College of Engineering Education

2nd Floor, B&E Building

Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Big Picture

Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Apply various types of sampling methods to data collection
b. Discuss how variability affects the data collected and used for making
engineering decisions

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a.

Apply various types of sampling methods to data collection

Metalanguage

The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better
understanding of this section in the course.

1. Statistics. The practice or science of collecting and analyzing numerical data in large
quantities, especially for the purpose of inferring proportions in a whole from those
in a representative sample.
2. Probability. It is quantified as a number between 0 and 1, where, loosely speaking,
0 indicates impossibility and 1 indicates certainty. The higher the probability of an
event, the more likely it is that the event will occur.
3. Sampling. It is a statistical procedure that is concerned with the selection of the
individual observation; it helps us to make statistical inferences about the
population.
4. Data. These are the actual values of the variable. They may be numbers, or they may
be words.

Essential Knowledge

Statistics
In the study of statistics, we are basically concerned with the presentation and
interpretation of chance outcomes that occurs in a planned or scientific investigation.
Statistician usually deals with either numerical data representing counts or
measurements, or perhaps with categorical data that can be classified according to some
criterion. Any recording of information, whether numerical or categorical is referred to
as an observation.

Statistical Method

Statistical methods are those procedures used in the collection, presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of data.

Categorized as:
➢ Descriptive statistics
➢ Inferential statistics

Descriptive Statistics. Comprises those methods concerned with collecting and

describing a set of data so as to yield meaningful information. It provides
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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

information only about the collected data and in no way draws inferences or
conclusion concerning a large set of data. The construction of tables, charts,
graphs, and other relevant computations in various newspapers and magazines
usually fall on this method.

Example:

Suppose that a set of measurements representing the total precipitation in the

resort area of Lake placid during the month of July has been recorded for the past
30 years. Any value describing the data, such as the average precipitation for July
during the past 30 years or the driest July in the past 30 years, is a value in the field
of descriptive statistics. We are not attempting to say anything about precipitation
of any other years except the 30 years from which the information was obtained.

Inferential Statistics. Inferential Statistics or statistical inference comprises those

methods concerned with the analysis of a subset of data leading to predictions or
inferences about the entire set of data. However, if the average precipitation for
July in this area was 3.3 cm during the past 30 years and we make a statement that
next July we can expect between 3.2 to 3.4 cm of rain, we are generalizing and
thereby placing ourselves in the field of statistical inference.

Population

Consists of the totality of the observation with which we are concerned,

whether the number be finite or infinite constitute what we call a population. The
number of observations in the population is defined to be the size of the
population.

Sample
A sample is a subset of a population. Samples that are representative of the
population. For example, let’s say your population was every American, and you
wanted to find out how much the average person earns. Time and finances stop
you from knocking on every door in America, so you choose to ask 1,000 random
people. This one thousand people is your sample. One you have your sample; you’ll
get some kind of statistic. A statistic is really just a piece of information—in this
example, average earnings.
Summation Notation, ∑
In statistics it is frequently necessary to work with sums of numerical
values.
Example:
Given the decreases in weight over a period of 6 month were 15, 10, 18, 6 kg. Find
the sum of the four weighs.
X1=15
X2=10
X3=18
X4=6

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Therefore,
4

∑ 𝑋𝑖
𝑖=1

𝑋1 + 𝑋2 + 𝑋3 + 𝑋4 = 15 + 10 + 18 + 6 = 49
Likewise,

∑ 𝑋𝑖
𝑖=2

𝑋2 + 𝑋3 = 10 + 18 = 28

Theorem 1. The summation of the sum of two or more variables is the sum of their
summations.
𝑛

∑(𝑋𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖 + 𝑍𝑖 )
𝑖=1

It is equivalent to
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝑋𝑖 + ∑ 𝑌𝑖 + ∑ 𝑍𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

Theorem 2. If C is a constant
𝑛 𝑛

∑ 𝐶𝑋𝑖 = 𝐶 ∑ 𝑋𝑖
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
Theorem 3. If C is a constant
𝑛

∑ 𝐶 = 𝑛𝐶
𝑖=1

Example: If 𝑥1 =2, 𝑥2 =-3, 𝑥3 =1, 𝑦1 = 4, 𝑦2 =2 and 𝑦3 = 5, find the value of..

