presented to

library
of tbc

of Toronto

Hugh S. Robertson Esq*

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M
ELEMENTARY ARABIC
A GRAMMAR

BY

FREDERIC DTI PRE THORNTON

[FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION.]

 HERTFORD :

PRINTED BY STEPHEN AUSTIN AND SONS.

 PART I.

ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.

1. Arabic is written from right to left in twenty-eight letters,

all consonants ;
three of which, however, are also used as vowels.

Ranged in alphabetical order they are as follows, each with the

equivalent employed by Wright's Arabic Grammar ;

and the second

equivalent (if any) will be found in Elementary Arabic : First

Reading Book, as being easier for beginners, though less fit than

"Wright's for international use in transliteration.

NAME.
NAME.
 5

REM. a. \
following J forms }J lam 'alif which is sometimes

reckoned as a letter.

REM. e. \
, ^ , ^ ,
are called weak letters.

2. The pronunciation of Arabic consonants is most easily ac-

quired by learning from a Moslem to read the Goran aloud, for

with exception of minute and insignificant divergencies this

Coranic pronunciation is in theory identical everywhere, though in

India, and probably in countries still more remote from Arabia,

its distinctness has fallen off, and the sound of some letters is lost,

notably c and .
Further, the Goran's vowelling is beyond

dispute ;
and this is of more advantage to beginners than they are

at first capable of recognizing. Only slight indications as to

pronunciation can here be given, together with an explanation

of the system of transliteration employed,

b
^

r
are pronounced as in English, but r must be trilled and h

distinctly uttered, however placed : thus f<{+ mahdiy, one

1

divinely led, almost mahidiy, and &-j wajh, face, like wajhi.
m
h -

t 1 sharper than in English, and with the tongue's tip, to dis-

d J tinguish them from

t
] pronounced with broad of tongue, the tip being held against
d J the lower teeth.
 6

th as in thorn, thump ;
th as in goatherd, lighthouse.

j
is
(i)
at al-Azhar (the famous Cairo University) as in John,

Jim, Jack, but (ii) at the mosques of Damascus, Tunis, and

Algiers as s in usual, measure, vision, or z in azure, or j

in adjoin, adjacent, bijou, or g in lodge, prestige. Taking

j
to represent the former sound, which is transcribed by the
French with dj and by Germans with dsch, and doubling
ff ^
3
thus J^ll- a prayer-carpet, we find it easy to say sajjadah"

or sajjadah, but not sajjadah" : the French j

of bijou is

therefore more convenient. Turks pronounce this letter

as j, and (iii) most Egyptians colloquially as the g of go,

which last is the sound given in Hebrew.

h can only be learned by ear :

beginners must use h until they

catch the sound.

kh has long been used by Anglo-Indians for the final sound,

harshly said, of loch, lough ;

ch being wanted in Persian, etc.,

for the consonant of church, and gh for J^s. ghain(

: kh as in

blockhead.

dh is as th in though, thee, this ; being as d of modern Greece :

dh as in bedhangings, adhesion.

z is strictly th said far back : but usually as z pronounced

with the tongue's tip pressed against the lower teeth ;

then
z must be sounded sharply to make a distinction.

s has the sound as in hiss, kiss, being said with the tongue's

tip ;
in contrast to

<j
which must be pronounced further back, and with broad of

tongue.

sh as in shore, wash ;
sh as in mishap. The French use ch and
Germans sch, which last in Dutch is
!f*
skh.

must be learnt by ear. The arrangement of throat is the

same as that required for h, but without aspirate. To mimic

baby camels is best of all ;

otherwise one must repeat words

in which ^s. 'ain occurs between two vowels, as Jxs fa'ala,

he did, cLlxJ v^JjJ cLi^ ti-Jja, etc. (see 369 Table I).

gh is the sound made in gargling; gh as in foghorn with the

Persian

q in Arabia is commonly pronounced as g in go, and so may be

said at first ;
but the student will learn to harden g in the

direction of k, and must sound

k very sharply in contrast. No one who can recite the Goran

like Moslems will confuse wlT and as do uninstructed

j
Europeans.

n as in English, L!& nk being as in sank, sink; but

nb sounds mb, as ** ,
a pulpit, called mimbar.
 'arc always consonants, as ^>jj wazir (vizier) burden bearer,

sawakin (Souakim) female inhabitants,

^y^> ^of.'^J yusuf,

Joseph ; but, as these three examples show, \

j ^ are fre-

quently letters of prolongation (see 6).

li
representing and 4 is sounded as h when final, and when

followed by a vowel as t : it is called 4_L?j \J ta' marbutan"

tied, as distinguished from CL? t, &jbJi* *U, stretched.

4. The vowels and diphthongs are as follows :

a as vowel sound in aunt, wan, thumb, hat.

_ i ,, pin, bit, gift.

u ,, ,, push, bull, put.

I- a ,, ,, father, hardest.

o
r
1
1
,, ,, keep, beat, chief, seize.

y u ,, ,, moon, rule, blue, you.

- ai ,, ,, aisle, my, buy, sigh, die.

j-
u ,, ,, thou, how, bough.
- a as a.

an tanwin of fathafi (see 8).

in ,, kasrah".

un ,, dammah.
- an as an, but in pause as a
(see 27).

I- aii as an, but in pause as a.

 9

REM. b. A vowel is called

<LfT^>-
a motion, its mark being termed
-i form or figure, plural Jlx-ll and J^i. Hence a consonant
when followed by a vowel is said to be
Ll5jJl=cL4
in motion.

5. When the Goran is recited, each letter, whatever its relative

position, in theory represents the same sound ;

but in practice

certain consonants somewhat modify adjacent vowels, for instance

ijo ^jo
\s }a -i cause a, following one of them, to be sounded like

the Scandinavian a, which we represent variously in nor, saw, war,

hall, wrath, ought, caught. As to the many jargons which

constitute colloquial Arabic, they show divergencies too material to

be learnt from any book :

pronunciation of each dialect must be

acquired by ear at the particular locality simultaneously with its

eccentricities of vocabulary and grammar.

6. The long vowels a, i, u are indicated (see 4) by marking

the corresponding short vowels before
i.-0
!, ,
and ^ respectively,
jl p
which are then called A^J \ c JL>- letters of prolongation.

HEM. a. In certain common words a is indicated merely by

y & -

fathah ;
as 4JJ\, etc., which should properly be written with

the perpendicular fathah, thus iUl ^U-jJl &*$J* cLVjUM

i^jJl ^J L^J J t
ii, etc. : the words uLC and
J-5^ are

also written defectively JJl3

JS1JLS.J.

7. Fathah before ^j and ^

forms the dipthongs ai and au

(see 4). Colloquial pronunciation, however, frequently gives

 10

c ^
ai as ei in vein, reign, neighbour, thus as sheikh elder,
^-i
chief, L^J as beit house, family, verse,
j^^\
{ (oblique case of

jjlUl) as ithnein two.

REM. a. A superfluous \ is often written after ^ at the end

of a word : it is useful in manuscript to prevent the ^ seeming

separate and so being mistaken for ^ and.

REM. c. If a pronominal suffix be added to a word ending

in t^" as
(^y we see, the ^ is sometimes retained, but more

often is changed into \ as

<*L$\'j (pronounced) naraka for clX>y
or we see thee.
tJJoJj

REM. d. Some words ending in *\

may be written XtJL. or
s- * 5 * ?' * j''
$.
s, s T* r/ ^
^>
i
'i

i^_L as
or
*}+& hft, ^^^> or frjJL* prayer, ljp\ or Jf^J
a?w: further L^ or L_L for ^_^_ in the loan word
ijjjj
or

0?^ Testament.
ijy
KOTE. The vowel sound in vein were better represented by

e, whereas i_ ai should remain a diphthong as in the French

word pays (nearly) pei in contrast to the French letter p

(nearly) pe.

8. Marks of the short vowels when doubled at the end of

a word (see 4) are pronounced thus

_ an,
in, _L un, which

is called *<j.> tanwlnun adding of the letter nun.

REM. a. Tanwin of fathah takes \ after all consonants except

*?.

a, as Ij'o gate, but ^Ls droivsiness. When following hamzali

 11

(see 15) or preceding ^j it requires no \ as Lk^. a fault,

guidance. Notwithstanding this 'alif, the vowel is short ;

thus

baban (not an), but in pause (see 27) baba. We transliterate

Ljlj baban and 4JLo sinalian, but an and an are pronounced

alike ; except in pause, when an is not heard, whereas an sounds

as a. In pause sinahan is read sinah (see end of 2).

The following orthographic signs are also in use :

9. Sukun rest - is placed over the final consonant of all

shut syllables : this is also called jazm and jazmah.

HEM. a. A consonant which has no following vowel is called

^U u-
9^. a quiescent letter.

REM. b. Letters that are assimilated to a following letter,

which receives in consequence tasjidid (see 11), are retained

in writing but are not marked with sukun ;

thus dxL) \ the

language, CUJI pronounced 'arattu.

10. When part of a diphthong $ and ^ take sukun, which

it is very unusual to insert over letters of prolongation or over ^$

when silent.

11. Tasjidid strengthening JL is marked over a doubled con-

sonant and the letter's repetition saved; thus Jt)J baddala to

substitute, ^j] al kullu the ivhole.

 12

REM. c. Hamzah (sec 15) may be doubled and take tashdid,

thus su"alun mendicants from J Li sa'ala to ask.

J^

14. The euphonic tashdid follows a vowelless consonant, which,

though expressed in writing, is to avoid harshness of sound

passed over in pronunciation and assimilated to a following

consonant. It is used :

(0) "With the letters CL^CjJJ^j^^^^LkJ^

after jl the.

