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MINI PROJECT 2
Submitted To
2022-23
This is certify that Aditya Pandey, pursuing MBA 1st semester from this
2022-23.
Dr. Neetu Singh during the course of MBA-1st Semester and fulfills the
This project report is my bona fide work and has not been
submitted in any form to any University or Institute for the award of
any degree or diploma prior to the under mentioned date. I bear the
entire responsibility of submission of this project report.
Aditya Pandey
MBA -1st Semester
Lastly, I would like to thank almighty and my parents for their moral
support and my friends with whom I shared my day-to-day
experience and received lots of suggestions that improved my quality
of work.
Aditya Pandey
INTRODUCTION
When the concept of the amphibious car was announced a little over half a century
ago, it was met with incredible delight, and there was much enthusiasm for the
product. The idea of a car with the viability to ply roads and navigate water bodies
was something to behold. Although this piece of ingenuity briefly grabbed traction,
the amphibious car failed to grab market share sizeable enough to justify its
existence. Eventually, the amphibious car fizzled into oblivion and into the dustbins
of history. Since then, humanity has taken giant strides in technological
advancements and although there are no flying cars in the 21st century, there has
been a concerted effort to use technology to enhance everyday life. Reducing costly
human errors has become essential in ensuring safety, efficiency, and productivity.
For instance, 94% of motor vehicular accidents (MVA) are a result of human error
(National Highway Traffic Safety Administration [NHTSA], 2015). Hence, billions of
dollars have been poured into the development of enhanced motor vehicular safety
features that aid in mitigating the senseless loss of life from MVA. The solution is
automation and technology companies in Silicon Valley such as Tesla, Waymo and
Embark are working on producing fully autonomous vehicles equipped with autopilot
features that include active and passive safety systems. The NHTSA acknowledges
the benefits of automation and its potential to “remove human error from the crash
equation” (U.S. Department of Transportation, 2019). The benefits remain enormous
and the large-scale adaptation to automated vehicles has a lot of economic benefits.
According to an NHTSA study in 2010, MVA crashes cost $242 billion in economic
activity (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, 2010). This includes a loss
of $57.6 billion in productivity and an estimated $594 billion related to loss of human
life and the associated decrease in quality of life (National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, 2010). The money and resources saved can certainly be channeled
towards more productive endeavors.
Similarly, the cost of human-induced errors and waste in the U.S medical system
cannot be ignored. According to research funded by the Agency for Healthcare
Research and Quality (AHRQ, 2014), approximately 12 million people are affected
by diagnostic errors annually. Additionally, the cost of healthcare related waste in
the U.S amounts to approximately $960 billion.
Decades ago, the Institute of Medicine (IOM) released a groundbreaking report that
shed light on human-inspired medical errors in the American healthcare system. Its
report entitled “To Err is Human: Building a Safer Health System,” identified the
limitations of the U.S healthcare system and opened the door for improvements.
According to the IOM report, “an estimated 44,000 to 98,000 people die annually
from medical errors” (Wakefield, 2000, p. 233). These numbers are astonishing and
indicate the need for intervention in an ever-changing healthcare system.
To put things in perspective, “more people die in a given year as a result of medical
errors than motor vehicle accidents, breast cancer or AIDS” (Wakefield, 2000, p.
233). Since then, policies have been instituted and there has been a concerted effort
from stakeholders, including the government and private entities, to remedy the
situation. Nevertheless, medical errors continue to be the third leading cause of
death in the United States and accounts for ten percent of all mortalities in the
country.
Additionally, the cost of healthcare remains high and 28.5 million Americans do not
have access to healthcare (United States Census Bureau, 2018). Furthermore,
attention needs to be steered away from merely treating acute illnesses and focused
on preventative medicine that improves quality of life and keeps individuals and
families out of the hospital. Solutions are plentiful and the recent global health crisis
has shed light on the importance of investing heavily in technology.
Telehealth has emerged as an essential tool in remotely diagnosing, monitoring, and
triaging patients for COVID-19 at a fraction of what an emergency room visit may
cost. And this can be done conveniently from the confines of the home environment
without
making the dreaded visit to the hospital. According to Goldman Sachs, Telehealth
and other related digital healt.
technology has the capacity to save approximately $300 billion in costs related to
the management of certain chronic conditions (Stern, 2015). This innovation is
inspired by Artificial Intelligence and in the era of Alexa and Google Home, it is
refreshing to envision what the future has in store for healthcare. But what is
Artificial intelligence?
