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Terrane assembly and geodynamic evolution of central-western Hoggar: A

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DOI: 10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2003.05.003

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 Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
www.elsevier.com/locate/jafrearsci

Terrane assembly and geodynamic evolution of central–western

Hoggar: a synthesis
Renaud Caby
Laboratoire de Tectonophysique UMR 5568, Universit

e de Montpellier 2, 34095 Montpellier II,
Place Eug

ene Bataillon, 34095 Montpellier Cedex 05, France
Received 18 November 2001; accepted 27 May 2003

Abstract
After a review of the rock sequences and evolution of the eastern and central terranes of Hoggar, this paper focusses on the
Neoproterozoic subduction-related evolution and collision stages in the central–western part of the Tuareg shield. Rock sequences
are described and compared with their counterparts identified in the western and the eastern terranes exposed in Hoggar and
northern Mali. The Pharusian terrane that is described in detail, is floored in the east by the Iskel basement, a Mesoproterozoic arc-
type terrane cratonized around 840 Ma and in the southeast by Late Paleoproterozoic rock sequences (1.85–1.75 Ga) similar to
those from northwestern Hoggar. Unconformable Late Neoproterozoic volcanosedimentary formations that mainly encompass
volcanic greywackes were deposited in troughs adjacent to subduction-related andesitic volcanic ridges during the c. 690–650 Ma
period. Abundant arc-related pre-collisional calc-alkaline batholiths (650–635 Ma) intruded the volcanic and volcaniclastic units at
rather shallow crustal levels prior to collisional processes. The main E–W shortening in the Pharusian arc-type crust occurred
through several stages of transpression and produced overall greenschist facies regional metamorphism and upright folding, thus
precluding significant crustal thickening. It was accompanied by the shallow emplacement of calc-alkaline batholiths and plutons.
Ages of syn-collisional granitoids range from 620 Ma in the western terranes, to 580 Ma in the Pharusian terrane, thus indicating a
severe diachronism. After infill of molassic basins unconformable above the Pan-African greenschists, renewed dextral transpression
took place in longitudinal domains such as the Adrar fault. The lithology, volcanic and plutonic suites, deep greenschist facies
metamorphism, structures and kinematics from the Adrar fault molassic belt previously considered as Neoproterozoic are described
in detail. The younger late-kinematic plutons emplaced in the Pharusian terrane at 523 Ma [Lithos 45 (1998) 245] relate to a
Cambrian tectonic pulse that post-dates molasse deposition. The new geodynamic scenario presented considers several paleosub-
ductions. The major east-dipping subduction, corresponding to the closure of a large Pan-African oceanic domain in the west (680–
620 Ma) post-dates an older west-dipping ‘‘Pharusian’’ subduction (690–650 Ma?) to the east of the eastern Pharusian terrane. Such
a diachronism is suggested by the 690 Ma old eclogites of the western part of the LATEA terrane of central Hoggar [J. African Earth
Sci. this volume (2003)] that are nearly synchronous with the building up of the Pharusian terrane, thus suggesting that the 4°500
lithospheric fault represents a reactivated cryptic suture.
Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Terrane; Geodynamic evolution; Pan-African; Hoggar; Tuareg shield

1. Introduction in northern Mali (Bayer and Lesquer, 1978), Togo,

Western–central Africa is floored in the west by the
West African craton stable since 2 Ga and in the east by
the Neoproterozoic Trans-Saharan orogenic segment
which is part of a >3000 km long linear Pan-African belt
(Fig. 1, inset). East of the P 2 Ga old West African
craton, the main Pan-African suture is buried under
Phanerozoic cover in southwest Algeria but is exposed
E-mail address: caby@babouin.dstu.univ-montp2.fr (R. Caby).
Benin and Ghana (Caby, 1989). Since pioneering works
it has been argued that two major orogenic cycles are
represented in Hoggar: the ‘‘Suggarian’’, mainly formed
by older high-grade gneisses, and the younger ‘‘Pharu-
sian’’ of mainly sedimentary and volcanic nature (Le-
lubre, 1952, and references therein). Trans-continental
N–S shear zones that delimit elongate crustal blocks of
variable nature, age and evolution are characteristic of
the entire Tuareg shield. These structures were consid-
ered as old structures active prior and during basin in-
fill of the ‘‘Pharusian’’ rock units. The geochemical

0899-5362/$ - see front matter Ó 2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2003.05.003
134 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

B el Mas
200 km

We
Iskel terrane

st
? Oum 8˚30 sz

Afr
ican
Tas Ah HOGGAR Taz

ne
craton
Western Dj

terra
LATEA

IOGU
terranes
Oceanic Se Ed

n
usia
Tilemsi terranes Iss
Ao

Phar
island arc Tis Eastern terranes
(730 Ma)
Central terranes
IFORAS
Ass Ba

lt
Tirek

4˚ 50' fau
Adrar fault

Tim trine Raghane sz

sutu r e

Kidal ..
UHP AIR
IGU

620 Ma

*
HP
n app
Gourma es
Tuareg Arabian
Mauritanides Roc

shield Nubian
shield
Nigerian
shield
ke
lid
es

Pan-African Congo craton

suture

Fig. 1. Schematic map of the Trans-Saharan belt in the Tuareg shield and adjacent areas. Localities cited in text in abbreviation: Ah ¼ Ahnet;
Ao ¼ Aouzegueur; Ass ¼ Assod
e; Ba ¼ Barghot; Ed ¼ Edembo; Dj ¼ Djanet; Iss ¼ Issalane; Oum: Gour Oumelalen; Tas ¼ Tassendjanet;
Taz ¼ Tazat; Se ¼ Serouenout (Tertiary basalts not represented).

signature of pre-metamorphic rock units and the syn- granulite facies metamorphism (Peucat et al., 1996). The
and late-collisional magmatism in several parts of the Pharusian terrane essentially consists of Neoproterozoic
Tuareg shield (Li
egeois et al., 1987) has proven their volcanic/volcaniclastic assemblages. The central terranes
subduction-related character. These results coupled with are mainly formed by reworked pre-Pan-African base-
the tectonometamorphic characteristics of the crustal ment. LATEA (Laouni, Azrou-n-Fad, Tefedest, Eg
er
e-
blocks and available geochronological data led to the Aleksod) includes mainly Archaean, Paleoproterozoic
distinction of several terranes in the Tuareg shield. gneisses, anatexites and high-grade metasedimentary
Twenty-three displaced terranes distinguished and de- rocks that may possibly in part, represent Neoprotero-
fined by Black et al. (1994) are shown in Fig. 1. The zoic cover sequences. The eastern part of the Pan-Afri-
main Pan-African suture delineated by slices of an can belt ss (post 700 Ma in age) that is formed by the
oceanic terranes separates deformed passive margin Serouenout, Issalane, Assod
e and Barghot terranes is
assemblages of the West African craton only exposed in delineated by the strike-slip Raghane-8°300 shear zone
northern Mali (Timetrine and Gourma areas) from the considered as an early suture zone (Li
egeois et al., 2000,
Western terranes rooted by older continental crust and references therein; Li
egeois et al., 2003, this issue).
(Tassendjanet, Kidal and the IOGU/IGU terranes) For these authors, east-dipping subduction under the
representing active continental palaeomargin assem- eastern terranes (Djanet, Edembo, Aouzegueur) that
blages in the east. The IOGU/IGU terrane represents were cratonized prior to 700 Ma took place between 645
two slices of a microcontinent with Paleoproterozoic and 580 Ma, and c. 1000 km of dextral motion of crustal
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
blocks along this lithospheric fault may have taken
place. Considering the entire Trans-Saharan belt and its
relationships with northeast Brazil, a considerable dex-
tral strike-slip movement took place also along the 4°500
fault (Caby, 1989). Indeed south of the Sahara desert,
the Pharusian terrane has disappeared completely and in
Nigeria and Benin, where the southern extension of the
central terranes is juxtaposed against mafic rocks of the
main Pan-African suture at deep crustal level. So both
the Pharusian and the western terranes are not repre-
sented in the south Saharan regions. The shear zone
system of the Trans-Saharan belt thus suggests differ-
ential ‘‘run’’ of terranes east of the rigid west-African
craton, a situation that compares well to the motion of
terranes in the Laramide orogen (Maxson and Tikoff,
1996). However, an apparent major difference with
Phanerozoic belts is the lack of well-identified remnants
of oceanic lithosphere in the shield, at variance with the
Nubian-Arabian shield where several Neoproterozoic
ophiolitic assemblages are preserved mostly at shallow
crustal levels (Stern, 1994).
Following the syntheses of Caby and Andreopoulos-
Renaud (1987) and Boullier (1991, and references
therein), this paper focusses on the lithostratigraphy and
pre-collisional evolution of the western part of the
Tuareg shield west of the 4°500 shear zone, with some
references and comparisons with rock units from the
central terranes and the Nigerian shield. The main
geological, structural and petrological features of several
terranes are described and time constraints concerning
the Neoproterozoic subduction- and collision-related
tectonometamorphic events recognized in the western
part of the shield are discussed. A new geodynamic
scenario is then proposed for the central/eastern part of
the Tuareg shield that suggests several stages of
migrating subductions and diachronous collisions end-
ing in the Cambrian.
2. Brief summary of the nature and evolution of the
eastern and central terranes
2.1. Eastern terranes
The four terranes (Djanet, Edembo, Aouzegueur,
Barghot) were juxtaposed prior to 700 Ma and are part
of the assumed ‘‘East Saharan craton’’ according to
Li
egeois et al. (1994) and Li
egeois et al. (2000). Mono-
cyclic post-Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary rocks,
various volcanic and plutonic assemblages not much
older than 730 Ma according to U–Pb zircon dating
(Caby and Andreopoulos-Renaud, 1987, and unpub-
lished results), and potential ophiolites (Boullier et al.,
1991) were involved in an early Pan-African event.
Collision-related regional metamorphism and magma-
tism indeed took place prior to c. 700 Ma, as in several
135
domains of the Nubian-Arabian shield. Then this-
neocratonic block was covered by the flat-lying Proche
T
en
er
e molasse derived from the erosion of these terr-
anes and deposited before the 660 Ma age rhyolite to
andesite and coeval plutonic rocks (Bertrand et al.,
1978; Caby and Andreopoulos-Renaud, 1987). The
eastern terranes behaved rigidly during the Late Neo-
proterozoic collisional events, except along the 8°300
shear zone where the western part of the Aouzegueur
terrane was involved in the Tiririne belt (Bertrand et al.,
1978). Geochemical and isotopic data on synorogenic
granitoids suggest that Archaean continental crust may
form the root to these terranes that may belong to the
‘‘East Saharan Ghost Craton’’ of Li
egeois et al. (2000).
2.2. Assod

e and Issalane terranes
West of the Raghane shear zone, the Assod
e and Is-
salane terranes are characterized by high-grade gneisses
considered as thoroughly reworked and anatectic
Paleoproterozoic and/or Archaean basement, and su-
pracrustal cover sequences including fuchsite bearing
quartzites of possible Paleoproterozoic or Archaean age,
interlayered with banded sub-alkaline gneisses.
According to Li
egeois et al. (1994), the terranes had
already been affected by the 730–700 Ma orogeny, but at
variance with the rigid eastern terranes, they were af-
fected by the younger Pan-African event at 670 Ma.
The high-pressure affinity of the Pan-African regional
metamorphism in the Iassalane terrane is indicated by
the overall presence of early kyanite in anatectic
metapelites and of garnet-rutile amphibolites that are
closely associated with calc-silicate gneisses and marbles.
This early metamorphism was followed by low-pressure
conditions portrayed by cordierite–sillimanite assem-
blages developed in metapelites during the intrusion of
late-kinematic plutonism during the 645–580 Ma time
span (Li
egeois et al., 2000). The Raghane shear zone
flattens northward and may represent a lateral ramp of
the northward moving Issalane nappe system with flat-
lying foliation, that was thrust above the Proche T
en
er
e
molasse (Bertrand et al., 1978). In the north the
quartzites of the Tazat area (Bertrand et al., 1968) allow
possible stratigraphic correlations with the western
terranes as described below and may represent the de-
formed foreland of the Issalane nappe system.
2.3. Serouenout terrane
This elongate terrane includes both polymetamorphic
metasediments of unknown age, sub-alkaline orthog-
neisses and amphibolites, all affected by kyanite-zone
metamorphism coeval with recumbent folding and
overall flat-lying foliation. Preserved prismatic rutile
in almandine garnet from non-anatectic white mica-
bearing metapelites indicates initial high pressures.
136 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