REM. a. These letters are called ll^uXllT -Jji? 1 the solar

letters because
^jLX-> sun begins with one of them, and for

opposite reason all other consonants are called j

the lunar letters from j*J moon.

g
\
sukun on n, as
(b) "With the letters
j J * ^ ^$ after
a^j

his ^ perspicuous book, which are read

/row Lord, ^-^i <4^^4
mirrabbihi, kitabummubinun. The n of the words ^ ^ ^|
is often not written when they are combined with L* * S.

(c) With the letter

i >
cU after tiJ *3 J ^L 1? in certain parts

of the verb, as
CUJ^^
/ wished: this practice is, however, very

questionable.

REM. b. If the verb ends in CU it naturally unites with a

i ^ ? ^
second CL? ,
as L^-p nabbattu / sowed or planted for c^Jx-L) .
 13

15. Hamzan compression (of upper part of windpipe) _f_ to

which 'alif most commonly serves as prop may almost be

reckoned by Europeans as the alphabet's initial consonant. It

is equivalent to the French h aspire e (which to English ears is

not, except in Normandy, aspirated), and it may be sounded

between the two words le onze and between la onzieme. If

our own definite article be pronounced before a vowel as before

a consonant we can prevent liaison by employing hamzah;

thus tho 'orange (o as E in thE book). Arabs would tran-

scribe a nice house anaishaus but an'aishaus for an ice house.

HEM. a. When it is required that wa9lah (see 18) give place

to a vowel, the vowel mark is better written without hamzah,

thus Jl the, son.

^5\,

HEM. c. Hamzah is marked between 1 and sukun or the

following vowel ;
but we find -xJw* his chiefs,
. ,.\^ abject,
^...

and even J^5

( grievous.

HEM. d. Hamzah is most perceptible in the middle of a word

as for (see 23) al qur'anu (not quranu) the Cordn.

JVjt3\ >njfi
t, s <--
9 f~

REM. e. Hamzah and 'alif are called - V> &.\ \ ujiJ \ the 'alif

of severance.

1 6. Hamzah is also- placed over ^ and over ^ :

being silent

the latter appears without dots (see 131 et seq.)-

 14

17. Hamzali alone instead of 1

j ^ jj
is written,

(a) always at a word's end, after sukun or a letter of pro-

2 sr* a coming,
longation, as Lr>- he came, s-j-L* evil, 1.^ thirst ;

and in the middle of a word after a 'alif of prolongation provided

the hainzah bears fathan as XJ> ljuc! your enemies.

NOTE. For *Uf , &\&\ see 22, and for ^, ^-^ see

23 rem. c.

(b) frequently in the middle of words after ^ or ^ of pro-

longation and after sukun, as s*^Ls mischief

for
^j, &L+JL.+

wish for (LL^jJi, JJL J he asks for JU^J ;

also after kasrah and

dammah before
^ or
^
of prolongation ;
^-.dL'li
khati'ina

sinners for
^^xJ^lrL, (^^^J
ru'usun A^ for
(j^jn. Some-

times it is improperly placed over the letter of prolongation,

as A. *"+- for a
.^K^ or ^ri* khati'ahun m.

REM. J. Hamzah may under certain circumstances be changed

into a weak letter, as &U for 2L (see 325 rem. a}, J^-J
for

*J prophet, ^ for
Jy A^, ^Vj for
Jwtj Ae(?, c^V.9 for
J woK IJJ^ for
l^jf! (70^, \tt\] for liitt w i^mrf.
NOTE. For JjT, ll;T see 23, and for
<_*}, ^^ rem. <;.

REM. c. The name DafiW is always pronounced da'ud

y\J
however it may be written.

18. Some Arabic words begin with connective 'alif over which
 15

is marked wa9lah union \

,
hereinafter transliterated by hyphen,
because the word and its predecessor are spoken as one ;
thus

AJJ \ & 'abdu -llahi servant of God, XL)~\J wa -d'uhu and call

ye upon Him.

19. Elision takes place to form the union

with the vowel of

^j &\ i^j
(a) ^j\ the,
as the day of the judgment.

in regular Imperatives of the first form,

(b) asj^l JlS he

said, e patient', instead of

JjU^?]..

(c) in certain derivatives belonging to the seventh and follow-

ing forms of the verbs (see 35), as

\&j\) and they were

changed, instead of
^JjijU
(d] in Jj\ son, ^-^\ two, *\2*\ a woman, +Zi\ name, and a few

other nouns.

HEM. c. In most of these words the 'alif and vowel are

prosthetic, i.e. prefixed to a vowelless initial consonant for the

sake of euphony (see 26).

HEM. d. It is obviously an error to begin a sentence with 1 :

in such case the connective 'alif is written without hamzah but

| O^
with a vowel, as JJ 5JksM Supreme praise belongs to God.

REM. /. Wa 9 lah and 'alif are called

J*jJT uJ-lf the 'alif

of union.

20. The connective 'alif may follow

(a) a short vowel which then absorbs it.

 n;

(i)
a long vowel which is then shortened in pronunciation

to comply with 25 ;
as
^V \ J fl -1 'ardi to be read fil'ardi

in the earth, lJ AJ>! ihdina -1 9irata to be read ihdinaggirdta

kVjJiT

guide us (on) the way : but the suffixes of the 1 st pers. sing.

i^S and ,J may assume before the article the older forms u

and

/
^J,
will divert
u jj$C
from my
^
signs
^
those who
Ji^Ali
(see
(or

347).
^T ^Ul)
(d) sukun over a consonant, which then most usually takes

kasrah, as e\&.r.,j \\ vJ for &}j^j\ Jl <Js in the leginning,

A + \\ jJLr* Mahomet the prophet pronounced muhamma-

duninnabiyu, Jpij
'
1
(J-^J
^w^ ^^' ^ y
e P ronouns X^^ yow,
^
X-to M^y ;
the suffixes L yowr, yow, LJJ> ^AeV, them ;
and the

verbal termination iJ take dammab. (in which they originally

ended), as 4JJ] j^*^

w<? ^ ^^ tfwrs ^ ^ em (
see 401 /) : a ^ so
v ?
j^i mc^ because contracted for A_U whereas takes
:
^* from
fathah before the article and elsewhere kasrah.

EEM. a. When li becomes (see 185 rem. fc)

the
JU&
may be made with dammah 1^ or kasrah *.

21. The 1 is altogether omitted

(a) from *LZt\ in the formula -iJ^

^j for AJLJi A^toLj m
1

o/ ^oc?, which by way of compensation is written

from in a genealogical series, with certain exceptions.

(b) ^1
 17

(<?)
from <jl
the preceded by J to or J verily.
X"

(rf) from words preceded by the interrogative particle I

(see

361 a}.

22. Maddah extension does not admit of transliteration,

being either superfluous or an abbreviation or marking an abbre-

viation. Thus it is customary to omit 'alif which, with hamzali

and a vowel or tanwin, follows a 'alif of prolongation ;

then by

way of compensation maddah is written over the remaining 'alif,

as *L>- for tU \'*&\ for

23. Maddah and 'alif \ also represent a 'alif with hamzah

and fathah followed by 'alif of prolongation or 'alif with

hamzah and sukun, as j! he returned for JU or Ji*, <&\

a verse, sign for JjH for
jj^, i^\ for
Z-yJll,
H^^ we believed
for 12^U.

REM. c. Maddah is sometimes placed over j and ^ of pro-

longation when followed by hamzah, as

*J-^o,
* V^ >
t-S^j-*
3
*

&**"*&+ : it serves in manuscript to prevent hamzah appearing to

be upon the letter of prolongation.

HEM. d. The same mark -- is written over abbreviations, as

- ^
J!
for
Sf~\ ^\ or
^^T to its end i.e. etcatera ($c).
 18

24. An open syllable ends with a long or short vowel.

25. A shut syllable ends with a consonant, and is most

commonly short.

26. A syllable cannot begin with two consonants :

foreign

words commencing so are transcribed by Arabs with an additional

vowel, thus franks becomes col-

f^j^\ Europeans pronounced
loquially faranj or farang.

27. A syllable cannot end with two consonants, except t*juJLj

bi -1 waqfi in pause, which ought to be made only when required

by sense, but which is really more frequent ;

as
<uj uJx JLjSJ I <U

xks? (compare Elementary Arabic First reading look, page rv^

'

top line) to Him belong the dominion and the praise, witness also

the Moslem credo phonetically written f&?* ^ <L)Jl 5l Ajl J

<OJl
dj-^j
and pronounced la'ilah : 'illallah : wa muhamma-
durrasulullah There is no god lut God and Muhammad is His apostle.

Pauses are not readily marked by stops (comma, colon, etc.)

when a language is written in the Arabic character.

NOTE. This rule is hardly operative in speech, as case-endings

are so frequently dropped :
throughout Arabia the proper name
.A
j ^j fj\
is pronounced ibrrashid by badawin (bedouins) : the

accusative is most often heard, as

^>-^ marhaban (see 435 b a)
welcome pronounced in pause marhaba (see 8).
 19

28. The accent will not occasion difficulty to Englishmen who ac-

quire pronunciation of Arabic consonants by reading the Goran aloud

after a Moslem : it is designed to ensure grammatical accuracy ;

thus ^ .^u j
(see Elementary Arabic: First reading book, page M
bottom line) is pronounced yusabbihu for fear of saying yusabbihu.