Research in the 1960s and 1970s produced the first problem-solving program,
or expert system, known as Dendron. While it was designed for applications in organic
chemistry, it provided the basis for a subsequent system MYCIN, considered one of
the most significant early uses of artificial intelligence in medicine. MYCIN and other
systems such as INTERNIST-1 and CASNET did not achieve routine use by
practitioners, however.
The 1980s and 1990s brought the proliferation of the microcomputer and new levels
of network connectivity. During this time, there was a recognition by researchers and
developers that AI systems in healthcare must be designed to accommodate the
AI algorithms can also be used to analyze large amounts of data through electronic
health records for disease prevention and diagnosis. Medical institutions such as The
initiatives that increase cost saving, improve patient satisfaction, and satisfy their
staffing and workforce needs.[23] Currently, the United States government is
machine learning, natural language processing, rule based expert systems, physical
robots and robotic automation.
Furthermore, machine learning has key elements which include deep learning. Deep
learning utilizes networks that are built on the premise of the neural network and
neural activities in the brain. In 1943, McCulloch and Pitts took the initiative and
began the early stages of the development of the perceptron, which represents the
most fundamental unit of deep neural networks (Kawaguchi, 2017). The perceptron
in its formative stages was reported in the New York Times in 1958 as “the embryo”
of the electronic computer and a device that “will be able to walk, talk, see, write,
reproduce itself and be conscious of its existence” (New York Times, 1958, p. 25).
By imitating the functioning capacity of the human brain, it utilizes artificial neural
networks to learn and develop solutions to complex and challenging problems that
are beyond the limitations of the human brain. In brief, “Artificial intelligence is a set
of algorithms and intelligence to try to mimic human intelligence. Machine learning is
one of them, and deep learning is one of those machine learning techniques”
(Christopher, 2020, p. 1). This piece of ingenuity is present in various forms of
technology and brings into reality ideas such as robotic surgery.
Background/Introduction
Artificial intelligence (AI) in the healthcare sector is receiving attention from
researchers and health professionals. Few previous studies have investigated this
topic from a multi-disciplinary perspective, including accounting, business and
management, decision sciences and health professions.
Methods
The structured literature review with its reliable and replicable research protocol
allowed the researchers to extract 288 peer-reviewed papers from Scopus. The
authors used qualitative and quantitative variables to analyse authors, journals,
keywords, and collaboration networks among researchers. Additionally, the paper
benefited from the Bibliometrix R software package.
Results
The investigation showed that the literature in this field is emerging. It focuses on
health services management, predictive medicine, patient data and diagnostics, and
clinical decision-making. The United States, China, and the United Kingdom
contributed the highest number of studies. Keyword analysis revealed that AI can
support physicians in making a diagnosis, predicting the spread of diseases and
customising treatment paths.
Background
Our paper will also concentrate on AI strategies for healthcare from the accounting,
business, and management perspectives. The authors used the structured literature
review (SLR) method for its reliable and replicable research protocol and selected
bibliometric variables as sources of investigation. Bibliometric usage enables the
recognition of the main quantitative variables of the study stream. This method
facilitates the detection of the required details of a particular research subject,
including field authors, number of publications, keywords for interaction between
variables (policies, properties and governance) and country data. It also allows the
application of the science mapping techniqu. Our paper adopted the Bibliometrix R
package and the biblioshiny web interface as tools of analysis.
The investigation offers the following insights for future researchers and
practitioners:
1. (a)
3. (c)
4. (d)
5. (e)
A topic dendrogram study that identifies five research clusters: health services
management, predictive medicine, patient data, diagnostics, and finally,
clinical decision-making.
6. (f)
References Field
dos Santos et al. 4 Data mining and machine learning techniques applied to public health problems
This paper AI techniques for clinical decision-making and data management quality in
healthcare
The scientific articles reported show substantial differences in keywords and
research topics that have been previously studied. The bibliometric analysis of
Huang et al. describes rehabilitative medicine using virtual reality technology.
According to the authors, the primary goal of rehabilitation is to enhance and restore
functional ability and quality of life for patients with physical impairments or
disabilities. In recent years, many healthcare disciplines have been privileged to
access various technologies that provide tools for both research and clinical
intervention.