Li
egeois et al. (2000) also recognized remnants of po-
tential ophiolitic assemblages in this terrane. Then these
units were thoroughly affected by regionally developed
greenschist facies retrogression coeval with the prograde
evolution in an adjacent monocyclic metasedimentary
schist belt (Neoproterozoic cover?) only affected by open
N-S upright folding. Ages of deposition of all sequences
in these terranes are still unknown.
2.4. LATEA superterrane
LATEA includes a large volume of polycyclic mig-
matitic gneisses of assumed Paleoproterozoic and/or
Archaean age and abundant late-kinematic Pan-African
granitoids (Li
egeois et al., 2003, this issue). At variance
with the regions south of Sahara where reworked Ar-
chaean basement underlies the whole of northwestern

Arak

Tefedest
Ahnet Aleksod
Silet
25

T.Chaffao
LATEA

IOGU Aghefsa
T.Amzi
InTam-
Tirek erouelt Timgaouine T.Begane
Ti Immezzarene
Missao
fault
Adrar

Laouni

20

450'
100 km shear zone

a Major syn-collisional (a) and post-collisional granitoids

b
b Late Neoproterozoic volcanic/volcaniclastic rocks (a)
a and arc batholiths (b) (Pharusianterraneand LATEA basins)

a b Late Mesoproterozoic(?)supracrustalformations (a)

and Early Neoproterozoic batholiths (b) (Iskel terrane)

Undif ferentiatedpolycyclic gneisses(a) and assumed

a b
Neoproterozoic rocks from the LATEA terrane

Fig. 2. Simplified geological sketch map of the Pharusian terrane and connection with the LATEA terrane (Tertiary basalts are not represented).
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
Nigeria (Bruguier et al., 1994; Dada, 1998; Caby and
Boess
e, 2001, and references therein), Archaean rocks
have only been recognized in one area, the Gour Ou-
melalen granulite unit (Latouche, 1978), whose granulite
facies metamorphism is dated around 1.9 Ga according
to U–Pb zircon and Sm–Nd whole rock geochronology
(Peucat et al., 2003, this issue). However, mafic granu-
lites were in part recrystalized into garnet amphibolites
and eclogites during a subsequent event (Latouche,
1978, 1985). Fresh granulites are also widely exposed in
the Tamanrasset area (Bertrand et al., 1986b), the
Tefedest (Vitel, 1979) and in the badly known north-
eastern part of the terrane covered by abundant Ceno-
zoic volcanism. Early kyanite–garnet assemblages in the
Tefedest indicate initial high pressures, followed by low-
pressure conditions up to granulite facies coeval with the
emplacement of two-pyroxene mafic intrusives. The pre-
Pan-African Arechchoum orthogneisses (Aleksod area,
Fig. 2) have given ages around 2.2 Ga by the Rb/Sr
method (Bertrand and Lasserre, 1976). The main folia-
tion in this reworked basement was regarded as ‘‘early’’
Pan-African in age by Boullier and Bertrand (1981). A
different lithotectonic group considered as allochtho-
nous on the basement by Li
egeois et al. (2003, this issue)
mainly comprises aluminous metaquartzites and metap-
elites, marbles and calc-silicates gneisses intermingled
with other paragneisses and migmatitic orthogneisses,
thus comparable with the Aleksod gneisses of Bertrand
et al. (1986b). Eclogitic metamorphism (T ¼ 750 °C,
P ¼ 1:5 GPa, Sautter, 1986) is well identified in mafic
boudins from the assumed sole thrust from the al-
lochthonous supracrustal sequence, but not in the
Arechchoum basement that was only subjected to garnet-
amphibolite facies conditions at temperatures around
600–650 °C (Sautter, 1986). Possible similar high pres-
sures may have also affected the entire Aleksod supra-
crustal sequence, as suggested by early anatectic
conditions in the kyanite stability field at c. 1.3 GPa of
pressure (Barbey et al., 1989). U–Pb zircon data on
granodioritic migmatites from the latter area point to
the crystallization of the precursor igneous granodiorite
at 2131 Ma, whereas the high-pressure anatexis is dated
by the same method at 607 Ma by the lower intercept of
zircon (Barbey et al., 1989). Eclogitic assemblages first
described by Latouche (1985) also occur in the southern
LATEA (Fig. 2). Metamorphic conditions of T ¼ 800
°C and P P 1:7 GPa have been calculated by Boughrara
(1999). Sm–Nd ages of 685 Ma for the decompression
stage are reported by Li
egeois et al. (2003, this issue).
Granulite facies metamorphism in the southwestern
LATEA was earlier considered by Bertrand et al.
(1986b) to be of Paleoproterozoic age, as suggested by
the 2075 Ma upper intercept of zircons from an ana-
tectic pyrigarnite included in a cordierite diatexite cut by
a cordierite granite in the Tin Amzi area (Fig. 2). Per-
sonal observations on the aluminous mylonites that cut
137
both the anatectic granite and the country granulites
(Bertrand et al., 1986a,b) show their high-temperature
character. Sillimanite is indeed present both as fresh
porphyroclasts, fresh tiny euhedral prisms (20–300 l
long) and fibrolite grown synkinematically in ultramyl-
onite bands formed by P95vol.% of microcrystalline
biotite-rich aluminous matrix of restitic haracter. The
gradual transition from ultramylonite to pseudotachyl-
lite bands is in agreement with continuous deformation
at decreasing temperature during exhumation from
T P 600 °C to shallow depths. At variance with the
conclusions of Bertrand et al. (1986b) and in agreement
with the conclusions of Barbey et al. (1989), the gran-
ulite facies is therefore better interpreted as Pan-African.
Moreover, it is suggested that this major mylonite band
may have formed under an extensional setting, as al-
ready alternatively suggested by Bertrand et al. (1986b).
Such an extensional detachment may delineate the roof
of anatectic domes that host the Tin Beggane eclog-
itic boudins farther south, from shallower crustal levels
exposed in the Laouni area, the latter comprising
monocyclic metasedimentary rocks of assumed Neo-
proterozoic age that will be briefly described in the
Neoproterozoic section.
3. Lithology and pre-collisional magmatism in the Pharu-
sian and the western terranes
3.1. The IOGU/IGU terrane: an Archaean/Palaeoprote-
rozoic microcontinent
Granulites of the In Ouzzal and Iforas granulite units
(respectively IOGU and IGU, Fig. 3a) represent two
slices of the same Paleoproterozoic granulite facies
basement (Caby, 1996). Other narrow slices of similar
granulite facies rocks occur in the northwestern part of
both units. The generally steeply dipping tectonometa-
morphic banding in both units is sharply cut by up to
500 m thick mylonitic zones to the west and the east.
The granulite facies metasedimentary rocks include
quartzites, magnetite quartzites, marbles, calc-silicate
gneisses, metadolomites (wollastonitites), graphitic
metapelites (kinzigites) and other gneisses possibly de-
rived from greywackes, others of clear igneous origin,
such as syenitic gneisses. Haddoum et al. (1994) consider
that this supracrustal package was deposited upon a
high-grade metamorphic basement of TTG affinity, in
agreement with the classical greenstone belt/gneiss
model for Archaean terrains. Zircons from metasedi-
mentary rocks have maintained diversely reset Archaean
ages, though the granulite facies metamorphism well
identified in the metasedimentary rocks took place at
2002 Ma (Peucat et al., 1996). Mapping of elements of
an older basement (now charnockitic grey gneisses) and
the syn- to late-granulitic charnockitic intrusions has to
138 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

2˚E 3˚E
22˚N 22
Ouallen 20 km Ti Missao

Ahnet
Tirek
T assendjanet
terrane

IOGU
Pharusian IOGU Recent volcanoes
terrane
Ordovician
100 km sandstones
21˚ Amesmessa 21˚

* Adr. Emedji
Plutons
fault

Tisanguenine Felsic-
Fig. 9 Volcanic rocks
Adrar

Tilemsi
arc
Ourdjan Molasse
Tessalit
Undifferen-
Algeria tiated meta-
Oumassene Morphic rocks
Adr. Denat
Kidal Granulites
terrane Mali
Boughessa
Tafeliant Tin Essako
20˚ Tin Zaouatene 20˚ Main thrust

IGU
Adrar
(a)
Fault (b)
2˚ 3˚
Fig. 3. (a) Sketch map of the IOGU/IGU terrane (Cretaceous cover is omitted) (after Boullier, 1982). (b) Simplified map of the southern tip of the
IOGU and the Adrar fault molassic belt.