Colloquial accentuation differs with the locality; thus ^cV.^.%

-!Jl muc.tafa -llahi chosen of God is mwjtafa in Syria and in

Egypt

32. Numbers were anciently expressed by letters whose nu-

C^ ^ X- *
merical value may be learnt in the following order
JjjLjz>

^- ;
six consonants, forming
the last two words, being supplementary to the Hebrew and
Aramaic alphabets. The modern figures are

t r r f c T v A

1234567890
and they are used in our order, thus o i r 5062.
 PART II.

ETYMOLOGY OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH.

33. Verbs are mostly triliteral (containing three radical letters)

but some are quadriliteral.

34. From the first or ground-form are derived other forms ex^

pressing modifications of the idea conveyed by the first (see 369

Table III).

35. The forms of the triliteral verb are fifteen, as follows :

xin j&i x z\ vn ju! iv

xiv $\\ xi jjgSi vin J&J v JS ii

&**\ XV J^*Ji XII J*3\ IX Jill? VI III

REM. 0. The 3rd pers. sing. masc. Perf., being the simplest

form of the verb, is used as paradigm, but for shortness sake we

render it into English by the infinitive ;
thus lL to tcound instead

of he has wounded.

36. The first form is generally transitive or intransitive in

signification, according to the vowel which accompanies its second

radical.
 21

37. The second radical's vowel is a in most transitive verbs,

as (~>'& to "beat ;
and some intransitive, as & to go the right way.

38. Vowel t in similar position generally shows an intransitive

signification, u invariably : the * indicating what is temporary or

accidental, as iL* to be safe ;

whilst u (meaning rarely to become

what one was not before, as

u-Jj->
to become noble) indicates

a permanent state or inherent quality, as to be beautiful.

^J^-

40. The second form Jjci is in meaning intensive or extensive.

Originally it implies an act done with force, during long, by

a number, or repeatedly ;
as il/ - ^ to hold clX^L* to hold tight,

^JLi
to cover up, ignore ^L^ to efface, J-^9 to separate jJL* to divide
"
*i
3
'.,
3
into several pieces, mock to subject, treat as abject,
^.^r to ^s^ u_s^>
to turn, shift
u-jj.^
the same but of several objects,
^K s to cut

-laJJ to
mangle, J-UJ to kill JJLj to massacre, ^*\.Z> to crucify

the same of many.

41. Not less usual is the secondary signification, verbs in-

transitive in the first form becoming transitive in the second ;
as

^Jj to be strong
5j-2
to strengthen, encourage, e:- ^ J to spring

forth i- ^ .t > to plant or sow, /*p>- to be unlawful *J-&~ to forbid,

^-*J andj;3 to perish ^J andj^<3 x-"

*
to destroy, and those transitive
*
**** x <* ^
in the first, causative ;
as
^J ^o remember
^j to remind,

^o reach, attain --^-J ^o inwy, c--J ^o i ^r <4-5 to bring near,

 22

^Ls to
discoveries
to explain, LL>Xc to abstain <4->*- to restrain

by punishment.

REM. b. This form is often declarative or estimative, as jx

to lie c^J Jo to call one a liar, ^&-^>

to tell the truth
^^> to think

that one tells the truth, believe one, J-^-J to surpass J-^LJ to regard

as superior, favour.

REM. c. This form is very frequently denominative, i.e. derived

from a noun; as J^u to substitute from JX: 'i

something given or

received in exchange, ail *jL he said to him clJx^ 2l (peace be

& ' ' ' '<r'^ '
upon thee), l-o speak with from iL^ speech, ULi ^o inform from

J w*t0s (perhaps originally something which has emerged or arisen),

fo Aa^ from J^ shadow, 'j^ to fashion from yj^? aw image,

to praise from u->Ls:ul (7 declare) Thy perfection (see

x y
435 a), ^y ^o w?r^ A<9 ?^^^r WM from ^y n.

NOTE. means he disciplined, chastized, con-

Jj-c (which generally
strained by punishment) in the exceptional sense he helped may
possibly be a denominative from the Hebrew 'ezer help (see

I Samuel vii.
12). The noun does not occur in Arabic with that

signification.

43. The third form ^lj implies

(a) the effort or attempt to perform an act which the first form

denotes as immediately affecting an object, the idea of reciprocity

 23

being sometimes added; as L^d-c, to overcome L^Jll to try to

time and place for execution of

overcome, jucj to promise &\j to fix

a promise, appoint with, Uo_c to receive to receive from each

^o^f-
other, give mutually.

(b) This form sometimes governs directly, not without the idea

of reciprocity, when the first or fourth form governs its object by

help of a preposition, as iJ jlJ he said to him something
dJjlJS

he conversed with him,

^Ua.lJLM J! he sent (a message} to
J^jl
the Sultan he interchanged messages, corresponded,
^UoJLiJl J^Vj
with the Sultan.

(c) When JJLJ denotes a quality or state, J-cLs indicates

affecting a person by the quality or bringing him into the state,

as
^^- to be good or kind JJL\^ he treated him kindly,
^JLJ
and
9
\<
1-*J to lead a comfortable life 4J*-l) he found him means of doing so,

cU? to be submissive
'<+'^o
to continue in compliance.

REM. a. This form is sometimes denominative, as c^LcL*? to

double, multiply from u, e *-, the like or equal.

. xo .

REM. c. In Goran vii, 1 34

\Jj^>- may be rendered We caused

to pass.

NOTE. The form of the verb C-fjlj he blessed may be due to

Hebrew, from which it is most probably derived.

45. The fourth form JjLJl is factitive or causative; verbs in-

transitive in the first form becoming transitive, as l-^j to le safe

lI^J to be descend
to preserve,
^- public ^^-\ to publish,
JjJ to

\J\ to send down, to le drowned to cause to drown, >J

Jj \j. ,JJ-^
^ X^ X o*
1

X" C^
le finished Jf| to finish, +JLJ agreeally +JU\ to
to live bless, J^
(

* f ^ ^ *
x , x
fo lawful J^-i fkub lawful, ~'/>* to come forth to
^j^-\
< vf ?
produce, L\ - fo s/?0fcY
o_>U' to commit disorders, ^Ji ^o ex-
'"~ x < V?
x
perience damage ^j
\ to hurt, to le on one's guard Ju i ^o e^arw,
JJjJ J
X- x-5- v5^ &^>
ci^w rfz'0 cL?^^ ^o <7^?<s^ ^o ^, ^J^ ^o ^rr ^Usi ^o ?me? *w^o error,

uXl& ^o perish L!JO^>1 ^o destroy,

(
<J 1 ^o f?om^
^J 1 ^o irtw^, cli

fo ?0^ cL^i ^0 abandon, ,*-^- ^ ^'^

(^/^-^-^
^ irzwy ^0 Z//,

c^^-i> to rejoice at another's trouble d-v-X^ \ to make so to rejoice,

cli ^0 i submissive c'il ^0 0J<?y, ^^.s>- for u^vJLs*. id <?w oi;'^

s
rm aw
K
of love wJU>-1 &w0, i.e. as object of love, ^^ to le good

^r^! to make good, do good, follow right action, (j^ to le expended

i
x^? ', '. i ^'

(f
*si>\ to expend, c^i to be empty cf\ to empty by pouring out ;
and

verbs transitive in the first form becoming doubly transitive, as

" x x 1 ' ^c5-
(Jri-3 ^0 two J^bt cawsd ew^r, ^fiJ to meet ,Ju\ to throw,
"S X- i

^-^5 ^ inherit
^'Q to cause to inherit,
^ij guard ,<5J1
o ;w;te

to guard, LL^ receive ,

^c.\ to give,
Uf-Jj hope for \rr to put
\^"i & ~0 S
to 2^\ to male prosper, % he saw the thing
plough ^J^'\ i*J\j
' < ^ ?*
?
>Ki
\

/j^ shoiced him the thing, >** to cover, conceal

^*Lc|
cot^r, LL>- guard, observe LLd encompass, com-

prehend.
 25

REM. a. "When both the second and fourth forms of a verb are

causative they have in some cases different significations, in others

the same ;
as -L^ to know *-^- to teach *-^ \ to inform, \js^ to
& ' X (.1 .1 -SI '._
escape .J?^ and ,^?^\ to deliver, >Ji to give ear to, >Jl and ^J 1

to came people to listen, announce, declare.

REM. b. The fourth form, like the second, is sometimes de-

y.

clarative or estimative ;
as C\~*_>. to praise &,+. \ to esteem praise-
t ,-

worthy, ^S*\ to be faithful ^^\ to find trustworthy, believe.

^T-
REM. c. This form is often denominative, asJl to bear fruit

from XJ fruit, -iM to speak eloquently from 3Lc)Lj eloquence,

-
r-

l^uJLl
to act well from * good, beautiful, *\^\ to do ill from

*jL evil, Us^\ to err from \ V? S> a blunder, fault,

c^>\
to make
*
So " '
Afls^ from <Li^u! promptitude,
IJ-ijl wr Moslem from 5^1
Islam, +\J\ to remain in a place from ^uU aio^,^j| ^o conceal from

J-i
%o

^Lj
a secret,

a message,
ufyA
'*^-
\
to

to be guilty

another class of denominatives, as 1^-

lend from
(j^J-J

from

\
^ow,

+^>-
Jw^l
a crime.

to enter the
^o ^wt?

