Al Qayim

GeoArabia, 2012, v. 17, no. 4, p.
109-156
Gulf PetroLink, Bahrain
Tectonostratigraphic overview of the Zagros Suture Zone,

Kurdistan Region, Northeast Iraq
Basim Al-Qayim, Azad Omer and Hemin Koyi
ABSTRACT
The northwestern segment of the Zagros Orogenic Belt of the Kurdistan Region
of Iraq includes the Zagros Suture Zone which is consisting of allochthonous
Tethyan Triassic–Eocene thrust sheets. The zone is bounded by the Zagros
Main Reverse Fault in the northeast, and the Zagros Thrust Front in the
southwest. Parts of this zone’s rocks are represented by stacks of thrust mega-
sheets obducted over the autochthonous Cretaceous–Cenozoic sequence of
the Arabian Plate margin. Each sheet represents a specific Tethyan tectono-
stratigraphic facies, and includes (from older to younger): isolated Triassic
carbonate platforms (Avroman Limestone), Jurassic carbonate imbricates (Chia
Gara, Sargelu and other formations), radiolarites (Qulqula Group), sedimentary
mélange (sedimentary-volcanic units of the Qulqula Group), ophiolites
(Mawat and Penjwin ultramafics complexes), and Cenozoic fore-arc volcano-
sedimentary sequences (Walash Group). Petrography, facies interpretation and
lithostratigraphic correlation of these allochthons along four traverses across the
Zagros Suture Zone of the examined area indicate that they evolved during the
closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Their stacking pattern and tectonic association
resulted from two important events: the Late Cretaceous obduction processes,
and the Late Miocene–Pliocene collision, uplift, folding and suturing between
the Arabian Plate and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block of Iran. Based on these field
observations and by using the model of the Iranian Zagros evolution, a tectonic
scenario is proposed to explain the history and evolution of the Zagros Suture
Zone in this area.
INTRODUCTION
The NW-trending Zagros Orogenic Belt extends about 2,000 km from the Anatolian Fault of
southeastern Turkey to the Makran Zone in southern Iran, and is part of the Alpine-Himalayan
Mountain Chain (Figure 1). The belt resulted from the Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic convergence
of the Iranian terranes and the Arabian Plate, when the intervening Neo-Tethys Ocean went
through a succession of subduction, obduction and collision stages (Alavi, 1994; Sharland et al.,
2001; Agard et al., 2005). An integral part of the belt is preserved in the mountainous region of
northeast Iraq (Figures 2 and 3). However, this part of the belt remains less studied and under-
explored as that of the southeastern Iranian and Omani parts. The present study offers a general
review of the tectono-stratigraphic architecture of the area as an integral contribution to the
understanding of the geological history of the Zagros Orogenic Belt. We present the results of
detailed field examinations, petrographic studies, and litho-stratigraphic correlation of the exposed
tectono-stratigraphic units of this zone. Future studies aimed at obtaining biostratigraphic control
and petroleum geological and geophysical data are planned.
The study area is located in the Sulaimani Governorate of the Kurdistan Region of northern
Iraq. It extends from the Mawat area to the east of Sulaimani City down to the surroundings of
Halabja (Figures 4 and 5). Four traverses were selected perpendicular to the tectonic strike of the
Zagros Orogenic Belt to cover the regional tectono-stratigraphic domain of the area. Each traverse
represents an elongated block, a few kilometers wide and tens of kilometers long and covers a
particular portion of the suture zone.
(1) Traverse 1 is oriented N20°E and located northeast of Sulaimani City. It extends from the axis
of Azmur Mountain to the Iraqi-Iran border (Figure 6).
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30ºE 40º 50º 60º
TURKMENISTAN
Anatolian Fault
TURKEY Caspian
40ºN Sea 40º
Za
gr
os
Tig
M
CYPRUS ai
n
ris
LEBANON Re
IRAN
R
SYRIA Euph ve
ive
rs
Riv rates Study Za e
r
er gr Fa
Mediterranean Area os ul
IRAQ Or t
Sea
og
en
ic
Be
JORDAN lt
KUWAIT
30º ARABIAN PLATE 30º
BAHRAIN Makran Zone
QATAR
EGYPT Gul
f of
Om
an
UNITED ARAB
EMIRATES
SAUDI OMAN
ARABIA
Re
20º 20º
dS
ea
ne
Zo
Arabian
SUDAN YEMEN Sea
re
ERITREA
ctu
Fra
en
Ow
0 500
f Aden
ETHIOPIA Gulf O
30º 40º 50º Km
Banog
Figure 1: The Kurdistan region lies in the northeastern part of Iraq, where the Arabian Plate and
Iranian terranes collide along the Zagros Orogenc Belt. (modified from Sharland et al., 2001).
(2) Traverse 2 is oriented N35°E and covers the Penjwin-Said Sadiq area (Figure 7).
(3) EW-oriented Traverse 3 extends from the Iraqi-Iran border to the town of Khurmal (Figure 8).
(4) EW-oriented Traverse 4 is located to the east of Halabja City, and connects Byara to Tawela
(Figure 9).
Within each of these traverses several side traverses and sections were measured to document
lithological character and associations. Major structural features such as shear zones, boudinage,
major and minor folds and faults are reported. Lithostratigraphic correlation was conducted to
construct the local and regional stratigraphic architecture within the postulated tectonic framework
(Figure 10). Samples were collected from each unit to investigate various lithologic features. Each
sample was thin-sectioned for petrographic studies to define lithology, sedimentary components,
and to differentiate between mineralogical and textural criteria of each lithologic association.
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Tectonostratigraphy of Zagros Suture Zone, Iraq
43°E 44° Zagros 45° 46° 47°

TURKEY
Imbricate
Zone Britlis Imbricate zone
37°N N 37°
0 50 Zagros Suture Zone
km Qulqula zone
Cenozoic units
Basic massive
Zagros
Imbricate Cretaceous units
Zone Chwarta subzone
Zagros High
Folded Zone Halabja subzone
Mosul
36° Zagros Suture 36°
Erbil
Zone
Shalair Zone
A' IRAN
Zagros Low
Folded Zone
Za ver
Sulaimani
Re
gr se
3
re
Kirkuk
os F
gu
Ma aul
Fi
IRAQ
in t
35° 35°
Za
Za
Hi ver
gr
gr
Re
gh se
os
os ros lt
Fo
re Z
Th
de ag au
ru
ep
F
st
Tikrit Fa
ult
Fr
Za Fr
on
gr on
os t F
t
M au
Mesopotamian
ou lt
34° 34°
Zone
nt
ai
n
43° 44° 45° 46° 47°

Banog
Figure 2: Regional tectonic map of northeast Iraq showing major tectonic subdivisions (after
Al-Kadhumi et al., 1996). Tectonic zones and boundaries follow this study nomenclature.
Southwest Northeast
Zagros Folded Zone Zagros Zagros
Shalair
Imbricate Suture
Low Folded Zone High Folded Zone Zone
Zone Zone
A Upper Lower Zagros Mountain Lower Fars High Zagros
Igneous Complexes
A' 4
Bakhtiari Fm Bakhtiari Fm Front Fault Fm Reverse Fault
Up 0
pe
r Fa
r s Fm
Depth (Km)
5 Km 4
L. and M. Jurassic Fms
Permo-Triassic Fms Arabian Plate
Margin Sediments Zagros Thrust Front
Cambrian Fms 8
Infra-Cambrian Fms 0 Zagros Main
Decollement Reverse Fault
Basement 10 Km 12
Figure 3: Regional geologic cross-section across northeast Iraq showing major tectonic divisions
and major tectonic boundaries. (Slightly modified after Ibrahim, 2009).
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45°10'E 45°20' 45°30' 45°40' 45°50' 46° 46°10' 46°20'
36°N 36°
Mawat
35°50' 35°50'
Shalair Zone
Fig Zagros Suture
ure
6 Zone
35°40' Chwarta 35°40'

Penjwin
Sulaimani
Zagros Imbricate
Zone
Hi vers
Re
gh e
Za Fau
35°30' 35°30'
Fig
gr lt
ure
os
Th
7 Za st Fr
ru
Zagros Folded gr on
Zone
os t
Said Sadiq
35°20'
Figure 8 35°20'
Za eve
R
gr rse
os F
N
M au
ai lt
0 15 Figure 9
n
km Halabja
45°10' 45°20' 45°30' Derbandikhan 45°50' 46° 46°10' 46°20'

Banog
Figure 4: Landsat image of northeast Iraq showing major tectonic divisions and the location of
the detailed studied blocks (image from Google Earth Resources).
PREVIOUS STUDIES
Bolton’s contribution to the geology of the Zagros Suture Zone remains the foundation of all
succeeding studies and geological mapping campaigns of the area (Bolton, 1955, 1956, 1958a, b,
c). His 1:100,000-scale geological maps of the Kurdistan region in Iraq were the first, and are still
considered the basic background for all recently published geologic maps of the area. Bolton’s
stratigraphic nomenclature of the area remains unchanged, though revision is needed in the light of
later geological concepts such as plate tectonics and sequence stratigraphy, and newly accomplished
work on the area.
The most recent geologic map of the area was compiled by Ma’ala (2008) at a scale of 1:250,000
for the Geological Survey and Mineral Investigation State Organization of Iraq (GEOSURV). It is
considered the most reliable mapping resource of the Zagros Suture Zone (Figure 5). The ages of
the stratigraphic units of the zone that are discussed in our study are mainly taken from the chart
that accompanies the geologic map (Figure 10).
The tectonic review by Jassim and Buday (2006) applied new vision to the area’s evolution. Ibrahim
(2009) presented a regional review of the tectonic style and evolution of the Zagros Orogenic Belt
of the Kurdistan Region of Iraq using a scaled analogue sand model. Other works include local
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45°20'E 45°30' 45°40' 45°50' 46° 46°10' 46°20'
IRAN
Mawat
36°50'N
Shalair Zone
Fig
ure Zagros
6
36°40'
Suture
Chwarta Zone Penjwin
7
Sulaimani
N
re
gu 0 15 36°30'
Fi
km
Said Sadiq 36°20'

Derbandikhan Figure 8
Cretaceous– Lake
Cenozoic Foreland
Sequence Figure 9
Halabja
36°10'
Derbandikhan
Zagros Imbricate Zone

Banog
Zagros Imbricate Zone Zagros Suture Zone
Upper Red Beds unit Naopurdan–Walash Group Quaternary
Lower Red Beds unit Ophiolite Complex Geological contact
Tanjero and Aqra–Bekhma fms Qulqula Conglomerate Formation Axis of anticline
Shiranish Formation Qulqula Radiolarian Formation Axis of syncline
Balambo–Kometan formations Jurassic Imbricates Thrust fault

Undifferentiated Jurassic Normal fault
Avroman Limestone Formation
Sequence
Figure 5: General geologic map of the study area showing location of the investigated traverses
(Geologic map after Ma’ala, 2008, tectonic divisions and boundaries following nomenclature of
this study).
studies or mapping of specific areas and/or general reviews of the tectonic setting of northeastern
Iraq (Al-Mehaidi, 1975; Al-Fadhli et al., 1979, 1980; Buday, 1975, 1980; Buday and Jassim, 1987;
Ameen, 1979, 1991; Al-Saedi, 1992; Marouf, 1999; Numan, 1997, 2001; Stevanovic and Markovic, 2003;
Al-Qayim, 2004; Al-Eli, 2004; Al-Kherasan, 2007; Karim, 2007; Karim et al., 2009; Al-Hassan, 2009;
Banks, 2011).
REVIEW OF THE REGIONAL GEOTECTONIC SETTING
The northeastern margin of the Arabian Plate initially formed by the Mid-Permian rifting and the
Triassic break-up of Pangaea and the opening of the Neo-Tethys Ocean. As a result an extraordinary
wide and shallow marine shelf developed over the northeastern Mesozoic Arabian passive margin
(Beydoun, 1991). Stable tectonic conditions typify the Jurassic and most of the Cretaceous with shelf
carbonates and evaporites, and deep-marine marlstone basinwards (Figure 10). Tectonic conditions
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(a)
45°20'E 45°30'
N
0 5
km Diri
A'
Mawat
Quaternary
Geological contact
Axis of anticline
Ophiolite
Complex
Axis of syncline
Thrust fault

Kunjirin
Upper Red Beds unit
Suwais
Lower Red Beds unit Group
Tanjero and Aqra–Bekhma fms
Shiranish Formation
Sargalat
Balambo Formation
Undifferentiated Jurassic
A
Azmur Mountain
Zagros Suture Zone
Naopurdan–Walash Group
Qulqula Radiolarian Formation
Mawat Ophiolite Complex
(b) Northeast
Southwest Kunjirin Mawat A'
Azmur Mt. Serpentinite Diri
Sargalat Horizon
A
Walash Group
Balambo Fm
Suwais Group
? ?
Tanjero Formation
h Fm
anis
Undifferentiated Jurassic ? Shir ?
Kometan Formation
?
Banog
Figure 6: (a) General geologic map of Traverse 1 area (Geologic map after Ma’ala, 2008).
(b) Schematic generalized geologic cross-section of Traverse 1 oriented nearly perpendicular to the
tectonic strike.
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(a)
Quaternary
Geological contact
Axis of anticline
Thrust fault A'
Penjwin
N
0 5
km
Kani Manga
Nal Pareze
Kani Spikah

Upper Red Beds unit
Suwais Group
Balambo–Kometan formations
Undifferentiated Jurassic
Zagros Suture Zone

Naopurdan–Walash Group
A Kolitan
Ophiolite Complex
Qulqula Conglomerate Formation
Qulqula Radiolarian Formation
Jurassic Imbricates
Northeast
(b) A'
Southwest Nal Pareze Kani Manga Serpentinite Penjwin
Horizon
Kolitan Kani Spikah Walash
Group
P
Ophio enjwin
lite C
A omple
x
Suwais Group
Q4 Q5
Q3 Banog
Q2
Q2
Q1
Balambo and oth nits
er Cretaceous U
Jurassic Carbonates
Pre-Jurassic Units
Figure 7: (a) General geologic map of Traverse 2 area (Geologic map after Ma’ala, 2008).
(b) Schematic generalized geologic cross-section of Traverse 2 area oriented nearly perpendicular
to the tectonic strike.
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Al-Qayim et al.
a
A
Khurmal IRAN
Ahmad Awa
Kawkab A'
Sargat Ta Ta
Hani Dang
N
0 2
km
Avroman Limestone Qulqula Conglomerate

