Science  An electron is imagined to be a

Electronic Structure of Matter cloud of negative charge having a

(Summary) geometrical shape. The electrons
 Rutherford’s nuclear atomic are arranged in principal or main
model describes the atoms as energy levels that consist of one
mostly empty space . However, it or more sublevels .
could not explain the chemical  The way in which electrons are
properties of elements. distributed in the different orbitals
 Bohr’s atomic model describes around the nucleus of an atom is
the atom like the solar system , called the electron configuration .
where the electron is found only in Filling the electrons start from
specific circular paths, or orbits lower energy level to highest
around the nucleus . energy level.
 In the Bohr model, each electron
carries a fixed amount of energy
as long as it stays in its given
orbit. The fixed energies that the Chemical Bonding
electrons have are called energy
levels. An electron that has Valence Electrons – electrons that are
received enough energy can jump directly involved in forming bonds to form
to a higher energy level . When the compounds. Its important to know that
electron returns to a lower energy metals have low electronegativity and
level, energy is emitted in the form non-metals have high electronegativity
of light. because his property plays an important
role in forming compounds.
 The Bohr model was later
replaced by a model of atom that
Electronegativity – it is the measure of
showed that electrons are not
the tendency of an atom to attract
limited to fixed orbits around the
electrons, the higher its value, the higher
nucleus.
its tendency to attract electrons; What is
 Through mathematical Ionization energy? It is the energy that is
calculations, scientists explained needed to pull or remove one or more
that there is only a probability that electrons/s from a neutral atom, the lower
the electron can be found in a the ionization energy the easier it is to
certain volume in space around remove its valence electrons.
the nucleus. This volume or region
of space around the nucleus Electron Distribution
where the electron is most likely to
be found is called an atomic
orbital.
 Schrodinger formulated a
mathematical equation that
describes the behavior of the
electron. The solution to the
equation is used to calculate the
probability of finding the electron
at a particular region in space
around the nucleus.
 The quantum mechanical model
of an atom describes the atom as Transfer of Electrons
having a nucleus at the center
around which the electrons move .
This model describes a region in
space where the electron is most
likely to be found .