There

sacred territory
from

is

from p>- holy place, (Jl*Li

\ to become penniless from (JLLs a copper

coin (pi. and ^o 5^o/w<? destitute w?aw^

Jkpj ^JJl),jJjfel fromj^c

Wz), ,Cjlj^ /o become plain horn f^j evident, .'*] to become

(vulg.
\^^> ^
possible from >lx a ^/a^.
 26
i

. d. Instead of \, h is prefixed (as in Hebrew) to a few

verbs, which are treated as quadriliteral (see 67) thus

;
Jj^&
for to pour out. Of this sort is Cl>La Iring for Cl>T from
'*\j\
,-i

to come.
Jj\
(

NOTE. Besides the above we must note

L <->~5
an(^
\j*~y
^^
meaning to inspire, suggest 30 above to recover from
;
JjLJ Q-*\
illness or a swoon] to wish cannot be derived from <3K im-
j\j\

mediately ;
cl>L^ to rush down as water L3L^>I to direct the course

of something expressly at, hit the mark whence the commoner

* <.

meaning to overtake, befall ;

and JJI which means in Hebrew to be
& ^3.

light in weight whence Jj \ to treat as light, carry easily.

' *"*'
'

47. The fifth form JJt&j is reflexive of the second, being (as are

the next following forms) called c^Ua4 a verb the grammatical

agent of which complies with, i.e. receives the effect of, the action of

the verb to which it is as to exalt to be

reflexive ;
^L ^L^j proud,

-Lj>- to show to make oneself manifest, \ to announce

^^-Lasr*
** '* " ^ ' ^&
^JU to declare obligatory on oneself, 'j^o
to make a
bird/yjpr).
draw an omen concerning from the ^2 J
to
oneself flight of birds, to

*{<" & ^
remind to become reminded to cause to come up to ,c-V
^S^J of, ^j^
of God, to take to Himself,
JJ^ to make someone else to be one's

waUl i.e. a person left alone, an agent JJ>J to trust oneself to an

 27

agent who is fully empowered to act on one's behalf,

J^tVi aj he
&~c <3

put htm (another ) in charge of the matter

j*^\ ^j-* he took charge

of the matter himself.

REM. I. "We have also to be near or beside to turn one's

.J-jj ^JJ
^ "' ' '
side or back to another to turn aside. In case of ^-^ to
,^j-J
make humble supplication, earnestness is denoted by the doubled

middle radical and self -advantage by the prefixed tU in comparison

with c^-J to be humble. Further we observe ^JaJp he caught up,

< ?. '\

swallowed, what was cast to him eJJU to cast a thing to another

^.
''

' ^
?. . ..'i

person to be seized and swallowed t^JuuJ similar in sense to ^.ff s 1

but with the idea added of taking for one's own advantage.

48. By way of secondary meaning we have the effective i.e.

expressing effect, as
^J to make distinct
^5 to appear clear,

j^.
lt
to give a verb a transitive signification ^jjju to be transitive.

50. The sixth form J^LaJ is connected with the third : it may
sometimes be reflexive, but is more often reciprocal, as <LLJlJ he

fought with him L?uLJ the two fought with one another,
ijjl-c
to help

to help one another.

^jUj

REM. a. When used of God J/jllJ and Uj illustrate the

9 ~ " '
'/s\
reflexive force of this form: <UJ1
cLSjl-^J
God has made Himself
? 1 ~& s '
most blessed, <LLM J'ju God has exalted Himself above all.
 28

REM. c. This form is appropriate to actions that take place bit

by bit, as lal^ to fall kSUJ to fall one by one (as leaves).

NOTE. From ^c. to cheat

^fi-z
would mean (if it existed) of two
* s s
persons that one cheated the other and ^j\JLi of many, reciprocally,

that they cheated one another whence ^fjJLxJ general deception.

52. The seventh form JjLaj]. is originally in certain ways re-

flexive of the first, and approaches to a passive, being sometimes

effective, as jjl*i^ to make flow jJM^sti\ to gush, ^.Vis to cut -L. \->'ti\

' t '
to be cut off, to be ended, to end, Ll^XJ to change (active) ^^su\ to

be changed, translated as by death.

53. This form may imply that a person allows of an act being

done to himself, to to let oneself be dragged.

asj^- drag^sz*\

55. The eighth form JJtSJ]. is reflexive of the first, as &^\ to

take iXfsrM to take for oneself, to guard .*-&-j[ to guard oneself,

^-5J
to obtain to take to oneself that which seems good,
fear, j\^ good^6^\
choose, IJU to punish '+&!. A to avenge oneself, \j to go beyond and

leave behind $ Jk s.fr.1 to do so for one's own evil ends, transgress con-

sciously, (&> to be pure and clear JLla^\ to take to oneself that which
(

is pure and clear, ^/JJ to cut out, manufacture cj^-^i to do so for

one's own evil purpose, to forge lies.

 29

56. Occasionally, like the sixth form, it is reciprocal, as

to meet IJLUl and lJ So they met one another.

57. Sometimes we find it passive, especially in verhs wanting

the seventh form, as ^jCa> to direct fS&\ to be directed aright.

REM. a. In many verbs this form agrees nearly in meaning with

' tt

the first, as ^*3 and *-^M to follow.

V* L "* C
59. The ninth form JJej, and the eleventh jLuJ chiefly express

colours or defects.

61. The fenA form J x g." Za\ is often reflexive of the fourth, as

fo "bring to life, preserve alive LrJil ^o are alive for one's own

advantage,
^'
.*Z--\ to make rich
' **
"
01
^o ?waA^ oneself independent,
^.Lx.iJ^
to cause to remain to stand firm, *\-i\ to make stand up-
Jj>\ JjizJZi\

right iLLxij], to hold oneself upright, cU?I to comply with a command

cVVrfcj. ^o 5^ i^ (i.e. ^o ^o cause fear

obey oneself], L^&^ C^j&^l:!

^o call forth fear of oneself .

62. This form may indicate a belief that some thing or person

possesses the quality expressed by the first, as CJwi to be great

.> ?.; ~;\ to be puffed up with pride, L-r.4.^ to be weak i^fiJLwdLsJil to

j
find weak, despise.
 30

63. This form very frequently means asking or seeking what is

drink .. 5
indicated by the first, as .*-*- to give
^ o ,tl to ask for

drink, to ^wmfcw JfceJ. fo ask par don.

^iu

65. This form is sometimes denominative, as t^csrC^ appoint

as successor, deputy or caliph from aLa-l>~ successor.

NOTE. jjlJcJj\ ask help may be derived from ^l-i! ^<9/p or,

better still, called a denominative of fjs.

66. The remaining forms of the triliteral verb are too unusual

to require notice here.

67. Quadriliteral verbs are formed (a) by repeating a biliteral

root, as f-^z to gargle ; (5) by adding a fourth letter, as kl- and

IxU^*- to shave the head ; (0) as denominatives from nouns, often

foreign, thus cl/jjj^- to put on LlI/Jsj- stockings ;

or (d")
from certain

common formula, as JjfJLj to say

68. There are three derived forms of the quadriliteral verb ;

particulars of which will be found in 369 Table IV.

iv Jii^i in J&I; ii
J&J i
 31

73. Nearly all verbal forms, primitive and derivative, have two

voices, the active and the passive ;

but we must often translate the

latter impersonally, as
l^Jut J> V>
jj
1 a falling took place (or, an

onslaught was made) upon their hands, i.e. they bit their fingers
for disappointment.

75. "We speak of neuter verbs, meaning those which express

a state or condition, as 1$L>- to be wise, but Arab grammarians

l" / C*.-
reckon them as active, distinguishing between <LjjJcJ*J! JLxJVI
transitive verbs and dLjJucLSJT intransitive verbs or
J4-^ cJ^*-**1
JM JlJLsVl t^rfo Aa are confined to the subject.
jj

77. An Arabic verb has two States, the Perfect indicating

a finished act, and the Imperfect an act that is just commencing

or in progress.

HEM. a. Acquaintance with grammar will teach how to employ

these States in explaining the temporal relations (past, present,

and future) which non-semitic languages express by tenses.

79. There are five moods : the Indicative which is common to

the perfect and imperfect states ;

the Subjunctive, and Jussive (or

Conditional) which are restricted to the imperfect ;

the Imperative

which is expressed by a special form ;

and the Energetic which

can be derived from the imperfect and from the imperative.

 32

80. By way of Infinitives we have nomina actionis or verbi

nouns expressing the action or quality (see 195). In place of

participles two verbal adjectives are used ;

the one denoting the

agent nomen agentis, and the other the patient nomen patientis

(see 229).

81. There are three numbers, Singular, Dual, and Plural;

likewise three persons. The genders are two, Masculine and

9

Feminine; but distinction cannot in all cases be made, as

/ say where the speaker's sex is not disclosed.

83. Verbs are called strong when the three radical letters are

retained throughout and undergo no change.

.5

REM. To contain \ ,
$
or ^j causes a verb to be called weak (see

126) ;
but verbs in which the second and third radicals are

identical (see 120) we shall call strong.

NOTE. Students must spare no pains to learn the conjugations

found in 369 Tables I, II and III ;

otherwise they will find

the weak verbs difficult to impossibility.

84. The numbers, persons, and genders of the verbs are ex-

pressed by means of personal pronouns, annexed to the various

moods and states. These may be connected, i.e. prefixed or

 33

suffixed, in which case they are to be learned from the con-

jugations (see 369) ;

or they may be separate.

89. The following table gives such separate pronouns as ex-

press the nominative :

SINGULAR.
Masculine. Common. Feminine.

3rd person
^fc
he .... '.fc she

2nd ,, L^Ot thou .... L^-Jl thou

1st ... \f\ I ...

DUAL.

3rd ,, ... Ui they two

2nd ,, ... \*zJ\ ye two

PLURAL.

3rd ,,
^ they .... < ^A they

2nd
^\ ye fj\ ye
1st ,'jss? we

9 '^ *
REM. c. For the older forms lib and J 1 see 20 d.

NOTE. In 185 are given pronominal suffixes expressing the

accusative, and the dependent in 317.