be done. Late-kinematic charnockites and granitoids
were emplaced around 2 Ga (Haddoum et al., 1994, and
references therein). Temperatures as high as 1000 °C
were reached during regional metamorphism in the
IOGU (Ouzegane and Boumaza, 1996). Numerous lay-
ers and dykes of noritic rocks devoid of granulitic
mineral assemblages were emplaced during decompres-
sion. One outlier of undetached Mesoproterozoic sedi-
mentary cover with low-temperature greenschist facies
(quartzites, siltstones and shales with incipient slaty
cleavage) has been identified in the IGU (Boullier, 1982;
Fabre et al., 1982), whereas Late Neoproterozoic
andesitic flows with only zeolite facies metamorphism
directly overlie the northern part of the IOGU (Chi-
khaoui et al., 1980). The Pan-African tectonometamor-
phic imprint is negligible in the IOGU as shown by the
1775 Ma 39 Ar/40 Ar plateau age of granulite facies biotite
included in pyrope-rich garnet (Maluski et al., 1990). In
contrast, ubiquitous growth of Pan-African biotite
overprinted most granulites in its southern tip and in the
IGU (Boullier, 1979, 1982). Local high-temperature
Pan-African recrystallization up to granulite facies
(Boullier and Barbey, 1988) may be connected with
thermal aureoles of plutons. The IGU was cut by
voluminous calc-alkaline Pan-African plutons ranging
from gabbro to diorite and granodiorite (Li
egeois et al.,
1987). The IGU has been interpreted as a giant nappe
(Boullier, 1979, 1982), whereas the IOGU may represent
a microcratonic block floored by its old lithospheric
mantle (Caby, 1996). Caby and Moni
e (2003, this issue)
consider that the western and northeastern tectonic
contacts of the IOGU along which eclogites and blues-
chist facies rocks are identified, represents possible su-
tures. The eastern tectonic contact is a major dextral
vertical shear zone that is defined by ultramylonites and
dyke complexes which hosts two major goldfields
around Tirek and Amesmessa (Ferkous and Moni
e,
2002). In the Tirek area, the retrogressed granulites are
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
in sharp contact with assumed Late Paleoproterozoic to
Mesoproterozoic rocks affected by horizontal foliation
coeval with Pan-African low-pressure, high-temperature
metamorphic assemblages.
3.2. Reworked Paleoproterozoic basement inliers
In the Pharusian terrane, reconnaissance work has
allowed to identify several small exposures of pre-Pan-
African gneisses and granitoids directly caped by the
undetached basal quartzites of the Stromatolites series
described later.
In the Kidal terrane, large areas are floored by mig-
matitic gneisses in which the distinction between cover
and basement is difficult (Champenois et al., 1987). The
detailed study of non-migmatitic areas has however al-
lowed to trace the unconformity between a monometa-
morphic cover and a polymetamorphic non-granulitic
gneissic basement, the migmatitic foliation of which
predates the deposition of the unconformable basal
quartzite (Fig. 3a): Tissangenine (Caby, 1974); Ourdian
(Fabre et al., 1982); Tafeliant (Caby and Andreopoulos-
Renaud, 1985).
Tassendjanet terrane. Remnants of a pre 2.150 Ma
Paleoproterozoic basinal sequence has been identified in
the Tassendjanet basement nappe in NW Hoggar (Caby,
1970; Caby and Moni
e, 2003, this issue). The supra-
crustal group comprises aluminous quartzites, micas-
chists and marbles cut by amphibolitised mafic sill and a
metavolcanic formation of felsic lavas and volcanic
breccias of rhyodacitic composition cut by K-rich hypo-
volcanic granites. The group was intruded by syn- to
late-kinematic granitoids among which the two-micas
Tassendjanet granite dated at 2.15 Ga (Allegre and
Caby, 1972). An unconformable red arkosic formation
of molassic character predating the deposition of the
quartzitic cover directly overlies the granite. No corre-
lations can be made between the IOGU/IGU rocks and
the above described basement units.
3.3. Late Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary units and
rift-related magmatism
Monocyclic Late Paleoproterozoic metasedimentary
rocks are best identified in NW Hoggar (Caby and An-
dreopoulos-Renaud, 1983; Moussine-Pouchkine et al.,
1988; Bertrand-Sarfati et al., 1987) and in the Tirek
area. The very characteristic oldest unit is a thick for-
mation of aluminous metaquartzites with some inter-
calated pebbly layers (almost quartz and quartzite
pebbles) and a overlying aluminous metapelitic forma-
tion, both units being affected by kyanite-grade meta-
morphism in most areas (Caby and Moni
e, 2003, this
issue). The assumed deposition age is roughly coeval
with interlayered felsic metavolcanic rocks. Metarhyo-
lites, metaporphyries and associated sub-alkaline or-
139
thogneisses representing hypovolcanic intrusives have
been dated by the U–Pb zircon method at 1837 and 1755
Ma in Adrar des Iforas and western Hoggar, respec-
tively (Caby and Andreopoulos-Renaud, 1983). This
magmatism records a Late Paleoproterozoic rift stage
well known in other parts of western Gondwana, espe-
cially in eastern Brazil: the Espinhacßo Supergroup
(Trompette, 1994, and references therein). No basement
related to this supergroup has been documented. Non-
metamorphic quartzites of the Ahnet region represent a
P 3500 m accumulation in a deltaic (?) to passive margin
setting possibly related to the IOGU basement (Mous-
sine-Pouchkine et al., 1988). Basalts, trachytes, potassic
rhyolites, and various hypovolcanic rocks, all with a
negligible Pan-African metamorphic imprint, have been
identified in an adjacent area west of the Ahnet ridge.
This sequence is correlated with the metamorphic
equivalents described above. The post-rift unconformity
observed southwest of the Ahnet ridge (Moussine-
Pouchkine et al., 1988) is devoid of penetrative defor-
mation and recrystallization, except close to granitic
plutons. It is a coarser grained, non-aluminous sand-
stone to quartzite formation up to 1000 m thick. This
second sandy formation was deposited after a strong
erosion of the underlying lavas and associated hypo-
volcanic igneous rocks, all reworked in pebbles from the
basal fluviatile conglomerates. Similar conglomeratic
channels directly overlie the altered Tassendjanet granite
c. 50 km to the southwest. However, in the northeastern
part of the Tassendjanet nappe, the conglomerates also
rest on K-rich metarhyolites (Caby, 1970). Where peb-
bly beds are missing, a uniform cross-bedded beach
sandstones represents the base of the upside-down
Stromatolite series all along the southern front of the
Tassendjanet nappe (Caby, 1970).
Similar quartzitic units are well known in central
Hoggar for example at the base of the Edg
er
e series and
in the Tazat region (Bertrand et al., 1968, and references
therein; Fig. 1). In the latter area, P 2000 m of silli-
manite bearing quartzites with highly deformed oblique
bedding (Fig. 4a–c), and layers enriched in quartz
gravels and pebbles, are recognized despite lower
amphibolite facies regional metamorphism. This for-
mation also rests above a granitic basement but was in
turn intruded by pink non-porphyritic sub-alkaline in-
trusives converted into banded orthogneisses.
The Edg
er
e region in the LATEA terrane (Latouche,
1978, and references therein) is conspicuous by the large
development of shelf-type metasedimentary formations
that encompass mainly marbles, calc-silicates, quartzites
and metapelitic gneisses in lower amphibolite facies
conditions. Up to several hundreds of metres of meta-
quartzite with rarely preserved pebbly layers in which
only quartz and quartzite pebbles could be recognized,
overlie the assumed Arechchoum-type basement gneis-
ses. The marbles, metadolomitic and metapelitic units
140 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

Fig. 4. (a) Oblique stratification of probable fluviatile origin defined by darker minerals in the Tazat sillimanite quartzites. The too high angles
reaching 70° record a strong shortening nearly perpendicular to bedding. The sillimanite foliation (S1 ) is indicated. (b) Extremely deformed oblique
bedding, same locality. (c) Possible original geometry of oblique bedding from (a) restaured using simple retroshear (c ¼ 1:27). (d) Basaltic breccia
interlayered in marble overlain by metacherty layers, Mesoproterozoic (?) platform series, Silet area. (e) Deformed stromatolites of the Conophyton
type (hammer is about 35 cm long). (f) Undeformed pyroxenite with relict euhedral olivine (ol) enclosed in clinopyroxenite (cpx), core of a
pyroxenite sill, Silet area. (g) Multicolored marbles of the Stromatolite series cut by voluminous mafic–ultramafic sills in black, east of the ‘‘Petite
Afrique’’.

have been tentatively correlated with the Stromatolitic
series (Caby, 1969, and references therein). As in the
western terranes, sub-alkaline gneisses interlayered
with metaquartzites were observed, whereas garnet
amphibolites (enclosing the eclogitic lenses mentioned
above) represent former mafic sills emplaced in the
marbles. No geochronological data are available for
these units.
3.4. Mesoproterozoic (?) ‘‘Stromatolite series’’
Limestones and dolomites rich in stromatolitic hori-
zons very similar to those deposited on the West African
craton (Bertrand-Sarfati et al., 1987) overlie the Late
Paleoproterozoic quartzites south of the Ahnet ridge
(Moussine-Pouchkine et al., 1988). These limestone–
dolomite series recognized in several localities of wes-
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159 141

tern–central Hoggar and northern Mali were deposited
both in cratonic to pericratonic areas and in subsiding
non-volcanic passive paleomargin environment. In the
Tassendjanet area, the carbonate series reaches up to
P 6000 m, with several stromatolitic biostromes, and
intercalated shales and quartzites. It accumulated in a
subsident pericratonic area floored by the 2.1 Ga gra-
nitic Tassendjanet basement (Bertrand-Sarfati et al.,
1987). Very similar carbonates with stromatolite relics
occur in Adrar des Iforas: Tisangenine (Caby, 1974);
Tafeliant (Caby and Andreopoulos-Renaud, 1985);
Ourdian (Fabre et al., 1982). Stromatolitic marbles with
Conophyton (Fig. 4e) deposited above a 6 10 m thick
regular remnants were described from several localities
in the Iskel terrane (Silet and Timgaouine, Figs. 2 and 5)
by Gravelle (1969), Haddoum (1984), Lapierre et al.
(1986), Boukhalfa (1987, 2002) and Bouchachi (1993).
Amard (1983) described the Ourdjan stromatolitic car-
bonates in northern Mali hosting abundant microfossils
suggesting a Paleoproterozoic age. This estimate is at
variance with a Pb–Pb age of 1100–1145 Ma obtained
on a galena from a stratabound lead occurrence in

450'
shear zone 5
22 22
Immezzarene Bourzekkal
Aouilene
batholith

Fig.10 Abankor

Timgaouine

21 21

Laouni

50 km

Late Neoproterozoic metagreywackes

Molasse and volcanicr ocks
Iskel terrane: undifferentiated supracrustal
syn- to late-kinematic a formations (a) mafic rocks (b), pre-
granitoids Collisional batholiths (868-849 Ma)
b c
Late Neoproterozoic terrigeneous LATEA: undifferentiated high-grader ocks (a),
Metasedimentary rocks anatectic Paleoproterozoic (?) basement (b)
a b
Fig. 5. Simplified geological map of part of the southern zone of the Iskel terrane (see Fig. 1 for location).
142 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
marbles of the Tirek area (Fariss, 2000). These marbles
are considered as a high-grade metamorphic equivalent
of the ‘‘stromatolite series’’.
3.5. Early Neoproterozoic rifting to oceanisation
Rifting is shown the by widespread basalts volcanism
on top of the stromatolite series.
In the Silet area, detailed observations show that the
top of the carbonates grades to carbonate breccias
coeval with the onset of basaltic volcanism (Fig. 4d).
Basaltic breccias alternate with pink marble layers and
metasilts displaying haematitic cherty layers that are
directly overlain by pillow metabasalts and associated
basaltic breccias about 150 m thick. The basalts display
the geochemical signature of transitional basalts (Du-
pont et al., 1985).
In the Ahnet massif, pillow metabasalts of tholeiitic
affinity also overlie deep sea limestones and cherts that
represent the top of the immersed carbonate platform
exposed southwest of the Ahnet ridge (Moussine-
Pouchkine et al., 1988).
Numerous sills of olivine gabbro, pyroxenite, and
serpentinized dunite and their sheared equivalents
(tremolite-actinolite carbonate Mg-chlorite schists and
soapstones) intruded the carbonates prior to the intru-
sion of the older batholiths. In the Tassendjanet area,
the tholeiitic sills reach a thickness of several hundreds
of metres, and encompass different types of clinopy-
roxene gabbro, troctolite, two-pyroxene gabbro and
leucogabbro (‘‘basified areas of Caby, 1970). The Ougda
mafic complex that encompass ultramafic cumulates
crystallized at high pressures (Dostal et al., 1996) has
been dated at 676 Ma (Caby and Moni
e, 2003, this
issue). In metamorphic domains of the Iskel terrane, a
randomly preserved magmatic fabric in the cores of
boudins enclosed in tectonized marbles undoubtly
points to a cumulate (Fig. 4f) for ultramafic lenses that
represent wherlite and dunite sills. West of Timgaouine
are exposed domains where the volume of mafic/ultra-
mafic sills may equal that of the remnant marbles (Fig.
4g). The marbles commonly contain high-temperature
silicates among which altered forsterite possibly grown
during contact metamorphism related to the sills or the
older plutons, as described below. Geochemical char-
acters and REE patterns suggest that the sills were
coeval with the extrusion of the transitional pillowed
basalts (Boukhalfa, 1987), thus suggesting an overall
intracontinental rifting.
Possible oceanic assemblages. Close to Silet are ex-
posed slices of serpentinite spatially associated with
tectonized slices of MOR-type metagabbro, plagiogra-
nite and diabases, possibly representing a former dyke
complex (Fig. 6a). Such a mafic–ultramafic association
has been interpreted as ophiolites from major elements
chemistry (Abed, 1983). Overall steeply dipping stretch-
ing and mineral lineations rather suggest vertically ex-
truded slices of mafic rocks than obducted ophiolites.
Moreover, the low Cr content of ultramafic rocks and the
occurrence of some magmatic biotites in samples from
mafic dykes seem to preclude a purely oceanic setting.
3.6. Early Neoproterozoic calc-alkaline rocks
The extensional setting and/or the assumed sub-oce-
anic and/or intraoceanic setting etablished in parts of
the Iskel terrane was followed by calc-alkaline volca-
nism represented by several hundreds of metres of
andesites, dacites and lesser associated volcaniclastic
sediments among which conglomerates containing peb-
bles of metaandesite and dacite. These metavolcanic
rocks are cut by 868 Ma old diorite-tonalite plutons,
thus allowing to distinguish them from the younger
unconformable calc-alkaline volcanic and volcaniclastic
rocks described later (Fig. 6b). This calc-alkaline igne-
ous suite is labeled here the Iskel magmatic arc. The
occurrence of slices of pre-Pan-African basement di-
rectly overlain by shelf sediments and capped by arc
volcanic rocks in several localities allows to conclude
that the Iskel magmatic arc was built on attenuated
continental crust adjacent to possible slices of oceanic
lithosphere (Lapierre et al., 1986).
3.7. Early Neoproterozoic regional metamorphism, defor-
mation and cratonization in the Iskel terrane
Ductile syn-metamorphic deformation under deep
greenschist to amphibolite facies conditions affected
many areas of the Iskel terrane prior to the deposition of
the Late Neoproterozoic cover (Gravelle, 1969; Bois-
sonnas, 1973). Stretching and mineral lineations asso-
ciated with recumbent folds trend NS in the Silet area.
This fabric predates or was associated with (?) the older
calc-alkaline plutons described below. E-W to NW-SE
oriented lineations were documented in the southern
part of the Iskel terrane (Lapique et al., 1986). The 868
Ma-old plutons mainly include amphibole granodiorite
mingled with diorite to tonalite in the Silet area (Caby
et al., 1982). Hectometre- to kilometre-size pendants of
gabbro, serpentinite and metasedimentary rocks dis-
playing retrogressed high-temperature assemblages oc-
cur within the plutons. The large batholith (Gravelle,
1969) produced a kilometre-wide, in part synkinematic
thermal aureole. This igneous suite, dated at 849 Ma in
the Silet area (Caby et al., 1982), includes also large
plutons of pink sub-alkaline granite. Several batholiths
such as exposed southeast of Silet along the 4°500 shear
zone are in fact composite since they contain plurikilo-
metre-sized dioritic and tonalitic units (either pendants
or co-magmatic units?). Two c. 200 km long NNE-
trending batholiths of this family form the southern part
of the Iskel terrane. The Timgaouine batholith (Fig. 5)
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159 143