Hao et al. focus on text mining in medical research. As reported, text mining reveals
new, previously unknown information by using a computer to automatically extract
information from different text resources. Text mining methods can be regarded as
an extension of data mining to text data. Text mining is playing an increasingly
significant role in processing medical information. Similarly, the studies by dos
Santos et al. focus on applying data mining and machine learning (ML) techniques
to public health problems. As stated in this research, public health may be defined as
the art and science of preventing diseases, promoting health, and prolonging life.
Using data mining and ML techniques, it is possible to discover new information
that otherwise would be hidden. These two studies are related to another topic:
medical big data. According to Liao et al. , big data is a typical “buzzword” in the
business and research community, referring to a great mass of digital data collected
from various sources. In the medical field, we can obtain a vast amount of data (i.e.,
medical big data). Data mining and ML techniques can help deal with this
information and provide helpful insights for physicians and patients. More recently,
Choudhury et al. provide a systematic review on the use of ML to improve the care of
elderly patients, demonstrating eligible studies primarily in psychological disorders
and eye diseases.
Tran et al.focus on the global evolution of AI research in medicine. Their
bibliometric analysis highlights trends and topics related to AI applications and
techniques. As stated in Connelly et al.’s [24] study, robot-assisted surgeries have
rapidly increased in recent years. Their bibliometric analysis demonstrates how
robotic-assisted surgery has gained acceptance in different medical fields, such as
urological, colorectal, cardiothoracic, orthopaedic, maxillofacial and neurosurgery
applications. Additionally, the bibliometric analysis of Guo et al.provides an in-
depth study of AI publications through December 2019. The paper focuses on
tangible AI health applications, giving researchers an idea of how algorithms can
help doctors and nurses. A new stream of research related to AI is also emerging. In
this sense, Choudhury and Asan’sscientific contribution provides a systematic
review of the AI literature to identify health risks for patients. They report on 53
studies involving technology for clinical alerts, clinical reports, and drug safety.
Considering the considerable interest within this research stream, this analysis
differs from the current literature for several reasons. It aims to provide in-depth
discussion, considering mainly the business, management, and accounting fields
and not dealing only with medical and health profession publications.
Methodology
This paper evaluated AI in healthcare research streams using the SLR method. As
suggested by Massaro et al. an SLR enables the study of the scientific corpus of a
research field, including the scientific rigour, reliability and replicability of
operations carried out by researchers. As suggested by many scholars, the
methodology allows qualitative and quantitative variables to highlight the best
authors, journals and keywords and combine a systematic literature review and
bibliometric analysis Despite its widespread use in business and management the
SLR is also used in the health sector based on the same philosophy through which it
was originally conceive. A methodological analysis of previously published articles
reveals that the most frequently used steps are as follows
1. 1.
2. 2.
3. 3.
4. 4.
5. 5.
The first research question aims to define the qualitative and quantitative variables
of the knowledge flow under investigation. The second research question seeks to
determine the state of the art and applications of AI in healthcare. Finally, the third
research question aims to help researchers identify practical and theoretical
implications and future research ideas in this field.
The fourth research phase is defining the code framework that initiates the analysis
of the variables. The study will identify the following:
1. (1)
2. (2)
source analysis
3. (3)
5. (5)
At the research team level, the information is analysed with the statistical software
R-Studio and the Bibliometrix package which allows scientific analysis of the results
obtained through the multi-disciplinary database.
Results
The analysis of bibliometric results starts with a description of the main bibliometric
statistics with the aim of answering RQ1, What are the most prominent authors,
journal keywords and citations in the field of the research study?, and RQ2, How
does artificial intelligence relate to healthcare, and what is the focus of the
literature? Therefore, the following elements were thoroughly analysed: (1) type of
document; (2) annual scientific production; (3) scientific sources; (4) source growth;
(5) number of articles per author; (6) author’s dominance ranking; (7) author’s h-
index, g-index, and m-index; (8) author’s productivity; (9) author’s keywords; (10)
topic dendrogram; (11) a factorial map of the document with the highest
contributions; (12) article citations; (13) country production; (14) country citations;
(15) country collaboration map; and (16) country collaboration network.