Formation Formation Volcanics Geological contact East
Qulqula Radiolarian
Jurassic Imbricates Formation Quaternary Thrust fault A'
Late Triassic
Avroman
Ta Ta Limestone
Volcanics
Sargat Hani Dang Q5 Volcanics
Q5
(b) Reddish siliceous
mudstone
West and chert
Q4
Khurmal Ahmad Awa Kawkab IRAN
Quaternary
Q3
cover
A Qulqula Group (Q4) Intensive Chevron
Folding of Qulqula
Qulqula Group Group Unit Q5
Q4 (Q3)
Banog
Reddish siliceous
mudstone and chert
Jurassic Carbonates
Figure 8: General geologic map of Traverse 3 area (Geologic map after Ma’ala, 2008).
(b) Schematic and generalized geologic cross-section of Traverse 3 area oriented nearly
perpendicular to the tectonic strike.
were subdued until the opening and extension of the South Atlantic, which was transmitted onto
the northeast margin of the Arabian Plate by accentuating subduction of the Neo-Tethys beneath
Eurasia. This led to the tilting and rapid drifting of the Arabian Plate margin causing compression,
and eventually, the obduction of young Neo-Tethys ophiolitic oceanic crust onto the northeast
margin of the Arabian Plate (Sharland et al., 2001).
The emplacement of the ophiolites is considered to have taken place during the Late Cretaceous
and includes: ophiolitic mélange, metamorphosed massive ophiolite of supra-subduction zone
setting, sheared and massive carbonates and radiolarites (Jassim and Goff, 2006). These units
extend in age from Triassic to the end of the Eocene (Figure 10), and are stacked over the Arabian
Plate margin forming the components of the Zagros Suture Zone. This emplacement event is
associated with a foreland basin formation in response to the successive loading and flexuring in
front of the advancing emplaced blocks and along the northeastern margin of the Arabian Plate (Al-
Qayim, 1993, 1994, 2004, 2011; Jassim and Goff, 2006). The foreland basin is filled with a thick flysch
sequence of siliciclastics derived from the uplifted thrust sheets. Foreland flysch sedimentation
progressively shallowed until termination by the early Mid-Eocene time where red, sub-continental
siliciclasts prograde from the northeast and cover most of precursor foreland area. During Late
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a A Byara
IRAN
Balkha
IRAQ
Tawela
N
0 2
km
A'
Basalt
Intrusions
Hawar
Balambo–Kometan Qulqula Conglomerate Geological contact

formations Formation
Quaternary
Qulqula Radiolarian
Thrust fault East
Formation
A'
IRAQ IRAN
Tawela
Avroman
Limestone
Q5
Balkha
(b)
Q5 Reddish siliceous
West Volcanics Q4 Q5 mudstone with
Byara volcanics
A Q4
Q3
Quaternary
Q1 Q2
Q3 Q1
Banog
Figure 9: General geologic map of Traverse 4 area (Geologic map after Ma’ala, 2008). (b) Schematic
and generalized geologic cross-section of Traverse 4 area oriented nearly perpendicular to the
tectonic strike.
Eocene the whole area was denudated and a clastic-free period of sag-interior basin sedimentation
dominated the southwestern part of the foreland area and is characterized by cyclic shallow-marine
ramp carbonates and basinal marlstone (Al-Qayim, 2006).
The present-day tectonic configuration of the northeast part of the Arabian margin resulted from
the final closure of the Neo-Tethys Ocean and continental collision between the Arabian Plate
margin and Eurasia (Sanandaj-Sirjan Block) during Early to Mid-Miocene (Jassim and Buday,
2006). The excessive compression resulted from the opening of the Red Sea speedup deformation
and resulted in inversion, uplift, shortening of the margin sequence, whereby the Zagros Orogeny
was evolved. The replacement of the marine conditions by clastic sedimentation of molasse type
over the newly developed Mesopotamian basin, indicate the overwhelming uplift and active
erosion of the hinterland (Jassim et al., 2006). Progressive shortening led to the folding, faulting and
imbrication of the of the Arabian Plate margin sequences accompanied by the overthrusting of the
Tethyan accretionary prism components, which led to the final development of the Zagros Suture
Zone.
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Zagros Folded Zone
Series Litho-
Era
Formation
Epoch logy
Zagros Suture Zone
Holocene
Pleistocene Forma-
Bai-Hassan Lithology
Zagros Imbricate Zone tion
Formation
Pliocene
Litho-
CENOZOIC
Formation
Mukdadiya logy Nao-
Formation purdan
Miocene
L. Upper Walash
Injana Fm Red Beds
Red Bed
M. Fatha Fm
Group
Pila Spi Fm Avanah
Lower
Eocene
Gercus Fm Red Beds
Khurmala
Paleocene
Kolosh Fm
Sinjar Fm
Tanjero and Tanjero and

Late Aqra-Bekhme Qulqula
Aqra-Bekhme
Formations Formations Conglom- Gimo Sirginil
erate
CRETACEOUS
Shiranish Fm Shiranish Fm
Kometan Fm Kometan Fm Qulqula

Middle Gulneri Shale Fm Radio- Plutonic Mawat
Dokan Fm larian
Qamchuqa Fm
Balambo
Sarmord Fm Formation
Jurassic
Balambo Undiffer-
Early Formation entiated Chert
Naokelekan, Barsarin Radiolarian
Late Middle and Sargelu Fms
JURASSIC
Sehkaniyan Avroman Thrust

Limestone boundary
Formation
Early Unconformity
Sarki Fm
Sandstone Dolomitic
Baluti Fm limestone
Late Kurra Chine Boulders Marly limestone
TRIASSIC
Formation
Conglomerate Shaly limestone
Geli Khana Dolomite Siltstone
Middle
Formation
Early Beduh Shale Fm Limestone Shale
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Figure 10: Chronostratigraphic column of the Arabian Margin sequences in the Zagros Folded
Zone, Zagros Imbricate Zone and Zagros Suture Zone in the study area (after Ma’ala, 2008).
This tectonic history is demonstrated by the development of several major tectonic boundaries
and zones aligned along the Zagros tectonic strike (NW-SE), from NE to SW: (1) “Shalair Zone” of
the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block; (2) “Zagros Main Reverse Fault”; (3) “Zagros Suture Zone”; (4) “Zagros
Thrust Front”; (5) “Zagros Imbricate Zone”; (6) “High Zagros Reverse Fault”; (7) “Zagros Fold
Zone” divided by the “Zagros Mountain Front Fault” into the “High Folds Zone” and “Low Folds
Zone“; (8) “Zagros Foredeep Fault”; and (9) “Mesopotamian Zone” (Figures 2 and 3).
TECTONIC BOUNDARIES AND ZONES
The major boundaries and encompassed tectonic zones of northeast Iraq are reviewed below
with proposed nomenclature and definitions. We follow the Zagros terminology used in the
international literature and our newly proposed tectonic model (Al-Qayim, 2004; Figures 2 and 3).
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Most of the boundaries remain the same in their trends and delineation as proposed by previous
authors (Bolton, 1955, 1956, 1958a, b, c; Buday, 1980; Buday and Jassim, 1987; Al-Kadhimi et al., 1996;
Jassim and Goff, 2006; Al-Qayim and Lawa, 2006; Ibrahim, 2009). The description of these features
in the study area is supported by our field observations.
Shalair Zone of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block
The “Shalair Zone” comprises metamorphosed Triassic–Cretaceous units of the Zagros Belt in
Iraq (Buday and Jassim, 1987). It is bound to the southeast by the Zagros Main Reverse Fault of
Iran (Berberian and King, 1981). The zone forms an integral part of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block of
Iran (Stöcklin, 1968; Al-Qayim, 2004). It is located at the extreme northeastern part of the studied
area, with limited exposure in the Shalair Valley area (Figure 2). Exposures of the Shalair Zone
are governed by a major EW-trending mega-anticlinorium with the Shalair Valley being axial
to it (Buday and Jassim, 1987). The major units include the old crystalline rocks of the Mishav
Complex, which consists mainly of granite intrusions. The Upper Triassic recrystallized limestone
of the Darokhan Unit is exposed in the core of the Shalair Anticline, and often imbricated with the
Shalair phyllites (Jassim and Goff, 2006). The third unit is the Kata Rash Group, of the Cenomanian
arc volcano-sedimentary complex of andesite and rhyolite, and the fourth unit consists of
Maastrichtian–Paleocene carbonates (Piran Limestone), which occur as isolated thrust sheets over
older units.
Oweiss (1984) considered this zone to represent an intra-continental shear zone of regionally
metamorphosed units. Jassim and Goff (2006) reviewed the tectonic classification of Iraq, hence
they put forward the denomination “Zagros Suture Zone” when classifying the allochthonous
thrust blocks of the Zagros Orogenic Belt in northern Iraq. They included the Shalair Zone in the
Zagros Suture Zone. The present authors believe that the Shalair Zone is part of the Sanandaj-
Sirjan Block and thus should be excluded from the Zagros Suture Zone of the Neo-Tethys domain.
The description given by Jassim and Goff (2006) for the basic characteristics of this zone support
this conclusion: (1) The age of its units extends from pre-Permian to Cenozoic; (2) it includes the
innermost metamorphosed rocks of the area; and (3) it structurally represents the highest thrust
sheets with EW-trending lineaments and major structures.
Zagros Main Reverse Fault
The Zagros Main Reverse Fault represents the suture line between the Zagros Suture Zone in
the Arabian Plate and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block (Figure 2). It is a NW-trending fault system that
extends from the north and northeast of Iraq to the north of Bandar Abbas in Iran (Berberian, 1995).
In the study area this fault is recognized in the Penjwin-Halabja area only, several kilometers to the
northeast end of the Traverse 2 area. The fault appears mainly as a reverse 40ºNE fault, separating
the metamorphic rocks of the Shalair Zone from the ultra-basics rocks of the Penjwin Ophiolite
Complex (Ibrahim, 2009). On the surface it is covered in large areas by Quaternary sediments of the
Shalair Valley. In other areas, the fault line is marked by an elongated valley segment covered by
recent sediments and running in front of a major thrust sheet.
Zagros Suture Zone
In this paper we use the term “Zagros Suture Zone” for the region bounded by the Zagros
Main Reverse Fault to the northeast, and the Zagros Thrust Front to the southwest (Figure 4). It
includes intensively tectonized allochthonous thrusted sheets of a Tethyan ophiolite, radiolarite,
platform carbonates and sedimentary-volcanic suites (Figure 2). The sheets were thrusted west-
southwestwards over the Arabian Plate’s margin in different order and succession and were caught
between the Arabian Plate’s margin and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block (Buday, 1980). Its components
belong to a possibly subduction-related complex (Al-Qayim, 1993, 1994; Numan, 1997, 2001). These
sheets were grouped into the following units from east to west and from topographically higher
to lower units: Triassic–Jurassic carbonate platform (Avroman Limestone); Mawat and Penjwin
Ophiolite complexes of basic and ultra-basic units, radiolarian chert and limestone, mudstones,
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and conglomerates (Qulqula Group); the Cenozoic sedimentary-volcanic unit (Walash Group); the
metamorphosed sedimentary unit (Naupordan Series); and the Jurassic Limestone Imbricates. The
age of these units is given in Figure 10.
Rock units of this zone exhibit displacement and crustal thickening (Figure 11b). The amount of
displacement decreases towards the folded zone. The NE-dipping thrust faults, the SW-verging
overthrusts, and the tight anticlines are the most prominent structures, forming “piggy back”
imbricate stacks. Geomorphologically, the Zagros Suture Zone exhibits continuous high mountain
ranges with deeply incised valleys, having a very rough morphology due to the imbrication of the
thrust sheets. The deformation of this zone is the product of long and complicated geodynamic
evolution resulting from compression and shortening due to the Late Cretaceous obduction of the
ophiolite-radiolarite suites, which culminated during the late Cenozoic continent-continent collision
of Arabia and Eurasia (Alavi, 2004; Jassim and Goff, 2006; Agard et al., 2011).
Synonyms: The Zagros Suture Zone has been variably named: “Thrust Zone” (Bolton, 1958; Buday,
1980; Buday and Jassim, 1987; Marouf, 1999), “Nappe Zone” (Dunnington, 1958), “Zagros Thrust
Zone” (Buday and Jassim, 1987), “Zagros Crush Zone” (Al-Qayim, 1993, 2004), “geosyncline thrust
region” (Al-Kadhimi et al., 1996), “Subductional Tectonic Facies” (Numan, 1997, 2001), “Zagros
Suture Zone” excluding the Shalair Zone (Jassim et al., 2006), and “Zagros Imbricate Zone”
(Ibrahim, 2009).
Correlative Zone in Iran: The Zagros Suture Zone of Iraq continues into Iran where it is known
as the “Zagros Crush Zone” (Wells, 1969; Haynes and McQuillan, 1974; Setudehnia, 1978; Stoneley,
1981; Agard et al., 2005), “High Zagros Thrust Belt” (Berberian and King, 1981; Berberian, 1995;
Blanc et al., 2003; Alavi, 1994, 2007; Navabpour et al., 2007; Ghasemi and Talbot, 2006; Robin et al.,
2010), and “Zagros Imbricate Zone” (Hessami et al., 2001; Sepehr and Cosgrove, 2004; Mouthereau
et al., 2006).
Zagros Thrust Front
The “Zagros Thrust Front” is a prominent tectonic boundary, which is characterized by a NW-
trending fault front (in most cases a low-angle thrust fault), which separates the Zagros Suture
Zone from the Zagros Imbricate Zone. The boundary is equivalent to the “Zagros Exposed Thrust
Front” in Iran (Alavi, 1994, p. 235). In northeast Iraq it consists of connected segments of thrust
faults with different orientations depending on the geometry of the fore-thrusted blocks of the
Zagros Suture Zone (Figures 2 and 3). This boundary runs within the studied area, by swinging
around the forerunning thrust sheets of the Zagros Suture Zone.
This fault line represents an important morpho-tectonic feature separating the different thrust
sheets of the suture zone to the northeast from the sedimentary sequence of the Zagros Imbricate
Zone to the southwest. At Mawat area, it is associated with a linear valley due to low lithologic
contrast on both sides (i.e. the Walash Group in the northeast and the siliciclastic sediments of the
Red Beds Group from the southwest). In other areas it can be recognized by an up to 500 m high
fault scarp especially between the thrust front of the Qulqula Group and the Cretaceous sequences
of the imbricate zone as in the area to the northeast of Said Sadiq (Figure 11a).
This “Zagros Imbricate Zone” is bounded to the northeast by the Zagros Thrust Front and the
southwest by the High Zagros Reverse Fault (Figure 2). The sedimentary sequence of this zone
includes parautochthonous plate margin sediments of the Cretaceous marine carbonates (Balambo
Formation), Upper Cretaceous foreland flysch (Tanjero Formation), and molasse sequence of the
Paleogene foreland, i.e. the Suwais Red Beds (Figure 10). The zone is intensively deformed and
greatly shortened as compared to the rest of the Arabian margin strata. Deformation resulted from
shortening due to the displacement of the suture zone masses and the succeeding collision event.
Imbrications are evident from the structural style, which is characterized by tight, overturned,
high-amplitude, dense folds intersected by intense faulting (Figure 11c).
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Zagros Suture Zone