Fig. 6. (a) Potential ophiolites with sheared mafic dykes from the Tin-Rhales complex, south of Silet. (b) Metaconglomerate with mainly volcanic
pebbles from the Iskel volcanic sequence. Note the severe horizontal stretching of the pebbles (N-SE elongation) related to the Early Neoproterozoic
(pre- or syn- 869 Ma?) deformation. (c) Polygenic metaconglomerate with abundant marble boulders, NVVG, north of Abankor. (d) Olistoliths of
dolomitic marble enclosed in a silty matrix, NVVG around Silet. (e) Serpentinite boulders in a conglomeratic layer with ultramafic matrix, same area
than (d). (f) Syenite boulders in a white clayly matrix, basal unconformity of the NVVG around Abankor.

includes porphyritic pink K-rich granite, syenogranite
and syenite. Post-magmatic N-S fractures filled by red
jasper host epigenetic U mineralisations around Tim-
gaouine. However immediately east of the Abankor base
is exposed a different sheared peralkaline pluton made
up by 100% dikes of aegyrine and riebeckite granite and
microgranite, a dyke complex that compares well with
other shear zone-related intrusions from the western
terrane (Hadj-Kaddour et al., 1998).
Characters of the low-pressure thermal aureoles. At
P 1 km away of the plutons around Silet occur remnants
of spotted textures in metapelites, whereas detrital
quartz grains are preserved in arenaceous rocks, thus
suggesting that regional greenschist facies regional
metamorphism, at most, was present before the
emplacement of plutons. Over some tens of metres from
magmatic contacts, country rocks display a strong syn-
kinematic fabric. The strongly altered mineral assem-
blage andalusite, pinitised cordierite, sillimanite, Ti-rich
brown biotite, plagioclase, muscovite, magnetite and
monazite has been observed at several localities in
metapelites, attesting for low-pressure conditions during
magma emplacement. Unusual coarse-grained diatexites
with coarse-grained platy quartz and containing deeply
chloritised garnet up to one cm in diameter, cordierite,
sillimanite, plagioclase and monazite were also observed
adjacent to veins of highly sheared muscovite granite.
Marbles occasionally still displaying stromatolite relics
of the Conophyton type (Timgaouine, Fig. 4e) con-
tain serpentinized forsterite and are associated to calc-
silicate layers containing diopside, grossular, amphibole,
titanite and epidotes. Metagabbros and porphyritic
metabasalts around Abankor were invariably meta-
morphosed into green and brown amphibole, plagio-
clase-bearing lineated rocks. 849 Ma may roughly
represent the age of the early cratonization of the
Iskel basement. Strong greenschist facies retrogres-
sion affected all these high-temperature metamorphic
144 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

assemblages and the igneous rocks. This retrogression
was coeval with the prograde greenschist facies imprint
affecting the unconformable Late Neoproterozoic
group.
3.8. Late Neoproterozoic volcanosedimentary formations
and arc magmatism in the Pharusian terrane
Metavolcanic and associated volcaniclastic rocks and
metagreywackes here labeled the Neoproterozoic Vol-
canic-Volcaniclastic Group (NVVG) form the ubiqui-
tous rock association encountered in the northwestern
part of the Tuareg shield. The NVVG corresponds to
the ‘‘Pharusian’’, the ‘‘Upper Pharusian’’ of Bertrand
et al. (1986a) and Gravelle (1969), the Green series of
Caby (1970) and Caby et al. (1977). The NVVG was also
intruded by voluminous pre-tectonic calc-alkaline plu-
tons and batholiths, their with the Early Neoproterozoic
Iskel magmatic suite described above being not always
possible in strongly tectonized areas.
In the eastern part of the Pharusian terrane, the base
of the NVVG rests unconformably on various plutons
and metamorphic country rocks of the Iskel basement
(Fig. 7a). The base of the series around Silet is defined
by polygenic conglomeratic layers with an arkosic ma-
trix displaying angular blocks up to 50 cm in size from
the nearby adjacent basement, overlain by a 2–10 m
thick dolomitic layer grading to pebbly dolomite
(Gravelle, 1969; Caby et al., 1982; Lapierre et al., 1986).
Upright incipient slaty cleavage coeval with low-tem-
perature greenschist facies is observed in overlying silty
layers, greywackes and metabasalts. Overlying grey to
blackish shales and alternating siltstones, sandstones
and greywackes, about 1000 m-thick, display frequent
fine-scale graded bedding, slumped layers and convolute
bedding. However no detailed sedimentological obser-
vations allow to document the assumed turbiditic
character of this formation that, alternatively, could
represent low-energy deposits as reported from other
monotonous greywacke formations exposed along the
main Pan-African suture c. 500 km to the north (Dostal
et al., 2002). Greywackes, tuffs and debris flows origi-
nating from basaltic volcanoes occur on top, possible
pillowed metabasalts being also present. Conformable
andesite and rhyodacites flows, and pyroclastic rocks
(the Irrelouchem volcanic unit, Gravelle, 1969; Caby
et al., 1982; Dupont et al., 1985) make up a c.1500 m
thick accumulation preserved in an open syncline cut by
hypovolcanic andesite dykes and microdiorite stocks.
The geochemical characters (major, trace elements and
REE) of volcanic rocks are those of active margin set-
tings (Dupont et al., 1985). Elsewhere in the western

NVVG ISKEL BASEMENT

NVVG

E transitional olistoliths Serpentinite

protrusion? W
basalts
D2

S1 S2
S2 S2
marbles

pelites
rhyolite-dacite Pyroxenite
dyke complex sill 250 m
(a)

