and γc = 1.80 in tension.
for accidental design situations: γc = 1.56 in compression and γc = 1.56 in tension.

(except earthquakes)
11.5 Analysis
11.5.1 Ultimate Limit states
P(1) Since plain concrete members have limited deformability, linear analysis with redistribution
or a plastic approach to analysis, e.g. methods without an explicit check of the deformation
capacity, shall not be used unless their application can be justified.
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(2) Structural analysis may be based on the non-linear or the linear elastic theory. In the
case of a non-linear analysis (e.g. fracture mechanics) a check of the deformation
capacity should be performed.
11.6 Materials
11.6.1 Concrete: Additional Design assumptions
P(1) For the calculation of the design resistance of plain concrete members, the strength and
deformation properties as for reinforced concrete shall be used.
(2) When tensile stresses are considered for the design resistance of plain concrete
members (see 3.1), the tensile strength may be extended up to the design strength
fcd = fctk,0.05/γc (11.1)
(3) Fracture mechanic methods may be used provided it can be shown that they lead to
the required level of safety.
11.7 Ultimate limit states for bending and longitudinal force
11.7.1 Design resistance to bending and longitudinal force
See 6.1.2. In addition
(1) In the case of walls, subject to the provision of adequate construction details and
proper curing, the imposed deformations due to temperature or shrinkage can be
neglected.
(2) In a cross-section of a plain concrete member, subjected to the design longitudinal

force NEd at a point G with the eccentricities ey and ez related to the centroid O of the
uncracked cross-section Ac (figure 11.1), a uniform stress distribution may be
assumed in a part of that cross-section, denoted as the effective section AC,eff. The
remaining part of the cross-section may be considered inactive. The resulting
eccentricity e of NEd should, where relevant, include second order effects and
geometrical imperfections (see 11.10.2).
In general, Ac,eff is limited by a straight secant and its centroid coincides with the
point G. For simplification, Ac,eff may be taken as rectangular with
Ac,eff = 2az × 2ay (11.2)
where
2az, 2ay denote the dimensions of the fictitious rectangle in the z- and
y-axis respectively.
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y
az az 2a z
G ay G
ey 2a y
A c,eff
O z
ez ay
Ac
a) Geometry and notations for b) Effective cross-section Ac,eff

the uncracked section
Figure 11.1 Effective cross-section Ac,eff in the case of bi-axial eccentricities;

a longitudinal force NEd acts in point G;
the centroid of the uncracked section is located in point O
(2) If the effective cross-section is geometrically difficult to define, it may be substituted

by any approximate effective section, included in the cross-section Ac whose
centroid coincides with the point G, see figure 11.1.
(3) The resisting design longitudinal compression force NRd is given by:
NRd = - α × fcd × Ac,eff (11.3)
where
α is a reduction factor as defined in 3.1
Ac,eff Area of effective cross-section.
(4) In the absence of a more rigorous calculation, the design resistance NRd of a
rectangular cross-section with a uni-axial eccentricity e in the direction of hw may be
taken as
NRd = - a × fcd × b × hw × (1-2e/hw ) (11.4)
where
b Overall width of the cross-section
hw Overall depth of the cross-section
e Eccentricity of NEd in the direction hw .
11.7.2 Local Failure
P(1) Unless measures to avoid local tensile failure of the cross-section have been taken, the
maximum eccentricity of the longitudinal force NEd in a cross-section shall be limited to
appropriate values.
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11.8 Shear
P(1) In plain concrete members account may be taken of the concrete tensile strength in the
ultimate limit state for shear, provided that either by calculations or by experience brittle
failure can be excluded and adequate resistance can be ensured.
(2) For plain concrete members subjected to a combination of shear, bending and
longitudinal force it should be verified that:
τEd ≤ √(fctd2+ η × σcm × fctd) (11.5)
where
τEd Design value of the applied shear stress
σcm Average concrete compressive stress
fctd = fctk0.05/γc, with γc according to ?? above.
η Reduction coefficient. Generally, η may be taken as η = 1.0
According to the actual state of stress, rEd should be calculated for the uncracked, or
in the case of cracks, for the effective section Ac,eff (see 11.7.1).
(3) A concrete member may be considered to be uncracked in the ultimate limit state if
either it remains completely under compression or if the principal concrete tensile
stress σct1 does not exceed fctd = fctk0.05/γc with fctk0.05 according to Table 3.1 and γc
according to 11.4.1 (2).
11.9 Torsion
P(1) Cracked members shall not be considered to resist torsional moments unless adequate
resistance to torsion can be justified.
11.10 Ultimate limit states induced by structural deformation (buckling)
11.10.1 Slenderness of Isolated Columns and Walls
(1) The slenderness of an isolated column or wall is given by
λ = lo/i (11.6)
where
i Minimum radius of gyration
lo Effective length of the member which can be assumed to be:
lo = β × lw (11.7)
where
lw Clear height of the member
β Coefficient which depends on the support conditions.
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For columns β = 1 should in general be assumed;
for cantilever columns or walls β = 2;
for other walls β -values are given in figure 11.2.
Type of restraint Factor β
Wall held along two sides
β = 1.0 for any ratio of lw /lh