Imbricate Zone (Qulqula Gp)
(Balambo Fm)
0 m 20
0 m 40
Figure 11: (a) High scarp represents the front of the Qulqula Thrust Sheet over the Balambo
Formation, near Hawar Village, Traverse 2 area. (b) Multiple thrust sheets of the Qulqula rocks
near Sargat Village, Traverse 4 area, typify the complicated structural style of the Zagros Suture
Zone. Red line traces faults and fold structure. (c) Intensive deformation and imbrications of
Balambo Formation, Azmur Mountain, Traverse 1 area.
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This zone is equivalent to the “Balambo-Tanjero subzone of the Imbricate Zone” of Jassim and
Goff (2006). It is differentiated from the thrusted Tethyan sheets of the Zagros Suture Zone by its
parautochthonous sedimentary components of the Arabian Plate margin. It differs from the Zagros
Folded Zone by its intensive degree of deformation and imbrications. Imbricate structures indicate
multiple phases of deformation. Folding and re-folding includes mesoscopic chevron and box folds,
in addition to multiple faulting. These were associated by thrusting, mostly semi-parallel to their
fold axis (Al-Fadhli et al., 1980). Folds are intricate isoclinal anticlines lacking expressive synforms.
The zone is disrupted by a dense net of reverse faults; each often dislocates the axis of anticlines
southwestwards, manifesting typical structural imbricate morphology (Buday and Jassim, 1987).
High Zagros Reverse Fault
The NW-trending “High Zagros Reverse Fault” separates the Zagros Imbricate Zone from the
Zagros Folded Zone (Figure 2). It is interpreted as a deep basement fault in Iran because it is
associated with outcrops of Hormuz salt intrusions (Mobasher and Babaie, 2007), and there is some
seismic activity with strike-slip focal mechanism solutions (Aziz Zadeh, 1997). The fault has been
active since Permian time (Bahroudi and Talbot, 2003). In northeast Iraq, it dips 65°NE and is clearly
expressed on the surface as an axial fault along the Balambo and Azmur anticlines (Ibrahim, 2009).
The more competent Balambo and Kometan formations were thrusted along the fault over the low-
elevated incompetent rocks of the Shiranish and Tanjero formations. The fault has been displaced
dextrally as in the Halabja-Said Sadiq area due to the effect of the dextral strike-slip NS-trending
longitudinal faults (Ibrahim, 2009).
Zagros Folded Zone
The “Zagros Folded Zone” lies between the High Zagros Reverse Fault to the northeast and the
Zagros Foredeep Fault to the southwest (Berberian, 1995; Ibrahim, 2009). It is the most extensive
region of the Zagros Orogenic Belt (Figure 2) and named here after Agard et al. (2005) to emphasize
the role of the folding process in the development of its structures. It continues into Iran as the
“Zagros Simple Folded Zone” (Stöcklin, 1968; Alavi, 1994; Berberian, 1995; Hessami et al., 2001;
Bahroudi and Talbot, 2003; Homke et al., 2009).
The fold structures in this zone are linear, curvilinear, asymmetrical, doubly-plunging, high-
amplitude, convergent and divergent and are arranged in an en-echelon pattern on the surface
(Buday and Jassim, 1987). They are foreland- and hinterland-verging folds. The zone consists
dominantly of Jurassic–Cretaceous passive margin sequences and the overlying Upper Cretaceous–
Paleogene foreland sequence (Figure 10). The anisotropy of the mechanical properties of the
stratigraphic units was one of the main reasons for the geometrical variations of these structures,
especially the northeastern part. Most of the folds were propagated by major axial, NW-trending
faulting (Ibrahim, 2009). The physiographical features of this zone are inherited from the folded
nature of the mountain range, which is composed of parallel sets of NW-trending anticlines and
synclines. The whole zone is characterized by intermountain plains, which represent broad
synclines filled with Quaternary sediments (Figures 2 and 4).
The Zagros Folded Zone is divided into the “High Folds Zone” and “Low Folds Zone“, separated by
the Zagros Mountain Front Fault (Berberian (1995) for Iran, and Ibrahim (2009) for the Iraqi sector)
(Figures 2 and 3).
Zagros Mountain Front Fault
The “Zagros Mountain Front Fault” is a NW-trending deep reverse blind fault, which shows a pure
dip-slip movement (Figure 3). The hanging-wall is represented by the High Folds Zone of ca. 1,200
m elevation. The footwall is represented by the Low Folds Zone of ca. 700 m elevation (Buday and
Jassim, 1987). The fault is displaced right-laterally by many transversal faults, among them the
longitudinal Khanaqin Fault, which displaces it by about 140 km on the eastern part of the study
area (Ibrahim, 2009). The strike of the Zagros Mountain Front Fault swings from NW in the study
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area, to west to the north of Erbil City (Figure 2). The vertical displacement across the fault is often
marked by a series of prominent scarps, ridges or fault-bend anticlines. The Sagirma and Darbandi-
Bazian anticlines are surface expressions of the fault in the study area.
Zagros Foredeep Fault
The NW-trending “Zagros Foredeep Fault” separates the Zagros Folded Belt from the
Mesopotamian Zone (Figure 2). It is a reverse fault, and its surface expression is recognized by
the chain of narrow anticlines that developed as a result of SW-directed deep fault-propagation
structures marking the delineation of this fault boundary. This chain includes from southeast to
northwest: Mansuriah, Hemrin South, Hemrin North and Makhul anticlines.
ROCK UNITS OF THE ZAGROS SUTURE ZONE
The following review is a general compilation of previous works on the area as well as the new
data of stratigraphic and tectonic field observations collected from four selected traverses across
the suture zone (Figure 4). Unit names used here are based on current stratigraphic status and
description proposed by Bolton’s studies (1955-1958), and the review of Jassim and Goff (2006). New
interpretations are given in later sections incorporating previous discussion with new observations.
Since the components of the suture zone include thrusted sheets of different lithologies, ages, and
tectonic positions, the description focuses on the most significant regional tectonic blocks. The
order bears no chronostratigraphic significance but follows tectonic sequence from upper to lower
sheets.
Triassic Avroman Limestone
The Avroman Limestone is a massive limestone body with exposure limited to the area along the
Iraq-Iran border to the east of the line connecting Kaolos, Khurmal, and Byara (Figure 5). This body
represents a small portion (ca. 27 km x 2 km) of a large limestone body extending into Iran and
widely known as the Bisotun Limestone unit or microcontinent (Bordenave and Hegre, 2005). The
Avroman Limestone in the study area was first introduced by Bolton (1958) to designate the massive
carbonate sequence forming the high grounds of Jabal Avroman (Hawraman) during his mapping
of the Halabja area.
The Avroman Limestone comprises 800 m of light gray-brownish, milky-white, thick-bedded-to-

massive, hard, and fossiliferous limestone, with a wide range of shallow-water fossils including
laminated algae, oolites, oncolites, shells of bivalvia and brachiopods. Bivalvia and oncolites are
the most recognizable fossil contents along the Zalam Valley to the east of Khurmal (Figures 12a
and 12b). However, examination of samples from the Avroman to the northeast of Said Sadiq shows
that the Avroman Limestone consists predominantly of gray oncolitic limestone with subordinate
occurrence of oolites, pellets and bioclasts. All these components indicate a shallow isolated
platform (Karim, 2007). The high purity of the limestone indicates shallow carbonate platform far
from continental clastic influence (Jassim et al., 2006).
The Avroman Limestone is well exposed in the area of Traverse 3 (Figure 8). It clearly displays a
low-angle thrust boundary with the underlying cherty conglomerate unit of the Qulqula Group.
The boundary zone is about 1.0 meter thick and highly sheared. The Avroman front has a
cataclastic appearance especially in the lower part due to its fragmentation and crushing during
thrusting and transportation over the Qulqula Group rocks (Figure 12c). The fragmented rocks
are arranged in planar fabrics producing anastomosing cleavage perpendicular to the direction of
shortening indicating considerable distance of transportation (Figure 12d). The upper boundary of
the unit is not clear because most of its extension lies in Iran.
The dating of the Avroman Limestone using microfossil assemblages from the Traverse 3 area
indicate Late Triassic (Norian–Rhaetian) (Jassim and Goff, 2006), which is equivalent to the lower
part of the Bisotun Limestone unit of Iran of Triassic–Cenomanian age (Bordenave and Hegre,
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a b
c d
Avroman
Avroman
Qulqula
0 m 1 0 m 1
Qulqula
e f
Avroman Avroman
Qulqula
Volcanics
Qulqula
Figure 12: (a) Oncolites of the Avroman Limestone. (b) Large Triassic bivalvia of the gray massive
Avroman Limestone facies. (c) Cataclastic limestone of the lower part of the Avroman Limestone
due to shearing at contact. (d) Boundary of Avroman Limestone with the underlying Qulqula
brecciated limestone tectonic. (e) Trachyte volcanics emplaced at boundary with the underlying
Qulqula Group. (f) Near Tawela the Avroman Mountain can be seen overthrusting the Qulqula
Group, across the border with Iran.
2005). The lower boundary of the Avroman Limestone is characterized by concordant volcanic
bodies (Figure 8). These extrusive igneous rocks are composed of alkaline olivine basalt and
trachyte, and their ages were determined with K/Ar dating of the diabase flow at 220 ± 20 Ma,
Norian (Jassim and Goff, 2006). The alkaline basalt indicates active continental rifting during the
Late Triassic. Three volcanic bodies were identified. The small one is of trachyte type and emplaced
at the boundary zone. The second one occurs in the lower part of the Avroman Limestone and the
third in the upper part of the cherty conglomeritic unit of the Qulqula Formation (Figure 12e). The
volcanic bodies were emplaced tectonically as cold magmatic bodies within the examined area.
This is evidenced by the lack of any thermal metamorphic effects on the host Avroman or other
rocks, together with slickensides seen in the field on the extrusive igneous rock surfaces at the
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contact with the host Avroman rocks. The slickensides also indicate the direction of last movement
of the extrusive igneous bodies towards the southwest.
To the east of Tawela (Traverse 4 area), the Avroman Limestone can be seen as a high mountain in
the far site within Iran, overthrusting the Qulqula Group in Iraq. The contact seems to run along a
valley passing parallel to the border (Figure 12f).
Qulqula Group
The Qulqula Group represents the deep-marine sequence of radiolarian chert, mudstones, and
limestone with basic volcanic intrusions. The upper part is a thick conglomerate unit (Buday and
Jassim, 1987). Due to repetition, the group constitutes the thickest and most extensive thrust sheet
of the Zagros Suture Zone. The Qulqula Group in the studied area is distributed in almost two
separate blocks. The larger northern block occurs at Mawat-Penjwin areas (Traverses 1 and 2,
Figures 6 and 7). A smaller block was recognized at the Khurmal-Tawela areas (Traverses 3 and
4) (Figure 5). Its rock units appear on the eastern side of the Traverse 1 area, and in the middle
of Traverse 2 area, and the eastern part of Traverses 3 and 4 (Figures 7 to 9). The radiolarite-
proper units, in general, have uniform, thin- to medium-bedded siliceous limestone, with chert
beds of different colors, thickness and forms. This lithological feature is the most diagnostic for
identification of the Qulqula Group.
The group was first introduced by Bolton (1955, Figure 13) as the Aptian–Albian Qulqula
Radiolarian and Qulqula Conglomerate formations. Buday (1980) interpreted the group as Late
Jurassic (Tithonian) to Santonian sequences deposited in the Neo-Tethys Ocean. Both formations
are closely associated with each other, and seemingly occurred as a single unit or thrust sheet.
However, it always includes exotics units, and inter-sequence bodies from lower or adjacent
units, which were incorporated during thrusting and movement of the major radiolarite block.
The boundary with the underlying units is always tectonic and represented by a low-angle and
eastward-dipping thrust zone. Since Bolton’s work in 1958 several attempts were made to classify
the group into further smaller units as summarized (Czech Team, 1976; Jassim and Goff, 2006;
Figure 13):
The Czech Team (1976) divided the Qulqula Group into four main units:
(a) Tithonian–Cenomanian Qulqula Unit 1 (QU.1) consisting of chert with siliceous mudstone
(QU.1a), chert with rare mudstone (QU.1b) and limestone, and undifferentiated limestone
(QU.1c).
(b) Valanginian–Early Aptian Qulqula Unit 2 (QU.2), limestones with cherty layers and nodules.
(c) Late Aptian–Cenomanian Qulqula Unit 3 (QU.3) consisting of limestones with chert.
(d) Albian–Cenomanian and Turonian Qulqula Unit 4 (QU.4) comprised of limestone
conglomerates and breccias.
The Qulqula Group is intensively deformed with multiple faulting and imbrications. This increases
the complexity of its stratigraphy by repetition and overturning. The deformational structures
include fracturing of all types, joints, reverse and thrust faults and folding of chevrons, overturned,
and asymmetrical types. In some parts especially, at the front of the thrust sheet, intense
deformation becomes usual.
In the area studied, the Qulqula Group generally consists of the following units, reading from west
to east, and from top to the bottom. The numbering of these units follows the general classification
of the group in the area.
Unit Q1: Dark Grayish-Green Shale

A dark grayish-green shale unit generally consists of a crushed and occasionally sheared sequence
of fissile shale, or marly shale with exotic bodies of rocks (Figure 14a). Exotics include smashed
volcanic bodies of up to 5 m in size that are recognized as dykes or sills within the highly deformed
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Series Age Mega Bolton Czech Team Jassim and