90. The 3rd pers. sing. masc. perfect of the ground form (see
35 rein, a) bears fathati always on the first and third radicals.

3
 34

91. When the middle radical of the perfect has fathah it must
xx
take either dammah or kasrah in the imperfect ;
as (Jjaf to be

worthless J. rio ,
^^> to strike
cLy-^i which we write J>i-J

and Also dwell, 'j*J* _L le

<^-fj<e ^^a ->- to to thankful,

l-Us to do wrong, injure, -7-

to construct, JJLc
{J~j--
x x x" x
to understand, -?- to le impious, to shake, wave,
(JHJ (J.^J
XX X" X"
^ y"
c
jJ tfo
J9M/Z ow, JaJ _. assist, ^i^oo Jl &rM(i a promise.

Many verbs admit of both forms; as to study, (J*j&. and

(j*jS
jo which we shorten into also L^-vll to keep
(Jj (jw/Jl3 -, -^-,

Sabbath, ^sis. - to ding.

EEM. a. Verbs of which the second or third radical is a

f

guttural, (either \, , -i, c, c, or *) may be exceptional; as

ci-oo _^ to send, J*sj- ^^ ^o to

w^<3, place, ^-^r collect,

\ ' ?
LCLrL ^_ fo driven be head
^o away, y*\j^. to the of, ^^
to swim, ^^ ^- to
x
turn, fascinate, enchant, (J-x>
X Sx
to strike

with lightning, ^^ ^- to pardon, ^^ ^- to make,

^\J
^- to

< r < ' "< ' '

'\

^jJe j^ to L-ks ^- to to overcome, ^_

open, do, cut, '^ '^*^
x * '
to supersede, transcribe, ^^ JL. to counsel, X5 of water to flow,

' '.'"*
Many however conform to the rule as Jo-1 __
^^ JL. to
forbid. ;

to take, seize, _Lj _L ^o r^acA, J^-j__ to enter, to

fTj
x
return, Icj ^- ^o assert. Some verbs have more than one form ;

as
jj -^-
to take a fourth part,
f ^ to le good,
c^i
_. to

le vacant.
 35

NOTE. As paradigm we use Jxi -^.

92. "When the second radical of the perfect has kasrau, the

imperfect bears fathah ;

as k-^. ji to be vain,
i*-^- to do

wrong ', -?- to fear, <UJi JL to be light-witted, JL

',
c^-fcjj 3^,->

testify, v^^ JL consort with, (J^> to swoon, 'j*.2>

^-

to be small, *^*Jb JL. to desire, Ll^s^ _ to wonder, J^sr^ JL to

hasten, J^c ^_ ^o work, o^c ^_ ^o en/om, covenant.

B.EM. Exceptions are rare, as to be in distress or

(-A-j
poverty, j-^s*- to be present, and L^jL to die for

(see 157) which usually makes ci-^*J but sometimes C

or

93. "When the middle radical of the perfect has dammah the
" "j?

imperfect bears the same, as cJ--dri- _L ^o i^ Ja<?, <UJ -I. ^o 5<3

light-witted, ^L JL ^o ^s^/y, J.i^ __ ^o 5^ *ma^, ^-i^ to ^

'x
x'/ 1

great, JlS ^_ ^o 5^ numerous, y _L ^o 5 intelligent.

95. The indicative of the imperfect is distinguished by dammah

?s ^ s
on the third radical, as
J>^sT A0 M ignorant ;
the subjunctive by
fathah, as J^C; and theywer by sukun, as

96. A termination >

of the indicative is only retained in the

subjunctive and jussive when required as mark of gender ;

otherwise it and ^ are rejected.

 36

97. The energetics are formed from the jussive by adding

^j or (> (subject to certain variations to be learnt from

the paradigms in 369) thus, he will certainly send

^iJt^j,
o >.

from (^.y^j jussive of d^.

98. The imperative is formed by substituting a prosthetic

vowel for the prefix of the jussive' s 2nd sing. : when the

second radical bears fathan or kasrah this vowel is kasrau, and

when dammah it is dammah ; thus, <Jj^M make, +>-j\

h av #

mercy upon, c-cAM remove, J^l le just, ^Sj^\ calm thyself,

cjull?\ seek ;
and similarly with the feminine.

HEM. a. Concerning prosthetic vowels see 19 r. c.

HEM. I. Fathah is never so employed.

99. The same remarks apply to the energetic forms of the

imperative as to those of the imperfect.

>

100. From active States the passive are distinguished by

altered vowels (see 369 Table II) on the first and second

radicals.

HEM. It makes no difference what characteristic vowels are

employed in the active voice.

101. Instead of a passive imperative the

jussive is used.
 37

102. The derived form* of strong verbs must be learned from

369 Table III ;

attention being at an early stage confined

to the first seven and the tenth form, i.e. neglecting the

ninth, eleventh and following.

107. The relation of passive to active will be found analagous

to that in the ground form.

REJI. a. The imperfect passive of the first and fourth forms

are identical.

111. When the verbal root begins with CL?, i*l^, , J, J,

J ,
|^, ^ ,
^o, fjo,
]0 or k the characteristic d^ of the

fifth and sixth forms may lose its vowel and form a double

letter with the first radical, to which when necessary a pros-

& a)

thetic 'alif and kasrah must be added as to draw

;
JJpoj J*J,
an omen concerning oneself for JoSUJj to fall
Jjfr:;j ^hj , LSlSJ.

one by one for kiULoj kSLU .

112. The C^ of the fifth and sixth forms is sometimes

omitted from those persons of the imperfect active to which

' '
$\' *}.'s' fr'- ~
L2j is prefixed; as u-aJuJ she swallows for she
c-aJJJoJj^SjJ
becomes reminded o/for or 111).
J^JcJ J-ijJ (see

115. If the first radical be CU or tj, characteristic CL> of

the eighth form unites with the initial JL? into CU and with
~ a *
t ,^\
initial JL? into UL> or Cj; as he followed for
^J\ ffil*
 38

117. If the first radical be (Jo, ^o, L or k, characteristic

C1J is changed into \y ;

as d^lh^4 / ^ose from U (see

55) and not u~f&>\.

120. Verbs with the middle radical doubled are conjugated

in 369 Tables Y a and I :

they differ from other strong

verbs in two ways.

(a) "When both the initial and final radicals have vowels the

middle rejects its vowel and becomes with the final a double

letter bearing tashdid ;

as __ to cover, ki- JL of a burden
J^>-
to put down, (>- -^-
to be fitting,
^~ to fall down, LL/<^ -L
& '* ^ ^ & ^
to pound, JJ to le abased,
*^**
-?- to be avaricious, Jci> _ to
* *<:
be severe,
^b -Z- to think, y to be potent, Joi J- to insert.

(5) If the initial radical is without a vowel and the final

has one, then the middle radical throws its vowel to the

initial and becomes with the final a double letter; as *X<?\T

for LlSobJ, Ji> for Jii>, jsT for j^ir: but if the final

radical be vowelless, no contraction is possible ;

as L^-^,
o ^ o f O '
JJiX-j , lajas^ ; this must be specially noted in the perfect of

verbs like ^^ io ^ove ^ or ^~- which makes c^i^ and

^
like ^ to touch for l-*u^ which makes L^-wL**x^.
 39

126. Verbs are called weak when one of the three radical

letters is subject to transformation or rejection.

128. Verbs with ^ or ^ for a radical are unmistakeably

weak, more so than those called hamzated.

i
129. Verbs may be doubly weak: and even trebly, as ^\
to resort to imperf. ^IJ impera. jj\.

130. Hamzated verbs fall into three classes according as

hamzaa serves for first, second or third radical :

they are con-

jugated in 369, Tables VI to VIII, differing from strong

verbs in the following ways.

131. The 'alif with hamzah and sukun \

preceded by dammah
becomes J ,
as
^y*y*
believer for
^* & ; preceded by kasrah - ,

c " '' "

i *i
as ir ^*W"^ I have done wrong for CLJ IkaL .

132. It is said by some that ^

and ^f represent sounds to-

wards which hamzah is inclined by the preceding vowel.

HEM. . Instances occur like ljJjl we were hurt for liJ

Jjl ,

and I^^M give ear for j&5\, ~-~J\ come for ci--o]. (see
(
175):

but in imperatives following J or uJ the connective 'alif is

rejected while harazah with sukun remains; thus Cl?li so then

come.
 40

133. Similarly \ becomes J if preceded by fathah, as

to be brave not (J* lj
;
\ becomes A if preceded by fathah, as

^J^AJ
to be in distress not (J+>\-5 ;
\ becomes J if preceded by
*
dammafr, as cl^^ a teacher not cL><A ;
1 becomes if pre-

ceded by kasrati, as &^J (plural of L^Jt> wolf) not e

I becomes A if preceded by dammah, as JA^J A0 w?# asked

not jL^o.

REM. At the end of a word \ stands after fathah, thus

^ V.
9 -t V:

KJ4j A<3 reads but A^ rea^s it.

134. At the beginning of a syllable preceded by a consonant

with sukun 1 becomes j ,
as
(J^^ t imperfect of (J^/J
J not (J* Uo ;

and t becomes A as, not (^^J but \J^^ t

which and (J* Co

are imperfects of
^JlxAj.
5
13,5. If 'alif of prolongation follows radical \ at a word's
i
beginning we write 1 or 1* or even !
(see 23) as
^\_ to
i T. ^
consult for
JpU ;
and so when radical t follows !, as t*jLt ^o

< *5
w<7^ grieve for c_c^l 1 .

137. The verbs 1^1 fc> take

jA to order and Jil

to eat make in the imperative X>>, J^ and Jp.