floor slabs free edges lw
lh
Wall held along three sides
transverse lw β = 1/(1 + (lw / 3lh)2)

wall
lh
Wall held along four sides If lw ≤ lh :
β = 1/(1 + (lw / lh)2)

lw
If lw > lh :
lh β = 1/(2 × lw / lh)
Figure 11.2: Factor β for the determination of the effective height lo of walls
Figure 11.2 assumes that the wall has no openings with a height exceeding 1/3 of the
wall height lw or with an area exceeding 1/10 of the wall area. In walls held along 3 or
4 sides with openings exceeding these limits, the parts between the openings should
be considered as hold along two sides only and be designed accordingly.
(2) The β-values should be increased appropriately if the transverse bearing capacity
is affected by chases or recesses.
(3) Transverse walls may be considered as bracing walls if

- their total depth is not less than 0.5 hw , where hw is the overall depth of the braced
wall;
- they have the same height lw as the braced wall under consideration;
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- their length lht is at least equal to lw / 5, where lw denotes the clear height of the
braced wall;
- within the length lht the transverse wall has no openings.
(4) In the case of walls held along two sides which are connected at the top and bottom
in flexurally rigid manner by in-situ concrete and reinforcement so that the edge
moments can be fully resisted, it may be assumed that
β = 0.85 if lw < lh (11.8)
(5) The slenderness of isolated columns or walls in plain concrete cast in-situ should
generally not exceed λ = 86 ( e.g. lw /hw = 25). Independently from the actual
A-value, columns are considered to be slender. However, for compression
members with lw /hw < 2.5, second order analysis is not necessary.
11.10.2 Simplified Design Method for Walls and Isolated Columns
(1) In absence of a more rigorous approach, an approximately method for calculating

the longitudinal force that can be resisted by a slender column or slender wall in
plain concrete is as follows:
NRd = -b × hw × α × fcd × Φ (11.9)
where
NRd Resisting design compression force of the cross-section
b Overall width of the cross-section
hw Overall depth of the cross-section
α Reduction factor taking account of long-term effects according
to 3.1.
The function Φ which allows for the second order effects on the load bearing
capacity of compression members in non-away buildings is given by:
Φ = 1.14 × (1-2etot/hw ) - 0.02 × lo/hw (11.10)
where:
Φ ≤ 1-2 etot/hw
etot = eo + ea + eφ (11.11)
eo First order eccentricity including, where relevant, the effects of

floors e.g. possible clamping moments transmitted to the wall from
a slab) and horizontal actions;
ea Additional eccentricity covering the effects of geometrical
imperfections. In absence of more accurate information, ea may be
taken as ea = 0 5 × lo/ 200
eφ Eccentricity due to creep. As a rule, eφ may be neglected because
it is already included in expression (11.10).
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P(1) The serviceability of building components in plain concrete shall be ensured by means of
suitable design checks and appropriate detailing.
P(2) Particular care is needed where stresses due to structural restraint are expected to occur.
(3) Appropriate measures to ensure adequate serviceability may include:
a) with regard to crack formation:
- limitation of concrete tensile stresses to acceptable values;

- provision of subsidiary structural reinforcement (surface reinforcement, tying system
where necessary);
- provision of joints;
- methods of concrete technology (e.g. appropriate concrete composition, curing);
- choice of appropriate method of construction.
b) with regard to limitation of deformations:
- a minimum section size (see 11.12 below);