Era
Period This Study
Epoch (Ma) Sequence (1958) (1976) Goff (2006)
Maastrichtian
70.6
Campanian
AP9
Santonian 83.5
85.8 Q5
Coniacian
Late
89.3
Turonian QU.4
93.5
Cenomanian
Cretaceous
QU.4
99.6
QU.3
Albian QU.2
MESOZOIC
Q4
QU.3
112.0
Aptian QU.1 Q2
QU.1b
QU.1a
Khwakurk
AP8
125.0
Early
Barremian
130.0 QU.2 QU.2
Hauterivian
136.0 Q1 Q3
Valanginian
140.0
Berriasian QU.1c
145.5 QU.1
Tithonian
Jurassic
151.0
Late
Kimmeridgian
156.0 AP7
Oxfordian
161.0
Figure 13: Diagramatic presentation of the different tectono-stratigraphic classification schemes

of the Qulqula Group including this study.
shale (Figure 14b). This unit is recognized from the studied area of Traverses 2 and 4 (Figures 7 and
9). The unit termed informally as the “Hawar shale unit” from a typical and thick section exposed
near Hawar Village, 8 km to the northeast of Halabja of Traverse 4 area (Figure 5). At this location
the unit is about 70 m thick and consists of fissile-to-foliated dark-gray to green shale (Figure 14c).
Volcanics are either concordant or discordant with the sequence.
The boundary with the overlying reddish siliceous mudstone unit is tectonic and characterized by
shear zone of a thrust plane. Limestone horizons of possible Jurassic age overlie parts of this unit in
some places (Figure 14d), protecting them from erosion as in the outcrop near Kolitan Village, along
the road to Penjwin. Exotic carbonates or olistostromes are frequent in this unit. It is recognized
with different sizes and types, and usually embedded within the sheared part of this unit (Figure
14e). In other case the unit rests directly on the passive margin pelagic, and Cretaceous marly
limestone of the Balambo Formation. The boundary is represented by a shear zone in which blocks
of the Balambo limestone were embedded into the gray shale of the lower part of the locally termed
“Hawar unit” (Figure 14f). This thrust boundary locally shows reverse segments with angles
reaching 70°. It dips eastwards and forms a local segment of the Zagros Thrust Front.
Unit Q2: Reddish Siliceous Mudstone

The reddish siliceous mudstone unit is highly sheared and crushed due to its ductile nature and
is characterized by thin-to-medium-bedded siliceous mudstone, silty shale, chert, and limestone
alternating with the dominating red to brown shale (Figures 15a, b and c). It often occurs as less
than 100-meters-thick patches or slivers within the Qulqula Group sequence. Small-to-medium-
sized olistostromes of volcanic bodies and limestone units are smashed and incorporated into the
sequence (Figure 15d). Other occasional components of this unit include tuffaceous/pyroclastic
material or horizons, and a black irregular pillow lava horizon which can be recognized along
the road to Tawela (Figures 9, 15e and 15f). Along the Zalam Valley and by the Ahmad Awa
Gorge, reddish, thin cherty beds or siliceous limestone can be distinguished, alternating with
the siliceous mudstone beds. Intensive shearing of the unit due to its ductile nature produces
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a b
Trachyte Sill
0 m 1
c d
Jurassic
Imbricate
Q2
Q4
Q1
0 m 1
Q1
0 m 5
f
Q1
Balambo 0 10
cm
Limestone
Figure 14: (a) Crushed grayish-green shale with exotics along the road to Tawela. (b) Trachyte sill
of 1 m thick within unit Q1 of the Qulqula Group along the road from Dara Shish to Hawar
Village. (c) Sheet of unit Q4 thick bedded limestone and chert emplaced in between units Q1
and Q2 near Hawar Village. (d) Jurassic Imbricate Limestone protects soft outcrop of unit Q1
shale. (e) Large oliostostrome embedded in the green shale of unit Q1 along the road from Byara
to Tawela. (f) Tectonic thrust boundary between the Balambo Formation Limestone and the
Qulqula Gray Shale unit Q1.
varieties of deformational structures including; folding, refolding, faulting, and imbrications.

These deformational features are manifested clearly when the beds become thinner and more
siliceous (Figure 15f). Thickness is variable due to erosion and in extensive exposures usually forms
outstanding features or ridges as seen near Kanarue (Figure 15d).
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Unit Q3: Thin-Bedded Radiolarian Chert and Limestone

The thin-bedded radiolarian unit is locally termed as the “Qulqula-proper” or the “Radiolarites
Facies”. It is the most dominant and characteristic lithologic unit of the Qulqula Group. It can
be identified from many areas, and on all major Qulqula thrust sheets. It is recognized from the
eastern margin of Traverse 1 area, and as intermediate sheets within the Qulqula Group outcrop
of Traverses 3 and 4 (Figures 8 and 9). The unit is well exposed along a road cut near the village of
Nal Pareze along the road to Penjwin of the Traverse area 2 (Figure 7), where a thick sequence of
deformed, thin-to-medium (occasionally thick) uniformly bedded, silicified limestone and chert is
seen (Figure 16a). Dark gray to buff marlstone or silicified shale often occur as thin inter-layers. In
some places only silicified limestone occurs, with almost no marlstone interlayers (Figure 16b). This
a b
0 m 1
c d
Q3
0 m 1
e f
0 m 1
Figure 15: (a) Massive and sheared reddish, thin bedded siliceous mudstone of unit Q2 near
Byara. (b) Crushed mudstone of unit Q2 with exotic embedded olistostromes, along the road
from Byara to Tawela. (c) Red siliceous mudstone and thin limestone of unit Q2, near Kanarue.
(d) Large block of unit Q3 of the bedded limestone and chert embedded into the red mudstone
unit of Q2 of the Qulqula Group, near Kanarue Village, Mawat Area. (e) Lava flows intruded
into the mudstone of unit Q2, near Byara. (f) Intensively deformed strata of unit Q2.
Deformation is well manifested due to lithologic contrast of the unit, exposure along road to
Tawela.
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unit occurs as a major sliver or thrusted sheet over other units of the Qulqula Group. Deformation
is displayed in regional folding and local refolding due to imbrications and faulting which repeat
the sequence in multiple segments (Figure 16c). The dip of the strata is locally variable due to the
intense deformation, but commonly indicates regional southwestward movement.
Chert beds are either primary of radiolarian siliceous wackestone to packstone (Figure 16d),
or secondary irregular inter-beds with no fossils (Figure 16e), which resulted from diagenetic
replacement. Chert beds occur in gray, whitish-gray, green (Figure 16f), dark gray, and reddish
colors with red shale interlayers (Figure 17a). The limestones are usually medium to thick beds
of bioclastic wackestone to packstone. Slices of this unit are frequently embedded in the reddish
siliceous mudstones indicating complex and severe mixing of the different units during thrusting
a b
0 m 2 0 m 1
c d
0 m 2
e f
Figure 16: (a) Thin bedded radiolarian limestone and chert of unit Q3 of the Qulqula Group near
Nal Pareze Village. (b) Silicified radiolarian limestone of unit Q3 near Tawela town.
(c) Deformed strata of unit Q3 at Nal Pareze showing multiple phases of deformation.
(d) Photomicrograph of radiolarian packstone of some limestones of unit Q3, Nal Pareze section,
50X NX. (e) Microcrystalline silica of a secondary bedded chert, unit Q3 50X, NX. (f) Green chert
beds of unit Q3 by the village of Sargat 4 km to the southeast of Khurmal.
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and transportation (Figure 15d). Bed thickness is often uniform especially when it lacks shale
interlayers (Figure 17b). Concordant volcanics of green or reddish bodies intruded the sequence in
different sizes and types and are recognized in Traverses 2 and 4 areas (Figure 17d). The boundary
with the underlying unit is sharp and characteristically represented by a shear zone (Figure 17c).
Another outcrop of this unit is recognized along the road from Chwarta to Kanarue of Traverse
1, where medium-to-thickly bedded limestone alternates with greenish and brownish marlstone
(Figure 17e). Chert nodules and chert interlayers become common upwards with thickness reaching
20 cm. Marlstone interlayers on the other hand decrease upwards. The beds are highly squeezed
and crushed and display intermixing with other units of the group (Figures 17e and 17f).
a b
0 cm 30
c d
Q3 Q4
Volcanics
0 m 1
e f
0 m 1
Figure 17: (a) Deformed reddish siliceous limestone of unit Q3 north of Sargat Village.
(b) Siliceous limestone of unit Q3 lacking any shale interlayers, near Kolitan, along the road to
Penjwin. (c) Intensive deformation squeezes strata of unit Q3 into thick limestone beds of unit
Q4, outcrop near road connecting Chwarta and Penjwin. (d) Green weathered sill embedded in
the grayish chert of unit Q3 of the Qulqula Group, Sargat Village. (e) Bedded limestone and
chert of unit Q3 of the Qulqula Group, along the road to Kanarue. (f) Imbrication structures of
the unit Q3 of the Qulqula Group, along the Chwarta-Kanarue road.
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Unit Q4: Thick-bedded Shallow-marine Carbonate

This unit consists of dark gray, weathered to milky white to buff color, thick-bedded, marine
limestone. It exhibits massive carbonate features often separated by a thin marlstone interlayer
(Figure 18a). The limestone is of grainstone to packstone types. The grains are dominated by
pellets, ooids, lithoclasts and bioclasts of shallow marine conditions (Figures 18b and 18c). Karim et
al. (2009) examined similar limestones from Kaolos of Traverse 2 area (Figure 7), and inferred that it
was deposited in a shallow-marine environment with active detrital conditions. The limestone beds
often are associated with thin dark chert layers of seemingly diagenetic origin.
In many cases beds of this unit are thrusted over or squeezed into the underlying units as a result
of intense deformational features of the Qulqula units as the case of a fresh outcrop exposed along
the road from Chwarta to Penjwin (Figure 17c).
Near the border town of Tawela the limestone beds become thicker and fossiliferous (Figure 9).
Petrographic examination of these rocks shows domination of oolitic-pelloidal packstone with an
indication of winnowing suggesting shallow-marine environment of active shoals and energetic
ridges (Figure 18d). These shallow-marine limestones grade upwards into deep-marine limestones
and chert reflecting cyclicity and fluctuation of depositional water depth (Figure 16b). The age of
this unit using micropaleontological analysis is believed to range between Tithonian to Berriasian
(Jassim and Goff, 2006). However, Karim et al. (2009) from their study on these limestones from
Said-Sadiq area and based on stratigraphic position suggest an Early Cretaceous age.
Cherty Conglomeratic Limestone Unit Q5