138. The imperative

J may when following J or u_? recover

its first radical, but not so Jo- or <Ji ;

thus or
Jl^
but
jf&vj
 41

< " *
139. In the eighth form of *X^| its first radical becomes

assimilated to CU, thus jifM to take for oneself: this occurs

with a few other verbs.

140. Loss of hamzah occasionally takes place and we have

Jllj JLo for JU-^. to ask.

141. Weak verbs specially so called, likewise fall into three

classes according as ^ or ^ is the first, the second, or the

third radical.

142. Verbs with j as initial radical (see 369 Table IX),

which have kasrah for characteristic vowel of the imperfect

and imperative, reject ^

in those forms. Thus JJj to bear

children imperf. o^Lj, impera. <x!

C
;
&j
s
to promise imperf. iSxj,
<* **

impera. JLC ;
1^-J to find imperf. &s*r , impera. *>- ;
<^-JJ
to

9 <^ ' <

fix a time imperf. c^Jo, impera. L^-i' to leave alone im-

;
J-ij
f * O . - 9 O
perf. jXj, impera. Ji ;
liJ to warn imperf. &*J, impera. Sac.

HEM. a. A few verbs having (contrary to 92) kasrati in

the perfect and imperfect lose their initial radical, as J^jj to

trust inherit to be near ,J*'

(J-ij, ^^j t
C^j, ,^5

143. But verbs with ^

as initial radical, which have fath;ih

i
 42

or dammali for characteristic vowel of the imperfect and im-

perative, retain ^ in those forms ;

as
^J^ to doze imperf .
.f^Jjj ,

for to be unwholesome imperf.

impera. ^J\ ^f*j\i ulj <J-Jj,

impera. Jo^V

144. In certain verbs initial

^ drops
from the imperfect and

imperative notwithstanding that fathah is the characteristic

vowel of these forms; as Jj

j to leave
J jo and jJ, ^-+4j
to be

-^ and to put and to

spacious *L^j, %-^j ^^j t
Lw?, JJ^ fall
9 x 10"9.
and
^Ju
EEM. 5.
,Jj
is not used in the perfect.

145. If initial
^
be vowelless, a preceding kasrah or dammah

changes it into
^ or
^ of prolongation as may be seen in

143 with the imperatives of and JJ^.

^-.^

146. Verbs with

^ as initial radical are inflected almost like

strong verbs, thus j+Zj j^j to be easy (see 369 Table

147. But if initial ^j be vowelless, a preceding kasrah or

dammah changes it into

^ or
^
of prolongation ;
thus the im-

perative of
^o is
J^>i for
Jfuo!
and the fourth form is

to be at ease.

148. In the eighth form ^ and ^ are assimilated to the

characteristic CL> producing Cl?, as ,J&\ to fear for

 43

149. Verbs with ^ or

^ as middle radical are conjugated in

369 Tables X to XIII :

they differ from strong verbs only
in the first, fourth, seventh, eighth and tenth forms.

150. In case the initial radical is without a vowel and the

final has one, the vowel of the middle radical passes to the

first and we employ a letter of prolongation homogeneous to

the vowel which the first radical has now assumed; as

with form tjifcj u_jjLj becomes i of i_jli to circle

i_-i^-Ljf

^ to judge

do. J$ JllT i ,, jtf to reach

j*& jjM ^i,, jte+

to afflict

,, Jjol Jji! ,,
jlil
iv ,,
J^ ^

,, do. -^i >> ^^ iy n ?^ T- ^

IV

x cpllS to be good

151. But if the final radical has sukun, the long vowels
\ ^L a, ^_ i, ^
_L u become short, according to 25 ;
as
 44

with form Jj&T becomes i of -L. to

go round
j&. Jie j\

i ,, j \\ to increase

iv ,, kUc 2- to guard

NOTE. We have
^3J A^ ^7Z certainly be from
^o (see 97)

jussive of ^o _?_ to le: the letter of prolongation must reappear

in obedience to 150.

152. It follows that the first form's imperative needs no

prosthetic 'alif; thus

with form Jxi\ &\ becomes

^ from \? -L to be

o U to become

\Jti\\jj\ yy ^2. to repent

153. If three open syllables follow in immediate suc-

cession the first of which has fathah, then 'alif of prolongation

takes the middle radical's place; as

 45

XX X X .X
with form Jje becomes i of _L to shine
Jjy Ju Ju
do. L -^ ,, cl^lc i ,, 4^^ ^ ^ e absent

<3l? i ,, &\ to be on the point of

43/

vii

154. But if the first syllable's vowel be dammah, and j or

^ bear kasrah, we discard dammah taking kasrah into its

place, and adopt ^ of prolongation instead of the middle

radical ;
as

with form Jxi Jy becomes J-J passive of Jl5 JL to say.

155. If the first radical has fathah and the third sukun, three

cases arise.

(a) The middle radical is

^
or
^ with fathah ;
when we
discard it and its vowel, placing, if it was ^,
dammah on the

first radical, and kasrah if it was ^ : as

with form ^kki c^V5 becomes L^J from llj -L to stand

do.

(b) The middle radical is

^
with dammah or ^ with kasrah ;

when we discard it and its vowel, but we place a vowel

homogeneous to it upon the first radical: as

 46

with form L^-Jjci

L^Jji becomes L^Lk> from Jli? -i. to 50

(0) The middle radical is

^ with kasrah ;
when we discard

it and its vowel, placing kasrah on the first radical: as

s I* s s I* <* x C X . x
with form c^-JjiJ ^^ becomes d^gS* from uJl^ to fear

do.
c^-Jy* ,, L^ ,, c^U _L ^o die

156. In certain passive forms the ^ of prolongation is

shortened into kasrah, when the third radical bears sukun ;

as

(ji-JlO (for L^0f>) becomes L^-Jt) tJiou (masc.) wast judged.

157. Most verbs with j as middle radical take dammah in

the imperfect,
x .x
and most with ^ take kasrah ;
but some of

the form J-*J take fathah. Thus

3 for
2jZ
to le on the point of makes 6lj for
5j^j

We have mentioned ( 92, rem.) cul for

CJy to
 47

164. Verbs with ^ or ^ as final radical are conjugated in

369 Tables XIV to XVIII :

they are of five kinds ;

(i) Final ^ \
^ (
as U<5 to be near for ^
of form Jjti
(ii) M ur)

to be
(iii) ^ J ^^ ^^ ( L ^j pleased $
, envelope

(v) ,, ,, JxJ 5v* fo ie intelligent, prudent

165. One of three things must happen: the final radical

retains its consonantal power, or resolves itself into a vowel,

or is elided.

166. At the beginning of a syllable two things are possible.

(a) The third radical maintains its power as a consonant,

in
\j
awa as !
they two (masc.) were disobedient

\1
ay a two (masc.) rewarded
,,
^>J-^ they

,, J_L uwa ,, yij he may try

,, !j_L uwa ,,
jj^&ii th*y
two (masc.) condone

jj he was Hind
,, iya ^*
,, lj
iya ,, \^ they two (masc.) were rich ;
 48

also when following sukun, as J!Xc a transgressing, ^^> grace,

favour (see 212 a). The letter^ inj- iwa and in !j

iwa

always becomes ^ ,
as
.^^ he teas tried for j . The letter ^
is never found in ^ _L uya or in \j _L uya.

(b) The third radical is elided between a short vowel and

i or u : this involves contraction

(i)
either into a long vowel; namely

^J
_L uwu into
^
-L u as
^^cbo tf^y (masc.) mW for

^~ iyu ^
J. u ,,
^j^ ^y (masc.)>w;
thou (fern.) hopest
^.Luwi fc_f i
^>-f
x
c-> r iyi ,, c_ i ,, Ihou (iem.) givest drink ,,
( ^^.g'.u.J

(ii) or into a diphthong; namely

^ ^- awu into
^
Jl. au as
l^a^ they (masc.)
were clear for

^5 ayu ,,
j^i an ,, Ijj^j ^y (masc.) /or Ja^ ,,

j i. ayi ^ .1- ai
j^SJ ^ow (fern.) forgettest j^-X^

167. At the end of a syllable the third radical is either

(a) vocalized or (5) elided, whether (i)

it stand there naturally

as in d^ c.<. / was hidden, or (ii)

after losing a short vowel
' ' <^ '
as in ,^5 he is hidden for JlsT. The followin cases arise.
 49

a (i) It is vocalized when naturally so placed, as follows

(a) if the preceding vowel be homogeneous

' ' <
c
2 JL uw becomes ^ -. u as ^j\>J I was prudent
' <
o
^-iy ,, c ^__ 1
lf LS. ^.Aur I covered

(b) if the preceding vowel be heterogeneous

jj
_^_ aw becomes j _^_ au as
ci^sr*
/ escaped
I directed

(ii)
It is vocalized if so placed by loss of a short vowel, thus

ji. aw becomes I _L. a as \. tole high for i

^*j he transgresses ,, j&V.

o

(i) It is elided when naturally so placed in the imperative

and jussive, thus

cb'\ call thou for and IjJ for yi

(masc.) j$&
(masc.)

content (masc.)

(ii) It is elided when so placed in the nomina agentis (see

80) before tan win of dammah and kasrah, which vowels

disappear, while the tanwin passes back to kasrah of the

second radical; thus
 50

with forms J^ls and Jxl5 L*lc become ^Ic a striker

&'' *

JjuA ji<& ti*^*

S^'
* J^ one wh
<*
reveals

Jell; JxlU
' JjUS, $\& one at enmity
* *

J*X^ JA&.
* <,
$& J& a thrower
^

So with all the first eight forms and tenth (see 236, 311).