Main information
Keywords plus (ID) Total number of phrases that frequently appear in the title 2329
of an article's references
Authors per document The average number of authors in each document 3.56
Co-authors per documents The average number of co-authors in each document 3.68
Average citations per article The average number of quotes in each article 12.68
Information Sciences 4
Futures 3
Finally, Fig. 4 provides an analytical perspective on factor analysis for the most cited
papers. As indicated in the literature, using factor analysis to discover the most cited
papers allows for a better understanding of the scientific world’s intellectual
structure. For example, our research makes it possible to consider certain
publications that effectively analyse subject specialisation. For instance,
Santosh’sarticle addresses the new paradigm of AI with ML algorithms for data
analysis and decision support in the COVID-19 period, setting a benchmark in terms
of citations by researchers. Moving on to the application, an article by Shickel et
al.begins with the belief that the healthcare world currently has much health and
administrative data. In this context, AI and deep learning will support medical and
administrative staff in extracting data, predicting outcomes, and learning medical
representations. Finally, in the same line of research, Baig et al.with a focus on
wearable patient monitoring systems (WPMs), conclude that AI and deep learning
may be landmarks for continuous patient monitoring and support for healthcare
delivery.
Authors
This section identifies the most cited authors of articles on AI in healthcare. It also
identifies the authors’ keywords, dominance factor (DF) ranking, h-index,
productivity, and total number of citations. Table 5 identifies the authors and their
publications in the top 20 rankings. As the table shows, Bushko R.G. has the highest
number of publications: four papers. He is the editor-in-chief of Future of Health
Technology, a scientific journal that aims to develop a clear vision of the future of
health technology. Then, several authors each wrote three papers. For instance, Liu
C. is a researcher active in the topic of ML and computer vision, and Sharma A. from
Emory University Atlanta in the USA is a researcher with a clear focus on imaging
and translational informatics. Some other authors have two publications each. While
some authors have published as primary authors, most have published as co-
authors. Hence, in the next section, we measure the contributory power of each
author by investigating the DF ranking through the number of elements.
Authors’ impact
Table 7 shows the impact of authors in terms of the h-index(i.e., the productivity and
impact of citations of a researcher), g-index (i.e., the distribution of citations
received by a researcher's publications), m-index (i.e., the h-index value per year),
total citations, total paper and years of scientific publication. The H-index was
introduced in the literature as a metric for the objective comparison of scientific
results and depended on the number of publications and their impact . The results
show that the 20 most relevant authors have an h-index between 2 and 1. For the
practical interpretation of the data, the authors considered data published by the
London School of Economics. In the social sciences, the analysis shows values of 7.6
for economic publications by professors and researchers who had been active for
several years. Therefore, the youthfulness of the research area has attracted young
researchers and professors. At the same time, new indicators have emerged over the
years to diversify the logic of the h-index. For example, the g-index indicates an
author's impact on citations, considering that a single article can generate these. The
m-index, on the other hand, shows the cumulative value over the years.
Author h- g- m- Total Total Year
index index index citations papers Start
Figure 5 shows Lotka’s law. This mathematical formulation originated in 1926 to describe
the publication frequency by authors in a specific research field. In practice, the law states
that the number of authors contributing to research in a given period is a fraction of the
number who make up a single contribution.
where yx is equal to the number of authors producing x articles in each research
field. Therefore, C and n are constants that can be estimated in the calculation.
The figure's results are in line with Lotka's results, with an average of two
publications per author in a given research field. In addition, the figure shows the
percentage of authors. Our results lead us to state that we are dealing with a young
and growing research field, even with this analysis. Approximately 70% of the
authors had published only their first research article. Only approximately 20% had
published two scientific papers.
Authors’ keywords
Table 8 highlights the total number of keywords per author in the top 20 positions.
The ranking is based on the following elements: healthcare, artificial
intelligence, and clinical decision support system. Keyword analysis confirms the
scientific area of reference. In particular, we deduce the definition as “Artificial
intelligence is the theory and development of computer systems able to perform
tasks normally requiring human intelligence, such as visual perception, speech
recognition, decision-making, and translation between languages”Panch et al. find
that these technologies can be used in different business and management areas.
After the first keyword, the analysis reveals AI applications and related research
such as machine learning and deep learning.