(Qulqula Conglomerate Formation)
The cherty conglomerate limestone unit always occurs on top of the Qulqula Group, and in many
cases occurs at the boundary zone between the Avroman Limestone unit and the under-thrusted
Qulqula Group units. This unit appears in the Traverse 2 area, along the road to Penjwin around
Kani Manga Village (Figure 7). However, the best exposure of this unit is located along Permaron
Valley sides of Traverse 3 area between the villages of Ta Ta and Sargat (Figures 8 and 18e), and
along the border zone with Iran, in a mountain opposite to Tawela of Traverse 4 area (Figure 2).
Bolton (1955; Figure 13) named this unit as “Qulqula Conglomerate Formation” and described it
as consisting of thick lenticular beds of conglomerates, composed of pebbles, and small boulders
of limestone, and to a lesser extent chert. Both the limestone and the chert boulders and pebbles
were derived from the underlying Qulqula Radiolarian Formation. This unit is considered to be
of Albian–Cenomanian age (Jassim and Goff, 2006). Unit Q5 in this study is referred to the cherty
brecciated conglomerate part of the Qulqula Conglomerate Formation of Bolton (1955) and Jassim
and Goff (2006).
A detailed section of this unit has been measured and documented within the Traverse 3 area,
along the Permaron Valley from the Ta Ta Village down to Sargat Village, about 5 km to the east of
Khurmal (Figure 8). The outcrop here is the thickest and the best-exposed and in the area which
is considered as the type section for this unit. The section is about 500 m thick and consists of
repeated sequences of cherty detrital limestone or calcirudite horizons. Four major horizons were
recognized in this area, which implies repetition of the basic unit several times either by multiple
thrusting, or folding to form a series of topographic ridges throughout the section (Figure 18e).
Each horizon is 10–30 m thick and consists of gray, hard, detrital or fragmented limestone with
angular dark gray to brown chert pebbles. These conglomerate horizons alternate with reddish,
silty shale, siliceous mudstone and thin chert interlayers (Figure 18f). These reddish siliceous
horizons range between 10–40 m in thickness.
The grains of the cherty conglomeritic horizons range in size from boulders to sand, and are
usually embedded in calcarenite matrix. The limestone fragments are of dark gray fossiliferous
grains of different sizes, which range from granules to boulders, and are often rounded-to-
subrounded (Figures 19a and 19b). The large pebbles are often angular to subangular and mainly
consist of monotonous dark gray fine-grained limestone (Figure 19c), densely packed in lighter
color matrix. In other cases grains are polygenic and poorly sorted, especially when their size
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a b
0 m 1
c d
e f
Avroman 1
2
4
3
Figure 18: (a) Thick-bedded limestone of unit Q4 near Tawela. (b) Pellets and bioclasts in
mudstone matrix are the dominant components of the limestone of unit Q4, 30X, NX.
(c) Shallow-marine bioclastic limestones of unit Q4, 30X, XN, Tawela.
(d) Oolitic-pelloidal-bioclastic grainstone with indication of strong agitation, limestones of unit
Q4, Tawela, 30X. (e) The four major ridges of the cherty carbonate conglomerate Unit Q5 in the
Permaron Valley, Traverse 3. (f) Reddish siliceous mudstone interlayers between these
conglomerate ridges, Permaron Valley, Hani Dang Village, Traverse 3.
is relatively smaller (Figure 19d). In this case the variety of grains includes limestone, chert, red
mudstone, and siltstone (Figure 19e). The chert fragments are the characteristic grain type. They
often have a dark color and angular form, and usually protrude out upon weathering due to their
relative hardness (Figure 19f).
The cherty detrital limestone of unit Q5 is usually bottomed by layers (up to 10 m in thickness)
of detrital limestone or conglomerate lacking fragmented chert. In places, discontinuous, irregular
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a b
ch L
rL
ch
rL rL
L
ch
fL
bL
L L
fL
ch
c d
0 cm 10
e f
Figure 19: (a) Carbonate lithoclasts of radiolarian limestone (rL), fossiliferous limestone (fL), and
bioclastic limestone (bL) are the common grains of the cherty fragmented limestone of unit Q5,
near Kani Manga Village, 30X, XN. (b) Fragmented cherty limestone showing common carbonate
fragments (L), and angular chert fragments are the major grain types of unit Q5, near Kani
Manga Village, along the road to Penjwin, 30X, NX. (c) Subrounded limestone pebbles of unit
(Q5). (d) Angular grains of the cherty brecciated limestone of unit Q5, Kani Manga Village near
Penjwin. (e) Sedimentary rock fragments within the carbonate conglomerate, unit Q5. (F) Dark
and angular chert fragments protruding out of the carbonate conglomerate of unit Q5.
thin beds of chert often ranging from 5–40 cm in thickness may occur (Figure 20a). These chert
beds are dark in color and commonly are intersected by joints or micro-faults of different attitudes
(Figures 20b and 20c) reflecting shearing and intensive internal deformation. Recementation and
reorientation of these jointed chert beds are characteristic at Traverse 3 near Hani Dang Village
(Figure 20d), and Traverse 4 area near Tawela town (Figure 20e). It indicates active late diagenetic
alterations accompanying the tectonic deformation.
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a b
Fragmented
Chert
Bedded
Chert
c d
e f
0 m 15
Figure 20: (a) The cherty conglomerate horizon of unit Q5 in the Permaron Valley, showing upper
part with fragmented chert and lower part with bedded chert. (b) Deformed bedded chert and
conglomeratic limestone, same locality in photo a. (c) Bed of gray chert showing micro-faulting
(locality as a). (d) Re-cemented bedded chert due to crushing and diagenesis of unit Q5. (e)
Distorted thin-bedded chert of unit Q5 at road cut near Tawela. (f) Intensive deformation of
multiple ridges of unit Q5 just to the north of Sargat Village, Permaron Valley.
Another important and extensive outcrop of this unit is recognized around Kani Manga Village of
Traverse 2, about 3 km southwest of Penjwin (Figure 7). The fragments here are either homogenous
(Figure 19c), or heterogeneous (Figure 19d), and the outcrop section shows less duplication or
repetition and more massive body as compared to its occurrence at Traverse 3 area. The occurrence
of this unit here without the anticipated overlying Avroman Limestone, and the occurrence of
the Suwais Red Beds next to it instead, possibly implies that erosion had removed the Avroman
Limestone from the area. The sole occurrence of this conglomerate represents a relict of the cherty
conglomeritic limestone (unit Q5), which exposes the younger and underlying Red Beds as a
tectonic window. This area represents the northern narrow tip of the Avroman Limestone block in
the area and thus can be easily removed.
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The boundary of this unit with the overlying Avroman Limestone is well exposed near Ta Ta of
Traverse 3 area. It is characterized by a shear zone, and marked by a thick horizon of trachyte
volcanic sill (Figure 12e). The lower boundary with the underlying red mudstone units is also
tectonic and commonly shows sharp faulted transition.
Due to the high lithologic contrast between the cherty conglomerate horizons and the shale
interlayers, the unit better demonstrates the style and degree of deformation of the Qulqula Group
in general. This is well displayed in an outcrop located above the village of Sargat of Traverse 3
(Figure 20f). At this outcrop multiple chevron folds are common and resulted from combined
faulting and folding effect.
The overall highly tectonized nature, the fragmented fabric of its rocks, the association with
volcanics, and the dominating mixture of limestone and chert fragments suggest that severe
crushing resulted from the thrusting of the Avroman block over the Qulqula Radiolarite unit is
responsible for the formation of unit Q5.
Ophiolite Complexes
Ultrabasic rocks and associated igneous bodies are the most interesting features of the Zagros
Suture Zone. These bodies were recognized in five different areas by Bolton (1955, 1956, 1958) and
documented by Jassim et al. (1982) to include basic, ultrabasic, and metamorphic thrusted blocks.
Al-Mehaidi (1975) and Buda and Al-Hashimi (1977) introduced the term “ophiolites“ for the
ultrabasics of the Mawat area. Buday (1980) gave a comprehensive review of the geology and origin
of these ophiolite complexes including those of the Zagros Suture Zone in Iraq. Both the Mawat
and Penjwin complexes are exposed in the study area and represent the largest and most complete
sequences. They are considered to belong to a single emplacement episode, which took place during
the Albian–Cenomanian between 110–80 Ma (Aziz et al., 2011). The Mawat Ophiolite Complex,
however, is better differentiated and more complete compared to the Penjwin Complex (Jassim and
Goff, 2006). The Mawat Ophiolite Complex is fully exposed in the Traverse 1 area (Figure 6), and
part of the Penjwin Ophiolite Complex appears at the Traverse 2 area (Figure 7). The review below
is compiled from previous works in addition to the authors’ field and petrographic observations.

Mawat is a high mountainous area to the northeast of Sulaimani City, and generally includes
stacks of sheets thrust over the imbricate units of the Arabian margin (Figure 4). The highest sheet
represents an elongated igneous body extending north-south, about 25 km long and 7–12 km wide,
and occupying an area of about 250 sq km. The dominating hard crystalline mafic and ultramafic
rocks of the Mawat Ophiolite Complex, control the topographic pattern and geological fabric of
the area (Figure 6), and consists of 600–1,000 m thick volcanic, plutonic, meta-volcanics and meta-
sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous age (Jassim and Goff, 2006). These magmatic rocks are highly
sheared and bear characters of ophiolite suites (Al-Mehaidi, 1975; Buda and Al-Hashimi, 1977;
Buday, 1980) or dismembered ophiolites (Aswad, 1999).
The Mawat Ophiolite Complex is generally dominated by a plutonic body of ultrabasic rocks
including: pyroxenite (Figure 21a), layered and coarse crystalline gabbros (Figure 21b), diorites,
and dolerite dykes. Gabbro is the main component of the complex followed by ultramafic rocks
of dunite, harzburgite, lherzolites and pyroxenite, with minor diorite and dolerite intrusions. The
harzburgite rocks consist of Mg-rich olivine, which is variably serpentinized with subordinate
orthopyroxinite and chromite. Serpentinization of the olivine occurs on grain margins mostly, or
along cracks. It most commonly occurs in shear zones and at tectonic contacts (Jassim and Goff,
2006). This massif is overlain by a ‘’roof unit” of 600 m of interbedded marble, basalt and calc-schist
unit, which is known locally as the Gimo Group (Al-Mehaidi, 1975). The third important unit of the
Mawat Group which comprises amygdaloidal and occasionally pillowed and spilitic flows, 3–10 m
thick (Figures 21c and 21d). The largest and most characteristic body is the banded gabbro, which
occurs either as layered or laminated fabrics. It is intruded by a coarse crystalline gabbro body in
the east, which crops out near the eastern thrust contact. The western contact of the banded gabbro
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a b
c d
e f
Figure 21: Ophiolite complex of the Mawat area. (a) Pyroxinites body near Betwat. (b) Sheared
and layered gabbro near Waraz Village. (c) Pillow lava along road near Waraz Village.
(d) Photomicrograph of sample from the pillow lava showing porphyrotopic spillite, 50X, NX.
(e) Serpentinite quarry near Betwat Village. (f) Interpenetrated fabric of low-temperature
serpentinite, 50X, NX.
body with the meta-volcanics is a NS-trending shear zone (20–200 m wide) along which the gabbro
body margin is highly deformed and crushed, with small basic and acidic intrusions (Jassim and
Goff, 2006).
The Mawat Ophiolite Complex overlies the Walash Group all around with a thrust boundary. The
contact is marked by a 25–50-m-thick serpentinite horizon. This serpentinite is highly sheared, and
according to Aziz (2008), is of two types:
• Ophiolite-serpentinite associates are localized at the base of the Mawat thrust sheet. They
occur as massive or sheared pale-green serpentinites, 5–10 m thick.
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• Ophiolitic mélange serpentinites occur as intra-formational bodies or within the lower part
of Walash volcano-sedimentary sequence. These serpentinites occur as olive-black colored
massifs. The best outcrops of these serpentinite bodies occur and are quarried near Betwat
and Kunjirin villages (Figures 21e and 21f), with a total thickness of 40–50 m.
Petrologic studies of these serpentinite bodies show that they represent isolated bodies of
lizardite and chrysolite. They are believed to have developed through intra-oceanic subduction
(Mohammad, 2004).
Penjwin Ophiolite Complex

The Penjwin igneous complex is dominated by a NW-trending ultramafic elongated body
surrounding Penjwin City (Figure 7). It constitutes part of an incomplete ophiolite sequence
(Aswad, 1999; Jassim and Goff, 2006). It comprises dunite, pyroxenite, layered gabbro (Figure 22a),
and diorite in contact with a volcano-sedimentary sequence referred to locally as the “Gimo Group”
(Jassim and Goff, 2006). It shows a continuous sequence from peridotite (dunite, harzburgite,
websterite and bronzitite) at the bottom through amphibolitized gabbro to diorite (Figure 22b) at
the top (Mohammad, 2008). Pyroxenite is present in very small bodies. The gabbro body directly
overlies the ultramafic body. Irregular pegmatite gabbro and pyroxinite dykes occur in the
dunite member of the complex. These bodies are interpreted as segregation from, and trapped
bodies of, partial melt in the dunite residue (Al-Hassan and Hubbard, 1985). To the west of the
ophiolite complex the “Gimo Group “ crops out and comprises schist, phylitic schist, and phyllite,
commonly associated with lenticular and recrystallized limestone, calc-schist, meta-tuffaceous and
amphibolites (Jassim and Goff, 2006). Highly sheared serpentinite offshoots penetrate the gabbro in
this area (Figure 22c), and are believed to have formed by subsequent mobilization along the shear
zone (Jassim and Goff, 2006).
The Penjwin igneous complex was thrust over the clastic rocks of the Walash and Suwais Red Beds,
along a low-angle reverse fault (Figure 7). The contact is tectonic and often associated with shear
serpentinites, which acted as a lubricant layer between the igneous body and the ductile underlying
sedimentary sequence. The northeastern contacts of the complex are a major thrust zone with the
Shalair metamorphic group. It corresponds to the Zagros Main Reverse Fault of southwest Iran.
Walash Group
This sedimentary-volcanic unit often occurs below both ophiolite sheets of Traverses 1 and 2
(Figures 6 and 7). The Walash Group, which is named by Bolton (1958) after the Walash Village
in the Rowanduz area, is of Paleogene age. The type locality description of the group shows local
differences, prompting Jassim and Goff (2006) to compile a composite section of the group. This
section includes the following units from base upwards: (1) basal red beds, (2) lower basaltic lava,
(3) middle red beds, (4) upper basaltic-andesitic flows and pyroclastics, and (5) upper red beds.
A limited outcrop of the Walash Group is exposed on the right-hand side of the road to Penjwin
of Traverse 2 area, about 1.5 km to the north of Kani Manga Village. The group here has been
confused with red beds sequence. Both are deeply eroded forming major valleys in the area with
thick cover of recent sediments, which has lead to its overlooking in the geological map of the area
(Figure 7). The exposed section represents the upper part of the Walash sequence. It is about 10
m thick (the rest is covered by recent sediments). Here it is characterized by buff-to-olive-green
silty calcareous shale alternating with thin-to-medium-bedded sandstone units. Sandstone beds
are graded with a sharp lower boundary and transitional upper boundary (Figure 22d). The upper
boundary of the Walash Group, with the overlying serpentinite body, is seemingly transitional
reflecting contact alteration (Figure 22e).
The best-exposed and most complete outcrop of the Walash Group is located in the Traverse 1 area,
around Chwarta, which is slightly different from Rowanduz type-section area. It is dominated by a
buff- to olive-green flysch-type sequence, which is characteristically intruded by different types of
volcanic bodies. The group surrounds the ophiolite body as a narrow outcrop belt of less than one
kilometer to the west and more than 10 km to the southeast side of the ophiolite body (Figure 6).
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a b
c d Serpentinite
Walash Group
0 m 1 0 m 1
Ophiolite
Serpentinite
Walash Group
Figure 22: (a) Highly sheared, massive gabbro body along the road to Penjwin.
(b) Slickensided-sheared block of diorite one kilometer south of Penjwin. (c) Massive, sheared
serpentinite body one kilometer to the south of Penjwin. (d) Sandstone and shale of the upper
part of the Walash Group showing transitional boundary to the overlying serpentinite body
along the road 1.5 km south of Penjwin. (e) General view of the succession of the Walash Group,
serpentinite, and the ophiolite massif, along the road, one kilometer south of Penjwin.
The group varies greatly in thickness due to intensive faulting of the area. However the maximum
thickness does exceed 200 m. The upper part of the series shows foliation and shearing with
frequent occurrences of volcanics. The lower part, on the other hand, shows less shearing, limited
volcanic influences and a proper flysch- type sequence (Figures 23a and 23b).
The sedimentary sequence displays cyclic sedimentation of occasionally sheared, fissile,