NVVG

molassic basin
D3
S3
S2

ESE D2 S2 WNW

S2
(b) 100 m

Fig. 7. (a) Geological profile southwest of Silet showing the relationships between the Iskel basement and the NVVG. S1 is the older deep greenschist
facies cleavage from the basement. D2 is the unconformity observed at the base of the NVVG and S2 is the regional Pan-African cleavage. (b)
Geological profile showing the northwest-verging folds developed in the NVVG. D2 is the stratigraphic unconformity of the NVVG and S2 the
regional Neoproterozoic slaty cleavage. Note that S1 and S2 may be hardly distinguished in the Iskel basement. D3 is the unconformity at the base of
the molassic basin affected by open folding with incipient upright fracture cleavage (S3 ).
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
part of the Pharusian terrane, polymict conglomerates
form unstratified masses that do not necessarily delin-
eate the base of the series. Typically the elements are free
of chemical alteration and they are easily recognized to
derive from nearby rock units from both the Iskel
basement and roughly synchronous volcanic units (Fig.
6c). Several fault-bounded residual basins of greywackes
and subordinate pebbly greywackes, NNE-trending and
flanked on both sides by plutons of the basement, were
mapped by Gravelle (1969). When not sheared, the
unconformity is steeply dipping, allowing to consider
that such overall vertical geometry may be inherited
from early block faulting. This possibility may explain
the very local occurrence of coarse conglomerates that
could represent alluvial fans adjacent to growing reliefs.
In the same area was also observed above the grey-
wackes a polygenetic chaotic formation displaying
olistoliths of limestones and dolomites (Fig. 6d). The
associated matrix-supported breccias and conglomerates
include both rounded and angular blocks of limestone,
dolomite, red jasper, pyroxenite and serpentinized peri-
dotite. Fine–grained metaarenites of mafic to ultramafic
composition, and layers enriched in serpentinite boul-
ders were also identified (Fig. 6e). Decametre- to
hectometre-sized serpentinite slices and masses inserted
in slightly deformed metapelites and fine-grained quartz-
rich metagreywackes possibly represent olistoliths. Some
of these kilometre-sized serpentinite slices (Gravelle,
1969) may however represent cold diapirs or protrusions
bounded by rather sheared contacts (Caby et al., 1982).
Around Abankor, the basal unconformity is outlined by
a 5–10 m thick chaotic formation made up of rounded
blocks up to 5 m of diameter embedded in a poorly
exposed non-stratified white clayly matrix (Fig. 6f).
Such an uncommon formation may represent arenised
syenite and syenite blocks possibly deposited in glacial
conditions, or a in situ palaeoblock field directly over-
lying the Timgaouine syenite. This strange basal for-
mation is overlain by about 250 m of thinly layered
metasilts and sandstones deposited in a quiet environ-
ment, followed by felsic tuffs. The c. 2000 m thick
overlying volcanic pile comprises massive basalt to
andesite flows, and younger dacite to rhyodacite flows
overlain by volcaniclastic conglomerates, pelites and
sandstones (Haddoum, 1984). In other areas conglo-
merates with predominant doleritic, gabbroic and car-
bonate elements form thick lenses at the top of the
series. The above described sequence suggests initial
quiet deposits above the cratonized Iskel basement.
How these quiet deposits pass to a turbidites and
olistoliths bearing deposits to which are associated
ultramafite-derived sediments requires further field
work. It is likely that active reliefs were erected during
the onset of terrestrial andesitic volcanism.
Few detailed observations were done in the poorly
known western parts of the Pharusian terrane (Fig. 2).
145
Gravelle (1969) reports the occurrence of metavolcanic
rocks and polygenetic conglomerates containing granite,
andesite and greenschist pebbles and angular elements
with only a fracture cleavage c. 40 km north of Ti
Missao at In Temerouelt (Fig. 2). These rocks rest above
higher grade rocks including quartzites, amphibolites,
calc-silicates and syenitic gneisses as metamorphosed
prior to the Pan-African according to this author.
However this unretrogressed unit formed by protoliths
identical to those of the Late Paleoproterozoic group is
part of the Tirek gneisses with Pan-African metamor-
phism. Thus the slightly deformed conglomerates and
volcanics of the In Temerouelt area may belong to
the Adrar fault molassic belt described later. The as-
sumed stratigraphic unconformity of strongly deformed
amphibolite facies metaconglomerates of the NVVG on
sillimanite metaquartzites and alkaline gneisses of the
Tirek terrane has been however observed c. 25 km west
of Ti Missao and no metamorphic discontinuity is
demonstrated between the two lithostratigraphic
groups. Such is also the case in eastern Iforas massif
(Davison, 1980). It is concluded that the NVVG that
forms the major part of the Pharusian terrane overlies
two different basements: the c. 900–850 Ma old Iskel
basement in the east, and the Tirek (Late Paleoprote-
rozoic ?) units in the west, that compare well with sub-
ducted units in the southern part of the Tassendjanet
terrane (Caby and Moni
e, this volume).
Our personal short traverses in the northwestern part
of the Pharusian terrane allow recognizing that thick
metagreywacke units with subordinate pebbly layers are
the dominant rock types in most areas. Metagreywac-
kes, some of which representing potential distal turbi-
dites, are intercalated with felsic metavolcanics (mainly
dacites and rhyolites), associated epiclastites, monogenic
or polygenic volcanic breccias, and volcanic–plutonic-
pebble conglomerates with both rounded and angular
clasts. Belts of vesicular spilitic metabasalt and thick
mafic sills occur also within the greywackes. A strong
steeply dipping greenschist facies cleavage and the
numerous pre-metamorphic intrusive bodies make
stratigraphic studies difficult.
3.9. Pre-kinematic batholiths
Numerous N-S oriented granitoid plutons and
batholiths of mainly granodiorite to diorite composition
intruded the NVVC prior to regional deformation and
metamorphism. The 300 km long Arak-Tan Chaffao
composite batholith (Fig. 2) displays syn-plutonic dyke
swarms and suffered very faint subsequent deformation.
Massive granodiorite in the north was only affected by
discrete brittle Pan-African deformation coeval with
low-temperature greenschist facies, during which most
mafic igneous minerals were chloritised. Protomylonitic
to mylonitic structures occur along steep chlorite-bearing
146 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
shear zones. In its northern part around Arak, the
country rocks are represented by thinly layered green
metasilts with regular rythmic bedding and lack a re-
gional Pan-African cleavage. These silty layers were
converted into cherty hornfelses over only a few metres
close to igneous bodies contacts. These shallow-depth
plutons may represent the magmatic reservoirs of the
widespread rhyo-dacitic volcanism such as exposed
northeast of the Ahnet massif. The pre-kinematic
Aouilene monzo-granitic batholith exposed c. 70 km
southeast of Silet (Figs. 2 and 5) intruded NVVC rocks
prior to regional deformation (Lapique et al., 1986). It
forms a plurikilometre-sized elongate dome along the
4°500 shear zone. As the metavolcanic country rocks, it
displays a strong post-magmatic foliation better devel-
oped along the 4°500 shear zone (Gravelle, 1969). The
structure was interpreted as a refolded recumbent foli-
ation by Lapique et al. (1986). This pluton has given a
slightly discordant U–Pb zircon + titanite age of 629 Ma
(Bertrand et al., 1986a). Recalculated without the tita-
nite that shows evidences of post-magmatic alteration,
an age of 651 Ma is obtained (Bertrand, unpublished,
written communication, 1994). Another pluton con-
nected to the same batholitic belt in the south has given
by the same method an age of 630 Ma (Boukhalfa,
1987). If the concordant points are only considered, an
age of 652 ± 10 Ma is obtained (Bertrand, unpublished
report SONAREM and written communication, 1994).
In the southwestern part of the terrane (Immezzarene
area, Figs. 2 and 5) is exposed a different formation of
carbonaceous shales to siltstones and sandstones, with
layers of polymict conglomerates (the Greso-pelitic
series of Gravelle, 1969). No available sedimentological
observations were done on this unit. Based on regional
mapping in the northern part of the Immezzarene
massif, the greenish greywackes and the black terrige-
neous formation are considered as two synchronous
facies by Gravelle (1969). It is indeed possible that the
Pharusian trough was fed by two different sources: a
mainly volcanic input derived from the erosion of
adjacent calc-alkaline volcanoes and hypovolcanic plu-
tons in the northeast, and mature material of assumed
continental origin in the southwest.
3.10. The NVVG in the western terranes
South of the Tassendjanet nappe (Caby and Moni
e,
this volume), the Neoproterozoic rocks rest directly
above marbles overlying the Late Paleoproterozoic
metaquartzites. Here, a 6 50 m thick basal polymict
metaconglomeratic formation generally delineates the
basal stratigraphic unconformity. Unpublished sedi-
mentological observations on the slightly deformed
rythmic greenish greywackes that form the P 3000 m
thick parautochthons of the Tassendjanet nappe show
ubiquitous graded bedding, slump structure and incom-
plete Bouma sequences (Moussine-Pouchkine, unpub-
lished observation, written communication, 1994).
These are interpreted as distal turbidites very compa-
rable to those exposed in the Bled el Mas and Adrar
inliers, 200–500 km to the north (Moussine-Pouchkine,
unpublished observations). The greywackes contain
ubiquitous angular volcanic clasts (basaltic, andesitic,
dacitic) and minerals (altered pyroxenes and amphibo-
les?, plagioclase, blue volcanic quartz) and possible
glass fragments, as well as granitoids, mostly of hypo-
volcanic origin. The major elements of the greywackes
indicate an essentially low-K andesitic chemistry (Caby
et al., 1977). Interlayered volcanic–plutonic-pebble
conglomerates are interpreted as mass flows originated
from the erosion of volcanic/plutonic ridges and also
reworking the Late Paleoproterozoic quartzites. Violet
Cu-bearing, Al-poor shaly layers displaying constant
convolute bedding and slump structure may repre-
sent hemipelagic deposits of similar bulk chemistry.
Lenses of monogenic dacitic breccias may represent
explosive volcanic rocks that originated from nearby
volcanic islands. Numerous hectometre- to kilometre-
sized intrusive stocks of various hypovolcanic rocks
(K-rich granophyric microgranite, trondjhemite,
granodiorite, diorite, dolerite and gabbro) occur at
lower levels in the series. In the western part of the Kidal
terrane, the Tafeliant Group (Fabre et al., 1982) in-
cludes an older sequence of pillowed basalts, andesites,
dacites, volcanic greywackes and continent-derived
material with an horizon of matrix-supported meta-
conglomerate containing blocks of several metres
across, a formation of assumed glacial origin. Its
deposition occurred after 693 Ma, a nearly concordant
U–Pb zircon age of a metadiorite from the related
basement that is reworked as plurimetre-sized rounded
blocks in the basal conglomerate (Ball and Caby, 1984;
Caby and Andreopoulos-Renaud, 1985). The Tassen-
djanet turbiditic greywackes are younger than 676 Ma
(Caby and Moni
e, this volume).
3.11. Monocyclic schist belts in the LATEA terrane
Low-grade metasedimentary rocks of clearly mono-
metamorphic character are preserved both in synforms
delimited from surrounding anatectic gneisses by steep
to inclined strike-slip mylonitic zones, and as pendants
within batholiths. These sequences are lithologically
similar to the NVVG of the Pharusian terrane described
above.
The Aghefsa volcanosedimentary belt (Fig. 2) has
always been correlated with Neoproterozoic (‘‘Pharu-
sian’’) sequences of western Hoggar. It is only slightly
deformed in the north and comprises metapelites,
metagreywackes and metaconglomerates with common
granite and gneiss pebbles, metaandesites, and tholeiitic
metabasalts (Briedj, 1993). This author pointed out that
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
Fig. 8. (a) Polygenic metaconglomerate preserved as pendants from the roof of the Tefedest batholith, Dehine area, LATEA terranes. Aspect of the
post-molasse granitoids of the Adrar fault molassic belt (b) layered to veined mesocratic alkaline granite displaying contorted mafic schlieren cut by
undeformed aplitic leucogranite, west of Adrar Emedji. (c) layered granodiorite pluton displaying alternating leucocratic bands and mesocratic
porphyritic granodiorite with some flattened mafic enclaves, same locality.
rocks of the Aghefsa volcanosedimentary belt and the
high-grade gneisses suffered the same kinematic history
characterized by an early recumbent cleavage formed
during top to the north tectonic transport, and later E-
W shortening. The Aghefsa greenschists progressively
grade to two-mica-garnet-staurolite schists (Briedj,
1993), and steep ductile tectonic contacts always separate
them from the higher grade anatectic domains with
gently folded recumbent foliation. The intrusion of late-
kinematic Pan-African calc-alkaline plutons was accom-
panied by low-pressure thermal aureoles (Bertrand,
1974). Undeformed rhyolites to dacites representing
dykes and sills cutting the cleavage of greenschists are
connected with stocks of red K-rich granites and mi-
crogranites. This family has given a Rb–Sr whole rock
isochron date of 583 Ma interpreted as the age of the
volcanism (Briedj, 1993).
Other remnants of monocyclic metasediment rocks
including stretched metaconglomerates with a biotite-
rich matrix (Fig. 8a) have also been observed as pen-
dants within batholiths in the Tefedest area (Vitel,
1979). The poorly studied country rocks of the Laouni
area (Figs. 2 and 5) are represented by weakly deformed
semi-pelitic schists and metaconglomerates affected by
very low-pressure metamorphism in part coeval with the
emplacement of the Laouni gabbro-ultramafic intru-
sions at <10 km depth in an extensional setting (Cottin
et al., 1990). These intrusions are synchronous or
younger than the stocks of aluminous leucogranite to
which W-Sn mineralisation are associated (Cheilletz
et al., 1992). The possible relationships between this low-
pressure province and the eclogitized units exposed
around Tin Beggane are discussed in the conclusions.
4. Late Neoproterozoic deformation and plutonism in the
Pharusian terrane
Several reconnaissance traverses across the northern
part of the Pharusian terrane have shown that N-S open
to tight folding associated with almost vertical greens-
147
chist facies cleavage is ubiquitous in the NVVG. This
regional deformation is thus younger than 629 (or 651)
Ma, as stated above. Domains with only incipient slaty
cleavage and free of ductile deformation form a longi-
tudinal band some tens of km west of the Iskel base-
ment. The various generations of pre-metamorphic
plutonic rocks of this domain behaved rigid or semi-
rigid and did not experience regional temperatures
above 350 °C far from the syn-collisional plutons, as
indicated by the complete lack of biotite in pelitic schists
and by only chlorite–albite–epidote assemblages in mafic
rocks. Ductilely deformed areas towards the center of the
terrane mostly display a steep cleavage and low-plunging
stretching lineations that indicate a general transpressive
component synchronous with ductile strike-slip faults
observed in pre-kinematic batholiths. Northwest verging
folds predating molasse deposition occur southeast of
Silet (Fig. 7b). A distinct tectonic style characterized by
flat-lying amphibolite facies foliation and NW-verging
folds has been described by Lapique et al. (1986) in a
longitudinal domain immediately exposed west of the
4°500 shear zone. These authors concluded to a conti-
nuous deformation leading to refolding of the earlier
stage recumbent cleavage coeval with sinistral strike-slip
movement along a steep NNW trending shear zone that
merges into the dextral 4°500 shear zone. As pointed out
by Lapique et al. (1986), this domain provides a possible
structural link with the LATEA terrane affected by
much higher temperature and by a recumbent Pan-
African foliation, as it will be discussed in the conclu-
sions.
Syn- to late-kinematic calc-alkaline plutons and
batholiths form a c. 800 km long magmatic belt cutting
obliquely the Pharusian terrane (Fig. 2). Boissonnas
(1973) has studied in detail the northern part of this
magmatic belt that intruded the low-temperature
greenschist facies rocks of the NVVG and the related
Iskel basement. Individual batholiths 100–200 km long,
frequently fringed by leucogranite, host younger discor-
dant stocks and plutons. Synmagmatic deformation
was identified in part of the batholiths. Syn-kinematic
148 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
thermal aureoles include two-mica-andalusite–stauro-