Author keywords (top 20) Occurrences
Artificial intelligence 64
Machine learning 34
Healthcare 31
Deep learning 19
Data mining 10
Big data 9
Data analytics 7
Classification 6
COVID-19 6
Predictive analysis 6
Telemedicine 6
AI 5
Descriptive analysis 5
Internet of things 5
Medical informatics 5
mHealth 5
Additionally, data mining and big data are a step forward in implementing exciting
AI applications. According to our specific interest, if we applied AI in healthcare, we
would achieve technological applications to help and support doctors and medical
researchers in decision-making. The link between AI and decision-making is the
reason why we find, in the seventh position, the keyword clinical decision support
system. AI techniques can unlock clinically relevant information hidden in the
massive amount of data that can assist clinical decision-making . If we analyse the
following keywords, we find other elements related to decision-making and support
systems.
Ranking Authors and their sources (top 20) Total citations (number of Total citation
no citations received) per year
USA 215
China 83
Country Total number of articles
UK 54
India 51
Australia 34
Canada 32
South Korea 28
Spain 21
Italy 20
Germany 13
France 11
Iran 11
Turkey 11
Finland 9
Greece 9
Portugal 9
Netherlands 8
Norway 7
UK 680 97.14
Korea 51 5.10
Tunisia 48 24.00
Australia 36 18.00
Canada 35 5.00
Greece 30 30.00
Japan 29 29.00
depicts global collaborations. The blue colour on the map represents research
cooperation among nations. Additionally, the pink border linking states indicates
the extent of collaboration between authors. The primary cooperation between
nations is between the USA and China, with two collaborative articles. Other
collaborations among nations are limited to a few papers.
Artificial intelligence for healthcare: applications
This section aims to strengthen the research scope by answering RQ3: What are the
research applications of artificial intelligence for healthcare?
Clinical decision-making
One of the keyword analysis main topics is that AI applications could support
doctors and medical researchers in the clinical decision-making process. According
to Jiang et al. AI can help physicians make better clinical decisions or even replace
human judgement in healthcare-specific functional areas. According to Bennett and
Hauser , algorithms can benefit clinical decisions by accelerating the process and the
amount of care provided, positively impacting the cost of health services. Therefore,
AI technologies can support medical professionals in their activities and simplify
their jobs. Finally, as Redondo and Sandoval find, algorithmic platforms can provide
virtual assistance to help doctors understand the semantics of language and learning
to solve business process queries as a human being would.
These technologies can analyse raw data and provide helpful insights that can be
used in patient treatments. They can help doctors in the diagnostic process; for
example, to realise a high-speed body scan, it will be simpler to have an overall
patient condition image. Then, AI technology can recreate a 3D mapping solution of
a patient’s body.
Limitations
Like any other, our study has some limitations that could be addressed by more in-
depth future studies. For example, using only one research database, such as Scopus,
could be limiting. Further analysis could also investigate the PubMed, IEEE, and
Web of Science databases individually and holistically, especially the health parts.
Then, the use of search terms such as "Artificial Intelligence" OR "AI" AND
"Healthcare" could be too general and exclude interesting studies. Moreover,
although we analysed 288 peer-reviewed scientific papers, because the new research
topic is new, the analysis of conference papers could return interesting results for
future researchers. Additionally, as this is a young research area, the analysis will be
subject to recurrent obsolescence as multiple new research investigations are
published. Finally, although bibliometric analysis has limited the subjectivity of the
analysis the verification of recurring themes could lead to different results by
indicating areas of significant interest not listed here.
Further analysis could also identify why some parts of the world have not conducted
studies in this area. It would be helpful to carry out a comparative analysis between
countries active in this research field and countries that are not currently involved. It
would make it possible to identify variables affecting AI technologies' presence or
absence in healthcare organisations. The results of collaboration between countries
also present future researchers with the challenge of greater exchanges between
researchers and professionals. Therefore, further research could investigate the
difference in vision between professionals and academics.
In the accounting, business, and management research area, there is currently a lack
of quantitative analysis of the costs and profits generated by healthcare
organisations that use AI technologies. Therefore, research in this direction could
further increase our understanding of the topic and the number of healthcare
organisations that can access technologies based on AI. Finally, as suggested in the
discussion section, more interdisciplinary studies are needed to strengthen AI links
with data quality management and AI and ethics considerations in healthcare.
Conclusion