calcareous, silty shale (Figure 23c), alternating with thin to thick beds of medium to coarse-
grained, graded bedded sandstone (Figure 23d). Petrographic examination of these sandstones
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a b
c d
e f
Figure 23: Walash Group at Mawat area. (a) Flysch sequence of fissile shale and bedded
sandstone, along the road to Betwat. (b) Reddish volcanics (lapilli) within the Walash siliciclastic
sediments, (same locality of photo a). (c) Highly sheared greenish-gray fissile shale near Betwat.
(d) Thick-bedded sandstone and shale of flysch-type sequence, along the road to Kunjirin.
(e) Calcarenite of Walash sandstone rich in benthic forams and siliceous fragments, 50X, NX.
(f) Highly fractured and calcite-veined aphanitic texture of the Walash basaltic volcanics, 50X,
NX.
shows it is dominated by calcarenite, rich in benthic foraminifera (Figure 23e). Occasional thin
marly limestone to limestone horizons were recognized. Shale intervals range between one and
ten meters in thickness, and are commonly dark gray and yield Paleogene planktonic foraminifera.
The group’s upper boundary with the overlying ophiolite sheet is highly tectonized and locally
associated with a thick serpentinized horizon.
The volcanics vary in size and composition, which display a variable weathered appearance. In
most cases they are concordant within the sedimentary sequences (Figures 23a and 23b). They
include tuffs, lapillis, pyroclasts and thin sills of light-gray to reddish-gray color. These volcanics
are classified into basic dykes, lava flows of spilitic diabase, pyroxene-bearing spilitic basalt
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(Figure 23f), spilite, and intermediate volcanic (pyroxene andesite, pyroxene-amphibole andesite,
and altered andesite (Aziz, 1986; Jassim and Goff, 2006). Locally, as in the area to the north of
Chwarta, the group is capped by isolated limestone bodies of nummulitic shoals (Al-Hashimi,
1975). These bodies represent a shallowing-upward sequence of slope to shallow platform facies.
These limestones display intensive shearing in the form of stylolite networks, imbricate microfaults
and fractures, which imply transportation during successive deformational phases (Surdashy, 1997).
The lower boundary of the Walash Group is a tectonic boundary and represented by a segment
of the Zagros Thrust Front. This boundary in the Traverse 1 area is less expressive and can be
followed along valleys separating the color-contrasted sediments of the buff-green Walash Group
from the underlying Suwais Red Bed Group. The lower boundary in Traverse 2 area with the
Suwais Red Bed Group is concealed under recent sediments.
Jurassic Imbricates
Isolated Jurassic limestone hills crop out as out-of-place ridges within younger strata. On the
geologic map of the area they appear as small, elongated, patches of limestone bodies distributed
in front of or within the Qulqula Group outcrop belt along three NW-trending faults. It appears
in Traverses 2 and 3 areas (Figures 7 and 8). These exotic Jurassic limestone bodies have been
defined as carbonates of the Sehkaniyan, Sargelu, Naokelekan and possibly the Barsarin formations
and named as “Jurassic Imbricates” by Jassim and Goff (2006). However, the Czech Team (1976)
characterized them as carbonates of the Sargelu and Sehkaniyan formations. The Jurassic
Imbricates, disregarding their origin, were exhumed to the surface along NE-dipping, deep-seated
ramp thrust faults during the Late Miocene–Pliocene tectonic event when the whole Cretaceous–
Pliocene sedimentary cover was up-thrust over the Upper Jurassic decollement unit (Ibrahim, 2009).
Exposures of these imbricates were examined around Kolitan and Kaolos villages and along the
road from Said-Sadiq to Penjwin of Traverse 2 area (Figure 7). The outcrop near Kolitan generally
shows the occurrence of massive-to-thick-bedded gray, hard limestones with microfacies similar
to the Upper Jurassic Chia Gara Formation (van Bellen et al., 1959-2005) (Figure 24a). Another
outcrop near Kaolos Village shows dark gray stromatolitic fabric similar to the Sargelu Formation.
Fracturing is common, indicating shearing. Near Ahmad Awa (Traverse 3), these limestone bodies
steeply protrude as a fault scarp of about 25 m above the surroundings, facing southwest with the
scarp face striated by slickensides (Figure 24b). The regional dip of these limestone bodies is to
the northeast. Their patchy distribution within the clastic parts of the Qulqula Group protects the
underlying gray or red mudstone, and forms isolated hills especially along the Said Sadiq-Byara
road.
ROCK UNITS OF THE ZAGROS IMBRICATE ZONE
The stratigraphic units of the Zagros Imbricate Zone are represented by Cretaceous–Cenozoic
sediments of the Arabian margin. Because of their marginal location they underwent intensive
deformation but without actual displacement. The thrusted sheets and blocks of the Zagros
Suture Zone lie directly on these units with the Zagros Thrust Front separating the two zones. An
important part of the deformational features and stacking pattern of these thrust sheets depends on
the type and nature of the sediments of the imbricate zone. The review of these units here is to help
understand that inter-relationship. The review covers the units starting from the closest one to the
suture zone.
Suwais Red Beds Group
The Suwais Red Bed Group outcrop surrounds the thrust sheets of the Zagros Suture Zone in a
narrow belt swinging about the forethrust blocks as in the Traverse 1 of Mawat area, or behind the
thrust block due to the erosion of a “tectonic window” as in Traverse 2 of Penjwin area (Figure 7).
The outcrop of the Suwais red beds around Chwarta City of Traverse 1 area represents the most
extensive in the studied area. It exhibits a thick siliciclastic sequence with characteristic overall
red color. It typifies the Zagros Imbricate Zone by reflecting different types of deformational
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a b
0 m 1 0 m 5
Scarp line
c d
0 m 1
e f
Figure 24: (a) Massive-to-thick bedded limestone of the Jurassic Imbricate, near Kolitan Village
along the road to Penjwin. (b) Fault scarp of a limestone body of a Jurassic Imbricate at Ahmad
Awa, Traverse 3. (c) Thick-bedded sandstone horizons alternating with red claystone of the
Suwais Red Beds near Kani Manga Village, two kilometers southwest of Penjwin.
(d) Medium-bedded sandstone and shale of the red beds (same locality as in photo c). (e) Thick
bed of sandstone bottomed by coarse conglomerate horizon (same location as in photo c).
(f) Conglomerate, sandstone, and mudstone of the Suwais Red Beds along the road to Maokaba,
east of Sulaimaniyah.
imbricate structures of multiple faulting and refolding structures. The intensive deformation and
the ductile nature of its clastic sediments amplify the imbrication of its rocks to form, in some cases,
misleading angular unconformities with over-thrusted strata. Imbrication of this unit is intensified
because it is sandwiched between the hard rocks of the thrust sheets of the suture zone to the
northeast and the carbonate-clastic sequence of the imbricate zone to the southwest.
Al-Mehaidi (1975) subdivided the group in the Chwarta area into four units (from bottom to top):
(1) fine clastic of ferruginous red shale, blue siltstone, and sandstone with some conglomerate and
limestone beds, (2) gray and thickly-bedded sandstone and thin red claystone, and (3) thickly-
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bedded to massive conglomerate with pebbly sandstone interlayers, and (4) a unit of limited
thickness, consisting of alternating sandstone, pebbly sandstone, conglomerate and red shale. Al-
Barazanji (2005) revised the stratigraphic and sedimentological status of the Red Bed Group around
Sulaimaniyah and proposed a new subdivision scheme of six units: (1) Lower Fine Red Clastics
Unit; (2) Lower Conglomerate-Clastic Unit; (3) Sandstone Unit; (4) Mixed Fine and Coarse Clastic
Unit; (5) Upper Conglomerate Unit; and (6) Upper Fine Clastic Unit. The age of the series is believed
to range from Paleocene to probably Mid-Miocene (Al-Mehaidi, 1975). The depositional setting
of the red beds is discussed by Al-Qayim (2000) and Karim et al. (2007), who suggested that it
represents the coastal equivalent of the Paleogene Kolosh Formation flysch sediments of the Zagros
Foreland Basin.
About 3 km to the southeast of Penjwin Town a narrow outcrop of the unit is recognized between
the Walash-Penjwin Ophiolite Complex sheets, on one side, and unit Q5 sediments of the Qulqula
outcrop on the other (Figure 7). The tectonic and geological setting of this outcrop indicates its
possible occurrence as a tectonic window breached behind the Qulqula Radiolarite Sheet, and
then overthrusted by the Walash Group and the Penjwin Ophiolite body from the northeast. The
thrust line is covered by recent sediments with a low lithologic contrast. The sequence is partly
covered by the valley-fill recent sediments. The thickness of the exposed section exceeds 300 m.
The general lithologic features are alternating medium-to-thick bedded sandstone units with red
silty mudstone (Figures 24c and 24d), or shale. Sandstone horizons are sometimes thick, coarse-
grained and occasionally bottomed by a layer of coarse conglomerate (Figure 24e). The upper parts
of these sandstones are often laminated. Shale interlayers are thicker and often covered by recent
sediments. These sediments seems to be equivalent to unit four (Upper Sandstone and Shale Unit)
of Al-Mehaidi (1975) subdivisions which can be seen near Maokaba to the east of Sulaimani City
(Figure 24f).
Balambo Formation
The Balambo Formation represents the Early Cretaceous, pelagic argillaceous-carbonate unit of the
pre-foreland sequence of the Arabian margin (Buday, 1980). The formation crops out extensively
in the study area, especially at the southwestern part of Traverses 1 and 2 areas (Figures 6 and 7).
The exposed section of the formation in this area is about 225 m and generally consists of well-
bedded argillaceous gray limestone, shale with occasional black chert horizon. The sequence shows
alternation of thinly-bedded globigerinal limestone and marlstone. Limestone beds are occasionally
silicified and marly. Its age extends from Late Aptian to Turonian (Ghafor et al., 2004; Abawi and
Hammoudi, 2008). The lower contact of the formation is not exposed and therefore only the upper
part is represented in this area. The formation is exposed at the crestal and upper parts of both
flanks of Azmur Mountain to the east of Sulaimaniyah (Figure 6). The southwestern flank of the
anticline is steeper and intersected by an axial reverse fault. This is considered to be an important
segment of the High Zagros Reverse Fault and represents the southwestern limit of the imbricate
zone in this area (Figure 25a). The northeastern flank shows intensive imbrication where imbricate
structures are manifested as tight and chevron folds, mesofaults assemblages, multiple reverse
faulting, shear and orthogonal joints and in-sequence repetition. Mesoscopic analysis of these
structures reveals a maximum principle stress axis trending in NE-SW and ENE-WSW direction
(Al-Jumaili and Adeeb, 2010).
An extensive exposure of the formation is reported from the Halabja area. Only a small part of this
exposure appears at the lower left corner of Traverse 4 area (Figure 9). The Balambo Formation
in this area shows alternating thick beds of dark gray limestone with dark gray marlstone. In the
Wazgil Valley, near Hawar Village to the east of Halabja, the formation is over-thrusted by unit
Q1 of the Qulqula Group (Dark Gray Shale Unit). The boundary is tectonic and highly sheared
whereby extracted blocks and pieces from the Balambo Formation, incorporated into the Qulqula
shale. Other imbrication structures are also clearly recognized in the middle part of the Balambo
Formation. At this part the sequence becomes medium to thin bedded limestone with no or little
marl interlayers. The Balambo Formation sequence in many places was located close to the Zagros
Thrust Front Fault where active compression was absorbed by the folding and faulting of the
imbricate zone (Figure 25b).
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a b
Figure 25: (a) Overturned strata of the

Balambo Formation, Azmur Mountain.
(b) Folded and faulted medium bedded strata
of the Balambo Formation, Wazgil Valley, east 0 m 1
of Halabja.
Kometan Formation
The Kometan Formation represents the pelagic facies of the Lower Cenomanian–Turonian sequence
of north Iraq (van Bellen et al., 1959-2005). It is exposed in the Traverses 1 and 2 areas (Figures 6
and 7). The best outcrop in the study area, however, is exposed around Azmur Mountain of
Traverse 1 area, which unconformably overlies the Dokan Formation. Biostratigraphic analysis of
this boundary indicates missing strata of the Gulneri Shale Formation and imply a hiatus of Late
Albian to Mid-Cenomanian (Abawi and Hammoudi, 2010). It consists of white-to-light-gray, hard,
uniform and medium-bedded limestone up to 50 m thick. It is characteristically stylolitic and
jointed and occasionally cherty. The uniform stratification of the formation and its fresh exposures
along the road across Mount Azmur display some of the imbricate structures such as second-phase
of folding and faulting. The upper contact of the formation with the overlying Shiranish Formation
is unconformable, and marked by a thin horizon of greenish-gray pebbly and glauconitic limestone
(van Bellen, et al. 1959-2005).