lite–cordierite schists (Boissonnas, 1973). For this au-
thor, the silicates formed in the S2 cleavage or even in a
subsidiary S3 syn-emplacement cleavage. Fibrolite and
K-feldspar assemblages occur only at a few metres away
of the igneous body contacts that are obscured by de-
formed granitic veins of both anatectic and intrusive
character. The same mineral assemblage was documented
very close to the discordant plutons, garnet being only
observed in xenoliths and pendants incorporated in
dioritic rocks. However, most Al silicates were thor-
oughly replaced by white mica aggregates. The vertical
stretching lineations commonly observed in thermal
aureoles may have formed during upward magma
emplacement. However, several ‘‘corridors’’ displaying
nearly horizontal lineations may relate to strike-slip
movement in part coeval with post-solidus deformation
of the pluton margins (Boissonnas, 1973). In pelitic
hornfelses formed very close to discordant plutons,
fibrolite overgrowing andalusite and orthoclase indicate
typical low-pressure isobaric heating (0.2.5–0.3 GPa)
up to c.700 °C according to the petrogenetic grid of Xu
et al. (1994).
The regional deformation and metamorphism in the
southwestern part of the Pharusian terrane was essen-
tially connected with the emplacement of the anatectic
Immezzarene batholith dated at 583 Ma by the U–Pb
zircon method (Bertrand et al., 1986a). Regional low-
temperature greenschists far from the batholith pro-
gressively grade to a km-scale low-pressure thermal
aureole. In the northern part of the batholith, metapel-
ites display white mica ± andalusite assemblages at P 1
km distance from igneous body contacts, the geometry
of which defines hectometre to plurikilometre-sized
bulbes clearly discordant on sedimentary layering. Two-
mica, K-feldspar-cordierite anatectic hornfelses appear
at some tens of metres from the pluton and in hecto-
metre in size pendants. Prograde andalusite and stau-
rolite are frequently included in cordierite, and
sillimanite forms typical spheroliths. Sillimanite horn-
felses, cut by numerous anatectic veins, grade to di-
atexite and metatexite at distance 6 a few decimetres
from igneous body contacts, late muscovitisation being
associated with the emplacement of younger aluminous
pegmatites. Spinel inclusions are observed in cordierite
from restites, and monazite is ubiquitous in the neo-
somes. The lack of garnet in aluminous metapelites
suggests near isobaric heating from 550 to P 700°C at
0.25–0.3 GPa according to the petrogenetic grid of
Xu et al. (1994). The occurrence of weakly deformed
polygenic conglomerates containing abundant quartzo-
feldspathic pebbles, and of horizontal, non-folded thinly
bedded cordierite–sillimanite metapelites may suggest
that no significant regional deformation affected locally
these metasedimentary rocks prior to magma intrusion
at 583 Ma.
The younger plutons best represented north of 22° N
in the eastern part of the terrane are K-rich calc-alkaline
to sub-alkaline plutons with common zoned structure
(the ‘‘Taourirt’’ plutons, Boissonnas, 1973; Azzouni-
Sekkal and Boissonnas, 1993). This is a composite
family of potassic calc-alkaline plutons to which are
associated rare more potassic varieties and quartz-
syenites, and that commonly display concentric
arrangement of rock types. The blastesis of andalusite–
cordierite assemblages in schistose pelitic hornfelses
around the plutons is syn-kinematic in respect to the
regionally developed cleavage in the NVVG. This
paragenesis points out to a very shallow emplacement
( 6 5–7 km) in a dextral strike-slip context (Djouadi
et al., 1997). The Tioueine pluton which is one of the
best representatives of this family has given a U–Pb
zircon age of 523 ± 1 Ma (Paquette et al., 1998), sug-
gesting that the regional cleavage and folding in the
eastern edge of the Pharusian terrane did not form be-
fore the Cambrian. Such surprising conclusion further
points out to the very shallow crustal level of many parts
of the Pharusian terrane prior to the deposition of the
unconformable molasse.
5. Molasses, related magmatism and Cambrian deforma-
tion
Classical molassic formations known from pioneering
works (for a stratigraphic synthesis, see Fabre et al.,
1988) are best represented in the western part of the
shield. Available geochronology and stratigraphic cor-
relations (Bertrand-Sarfati et al., 1987) allow to stress
their Cambrian age, as suggested by scarce and incom-
plete geochronological data (see Allegre and Caby,
1972).
5.1. The molassic cycle and related magmatism in the
western terranes
Red-type continental clastic successions are the pre-
dominant deposits that filled residual molassic basins up
to P 6 km thick (Caby and Moussu, 1967; Fabre et al.,
1988). The older unconformable unit above Pan-African
metamorphic complexes is represented west of Ouallen
by a coarse-grained arkosic to greywacke formation
with intercalated andesites, dacites and associated epi-
clastites that are free of greenschist facies overprint. The
unconformable Tagengant formation preserved in a
subsiding basin includes reddish rythmic siltites and
sandstones intermingled with dolomite and limestone
layers in which stromatolites of Cambrian affinity have
been found. Cinerite layers of rhyolitic composition are
associated with the limestones. Glacial to glacio-marine
environments (varves, dropstones, erratic blocs) were
identified in the P 1500 m thick Ouallen formation
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
(Caby and Moussu, 1967), as well as aeolian facies (A€ıt
Kaci Ahmed and Moussine-Pouchkine, 1987). A syn-
sedimentary volcanic centre comprising alkaline basalts
and trachytes cut by syenitic stocks has been mapped
(Caby, 1970). Flat-lying red beds, and P 1500 m of
rhyolitic ignimbrites accumulated in cauldrons and cut
by alkaline and peralkaline granites characterize the
molassic cycle in the IOGU, allowing tentative correla-
tions with the subsiding basins in which more than 6000
m of sediments were accumulated. N-S open folding
deformed the basins during the reactivation of major
shear zones. The metamorphic minerals chlorite, epidote
and zeolites are observed in the deeper parts of the basin
affected by incipient slaty cleavage, suggesting maximum
temperatures around 250 °C.
5.2. Syn-molassic volcanism and plutonism along the
strongly deformed Adrar fault molassic belt
Along the Adrar fault (Figs. 2 and 3b) a 1–5 km wide
belt of ductilely deformed molassic series affected by
syn-kinematic greenschist facies metamorphism por-
trayed by green biotite and actinolite is continuously
exposed from Ti Missao to northern Mali. This series
previously considered to delineate the unconformity of
NVVG, was first recognized south of the Malian border
by Caby et al. (1985). Immediately west of the fault, its
non-metamorphic counterpart free of penetrative
deformation and only affected by tilting, crops out as
outliers in unconformity above the Pan-African gneis-
ses. Coarse conglomerates and rhyolitic ignimbrites
form the lowermost part of the molasse farther south
(Boullier, 1982). Both the metamorphic and the non-
metamorphic units contain conglomeratic layers with
abundant pebbles of retrogressed and mylonitised
granulites from the nearby IOGU mylonitic tail (Fig.
3b). Greenschist facies mylonisation along the west
mylonite zone of the IGU has been dated at 535 Ma by
the Ar40 /Ar39 method on K-feldspar clasts (Lancelot
et al., 1983). However, along the east IOGU shear zone
ages of 611 and 575 Ma have been obtained on
white micas by the same method (Ferkous and Moni
e,
2002).
5.2.1. Lithology and metamorphism of the Adrar fault
molassic belt between Ti-Missao and northeastern Mali
The metasedimentary rocks of this narrow strip lo-
cated along the Adrar Fault include greenschist facies
purple to green metasilts, pink to greenish meta-arenites,
volcanic greywackes and pebbly layers displaying
abundant volcanic fragments of trachy-andesitic meta-
volcanic rocks. Mafic sills and dykes cutting obliquely
the bedding planes were converted into actinolite schists.
Metarhyolite, metadacite and andesite flows form a
nearly continuous ridge to the west of the molassic belt,
149
apparently in part built above the retrogressed high-
grade metamorphic complexes from the Tirek area.
During a short N-S reconnaissance between Ti-Missao
and 20° 300 (Fig. 3b), several alkaline and calc-alkaline
high-level plutons emplaced prior to deformation and
regional metamorphism have been recognized. Defor-
mation in the molassic sedimentary rocks consist of
open to tight folds with steeply dipping fold axes and
steep axial planar cleavage bearing well-marked
stretching lineations with very variable dips. Predomi-
nant shallow plunges of lineations, however, indicate an
overall strike-slip component all across the belt. The
higher grade syn-kinematic mineral assemblage in
metapelites around the Adrar Emedji comprises white
mica, green biotite and minute garnet ( 6 0,5 mm).
These latter rocks display vertical stretching lineation,
indicating that they represent a vertically extruded slice
from the deeper part of the squeezed molassic basin. The
nearby eastern basement includes slightly retrogressed
garnet-free cordierite–sillimanite assemblages in meta-
pelites similar to those around the Immezzarene bath-
olith described above. West of the belt in contrast, a
strong penetrative greenschist facies retrogression coeval
with the prograde metamorphism in the molasse is
responsible for the complete pinitisation of cordierite,
sericitisation of sillimanite and chloritisation of nearly
all biotite over a width of c. 10 km west of the molassic
belt. The core of the fault zone is delineated by some
tens of metres of phyllonitic rocks and gouges of
Phanerozoic age. Phanerozoic reactivation is indeed
documented by open folds and reverse faults affecting
the Ordovician sandstones. Incipient ductile deforma-
tion is even recorded in basal Ordovician silty sand-
stones over some tens of metres close to the fault plane.
Younger volcanoes and rings of dolerites cutting the Ti
Missao sandstone plateau also documents a Quaternary
(?) reactivation of this major fault zone delineated by
recent scarps and depressions.
5.2.2. Subalkaline to peralkaline granites
Plutons of sub-alkaline granite surrounded by strongly
layered granitoids involved in flow structures (Fig. 8b)
represent several kilometre-scale deformed ring com-
plexes. Alternating leucocratic and mesocratic layers
displaying classical features of mixing–mingling pro-
cesses are cut by aplitic veins. Perthitic K-feldspar re-
crystalized into microcline, albite, clinopyroxene of the
ferro-augite to hedenbergite family, green to pale-brown
amphiboles and altered Fe-rich biotite are observed in
the fresher samples. In other types euhedral albitic pla-
gioclase is included in K-feldspar that is rimmed by
abundant myrmekite and sealed by micropegmatites, a
feature symptomatic of hypovolcanic intrusions. Mafic
layers occasionally incorporated in agmatites and cut by
K-feldspar-rich leucocratic veins contain up to 10 vol.%
150 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
Tirek
Domain
2k m
Rhyolite dyke
swarm
Peralkaline
granite and
microgranite
Fig. 9. Geological map of the Adrar Denat alkaline ring complex and the Adrar Tisoukam diotitic massif (modified after Byramjee, 1958). Note the
sigmoidal shape of the two plutons.
of opaques (ilmenite and magnetite), biotite, titanite,
apatite and zircon. Post-magmatic alteration and
recrystallization is significant but less important than in
the calc-alkaline rocks. The peralkaline Denat ring
complex comprises coarse-grained riebeckite monzo-
granite, microgranite grading to felsic rhyolites, cone-
sheets of porphyries, dyke swarms and volcanic breccias
preserved towards the core of the massif (Byramjee,
1958). The ring complex (not revisited) has an elliptical
shape and displays asymmetric tails of metarhyolites
(Fig. 9). Such geometry is consistent with syn-kinematic
magma emplacement under sinistral strike-slip regime.
However, the ubiquitous replacement of the perthitic K-
feldspar by microcline (Byramjee, 1958) suggests that
solid-state deformation and severe recrystallization of
the pluton has occurred as a result of regional greens-
chist facies metamorphism.
Pharusian
Terrane
Adr.Denat
Adr.Denat
Adr.Tisoukam
Diorite Undifferentiated
dykes Metamorphic rocks
& gabbro
Conglomerate (a)
Rhyolite (b) Major fractures
a b
5.2.3. Mafic to calc-alkaline magmatism
Many stocks and plutons cut the molassic series.
Around Tirek, a gabbroic mass is formed by 100% dikes
and stocks with agmatitic texture, with finer grained
dioritic margins. This body developed a zone of dark
hornfelses with retrogressed cryptic mineralogy (former
andalusite?) in metasilts. Fresh gabbro samples with
sub-ophitic microstructure contain clinopyroxene and
brown amphibole rimmed by tremolite, serpentinized
olivine, grey calcic plagioclase being best preserved.
Tremolite, Mg chlorite and epidote are present in vein-
lets. Microgabbros contain brown amphibole and
strongly zoned plagioclase. Gabbros from the more
sheared domains show nearly complete greenschist fa-
cies imprint (albite, calcite, epidotes, chlorites, tremolite,
prehnite, pumpellyite). Quartz-diorites sampled close to
gabbro dykes are cataclastic, the brown amphibole
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
A 10
20
30 30
60
30
30
40
B
?
a
NNW
A B
S0
Fig. 10. (a) Structural sketch map of the ‘‘Petite Afrique ’’ molassic basin and; (b) related cross-section parallel to stretching lineations showing the
post-molasse thrust tectonics. Note the flat-lying slaty cleavage and the recumbent folds of several tens of metres wavelengths beneath the two
rhyolitic sills.
being almost replaced by actinolite and the plagioclase
being cloudy. Microdiorite are commonly cataclastic,
acicular clinopyroxene and euhedral plagioclase being
affected by a dense system of microcracks filled by epi-
dote. The layered dioritic pluton exposed southeast of
Adrar Denat (Fig. 9) forms a mega-boudin within the
N-S trending metamorphic rocks from the Pharusian
terrane. This massif also displays asymmetric tails of
metamorphosed mafic sills and stocks.
5.2.4. Calc-alkaline plutons
Granodiorite to quartz diorite plutons display len-
ticular flat-lying igneous layering marked by leucocratic
bands (Fig. 8c). They contain minor K-feldspar pheno-
crysts with brown amphibole inclusions, altered pla-
gioclase, chloritised biotite, euhedral plagioclase and
cataclastic quartz. The larger plutons were thoroughly
affected by greenschist facies recrystallisation coeval
with brittle deformation. No preserved Al silicate could
be observed in related microcrystalline spotted hornfel-
sic metasilts that were completely overprinted during
greenschist facies retrogression.
5.3. Post-molasse thrusting in the Timgaouine area
Some outliers of molasse are preserved in the Pharu-
sian terrane. They rest in unconformity above greens-
chists of the NVVG. Two rather different lithologies
affected by tilting and free of penetrative deformation
were studied in detail by Gravelle and Th
ebault (1965)
151
40 Rhyolite sill
10
Siltstone, arkose& conglomerate( dots)
10
20 Timgaouine batholith
10
05 20
10
Granodiorite
20 Undifferentiated gneissesa nd
70 40 Metasedimentary rocks
Unconformity
10 S1 cleavage planes
Stretching lineation
5km
Thrust
S1 SSE
S1
500m
b
around Bourzekal (Fig. 5): a lower green silty unit dis-
playing common varves and associated conglomeratic
lenses, hosting reworked pebbles from the greenschists of
the NVVG; and a unconformable coarse-grained red
arkosic formation essentially derived from the reworking
of K-rich subalkaline granites and rhyolites.
The ‘‘Petite Afrique’’ outlier (Figs. 5 and 10a) com-
prises both siltstone to sandstone layers and conglo-
meratic layers similar to the Bourzekal lower and upper
unit, but it was intruded by plugs and sills of red rhyo-
litic porphyry. All rocks were ductilely deformed and
display a well-marked recumbent slaty cleavage
increasing in intensity upward and cutting the strata
with variable dips due to high-angle refractions resulting
from strong ductility contrasts. Moderate nearly hori-
zontal stretching is well marked in the matrix-supported
conglomerates, the pebbles of which display a moderate
regular nearly horizontal NW-SE elongation coeval with
a deep greenschist facies mineralogy (chlorite, green
biotite, epidote) consistent with a regional temperature
of about 400 °C. Though a short reconnaissance was
only done in this deformed molassic basin, and in spite
of the bad exposures of the northern tectonic contact,
the structural map, interpretative section, and field
observations imply that the northern contact is a low-
angle NW-dipping thrust. Such southestward low-angle
thrusting of orthogneisses and granitoids above the
molasse (Fig. 10b) may delineate the eastern boundary
of the Immezzarene domain. Alternatively, the thrust
contact identified may represent a relay between the two
152 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