- limitation of slenderness in the case of compression members.
P(4) Any reinforcement provided in plain concrete members, although not taken into account
for load bearing purposes, shall comply with the durability requirements of 4.4.
11.12.1 Structural members
(1) The overall depth hw of a wall should not be smaller than I mm for cast in-situ
concrete walls.
(2) Chases and recesses are allowed only if it has been shown that adequate strength
and stability can develop.
11.12.2 Construction joints
(1) In construction joints where design concrete tensile stresses are likely to occur, an
appropriately detailed reinforcement should be placed.
11.12.3 Strip and pad footings
(1) In the absence of more detailed data, strip and pad footings approximately axially
loaded may be designed and constructed as plain concrete if the ratio of the
foundation depth hF to the projection a from the column face is not less than (see
figure 11.3):
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hF /a ≥ √(3σgd/fctd) (11.12)
where:
σgd is the design value of the ground pressure
fctd is the design value of the concrete tensile strength (in the same
unit as σgd)
As a simplification the relation hF/a ≥ 2 may be used.
hF
a a
bF
Figure: 11.3: Unreinforced pad footings; notations
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ANNEX A (Informative)
Basic equations for determining the creep coefficient
(1) The creep coefficient φ(t,t0) may be calculated from:
φ(t,t0) = φ 0 · β c (t-t0) (A.1)
where
φ0 is the notional creep coefficient and may be estimated from:
φ 0 = φ RH · β(fcm) · β(t0) (A.2)
φ RH is a factor to allow for the effect of relative humidity on the notional creep
coefficient:
1 − RH / 100
φ RH = 1 + for fcm ≤ 35 MPa (A.3a)
0,1⋅ 3 h0
 1 − RH / 100 
φ RH = 1+ ⋅ α1  ⋅ α 2 for fcm > 35 MPa (A.3b)
 0,1⋅ 3 h0 
RH is the relative humidity of the ambient environment in %
β (fcm) is a factor to allow for the effect of concrete strength on the notional creep
coefficient:
β (fcm ) =
16,8
(A.4)
fcm
fcm is the mean compressive strength of concrete in N/mm2 at the age of 28

days
β (t0) is a factor to allow for the effect of concrete age at loading on the notional
creep coefficient:
β (t 0 ) =
1
(A.5)
( 0,1 + t 0 )
0, 20
h0 is the notional size of the member in mm where:
2 Ac
h0 = (A.6)
u
Ac is the cross-sectional area
U is the perimeter of the member in contact with the atmosphere
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βc is a coefficient to describe the development of creep with time after loading,
and may be estimated using the following Expression:
 (t − t 0 ) 
0 ,3
β c (t − t 0 ) =   (A.7)
 ( βH + t − t 0 )
t is the age of concrete in days at the moment considered
t0 is the age of concrete at loading in days
t – t0 is the non-adjusted duration of loading in days
βH is a coefficient depending on the relative humidity (RH in %) and the

notional member size (h0 in mm). It may be estimated from:
β H =1,5 [1 + (0,012 RH)18] h0 + 250 ≤ 1500 for fcm ≤ 35 (A.8a)
β H =1,5 [1 + (0,012 RH)18] h0 + 250 α 3 ≤ 1500 α 3 for fcm ≥ 35 (A.8b)
α 1/2/3 are coefficients to consider the influence of the concrete strength:
0, 7 0 ,2 0 ,5
 35   35   35 
α1 =   α2 =   α3 =   (A.8c)
 f cm   fcm   fcm 
(2) The effect of type of cement on the creep coefficient of concrete may be taken into
account by modifying the age of loading t0 in Expression (A.5) according to the following
Expression:
α
 9 
t 0 = t 0, T ⋅  + 1 ≥ 0,5 (A.9)
 2 + t 1,2 
 0, T 
where
t0,T is the temperature adjusted age of concrete at loading in days adjusted
according to Expression (A.10)
α is a power which depends on type of cement:
α = -1 for slowly hardening cements, S
α = 0 for normal or rapid hardening cements, N,R
α = 1 for rapid hardening high strength cements, RS
(3) The effect of elevated or reduced temperatures within the range 0 – 80°C on the maturity
of concrete may be taken into account by adjusting the concrete age according to the
following Expression:
n
tT = ∑ e
− ( 4000 /[273 + T ( ∆ ti )] −13 .65 )
⋅ ∆t i (A.10)
i =1
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Page 224
where
tT is the temperature adjusted concrete age which replaces t in the
corresponding equations
T(∆ti) is the temperature in °C during the time period ∆t i
∆ti is the number of days where a temperature T prevails.
The mean coefficient of variation of the above predicted creep data, deduced from a
computerised data bank of laboratory test results, is of the order of 20%.
(4) The values of φ(t,t0) given above should be associated with the tangent modulus Ec(28) =
1,05 Ecm
When a less accurate estimate is considered satisfactory, the values given in Figures 3.1
and 3.2 of 3.1.3 may be adopted for creep of concrete at 70 years.
Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Page 225
FOR COMMENT ONLY EN 1992-1: 2001 (1st draft)
ANNEX B (Informative)
Indicative Strength Classes for durability
(1) The choice of a durable concrete requires consideration of its composition and
may result in a high compressive strength.
(2) Any elevated concrete strength resulting from the durability requirements should
be considered in design. Indicative strength classes depending on the
environmental exposure classes defined in Table 4.1 are given in Table B1.
Table B1 Indicative Strength Classes
Exposure Classes according to Table 4.1