If electronegativity difference is greater
than 1.9, complete transfer electron/s is
possible. (use arrow to transfer)
Sharing of Electrons
If electronegativity is 1.9 and below,
sharing of electrons will be possible.
Identification of Total Valence Electrons
(e.g. CO2)
Step 1: (Sum of Valence Electrons of The
Elements)
C Valence Electrons: 4 (Group IV)
O Valence Electrons: 6 (Group VI)
=4+12
=16
Step 2: (Octet Rule)
Multiply Each Element’s Atom By 8
=(1 C atom × 8) + (2 O atoms × 8)
= 8+16
=24
Step 3: (Find The Number Of Bonds)
(24−16)
¿ outermost electrons which are
2
=4
There will be 4 bonds surrounding a
carbon atom as shown in the Lewis
Structure:
Ionic Bonds
 Electronegativity Difference:
Above 1.9
 An ionic bond involves complete
transfer of electrons; thus, ions
are formed. It involves metal with
low electronegativity and non-
metals with high electronegativity.
 Ionic compounds conduct
electricity when in solution but not
in solid phase.
 Ionic compounds are generally
soluble in water and in polar
solvents.
Covalent Bonds
 Electronegativity Difference: 1.9
and Below
 A covalent bonds involves the
sharing of electrons that results in
the formation of covalent
compound whose representative
particle is a molecule. As a whole,
a molecule does not carry a
charge.
 Covalent compounds are non-
conductors of electricity in the
solid phase and in solution. They
have a lower melting temperature
than compounds formed by ionic
bonds.
 Covalent bonds may be polar or
nonpolar.
- Polar Covalent Bond – Non-
identical atoms with less than 1.9
but more than 0.4
electronegativity difference.
- Nonpolar Covalent Bond – Two
identical non-metallic atoms with
0.4 or less electronegativity
difference.
Notes:
 The valence electrons are the
directly involved in chemical
bonding.
 Lewis’ symbol is composed of
the symbol of the element and
dots which represent the number
of valence electrons of an atom
that can easily be determined
through family/group number in
the Periodic Table of Elements.
  Atoms form with one another to
become stable and attain the
electron configuration of the noble
gas nearest it.
 Metallic bonding exists in metals
through the attraction between the
freely-moving valence electrons
and the positively charged metal
atom. The valence electrons of
these metal atoms are usually
called “sea of electrons”.
 Thermal and electrical
conductivity in metals is due to
the free flow of electrons in the
solid phase. Aside from these
properties, metals are lustrous,
malleable and ductile . These
properties are related to the kind
of bonding metals have.
Carbon Compounds
(Summary)
 Carbon atoms have special
abilities . Carbon atoms can form
chemical bonds with other carbon
atoms and other nonmetal atoms
in many ways. They can form
single, double, and triple bonds .
These abilities of carbon atoms
are the reasons why there are so
many kinds of organic
compounds.
 Organic compounds are
compounds that are primarily
composed of carbon atoms, which
are chemically bonded with
hydrogen and other elements
such as oxygen, sulfur, and
nitrogen. Organic compounds are
naturally produced by living
organisms, but can also be
produced artificially .
 Organic compounds such as
gasoline, kerosene, ethyl alcohol,
isopropyl alcohol, formaldehyde,
acetic acid, acetone, and
lubricating oil have important
uses. These uses are based on
their specific chemical properties.
 Hydrocarbons are a specific
group of organic compounds
which contain carbon and
hydrogen only. Alkanes, Alkenes,
and Alkynes are the three basic
groups of hydrocarbon
compounds. Alkanes are
hydrocarbons that have single
bonds between carbon atoms.
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that
have double bonds between
carbon atoms and Alkynes have
triple bonds between carbon
atoms.
 Ethyne or commonly known as
acetylene is an alkyne
hydrocarbon with a chemical
formula C2H2. This organic
compound is commonly used as
fuel in an oxi-acetylene welding
torch. Ethyne (acetylene) is also
produced when Calcium carbide,
CaC2 reacts with water in the air.
It has the ability to hasten the
ripening of fruits. That is why fruit
vendors use calcium carbide in
ripening their fruits in just a few
days.
 Ethene is a gaseous organic
compound with a chemical
formula CH2CH2. It is a plant’s
compound that is responsible for
the ripening of fruits.
 Alcohols are a group of organic
compounds that contain a
hydroxyl group, -OH, that is
chemically bonded to a carbon
atom in the compound. They have
special uses such as a
disinfectant, fuel, and as main
component (ethyl alcohol) of liquor
and other alcoholic drinks.
 Carbonyl compounds like
acetone and formaldehyde have a
carbonyl functional group, C=O,
which is chemically bonded to a
carbon atom in the compound.
This common carbonyl
compounds also have important
uses: acetone is used as a
cleaning agent like a nail polish
remover, and formaldehyde is
used in preserving organic
materials like an animal specimen.
This is also the compound used in
embalming human cadavers.
Mole Concept
Avogadro’s number presents the amount Step 3: Reduce the mole ratio to
of particles in one mole of a compound. It simple whole numbers by dividing
23
is presented as 6.02 ×10 , the each by the smallest value.
representative particles can be atoms, 5.26 8.77 1.75
molecules or formula units. C, H, O
1.75 1.75 1.75
The results will be the empirical
1 mole = 6.02 ×1023 formula: C3H5O
Formula in Getting the Number of
Particles:
Step 4: Find the Empirical Mass
23 C3H5O = 3(12g) + 5(1g) + 1(16g)
6.02 ×10
no . of moles × =no . of particles = 57g
1mole
Step 5: Divide the molecular mass by
Percentage Composition the empirical mass to get a number
which is:
mass of element∈the compound Molecular Mass 228 g
¿ ×100 % = =4
mass of the compund Empirical Mass 57 g

Step 6: Multiply the subscripts of the

empirical formula by the number found
Finding the Empirical Formula and in step 5 to get the molecular formula.
Molecular Formula

Sample Problem: An insect repellant (C3H5O)4 = C12H20O4

(dibutyl succinate) is found to contain
63.16% C, 8.77 % H and 28.07% O. It is Organic Compounds
experimentally found to be 288g. What is - The word “Organic” describes
its empirical formula? Molecular formula? compounds that has carbon bonds.

Solution:(Step-by-Step)  Carbohydrates (C,H,O); energy

Step 1: Change the percent to mass in g source
of each element in a 100g sample.  Lipids (C,H,O) (H:O = 2:1);
storing energy, components of
C – 63.16% = 63.16g
H – 8.77% = 8.77g cell membrane
O – 28.07% = 28.07g  Proteins (C, H, O, N); cellular
structures, control substances
Step 2: Convert the mass (in g) of  Nucleic Acids (C,H,O,N,P);
each element into number of moles by molecules in our cell
dividing it by its atomic mass
1 mole
(mass × =no . of moles)
amu of each element
. With the results, the mole ratio of all
the elements in the compound is
taken.

C = 5.26 moles, H = 8.77 moles, O =

1.75 moles

Mole Ratio = C:H:O = 5.26:8.77:1.75