steep N-S strike-slip faults that bound this residual
basin. The high-temperature aureole and related anatex-
ites associated with the Immezzarene pluton are remark-
ably free of retrogression, at variance with the strong
retrogression of the high-grade assemblages along the
western tip of the Adrar fault molassic basin. Further
geochronological data are however required to better
constrain both the age of deposition and the age of
deformation of the molasses described above.
6. Discussion and conclusion: episodic subduction- and
collision-related deformation and metamorphism during
the 700–520 Ma period
6.1. Summary of chronological events
This discussion relies on the U–Pb zircon, titanite,
Sm–Nd and 40 Ar/39 Ar ages listed in Table 1, and mainly
concerns the Neoproterozoic events.
Cratonic and passive margin conditions identified in
different terrranes were followed by at least two exten-
sional periods, the younger leading to crustal fragmen-
tation and opening of an early oceanic domain around
900 Ma, some fragments being possibly preserved in the
Iskel terrane. Early Neoproterozoic calc-alkaline vol-
canism and plutonism (c. 870 Ma in the Iskel magmatic
arc) was followed by regional deformation and craton-
ization around 840 Ma. These events were in part syn-
chronous with similar events in the Nubian-Arabian
shield (Stern, 1994) and are not longer discussed here.
From isotopic constraints, Li
egeois et al. (2000) postu-
late the existence of reworked Archaean crust under-
neath the eastern terranes that were amalgamed and
cratonized around 700 Ma. Subduction-related volca-
nism and deposition of the NVVG is younger than
696 ± 6 Ma in the Kidal terrane (Caby et al., 1989)
and younger than 676 Ma in the Tassendjanet terrane
(Caby and Moni
e, this volume). At 665 Ma felsic calc-
alkaline volcanism and plutons intruded the Proche
T
en
er
e molasse that had sealed the eastern terranes after

Table 1
Compilation of radiometric dates from western/central Hoggar and northern Mali
Terrane, area Rock type Method Age (Ma) Event/interpretation References
Iskel Tonalite U–Pb zircon 868 Magmatic Caby et al. (1982)
crystallization
Iskel Monzogranite U–Pb zircon 849 Magmatic Caby et al. (1982)
crystallization
Tilemsi arc Metatonalite U–Pb zircon 730 Magmatic Caby et al. (1989)
crystallization
Kidal Metatonalite U–Pb zircon 696 Magmatic Caby and Andreopou-
crystallization los-Renaud (1985)
40
Tassendjanet/Ougda Metagabbro Ar/39 Ar amphibole 676 Magmatic cooling Caby and Moni
e (2003)
LATEA Eclogite Sm–Nd 685 Decompression Li
egeois et al. (2003)
Iskel/Pharusian Pre-kinematic granite U–Pb zircon 651/629 Magmatic Bertrand et al. (1986a)
crystallization
Tessalit/Tilemsi arc Pre-kinematic grano- U–Pb zircon 635 Magmatic Caby et al. (1989)
diorite crystallization
40
East Tirek Syn-kinematic gabbro Ar/39 Ar amph, bi 627/613 Magmatic cooling Ferkous and Moni
e
(2002)
Kidal/Tafeliant Syn-kinematic tonalite U–Pb zircon 620 Magmatic Caby and Andreopou-
crystallization los-Renaud (1989)
40
South Tassendjanet High-pressure Ar/39 Ar phengite 615–600 Cooling/exhumation Caby and Moni
e (2003)
metamorphics
LATEA Early Granite U–Pb zircon 615/623 Magmatic Bertrand et al. (1986b)
crystallization
South Tassendjanet Low-Pressure diatexite U–Pb monazite 603 Anatexis Bosch et al. (2002)
West IOGU dyke Alk-peralkaline Rb–Sr WR isochron 592 Magmatic Hadj-Kaddour et al.
complex granites crystallization (1998)
South Tirek Granodiorite U–Pb zircon 587 Magmatic Caby et al. (1985)
crystallization
Immezzarene Anatectic granite U–Pb zircon 583 Magmatic Bertrand et al. (1986a)
crystallization
Kidal Peralkaline granite Rb–Sr 560-540 Magmatic Li
egeois et al. (1987)
crystallization
40
West IGU Ultramylonite Ar/39 Ar white mica 535 End of mylonitisation Lancelot et al. (1983)
Pharusian ‘‘Taourirt’’ Late-kinematic U–Pb zircon 523 Magmatic Paquette et al. (1998)
granodiorite crystallization
Ouallen molassic basin Green silty shale Rb–Sr fine clay <2 l 487 Diagenesis Clauer et al. (1982)
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
730–700 Ma, the age of a tectonic event which may be
defined as an ‘‘early Pan-African’’ orogeny best identi-
fied in the eastern terranes. Pre-kinematic calc-alkaline
plutons intruded the Kidal terrane at 635 and 629 Ma
and 652 Ma in the eastern edge of the Pharusian terrane.
Eclogitic metamorphism in the LATEA terrane dated
around 685 Ma (Boughrara, 1999; Li
egeois et al., 2003,
this isuue) was thus in part synchronous with calc-
alkaline magmatism throughout the western terranes.
635 Ma is the age of docking of the intraoceanic arc
terrane in northern Mali (Caby et al., 1989). Cooling
and exhumation of the high-pressure to ultrahigh-pres-
sure metamorphic rocks took place at 620 Ma along the
main Pan-African suture in Mali (Jahn et al., 2001) and
at 615–600 Ma along the west IOGU suture (Caby and
Moni
e, this volume). 620 Ma is also the age of the oldest
collision-related plutons in the Kidal terrane (Caby and
Andreopoulos-Renaud, 1989). 615 ± 5 Ma is the best
obtained age for a syn-kinematic granite intruding in the
western part of LATEA (Bertrand et al., 1986b). Syn-
kinematic plutons along the western edge of the eastern
terranes were emplaced at 600–594 Ma in the Tiririne
belt (Bertrand et al., 1978). At 587 and 583 Ma anatectic
granites were emplaced in the western part of the
Pharusian terrane. Greenschist facies along the Adrar
fault and in the ‘‘Petite Afrique’’ molassic basin oc-
curred after 583 Ma. In the Kidal terrane continuous
magmatic activity may have taken place between 620
and 540 Ma to form the composite batholith including
alkaline–peralkaline ring complexes, dyke swarms and
plateau lavas according to Rb–Sr data (Li
egeois et al.,
1987). A significant diachronism apparently exists
within the Pharusian terrane where the late-kinematic
plutons (the Taourirt family) intruded at 523 ± 1 Ma.
Aluminous leucogranites and ultramafic intrusions in
the Laouni area (LATEA) were emplaced at 530 Ma
(Cheilletz et al., 1992) and relate to late orogenic crustal
thinning (Cottin et al., 1990).
6.2. Paleogeodynamic scenario for the western Tuareg
shield during the Neoproterozoic
The well-dated subduction- and collision-related
events are summarized in Table 1. The compilation of
these data indicates that some major events can be
correlated between several terranes across the 1000 km
wide Tuareg shield. We distinguish three major stages at
the scale of the central and western terranes of the
Tuareg shield that may overlap in time and space (Fig.
11).
6.2.1. Stage A (900–850 Ma)
After a platform type evolution during the Meso-
proterozoic (?) or very beginning of the Neoproterozoic
period (?), a magmatic arc rooted by stretched Paleo-
proterozoic continental crust may have formed above an
153
assumed west-dipping subduction in the Iskel terrane,
followed by its early cratonization around 849 Ma.
6.2.2. Stage B (c. 700–620 Ma)
East-dipping subduction (the western subduction) of
Early Neoproterozoic oceanic lithosphere (the western
paleo-oceanic domain) was occurring east of the West
African craton under a composite continental mass now
represented in part by the western terranes. A 730 Ma
old intraoceanic arc was formed. The building up of
magmatic arcs on the active continental paleomargin
and the opening of a large turbiditic trough above
thinned crust may have been possibly connected with
the generation of back arc oceanic crust west and east of
the IOGU. 635–630 Ma corresponds to docking of the
Tilemsi intraoceanic arc along the active continental
paleomargin. After complete ocean closure of a large
oceanic domain located east of the West African craton,
continental subduction of the innermost portions from
its passive paleomargin down to 100 km depth produced
the high-pressure to ultrahigh-pressure metamorphic
belt from northern Mali (Caby, 1994) that was exhumed
at 620 Ma (Jahn et al., 2001). The two high-pressure
metamorphic belts with eclogites identified in North-
west Hoggar imply other subduction of continental units
to P 45–60 km depth on both sides of the IOGU slightly
before 615–610 Ma (Caby and Moni
e, this volume).
The new data presented in the previous sections
suggest that the opening of the Late Neoproterozoic
trough and building up of magmatic arcs that constitute
the Pharusian terrane occurred roughly during the same
period (690 ?–650 ? Ma). At variance with all models
which consider for this period one single paleosubduc-
tion in the Tuareg shield, it is proposed that the gener-
ation of the juvenile Late Neoproterozoic crust of the
Pharusian terrane was connected with a main west-
dipping subduction to the east: the Pharusian subduc-
tion. Such west-dipping subduction indeed best explains
why large portions of the continental units of LATEA
were eclogitized at about 685 Ma (Li
egeois et al., this
volume), i.e. before the intrusion of pre-kinematic
monzonitic and calc-alkaline plutons in the Pharusian
terrane. Eclogites formed at P 60 km depth under a
palaeogeotherm of c. 12–13°/km are indeed best inter-
preted as formed in a subduction setting characterized
by cold geotherms, rather than in collision settings
(Peacock, 1992), in spite of the overall near isothermal
decompression of adjacent polymetamorphic rocks of
continental origin. The northeastern tectonic transport
reported for the eclogitic units (Li
egeois et al., 2000;
Li
egeois et al., 2003, this issue) is indeed in agreement
with exhumation kinematics from underneath the
Pharusian terrane through a mechanism of extrusion, as
proposed by Chemenda et al. (1995). The 4°500 shear
zone is therefore considered as a cryptic suture that
juxtaposes rather different crustal levels. The reworked
154 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159