Shiranish Formation
The Shiranish Formation of the early Zagros Foreland Basin is of Late Campanian–Maastrichtian
age (van Bellen et al., 1959-2005). It represents part of the pre-flysch sequence of the foreland basin.
It is followed by the flysch sediment of the Tanjero Formation. The boundary between the two
units is transitional. It is well exposed around Azmur Mountain of Traverse 1 area, with relatively
thin occurrences on the mountain’s southwestern limb due to the replacement by its stratigraphic
equivalent the Tanjero Formation. Its lithology shows bipartite subdivision, the lower part formed
alternating gray, thick-bedded marly limestone with bluish-gray marlstone, the upper part
completely consists of greenish gray calcareous marlstone which becomes silty near the top (Al-
Qayim et al., 1986). The thickness of the formation in the Azmur Anticline is about 50 m. However,
it shows variability due to its ductile nature and tectonic flowage upon folding.
The upper contact with the Tanjero Formation appears gradational, with lithologic differences,
and can be placed at the first appearance of a thin sandstone bed (van Bellen et al., 1959-2005).
This indicates the progradation of the clastic wedge of the Tanjero Formation from northeast onto
the foreland basin. Deformational structures are less expressive due to the generally homogenous
lithologies and flowage nature of its argillaceous-dominated parts.
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Tanjero Formation
The Tanjero Formation represents the thick Upper Cretaceous–Paleogene flysch sequence of
the early Zagros Foreland Basin, which developed during the early stage of collision between
the Arabian margin and the Tethyan subduction complex to the northeast (Al-Qayim, 1993). The
formation is exposed over most of the study area. However, it is best exposed and documented in
the Traverse 1 area (Figure 6). The sequence reaches 1,000 m in thickness, and characteristically
consists of turbidite facies representing a submarine fan complex (Jaza, 1992; Al-Qayim, 1994;
Karim, 2004). The rocks are generally characterized by olive to buff green rhythmic alternation of
shale, siltstone, and sandstone, with less frequent conglomerate.
The formation is widely exposed, over both limbs of the Azmur Anticline. However, on the
northeastern limb of the anticline the formation is characterized by the occurrence of the so–called
Aqra tongue, which represents the fossiliferous limestone equivalent of the reefal Aqra Formation
of Erbil-Dohuk area. This lenticular body extends as a prominent ridge for about 18 km along the
anticlinal limb (Lawa et al., 1998). It consists of 50–150-m-thick sequence of alternation of thick-
bedded marly fossiliferous limestone and silty and marly shale interlayers. Limestone beds are rich
in reefal fauna especially rudists. It becomes thicker and more massive towards the top. According
to van Bellen, et al. (1959-2005) the age of the formation is considered to be Late Campanian
to Maastrichtian throughout. Abdel-Kireem (1986) however, in his study of the formation in
Sulaimaniyah area, interpreted its age between Mid- to Late Maastrichtian.
The upper contact of the Tanjero Formation with the overlying Suwais Red Beds Group is
seemingly conformable in some places, and unconformable in others. In areas of possible
unconformable relations thrust faulting is postulated and might lead to the misinterpretation
of that relationship (Al-Qayim and Lawa, 2006). The Tanjero Formation sediments better exhibit
imbricate structures due to their inhomogeneous lithologic character.
TECTONO-STRATIGRAPHIC INTERPRETATION
In this section we use our detailed fieldwork and observations in the Sulaimaniyah area to correlate
Iraq’s rock units with those in the Iranian Zagros Suture Zone. Recent studies in the Kermanshah
and neighboring areas by Mohajjel et al. (2003), Agard et al. (2005) and Robin et al. (2010) have been
referred to and are used to support our interpretations of these units in the study area.
Bisotun Isolated Platform
The Avroman Limestone Unit of Eastern Halabja area has a limited distribution within Iraq. It is
an elongated massive limestone body, which continues across the Iranian border to form a huge
block of similar lithologies and sedimentary facies. Fossil assemblages of the Avroman Limestone
in the study area indicate (Late Triassic) Norian–Rhaetian age (Jassim and Goff, 2006). The major
Iranian integral part is termed Bisotun Limestone. It is a 3,000-m-thick block of shelf carbonate
deposits ranging in age from Late Triassic to Cenomanian. It characterizes the Zagros Suture Zone
of Iran, especially to the north of Kermanshah (Ricou et al., 1977; Mohajjel et al., 2003; Bordenave
and Hegre, 2005; Agard et al., 2005). Their different sedimentary facies and thicknesses from
the Arabian margin, and their age, suggests deposition in a distinct paleogeographic domain,
separated from the Arabian Platform by a radiolarite trough (Ricou et al., 1977), during Mid-Triassic
rifting (Mohajjel et al., 2003; Bordenave and Hegre, 2005; Agard et al., 2005). We have no reason to
differentiate the Avroman Limestone of Iraq from the Bisotun Limestone of Iran. The similarity in
age and its tectonic position and the thrusting over the radiolarite of the Qulqula Group indicate a
similar origin. Thus we interpret the Avroman Limestone of the Zagros Suture Zone of Iraq as an
integral part of the Bisotun paleogeographic-paleotectonic setting.
Radiolarites
The radiolarian chert and limestone of units Q3 and Q4 of the Qulqula Group in all examined
areas seem to bear typical characteristic features of the radiolarite facies. Their uniform bedding,
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the deep water and pelagic facies of the bedded radiolarian chert and its variable colors (dark
gray, light-gray-reddish, and green), and the associated siliceous shallow-marine limestone, are
characteristic features of radiolarite facies. The intensive structural deformation as compared
to the deformation of the other neighboring units, and association with other suture zone
components, all reflects their origin and tectonic history. The age of these radiolarite facies at the
studied area ranges from Valanginian to Albian (Jassim and Goff, 2006). Stratigraphic evidence for
the commencement of the obduction process of the Tethyan ophiolite-radiolarite and other units
over the Arabian margin goes back to the Late Turonian (Sharland et al., 2001). The clear tectonic
discontinuity between the Qulqula sheets and the underlying Balambo Formation limestone of
the Arabian margin witness their displacement. Therefore, these tectonic facies were conceivably
obducted as slivers from a deep oceanic regime onto the Arabian margin during Late Cretaceous
convergence (Al-Qayim, 1994; Numan, 1997; Al-Qayim, 2004; Jassim and Goff, 2006; Ibrahim, 2009).
Similar facies have been recognized from different areas in the Iranian Zagros Suture Zone (Pamic
et al., 1979); from the Chega Gorge area around Kermanshah (Alavi, 1994); to the east and southeast
of Kermanshah (Mohajjel et al., 2003); from Kermanshah to Dorud (Agard et al., 2005); Pichakun
Mountains, Neyriz area, and Pichakun Nappes (Robin et al., 2010). These radiolarites correspond to
units QU-2 and QU-3 of Jassim and Goff (2006).
The fine-grained clastic parts of the Qulqula Group, which includes units Q1 and Q2 in this study,
were excluded from the radiolarite facies due to their different lithologic association and the high
degree of deformation and mixing with exotic bodies and other tectonic facies. It is considered a
part of the “mélange facies” which are closely intermixed with the Qulqula Group during thrusting
and transportation over the Arabian margin.
Sedimentary Mélange
A mélange according to Flower and Dilek (2003) is a tectono-stratigraphic facies composed of

blocks of oceanic rocks, platform carbonates, and metamorphic rocks occurring beneath ophiolite
complexes and their metamorphic soles. It is commonly made of imbricate thrust sheets whose
direction of tectonic transport is in accordance with the ophiolite emplacement direction. Detrital
materials are of platform carbonates ranging from 1 cm to km-sized blocks of deep-water limestone,
locally intercalated with sheared radiolarian chert, black chert, and litharenite, which occur in
a clay-rich argillaceous matrix. Locally, this mixture shows a well-developed scaly fabric, and
often represents distal parts of passive-margin sequences on which Neo-Tethyan ophiolite were
emplaced. The sedimentary mélange unit shows locally chaotic, olistostromal characters with
occasionally preserved layering and stratigraphy.
Similar facies from the Zagros Suture Zone at the Neyriz Ophiolite Complex in western Iran,
known as the “Color Mélange”, represents a subduction-accretion complex developed during the
collision of rollback continental margin (Sarkarinejad, 2003).
The dark-grayish-greenish gray shale unit Q1 and the reddish siliceous mudstone unit Q2 of
the Qulqula Group are believed to represent a sedimentary mélange, incorporated into the
Qulqula Radiolarite blocks during emplacement and transportation over the Arabian margin.
Both are argillaceous-carbonates and represent a deep-marine sequence with preserved original
stratigraphic features. Crushed volcanics are intermixed with these sedimentary sequences and
may be responsible for their variegated colors and chaotic fabric. Olistostromes of limestone,
bedded chert, of different sizes characterize these units in different localities, especially where
intensive folding and faulting has affected these sheets. Similar features were recognized by
Stoneley (1981) along the Zagros Suture Zone in Iran, to the southeast of Saadatabad. He considered
these units as a part of the mélange zone which represents shelf to-deep-marine facies of the Neo-
Tethys Ocean and part of the Arabian-Zagros platform. The estimated age of these units ranges
between Maastrichtian and Early Miocene.
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Thrust-Crush Breccia
The cherty carbonate conglomerate unit Q5 seems to show a completely different lithologic
character as compared to the other units of the Qulqula Group. Fragmented and bedded chert is
characteristic in a conglomeritic and brecciated limestone matrix. The carbonate grains are similar
to the Avroman Limestone facies. Some grains are dark gray, fossiliferous limestone, sometimes
rounded, while others are angular, ranging from sand to boulders size. Chert fragments are dark
brown to gray, always angular with variable grain size and sometimes taking specific euhedral
forms. Bedded chert can exceed 50 cm in thickness with intensive folding and fracturing and often
occurs at the bottom the fragmented cherty limestone units. The close association of this unit to
Avroman Limestone in all the examined localities, and the similarity of its carbonate detritus to the
carbonate facies of the Avroman Limestone, the dominating carbonate cement, the occurrence of
bedded chert support its formation in a deep-marine environment developed next to the Avroman
Block during pre-displacement time.
The abundance of chert fragments of similar types to the radiolarite chert, the mixture of both
units’ material, the shearing and intensive deformation suggest that this unit was crushed by
the thrusting processes of the Avroman Block over the Qulqula radiolarian rocks, and finally,
sandwiched between the two units as thrusting progressed. The wide range of ages (Cenomanian–
Turonian) given to the unit by the Czech Team imply both matrix and grain-derived age. Robin
et al. (2010), from their examination of the Pichakun Nappes to the north of the Neyriz area
of the Zagros Suture Zone of Iran, recognized similar conglomerate facies and suggested that
its deposition might have been in a narrow deep trough located next to the seaward edge of the
isolated carbonate platform of the Avroman Limestone. Their thick section along Permaron Valley
of Traverse 3 area may be related to the repetition of their facies (Figure 8), and may have resulted
from internal multiple imbrications and faulting, which support its crushed-in-between origin.
Exhumed Jurassic Imbricates
The Qulqula sheets in the studied areas include exotic marine Jurassic limestone bodies cropping
out in frontal parts of these sheets. These limestones can be kilometers in dimension, and have been
examined from different localities in the studied area. Fossil contents and micro-facies type indicate
their belonging to the Sehkaniyan, Sargelu and Naokelekan formations (Jassim and Goff, 2006).
Field and petrographic examination of some of these bodies in the study area show similarities to
the Chia Gara Formation as in the outcrop near Kolitan Village. Others show dark gray to black
stromatolitic limestone of the Sargelu Formation as in the outcrop to the north of Kaolos Village.
Association of some of these limestone blocks with fault scarps as is the case around Ahmad
Awa of Traverse 3 area (Figure 8), the-out-of-place positions within the Qulqula Group, and their
similarities to the platform carbonate of the Arabian margins suggest that it represents an exhumed
limestone block emplaced by fault imbrication in front or within the obducted radiolarite slivers
during its final stage of emplacement.
Ophiolite Complexes
There is little doubt about the ophiolitic origin of the ultramafic rocks of the Mawat and Penjwin-
Halabja areas. Comparative petrologic study between the two complexes shows similarities in
most respects, and that they have undergone similar magmatic and post-magmatic histories. Even
the metamorphism of parts of these bodies is similar and is believed to have developed upon
marginal shearing during upwards movement and emplacement of these ophiolite masses (Jassim
and Al-Hassan, 1977). Geochemical analysis of Mawat ophiolites indicates its ophiolitic origin and
relation to the Eastern Mediterranean ophiolite suites (Al-Hashimi and Al-Mehaidi, 1975; Buda
and Al-Hashimi, 1977). Comprehensive geochemical investigation of differentiation trends of these
ultramafic bodies shows that they belong to a young Mesozoic orogenic phase (Jassim et al., 1982).
Comparative petrochemistry of both complexes shows that both belong to Albian–Cenomanian
ophiolite suites (Jassim and Al-Hassan, 1977; Aswad, 1999). In addition, Aswad (1999) indicated that
these units represent dismembered ophiolite sequences.
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Jassim et al. (2006) using TAS plots of geochemical data from ophiolite complexes believe that the
Mawat Complex is a more complete sequence as compared to the Penjwin Massif. These units
were obducted on the Arabian margin as a result of the collision with the Iranian Plate during
Late Miocene time (Buda and Al-Hashimi, 1977). Aswad (1999) believed that the origin of these
ophiolites could be related to a mid-oceanic ridge domain. The mode of emplacement of these units
over the Arabian Plate margin is believed to have taken place by thrusting over the Qulqula during
the early stage of collision (Early–Mid-Miocene). As collision progressed the ophiolite bodies slid
down by gravity over the Cenozoic cover (Aswad, 1999, and Farjo, 2008) (Figure 6).
Emplacement of the Mawat Complex was believed to have occurred together with the Walash
Group over the sediments of the Suwais Red Beds Group during the collision process (Buda and
Al-Hashimi, 1977). A similar mechanism is postulated for the Harsin-Sahneh (Kermanshah area) in
the Iranian Zagros (Agard et al., 2005). The geochemical constraints of the Mawat ophiolites pointed
to an intraplate-island-arc geotectonic setting. The mid-Cretaceous age of the subvolcanic member
of the oceanic crust of the ophiolitic massifs of Mawat is confirmed by K-Ar dating of 97–118 Ma
(Aswad and Elias, 1988). This is a time preceding their emplacement over the Arabian margin
and is correlative with the Kermanshah area ophiolites. The origin of the serpentinite imbricates,
which are associated with the ophiolite complexes, is related to two different settings: (1) highly
sheared serpentinites at the lower contact of the ophiolitic massifs (upper allochthonous), and (2)
an ophiolitic mélange on the base of lower allochthonous nappe showing a block-in-matrix aspect,
with cm-to-km fragments (Aziz, 2008).
Paleogene Fore-arc Basin
The sediments of the Walash Group, its stratigraphic position, microfossil assemblages, and its
association with arc volcanics in Traverses 1 and 2 areas show evidences of a Tethyan flysch basin.
The cyclic alternation of sandstone and shale, the graded bedding, groove-casted, sharp bottom
sandstone horizons in a silty calcareous shale of deep-marine environment, all indicates flysch-type
sequence (Al-Qayim et al., 2012). The associated volcanics, which become common near the top of
the sequence are of two types: (1) basic dykes, lava flow of spilitic diabase, pyroxene-containing
spilitic basalt and spilite, and (2) an intermediate volcanic (mainly andesites) sequence. Both types
are believed to represent arc volcanic suites (Jassim et al., 1982; Aziz, 1986).
The Paleogene age of the Walash volcanites is confirmed by 40Ar/39Ar ages of 32–43 Ma (Koyi, 2006).
Their occurrence within a flysch-type sedimentary sequence suggests that they were deposited in
a fore-arc basin developed in front of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block (Figure 26d). Similar tectonic facies
have been recognized from the Kermanshah area of the Zagros Suture Zone of Iran (Mohajjel et
al., 2003; Agard et al., 2005). The combination of the volcanic rocks within a flysch basin suggests a
fore-arc setting (McCarron and Smellie, 1998). Such a basin formed in front of an arc system behind
the Late Cretaceous obducted sheets of ophiolite-radiolarite suites (Al-Qayim, 2004). Tectonic
juxtaposition of the Walash and ophiolite nappes occurred during the collapse and subduction of a
Paleogene arc basin at the end of the Paleogene (Aziz, 2008).
TECTONIC EVOLUTION: DISCUSSION
The stacking pattern of the major sheets or blocks of the Zagros Suture Zone from bottom to top
seems to be persistent in most of northeastern Iraq and always shows two different stacking sets.
The first is (from bottom to top) the sedimentary mélange sequence followed by the radiolarites,
and the above-all Bisotun Limestone Block. Boundaries between these blocks or units are always
tectonic and marked by major thrust faults with displacement towards the west-southwest over the
Arabian margin.
The second stacking sequence includes (from the bottom) the fore-arc basin sequence of the Walash
Group and the ophiolite massifs. The Walash Group has an irregular belt of outcrop, and always
occurs underneath the ophiolite bodies. Its lower boundary is presumably a major thrust plane, the
Zagros Thrust Front. However, it is often hidden beneath valley-fill recent sediment or missed due
to the weak lithologic contrast between the underlying siliciclastic sediments of the Suwais Red
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MIDDLE TRIASSIC
Southwest Northeast
(a) Rifting
Neo-Tethys Sea level
Afro-Arabian Margin
Iranian Blocks
JURASSIC
Radiolarite
(b) Trough
(Bisotun) Isolated Carbonate
Platform (Avroman) Sea level
Arabian Plate Margin Banog
Sanandaj–Sirjan
Block
LATE CRETACEOUS
Ophiolite-Radiolarite
Obduction
(c) Sea level
Foreland Basin
Arabian Plate Margin