NOTE. The distinction in a ii between the final syllables of

for
^c.
and j?rr for vj^rT is mechanical and not phonetic.

169. Final
^ becomes ^ in all derived forms of the verb, thus

JI ^*, III ^3l, IV

Js?\ t
V ^S^J, VI
^l*?, VII

viii u^^L etc.

170. To form the nomen patientis Jy& (see 80) of these

verbs, radical ^ coalesces with j of prolongation, as jl^x^ struck

with a stick for

Jy^ut^ ,
jjbL
^m^ for
jy^ 5
^ u ^ radical ^
converts
^ of prolongation into ^ and the two coalesce, with

kasrah preceding instead of dammah, as cS'J^ owe led aright for

Yerbs like ,
for W admit of either form.

171. Doully weak verbs (see 129) are of two classes :

first

those with both hamzah andj or ^ among their radicals ;

and

second those in which ^ or ^j occurs twice or which contain

and .
 51

172. Of the first class there are three sorts, each admitting

two varieties according to the position of hamzah.

(i) Hamzated verbs with initial

^ or ^
(ii) ,, middle j or ^$

(iii) ,, final or <_

^

173. In sort i hamzah serves as middle or final radical, and

such verbs are inflected like both classes to which they belong.

174. In sort ii hamzah serves (a) for initial radical, as 3\ or

f s- S~ X 1
\* for
Zj\
to fatigue,
J! or Jt* for
Jjl to return] and (b) for

final radical, as s l^ for to be evil, *L>- for &>- to come, *\J*

^j
for .c-^ t wish- The following table shows such verbs inflected

like both classes to which they belong.

a b

Perf. sing. 3rd masc. &\* *"U A-*- *I2

2nd

Imperfect

Imperative b ]i ^ U
Passive Perf ect
* ^ ^
NOTE. We may write CLJJ1 for Cl^b! in accordance with

H c.

175. In sort iii hamzah serves (a) for initial radical, as

^fl
MW0, ^Jl fo Awr^ ;
and (b) for middle radical, as ^U to be
 52

far-, such verbs arc inflected like both classes to which they

belong, thus
a I

Perf. sing. 3rd masc. Jl <jj\ ^j\J

fern.

,, 2nd masc.

Imperfect ii^
Imperative

Komen agentis

REM. a. In the imperative .Jf has also Cp for L^-ol and

e^Jn ,
see 132 rem. I and 137.

s.

1 76. From certain parts of

$\j
hamzated 'alif may be elided :

and we and
as (indie, subj.) ^y thou (masc.) seest, ^_$^ see; (subj.

juss.) ijjj they (masc.) see; but (perf.) saw.

IjTj they (masc.)

HEM. c. Hamzated 'alif is elided from the fourth form when

meaning to show, as^l show thou (masc.), ^j\ I show.

177. Of the second class (see 171) there are two sorts.

j"

178. In sort i
j
or
^ is the initial and final radical, as
,^j
be faithful
to guard, ,^j to inspire, ^j to to one's en-

gagement, to "be near (see 142 rem. a] and such verbs

^Jj ;

are inflected like both classes to which they belong, thus

 53

Perf. sing. 3rd masc.

fern.

,,
2nd masc.

Imperfect

Imperative jj <J

1 79. In sort ii
^
or ^j is the middle and final radical, as
^c. _
astray, <Jy> -^- to be strong, ^- to le even with, equal
^$^> to,

<+. ^L for
^. to live ;
and in such verbs the second radical

undergoes no change : thus

Perf. sing. 3rd masc.

)>
f em '

,, ,,
2nd masc.

Imperfect

Imperative

HEM. a. We write as above UsT to distinguish the word from

^^2 John the Baptist and to prevent the union of two ^ ;

as
V ' <i
'
fern, of 295
also in IpJ (not ,^3^) ^5 bi nearest (see b).

REM. b. .
may be contracted to ^>-, see 120.

182. The verb JlJJ he is not has no imperfect or imperative

and is inflected like verbs with for middle radical : thus

 VI

3rd m. 3rd f. 2nd m. 2nd f. 1st

Sing.

Dual U llll] ULLJ UL1J

Plur.

REM. 0.
J*JJ is compounded of no and the obsolete JL> or
t

lj*5\ existence, leing ;

as may be learned in studying Hebrew,

Aramaic, and Assyrian.

183. The verbs of praise and blame are 1*3 to le good and

to be bad :
they are exclamatory, and when a nominative follows,
it must be defined, as^l ! * a bad issue is that !

REM. a. The verb may be joined to following U, as U^JJ

O-^ x-

have ye wrought in mine absence.

185. The nominative pronouns are mentioned in 89 and

we give here a table of the pronominal suffixes which follow

verbs in order to express the accusative:

SINGULAR.

Masculine. Common. Feminine.

3rd person 8 him li her

2nd LIT thee

1st me
 55

DUAL.
Masculine. Common. Feminine.

3rd ,, ...... UJfc them both ......

2nd ,,
...... U you loth ......

PLUBAL.

3rd li them ...... *> them

2nd you ...... you

1st ...... \J us ......

REM. a. For the dependent case, see 317.

REM. 1. The dammah of s, UA, ifc, and

^Jb
is changed after
_ , i^J -, and J/ into kasrah ;
as $-z?\\ Do thou (masc.) put

him off, i^J^J he directs them, <A.r.l do thou (fern.) cover it.

REM. d. For the older forms ^S ,

^-3 , la, and % see 20.

186. An accusative suffix causes change to its verb when

(a) the word ends with a superfluous 'alif

(see 7, rem. a)

which is elided, thus do ye (masc.) beware, but

^<&-Ji ^Jju^l
beware of them.

(1) To avoid cacophony we retain in the Perf. pi. 2nd masc.

j
JL u which the language employed at an earlier stage, thus

s ye (masc.) have contrived, but ye have contrived it.

i^J^J

(e) As mentioned in 7 rem. c ^ JL a becomes ! ^_ u.

 56

188. Sometimes the pronominal object is expressed by a suffix

attached to the word L| t

'lya, which cannot stand alone ;
thus

l thee, but the 1st sing, is

189. A pronominal suffix with

l|j
is used,

(a) if one desires to avoid attaching two suffixes to the

same verb, as *13;! jl-kiT or ^.jUakl he gave it to me : also

to avoid repetition of the governing verb when a pronoun is

connected with a substantive or with a pronominal suffix, as

them
^I5}j J#&? or
^xliJj j^iXiJ
thou destroyedst

and me :

(5) when a pronoun is, for the sake of emphasis, placed

before the verb ;

as
tf& t*/l3| j
'<& clA^J Thee only do

we worship and to Thee alone we cry for help.

190. The noun (*^^i nomen) is of six kinds.

*&"'

(i)
The substantive, more especially called l>5 1 : to it ad-

jectives can be attached.

(ii)
The adjective, or descriptive epithet.

(iii)
The numeral, or noun of number.

(iv) The demonstrative pronoun, or noun of indication.

(v) The conjunctive (relative) pronoun.

 57

(vi) The personal pronoun, or substitute for a thing or person

not mentioned.

HEM. a. Nouns substantive and adjective must be treated

together, they being in form almost identical. We give (iii)

numerals in 318 to 331 ; (iv and v) demonstrative, con-

junctive, and interrogative pronouns in 338 to 353: the

(vi) personal pronouns, which have been treated in 84, 89

and 185 to 189, will be mentioned again at 317.

191. In respect of their origin nouns are divisible into (a)

primitive and (b) derivative.

s t s*
(a) Primitive nouns are substantives; as earth, l! mother,
^>j\

^LiJ \
man, 4J \
sign, miracle, message, verse, 3Jo country, land,

cf^lj gate, ^LlJcJ serpent, J-^f- mountain, iXUj- a body, \jf'

a stone, a man,
ci^>- fish, \J*\j head,^>-j plague, Jjy
)j spouse,
S
k^Lo grandchild, tribe,

5
J-j-* road, ^ a wall,

the sun, *Z idol,

Sjfi image, ^SLa frog, )\-s$0 deluge, iJ calf,

Lai a stick, (
?rl eye, spring of water, ujCLj ark, ship, 5^J monkey,
*^J& heart, j& moon, table, 3^ night, JU property, ^U water
IjjJ

(whence 5L A to be full of water], ji^J runnel, rtff,Jl^J day, Jj

sea, day,
fa pS speech.
(b) Derivative nouns may be substantives or adjectives; and
S Ox ' '
are either deverbal, as Ju^ a>
pre-eminence from J-AJ ^o regard
 I f-i

at tuperior, ef-^ lettered, polite from t-^Ji -L to 10 mil

or they are denominative, as a line of bricks,

brought up ;
Sj>
a chapter from a wall, Christian from the
j ^sOu^ ^w^l
anointed, Christ.

REM. a. Arabic dictionaries catalogue words under their radical

letters ;
those compiled by Orientals are mostly arranged in order

of the final, and by Europeans of the initial radical. All place

first the verb, even though it be derivative and a noun its etymon

(*.*. an original, primitive, or root word). To distinguish may be

difficult ;
but any noun which is used as magdar (see 195) will

best be considered de verbal : thus a falsehood besides being

cl-Ci^
a substantive is infinitive of ujOl to beguile, cause to put on
o>
f5
a false appearance which has also the infinitive uJx-i\ . Lane*
*-
'
gives jLss? sea, great river, because it is cleft or trenched in the

earth, as derivative of J-a^ to split ;

whereas most will consider

tea to be a primitive noun. It is well to regard substantives of

foreign origin as" etymons ; thus, \s\^a way from via strata,
JL^
tort, kind from 761/0* genus, *VJLJf the Old Testament, J^.^vT
the Gospel from eva^eXiov, L^JL-^ Sabbath, seat etc. etc.
^ C-0
,V-J-f
-

Also we have ^Tp^JUJ \

(plural, oblique case) the mundane rational
creatures (see 302 *). Words which Arabs admit to be borrowed
are called by them <44 arabicized.