Corrosion of reinforcement
Carbonation-induced Chloride-induced
Chloride-induced
corrosion corrosioncorrosion from sea-
water
XC1 XC2 XC3 XC4 XD1 XD2 XD3 XS1 XS2 XS3
Indicative C20/25 C25/30 C30/37 C30/37 C35/45 C30/37 C35/45
Strength Class
Concrete Attack
No risk Freeze/Thaw Attack Chemical Attack
X0 XF1 XF2 XF3 XA1 XA2 XA3
Indicative C12/15 C30/37 C25/30 C30/37 C30/37 C35/45
Strength Class
(3) In particular the indicative strength classes should be considered for the mean
value of axial tensile strength of concrete fctm when determining the minimum
reinforcement according to 7.3.2 and 9.1.1.1 and crack width control according to
7.3.3 and 7.3.4.
Ref. No. EN 1992-1:2001

En-1992 (Design of Concrete Structures 1st Draft)

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EUROPEAN STANDARD prEN 1992-1 (1st draft)

NORME EUROPÉENNE FOR COMMENT ONLY

EUROPÄISCHE NORM December 1999

ICS 00.000.00 Supersedes ENV 1992-1-1, ENV 1992-1-3, ENV 1992-1-4,

Descriptors: Buildings, concrete structures, computation, building codes, rules of calculation

Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures -

European Committee for Standardization

Central Secretariat: rue de Stassart, 36 B-1050 Brussels

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

5.8.8.3 Second order moment

6. Ultimate limit states

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

7. Serviceability limit states

8 Detailing of reinforcement - General

8.9 Prestressing tendons

9. Detailing of members and particular requirements

9.7.1.2 Supporting pads

10. Lightweight aggregated concrete structures

11. Plain and lightly reinforced concrete structures

11.5.1 Ultimate Limit states

A Basic equations for determining the creep coefficient

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

1.1.1 Scope of Eurocode 2

(3)P Other rules may be used where relevant.

1.1.2 Scope of Part 1 of Eurocode 2

(3)P The following subjects are dealt with in Part 1.

(5)P This Part 1 does not cover:

1.1.3 Further Parts of Eurocode 2

Part 2 - Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete Bridges

1.2 Distinction between principles and application rules

(2)P The Principles comprise:

- general statements and definitions for which there is no alternative, as well as

- requirements and analytical models for which no alternative is permitted unless

(3)P In this code the Principles are followed by the letter P.

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

(6)P In this code Application Rules are off-set to the right.

(1)P The following assumptions apply:

- Structures are designed by appropriately qualified and experienced personnel.

- Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, in plants, and on

- The structure will be adequately maintained.

- The structure will be used in accordance with the design brief.

1.4.1 Terms common to all Eurocodes

1.4.2 Special terms used in Part 1 of Eurocode 2

(which may be encased in concrete after stressing, or have a protective membrane).

1.5 S.I. Units

(1)P S.I. Units shall be used in accordance with ISO 1000.

(2) For calculations, the following units are recommended:

- forces and loads : kN, kN/m, kPa (= kN/m2)

For the purposes of this standard, the following symbols apply.

Note: the notation used is based on ISO 3898:1987

1.6.1 Latin upper case letters

1.6.2 Latin lower case letters

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

1.6.3 Greek lower case letters

1.7 Special symbols used in this Part 1 of Eurocode 2

Gd,sup Upper design value of a permanent action

Ac Total cross-sectional area of a concrete section

fyd Design yield strength of reinforcement.

Ref. No. prEN 1992-1:2001

1.7.2 Latin upper case symbols

Ac Total cross-sectional area of a concrete section