Sanandaj–Sirjan
Block
EOCENE AND EARLY OLIGOCENE

Accretionary Prism
Ophiolite-Radiolarite
Denudation Walash
Sliver Ophiolite
Intermontane Fore-Arc
(d) Basin Sliver Paleogene Arc
Foreland Basin Basin Volcanics Sea level
Sanandaj–Sirjan
Arabian Plate Margin Block
Radiolarite
Red Bed Group Early Cretaceous Ophiolite Paleogene Volcanics
(Qulqula Group)
Oceanic Crust Bisotun (Avroman Limestone) Foreland Basin Fill Walash Group
Figure 26. Schematic presentation of the tectonic evolution of the Zagros Suture Zone of northeast
Iraq (adopted from Agard et al., 2005). (a) Rifting of Arabian Plate margin. (b) Formation of the
radiolarite trough. (c) Obduction of Avroman-Radiolarite-ophiolite mélange and formation of a
foreland basin. (d) Development of the fore-arc basin during Eocene and Early Oligocene.
See facing page for continuation.
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MIOCENE
Southwest Early Cretaceous Northeast
Ophiolite Penjwin
(e) Fore-Arc
Basin Ophiolite
Arabian Plate Margin Sanandaj–Sirjan Block
PLIOCENE
Continent - Continent
(f) Collison
Arabian Plate Margin Sanandaj–Sirjan Block

Penjwin
Ophiolite
RECENT
Zagros Suture
Fold - Thrust Belt
Zone
Mawat Zagros Main

(g) Zagros Thrust Reverse Fault
Front Ophiolite
Sanandaj–Sirjan Block
Arabian Plate Margin Early Cretaceous
Penjwin
Ophiolite
Ophiolite
Figure 26 (continued). (e) Collision of Arabian Plate with the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block, and the
emplacement of younger ophiolite and fore-arc massif. (f) Shortening of Arabian Plate margin,
and propagation of deformation front. (g) Development of the Zagros Orogenic Belt including the
Zagros Suture Zone.
Bed Group and the overlying shale of the Walash Group (Figure 7). The upper boundary with the
ophiolite displays a low-angle thrust fault and is commonly marked by a zone of serpentinization.
Emplacement of this highly-sheared serpentinite is believed to have developed as a meta-ultramafic
mélange, which acts as a lubricant for the ophiolitic Alpine-type harzburgite and dunite during the
Late Cretaceous obduction (Mohammad, 2008; Aziz, 2008).
Intersection between these two seemingly different stacking sheets can be seen to the east of Mawat
area, and the area south of Penjwin Town, which indicates separate tectonic packages different in
time, movement direction, original domain, and deformation style. The estimated ages of these
units, their tectono-stratigraphic characters, manner of stacking and imbrications, and the analogy
with other models suggested for the same zone southeastward into Iran (i.e. Mohajjel et al., 2003;
Alavi, 2004; Agard et al., 2005), are used here to construct the following scenario of the tectonic
evolution of the Zagros Suture Zone of northeastern Iraq (Figure 26). Previous local studies and
scenarios of this tectonic evolution (e.g. Numan, 1997; Al-Qayim, 2004; Aziz, 2008; Ibrahim, 2009;
Aqrawi et al., 2010) are well considered in this scenario. The scenario assumes that the two stacking
patterns are linked to two separate and most influential tectonic events.
The first is the obduction of radiolarite-mélange, and associated magmatic bodies (Aziz, 2008) over
the Arabian margin during the period from the Coniacian to the Campanian (Sharland et al., 2001;
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Al-Qayim et al.
Agard et al., 2005; Jassim and Goff, 2006; Al-Qayim, 2010; Figure 26c). Accompanying to that was
the evolution of a foreland basin in front of the obducted blocks. The types and composition of the
detrital grains of the foreland basin’s flysch sediments (Mid-Maastrichtian–Eocene) support this
inference (Al-Rawi, 1980; Al-Qayim, 1993, 1994, 2004; Karim, 2004).
The second major event is related to the post-Mid-Miocene continental collision of the Arabian
Plate margin with the attached formerly obducted slivers on one side and the Sanandaj-Sirjan
Block on the other (Figure 26f). The intra-orogenic quiescent interval from the end of the filling
of the foreland basin (late Mid-Eocene) to the Mid-Miocene was characterized by a clastic-
free sedimentation in a sag-interior basin over the Arabian Plate (Al-Qayim, 2006). The clastic
sedimentation resumed in the area by the introduction of the shallow-marine mixed siliciclastic-
carbonate sediments of the Mid-Miocene Fatha (Lower Fars) Formation, which signaled the
commencement of the early stage of the continent-continent collision (Figure 26e). At the same time
the stacked ophiolite and fore-arc sequence of the accretionary prism, which had developed in front
of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block was also emplaced over the Arabian Plate margin. As the collision
progressed compression and the intensive degree of shortening led to the “over-passing” of the
newly emplaced blocks of the accretionary prism over the old stacking blocks of the Cretaceous
obduction. Uplift and shortening due to this collision was responsible for the major deformation
observed in the Zagros Suture Zone (Oweiss, 1984). The Zagros Orogenic Belt thus evolved
progressively, with continuing shortening with the degree of deformation increasing towards the
Zagros Suture Zone.
The points below summarize the main tectonic events in a chronological order, and shown
schematically by cross-sectional presentation (Figure 26) the evolution of the Zagros Suture Zone.
• Mid-Triassic rifting, separation, and development of the Bisotun carbonate block (Avroman
Limestone) on a horst block off the Arabian margin forming an isolated carbonate platform of
Tethyan regime (Mohajjel et al., 2003; Bordenave and Hegre, 2005; Agard et al., 2005).
• This resulted in the development of a long-lasting radiolarite graben trough in between the
Arabian passive margin and the Bisotun Block (Mohajjel, et al., 2003, and Bordenave and
Hegre, 2005). The deep sub-oceanic trough was filled with radiolarian limestone, chert and
shale of the Qulqula Group which lasted from Mid-Jurassic through the Cretaceous (Buday
and Suk, 1978; Jassim and Goff, 2006).
• Late Cretaceous obduction of radiolarite, associated sedimentary mélange, Bisotun Block and
the ophiolite mélange over the Arabian margin was a result of continuous convergence and
subduction of Arabia (Mohajjel et al., 2003; Alavi, 2004; Agard et al., 2005). As a result, an early
deformation and metamorphism phase is evident from intra-basinal unconformities (van
Bellen et al., 1959-2005; Dunnington, 1958), and the emplacement of serpentinite bodies (Jassim
and Goff, 2006; Mohammad, 2008; Aziz, 2008). Consequently, the Arabian margin became the
site of a flysch-dominated foreland basin with flexural subsidence resulting from the loading
of obducted sheets, which contributed to the huge amount of the detrital sediments of the
basin (Al-Qayim, 1993, 1994, 2004; Alavi, 2004).
• A second and major thrusting event post-dated the deposition of the Suwais Red Beds
(Paleocene–Miocene), as a result from a continental-continental collision between the Arabian
margin and proto Zagros, and the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block (Alavi, 2004; Agard, et al., 2005;
Jassim and Goff, 2006).
• As a result accretionary prism stacking of ophiolite complexes (Mawat-Penjwin complexes)

and the underlying fore-arc sheet (Walash Group) were deeply emplaced, together and
simultaneously over the previously obducted units, and in some places, over-passing them
onto the Arabian margin sequence.
Final suturing further complicated the area by generating a progressive shortening and intensify
deformation of the Arabian margin and the successor foreland sequence with ultimate growth of
the Zagros Suture Zone, the Zagros Imbricate Zone and the Zagros Folded Zone.
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CONCLUSIONS
A representative segment of the Zagros Suture Zone, located in Kurdistan Region, northeastern
Iraq, preserves an important episode of the convergence history between the Arabian Plate and
the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block. Major components of this zone include: an early stacking related to the
Coniacian–Campanian ophiolite-radiolarite obduction of over-thrusted sheets, which includes: the
sedimentary mélange (volcanics and siliceous siliciclastic units of the Qulqula Group (units Q1 and
Q2), radiolarites (bedded chert and siliceous limestone of the Qulqula Group, units Q3 and Q4),
and the Triassic platform carbonate (Avroman Limestone Formation). The second and succeeding
stacking sheets are related to the accretionary prism developed on the northeastern margin of a
remnant Neo-Tethys Ocean. It includes the fore-arc flysch sequence (Walash Group), and the
overlying ophiolite sheets (Mawat and Penjwin complexes). The emplacement of this package is
associated with the Mid-Miocene continental collision of the Arabian Plate with the Sanandaj-Sirjan
Block. Tectono-stratigraphic analysis of these units contributes to the constraints of the convergence
history of Zagros in this area, which shows little differences from that of other parts along the
Zagros Orogenic Belt.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank the Swedish Research Council, VR and SIDA for their financial
support to this joint research project between Uppsala University, Sweden, and Sulaimani
University, Iraq. The critical review and valuable suggestions of Roger Davies and Moujahed Al-
Husseini of Geo-Arabia are sincerely acknowledged. The authors thank GeoArabia’s Assistant
Editor Kathy Breining for proofreading the manuscript, and GeoArabia’s Designer Arnold Egdane
for designing the manuscript.
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Al-Qayim et al.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Basim Al-Qayim earned his BSc and MSc degrees in Geology from
the University of Baghdad, Iraq, and his PhD in Stratigraphy from the
University of Pittsburgh, USA. Since then he has taught in several
universities including Salahaddin University (Iraq), University of
Baghdad (Iraq), Sana’a University (Yemen), and University of Sulaimani
(Iraq). Since 2004 he has been working as Professor of Geology at Sulaimani
University, Iraq. Basim has published more than 60 scientific papers on
the geology of Iraq. He is a member of the editorial board of two national
geological journals. His research interests include sequence stratigraphy,
tectonostratigraphy, sedimentology, and petroleum geology of the Zagros
Fold-and-Thrust Belt of Iraq.
alqayim@yahoo.com
Azad Omer earned his BSc at Sulaimani University, Iraq, and his MSc
in Structural Geology from Mosul University, Iraq. During the years
1987–1993 he worked as a supervisor in the Geotechnical Laboratory of
Sulaimani, Iraq. After that he joined the Department of Geology, Sulaimani
University as an Assistant Lecturer. In 2009 he successfully defended
his PhD thesis on the structural style of the Zagros segment of Iraq, and
earned his degree from the Department of Geology, Sulaimani University.
He is now working as a Lecturer at the same department. His research
interests include the structural and tectonic evolution of the Zagros Fold-
and-Thrust Belt of the Kurdistan region, Iraq.
neshtiman2000@yahoo.com
Hemin Koyi earned his BSc in 1982 from Sulaimani University, Iraq,
and his MSc in 1987 and PhD in 1989 from Uppsala University, Sweden.
He worked as a Research Fellow at the Bureau of Economic Geology at the
University of Austin in Texas (USA) between 1991 and 1993. In 1994, he
was awarded his Habilitation and in 2003 became a Professor in Tectonics
and Geodynamics at Uppsala University. Hemin is the Head of Solid-Earth
Geology at Uppsala University and the Director of the Hans Ramberg
Tectonic Laboratory, Chairman of the Evaluation Committee for Geology
and Geophysics at the Swedish Research Council (VR), and a member of
the Research Council for Natural Sciences at the Danish Research Council
(FNU). He has also served on the editorial board of the Journal of Petroleum Geology since 1994.
Since 2010, Hemin has been a Guest Professor at the China University of Petroleum in Beijing,
and since 2012, an Elected TecTask Officer of the International Union of Geological Sciences
(IUGS) Commission. Hemin’s main research interest is deformation geology, structural geology
and tectonics, in particular modelling of rock-deforming processes in the crust and mantle
lithosphere, including hydrocarbon-related and exploration structural geology, structural control
of groundwater accumulation and aquifer deformation, and rock deformation.
hemin.koyi@geo.uu.se
Manuscript received September 27, 2011;
Revised March 7, 2012;
Accepted May 1, 2012
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GeoArabia, 2012, v. 17, no. 4, p.

Tectonostratigraphic overview of the Zagros Suture Zone,

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30ºE 40º 50º 60º

30º ARABIAN PLATE 30º

BAHRAIN Makran Zone

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43°E 44° Zagros 45° 46° 47°

43° 44° 45° 46° 47°

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45°10'E 45°20' 45°30' 45°40' 45°50' 46° 46°10' 46°20'

35°40' Chwarta 35°40'

45°10' 45°20' 45°30' Derbandikhan 45°50' 46° 46°10' 46°20'

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45°20'E 45°30' 45°40' 45°50' 46° 46°10' 46°20'

Said Sadiq 36°20'

Zagros Imbricate Zone

Zagros Imbricate Zone Zagros Suture Zone

Upper Red Beds unit Naopurdan–Walash Group Quaternary

Lower Red Beds unit Ophiolite Complex Geological contact

Tanjero and Aqra–Bekhma fms Qulqula Conglomerate Formation Axis of anticline

Shiranish Formation Qulqula Radiolarian Formation Axis of syncline

Balambo–Kometan formations Jurassic Imbricates Thrust fault

REVIEW OF THE REGIONAL GEOTECTONIC SETTING

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Zagros Imbricate Zone

Tanjero and Aqra–Bekhma fms

Qulqula Radiolarian Formation

Mawat Ophiolite Complex

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Thrust fault A'

Zagros Imbricate Zone

Zagros Suture Zone

Qulqula Conglomerate Formation

Qulqula Radiolarian Formation

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Avroman Limestone Qulqula Conglomerate

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Balambo–Kometan Qulqula Conglomerate Geological contact

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Zagros Folded Zone

Tanjero and Tanjero and

Kometan Fm Kometan Fm Qulqula

Sehkaniyan Avroman Thrust

TECTONIC BOUNDARIES AND ZONES

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Shalair Zone of the Sanandaj-Sirjan Block

Zagros Main Reverse Fault

Zagros Suture Zone

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Zagros Thrust Front

Zagros Imbricate Zone

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Zagros Suture Zone

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High Zagros Reverse Fault

Zagros Folded Zone

Zagros Mountain Front Fault

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Zagros Foredeep Fault

ROCK UNITS OF THE ZAGROS SUTURE ZONE

Triassic Avroman Limestone