ISKEL SUBDUCTION
(c. 900 Ma)

(A) 100 km

UGI
SUBDUCTIONS
(c. 680-610 Ma)
WESTERN SUBDUCTION
west UGI PHARUSIAN SUBDUCTION
(680-620 Ma) east UGI
Pharusian terrane
subduction (c. 690-650?Ma)
subduction (juvenile crust)
Late Paleoproterozoic Iskel basement
LATEA
Sedimentary rocks

*
**
(B)

Western suture UGI sutures

Adrar Eastern suture =
west African fault future 4 50' shear zone
craton ISKEL
UGI

(C)

THRUSTING AND EXHUMATION

(c. 620-520?Ma)

Fig. 11. Sketch showing the proposed geodynamic evolution of western–central Hoggar between 900 and 520 Ma. Explanations in text.

pre-Pan-African basement to the east, is a Ôdecratonized’
Archaean to Paleoproterozoic crust with high-grade
metamorphism of Pan-African age as in northern
Nigeria (Ferr
e et al., 2002) and southern Nigeria (Caby
and Boess
e, 2001). Following Li
egeois et al. (2000, 2003,
this issue) this reworked basement was overthrust by
allochtonous eclogitized supracrustal units. To the west,
the Pharusian terrane is preserved at a rather shallow
crustal level. Paleogeothermal regimes indeed differ to-
tally on both sides of this line, along which considerable
strike-slip movement of unknown amplitude took place
later.
6.2.3. Stage C (620–580 Ma) collision and syn-collision
exhumation
It is significant that the emplacement of the oldest
calc-alkaline syn-kinematic plutons (620 Ma) in the
western terranes was synchronous with the exhumation
of the ultrahigh-pressure rocks from the western suture.
Thus exhumation and collision tectonics clearly over-
lapped in space and time. The oldest syn-kinematic
plutons in the LATEA terrane are of sub-alkaline
affinity. They were emplaced between 615 and 576 Ma
(Bertrand et al., 1986b; Cheilletz et al., 1992), the older
age recalculated at 623 Ma by Bertrand (written com-
munication, 1998).
The period 615–605 Ma corresponds to cooling and
differential exhumation of high-pressure metamorphic
units in the southern Tassendjanet terrane (Caby and
Moni
e, this volume), whereas the age of the high-tem-
perature, low-pressure metamorphism constrained by
the U–Pb age of monazite occurred at 603 Ma (Bosch
et al., 2002). Note that in the Pharusian terrane, this age
range corresponds to the onset of granite emplacement.
Only moderate crustal thickening may have taken place
in this terrane, since present-day exposed rocks are at
most in low-temperature greenschist facies (complete
 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
lack of biotite, T 6 400 °C in many areas) and display a
moderate upright cleavage. Batholiths and plutons are
all fringed by low-pressure thermal aureoles (andalusite–
cordierite assemblages, P 6 0:3 GPa), as described
around the 583 Ma Immezzarene batholith. From iso-
topic and petrological considerations, Li
egeois et al.
(1987) and Boullier et al. (1986) documented in northern
Mali a rapid shift from subduction- and collision-related
plutons older than 600–580 Ma, to A-type magmatism
(560–540 Ma). Apparent alternation of compressional
and extensional settings are reconciled if the global
stress field was transpression along sinuous and bran-
ched shear zones. This is shown by numerous shear
zone-related dyke complexes, some of which are rooted
in the mantle (Hadj-Kaddour et al., 1998).
6.2.4. Uplift and molassic stage (580–520 Ma)
An early (?) volcanic molasse cut by at least two
different magmatic suites is best represented along the
Adrar fault. The age of the molasse deposition is yet
imprecise, but younger than 585 Ma. Rb–Sr ages of
alkaline granites (560–540 Ma, Li
egeois et al., 1987) that
were comagmatic with rhyolitic lavas synchronous with
basin infill are the best estimate in northern Mali.
Geochemical data are required to stress if the calc-
alkaline plutons reported from the Adrar fault molassic
belt may relate to renewed Cambrian subduction. Burial
to c. 10 km depth of the deeper part of the Adrar fault
molassic basin generated regional greenschist facies
conditions with temperatures of about 400 °C during
transpression. This transpressive stage was coeval with
NW-SE horizontal shortening of the ‘‘Petite Afrique’’
residual molassic basin tectonically buried to P 5–7 km
depth in agreement with its deep greenschist facies im-
print. This may suggest that this final compressional
tectonic event was coeval with the emplacement of the
younger syn- to late-kinematic plutons of the Taourirt
family. Still younger ductile deformation under contin-
uous greenschist facies conditions is well recorded all
along the western side of the 4°500 shear zone. This
strike-slip deformation was coeval with magma consol-
idation of some plutons that display a dextral gneissic
tail (Boissonnas, 1973), but was retrogressive with re-
spect to the adjacent high-temperature metamorphism
with granulite facies occurrences in units of the LATEA
terrane (Vitel, 1979). Andalusite and cordierite from the
syn-kinematic low-pressure thermal aureoles around the
‘‘Taourirts’’ in the Pharusian terrane were invariably
affected by severe low-temperature retrogression, while
solid-state dextral shear affected the margins of the 523
Ma Tioueine pluton (Paquette et al., 1998). The com-
plete lack of pebbles of high-grade metamorphic rocks
elsewhere in the molassic basins further points out that
high-grade terrains were not exposed in central and
western Hoggar prior to the Late Cambrian. This is in
155
agreement with the Rb/Sr age of 485 Ma obtained on
the anchizonal molasse of the Tassendjanet basin
(Clauer, 1976). It should be also recalled that both
Cambrian and Lower Ordovician glacials with extended
ice sheets may have been responsible for initial pene-
planation of the western Hoggar.
6.3. Comparison with Phanerozoic and recent subduction
settings
6.3.1. Southern Ural
The anatomy and evolution of the 500 km wide, N-
S trending Southern Urals is first dependent from the
eastward subduction of the East-European Palaeozoic
passive margin below the Devonian island arc (Matte,
2002). The paleontological age of the non-metamorphic
arc sequences preserved at rather shallow crustal level
east of the Uralian fault is equal to the age of high-
pressure metamorphism that affected the subducted
continental material below the arc (380 Ma). The
ophiolites related to the vanished ocean form klippen in
the west above the Late Devonian turbiditic basin that
represents a former accretionary prism. Subduction
ended with terrane collage and was followed by collision
with other outboard arcs and microcontinents from the
east. The main Uralian fault inherited from the sub-
duction has been reactivated as a normal fault during
the exhumation of the high-pressure rocks. In the east,
other rectilinear strike-slip faults compare well within
the Trans-Saharan shear zones. They are interpreted
as the result of oblique convergence and subduction
rather than the result of intracontinental deformation
(Matte, 2002). The major thrusting events are of Car-
boniferous age and thus younger than the foreland
molasses (c. 300 Ma). West-directed thrustings contin-
ued until the Late Permian (c. 120 Ma after the sub-
duction stage).
6.3.2. Philippine Sea subducting slabs
The genetic relations between collision at 8–9 Ma
between continental terranes, trenches, and building up
of arc volcanism at 5–4 Ma allows an interpretative
lithospheric cross-section marked by subductions in
opposite directions (Lallemand et al., 1998). According
to Lallemand et al. (2001), mountain building in Taiwan
is a direct consequence of continental subduction be-
tween 5 and 3 Ma, followed by flip in subduction
polarity in northeastern Taiwan after 1 Ma. This rather
complex scenario is reported here only to recall the ra-
ther rapid evolution of subduction settings, and to recall
that the scenario for subducting slabs proposed for the
Tuareg shield is nothing but a rough approach of what
actually may have happened during the Neoproterozoic
in the future Hoggar.
156 R. Caby / Journal of African Earth Sciences 37 (2003) 133–159
Acknowledgements
Many discussions with J.M. Bertrand, A.M. Boullier,
R. Black, J. Fabre, A. Leyreloup, M. Mattauer, J.P.
Li
egeois, P. Matte, A. Moussine-Pouchkine, K. Ouzeg-
ane and J.R. Ki
enast are warmly acknowledged.
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