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Sampling

Sampling is the process of selecting observations (a sample) to provide an adequate

description and inferences of the population.

Sample
 It is a unit that is selected from population
 Represents the whole population
 Purpose to draw the inference

Sampling Frame
 Listing of population from which a sample is chosen

Sampling

Sampling Design Process

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2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Probability Sampling

1. Simple Random Sampling

 All subsets of the frame are given an equal probability.
 Random number generators

Advantages:
 Minimal knowledge of population needed
 Easy to analyze data

Disadvantages:
 Low frequency of use
 Does not use researchers’ expertise
 Larger risk of random error

2. Stratified Random Sampling

 Population is divided into two or more groups called strata
 Subsamples are randomly selected from each strata

Advantages:
 Assures representation of all groups in sample population
 Characteristics of each stratum can be estimated and comparisons made

Disadvantages:
 Requires accurate information on proportions of each stratum
 Stratified lists costly to prepare

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

3. Cluster Sampling
 The population is divided into subgroups (clusters) like families.
 A simple random sample is taken from each cluster
Advantages:
 Can estimate characteristics of both cluster and population
Disadvantages:
 The cost to reach an element to sample is very high
 Each stage in cluster sampling introduces sampling error—the more stages
there are, the more error there tends to be

4. Systematic Random Sampling

 Order all units in the sampling frame
 Then every nth number on the list is selected
 N= Sampling Interval
Advantages:
 Moderate cost; moderate usage
 Simple to draw sample
 Easy to verify
Disadvantages:
 Periodic ordering required

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

5. Multistage Sampling
 Carried out in stages
 Using smaller and smaller sampling units at each stage

Advantages:
 More Accurate
 More Effective

Disadvantages:
 Costly
 Each stage in sampling introduces sampling error—the more stages there
are, the more error there tends to be

Nonprobability Samples

The probability of each case being selected from the total population is not
known. Units of the sample are chosen on the basis of personal judgment or
convenience. There are NO statistical techniques for measuring random sampling
error in a non-probability sample.

Examples:

A. Convenience Sampling
B. Quota Sampling
C. Judgmental Sampling (Purposive Sampling)
D. Snowball sampling
E. Self-selection sampling

A. Convenient Sampling. Convenience sampling involves choosing respondents

at the convenience of the researcher.

Advantages
 Very low cost
 Extensively used/understood

Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured or controlled
 Projecting data beyond sample not justified
 Restriction of Generalization.

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 College of Engineering Education
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

B. Quota Sampling. The population is first segmented into mutually exclusive

sub-groups, just as in stratified sampling.

Advantages
 Used when research budget is limited
 Very extensively used/understood
 No need for list of population elements

Disadvantages
 Variability and bias cannot be measured/controlled
 Time Consuming
 Projecting data beyond sample not justified

C. Judgmental Sampling. Researcher employs his or her own "expert” judgment

about.

Advantages
 There is a assurance of Quality response
 Meet the specific objective.
Disadvantages
 Bias selection of sample may occur
 Time consuming process.

D. Snowball Sampling. The research starts with a key person and introduce the
next one to become a chain

Advantages
 Low cost
 Useful in specific circumstances & for locating rare populations

Disadvantages
 Not independent
 Projecting data beyond sample not justified

E. Self-Selection Sampling. It occurs when you allow each case usually

individuals, to identify their desire to take part in the research.

Advantages
 More accurate
 Useful in specific circumstances to serve the purpose.

Disadvantages
 More costly due to Advertising
 Mass is left

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