.hi.-- English Lexicon by E. W. Lane. London: Williams and

. 1863 to 1893.
 59

REM. b. Arab grammarians unmethodically divide the nouns

into categories which overlap.

NOTE. The following defective substantives are primitive nouns ;

A
5
brother, 2.^5, name, j blood, <LL year, 1*J language, Jo land.

Many nouns may be called either deverbal or primitive ; thus, <LJ

a village, wind, iJs^ a star, 3JJ a child, and according to
^TJ
origin manna or grace, favour.

192. Deverbal nouns are divisible into two principal classes;

(i) nomina verbi which are by nature substantives, but serve

as adjectives (see 195) ;

(ii)
nomina agentis and nomina patientis which by nature

are adjectives, but serve as substantives (see 230).

193. The following four sorts of deverbal nouns are con-

nected with the nomina verbi ;

(i) nomina vicis, that express the doing of an action once;

(ii) nomina speciei, nouns of kind and manner;

(iii) nomina loci et temporis, nouns of time and place (see

221) ;

(iv) nomina instrument^ denoting the instrument (see 228).

194. Denominative nouns are divisible into six classes:

(i) nomen unitatis, denoting the individual (see 246) ;

 60

(ii)
nomcn abundantiae, denoting a place of abundance ;

(iii)
nomen vasis, denoting a vessel (*lcj);

(iv) nomen relativum, which we shall call the relative ad-

jective (ecQ 249) ;

(v) nomen abstractum qualitatis, the abstract noun of quality ;

(vi) nomen deminutivum, the diminutive.

195. The nomina verbi are deverbal nouns, abstract and con-

crete. The former (known as

JjL^J* maQadir, plural of ^C\ & +

macjdar source) are infinitives ;

the latter are substantives pure and

simple. "When a noun is magdar it cannot be used in the plural,

and according to some grammarians (see 292 d) is of either

gender : in such case it nearly corresponds with the English

infinitive and can govern an accusative, which obviously may not

be when it appears as a simple substantive. The following verse

uses j\Z&. in both ways.

/ wrote (it) and I felt sure at the time of writing it

That my hand would perish and its (the

hand's) writing remain.

196. Nomina verbi from the groundform of triliteral verbs are

very numerous. The following specimens will serve our present

purpose.
 01

as Jj^>- creation, f^ a thing.

2 & J>^ frail goods, JU- fote (see 207 a).

4 Jjo kfc*. guarding, religion, judgement.

,,
^jJ
6 u- ~* covetousness.
JAS top-knot,

7 J*J c^3^ guidance (see 212 5).

8 ixi <UoLl mercy, convulsion.

,,
&A>J
9 i*j XL^J>- a boon.

11 <UJe ,,
-J value, <&j trial.

12 <UJc3 ,, <H-s^ text, <LLl? canopy.

" '
o I" ? 0*~
23 (jlxJ ,,
(^^J-J criterion, &^i reading.

25 3^* " ?^? ddwwyt u^.j mischief, Jl^

26 jl*5 ,, Lpl^c chastisement, *UJ meeting.
S f \ r\
*
27 J^J Ow ^n9'
^
,,
j'J^

28 2Jl*J ,, *3l^-> testimony.

29 UUj ,,
3Lsl>* caliphate, Ixii resurrection.

32
Jye J^ message, apostle.
ff _x S s
37 J^*J 17 i rem.
,,
JUJ prophet (see ).

38 ^^ ,, d-xlj evidence, <LJX^ pi7.

40 J*L ,, 2-*^ returning, issue.

 62

42 1*1; as &sS> love (see 204).

43 l*X* ,, l&jj* admonition, ijjJX* excuse.

NOTE. The forms numbered 40 to 43 commence with + ma :

such are called

197. Most verbs have only one nomen verbi, and very few

more than two or three apiece ;

exact information must be

obtained from dictionaries, but the following notes seem

desirable.

198. No. 1 is from transitive verbs of form JjcJ and

thus, ^-\ reward, j*\ command, .*- assembly, <^k>- praise

s> posterity, X*> patience, ^a breast, throne, jJ^

covenant, \J:fe loan, JS^ plot, J^AJ diminution.

No. 2 is from intransitive verbs of form J-x-J 5 thus, jj|

perpetuity, JL^- ] fixed term, *-da desire, \JL~^- anger. Exceptional

is J** work, being from a transitive verb (see 92).
*-* <*? r r^
Jp> J
No. 4 has ' admonition,
Is*** ^Lc
> permission,
\^\ ^J S sorcery,

burden.
science,^}

No. 6 has ^rwe direction, evil, Ll>X^ dominion.

5ui>J ZjL

No. 8 has 1^ a garden by which the ground is covered, from

s '
_L uro co per.
^^j-

No. 11 has rf
Vr^. unloading, jj ignominy.
 63

No. 12 has 2! a course of acting, one course which people follow in

religion, people of a particular religion and so a nation, a people.

No. 26 has <-pl5L writing, a book, u^L^ the contrary , and

a god which however may be etymon of <LH to adore.

No. 27 expresses sounds, as in the instance given above, viz.

JV^>- lowing.

No. 29 expresses office etc., as <LiLv. the office of dJL^L>-

<UpLs governorship, province.

**

No. 37 has by form%A_j herald, AJj protector, and <UA

which are akin to nomina agentis and may be taken as adjectives

of the form

No. 38 has 4,1U.<. sin, also written **^^ .

199. If a verb has two or three meanings, to be distinguished

by characteristic vowels, there may be one or more nouns for each ;

thus, iLJ^x^ knowledge and ^LiJ^c spiritual insight from u_5^ __

know ;
also 4-i become <*-)- over a people from uJC-c _. fo 5
s.

chief, tjL^pC meaning soothsayer or cA^; further we find u_

^c
S
sweet smell from <

^ ^ scent perfume.

200. If a verb has more meanings than forms there may be

G x" ** S
several nouns in correspondence ;
thus JLi a pair and

intercession from _i^ -^- <o double and intercede.

 64

201. The abstract nouns arc used both in an active and a passive

sense, as _X^> sense of hearing and what is heard from 1 * .^ ^

202. The following are some nouns from derived forms of the

strong triliteral verb.

s.
<< c . t
*\
ii Jr A-> as <J^2A-' exposition.

in dLlcU& ,, <Jlx* *^&r to overcome.

iv
J^j, >,
r^l ^^ ordering.
v (JxaJ ,,
f J-*^ abasement.

vi JlJ ,,
<?r:^ over-reaching.

vn (J^^l t^JU3\ transition.

5" c* s ^
viii
J UrJs]. ,, i^i vengeance.
x Jug-^j. ,, the act of asking pardon.
j\Jut-~s\

NOTE. As will be seen from its meaning, the substantive

t^>1 .Xc punishment is connected with the second form, viz. cl

to punish (see 41).

204. Nouns derived from verbs with the middle radical doubled
5/ s o? 5
observe the rules in 120; thus ji fetter for J.U, j-
for
^JIA>-, c^T^ powder for L_4iA } cpj ?or^? for

/or* for
 65

205. Nouns from hamzated verbs observe the rules in 131

to 135.

206. Verbs treated in 142 and 144 with j

as first radical

may drop it from the noun and then they add ^i by way of

compensation :
thus, from . i j
t-^J
to put down we have J-^J
& ' '

position and <LxJ> humiliation ; while from Juu &j to promise we

have both 3&j and J JLC which mean a promising.

NOTE. We find the substantive 4 ,i drowsiness as well as the

infinitive sleeping from fo 0fc0p which makes

jC:j ^~jj
in the imperfect (see 143).

207. Nouns from verbs with ^ or ^ as middle radical observe

the rules in 150 etc.

S * S s
(a) Those of the form JJLS remain unchanged, as u-?>- fear,

ef^ the hidden,

jjj joriz^, Jy> saying, +j>
slumber. Those like

JJLJ follow 153, as JL&- ^a^, condition for j>-- Those

like J*l^ follow 150, as returning, issue for J-**^.*

J--^ .

(5) If
^
be preceded by kasrah it mostly becomes ^ ;
as

&-L> resurrection for iil^ (see 6 rem. a) for

dU^JJ ,

for
<tj ,
both from lb J- to stand.

(c)
In the fourth and tenth forms the second radical is elided,

its vowel passing back to the first, and * -^ being added to the

word's end; thus wish for aUU^j) appeal for help

*^j ^jj}|,
instead of
 66

212. Nouns from verbs with ^

or ^j as final radical experience

assimilation into in the form JJLi if

j be the second and

^c but we find J
^ the third radical, thus
^c.
error for ;

in J*J force for 5y

of form <dxs. When the middle radical

is strong the following rules hold.

(a) The third radical is retained if the second bears sukun,

as an ornament VjzA an invocation jb^ 166

g^- hiding (see a).
s ' s s ?
(b) Nouns of the forms Jjo, Jjti, and JjLJ are usually

written with final ^, which is quiescent, while tan win falls upon
? 9 ?
the second radical's fathah ;
thus ^JUb guidance for $$*&.
Sometimes radical ^ is written \
,
as also in primitive nouns,

thus l^ic a stick for

(c) Nouns of the form <UjLi with ^

as final radical may end in

i\ _^ ,
as tlU for
$Jl (see 7 rem. <?,
and compare 294 rem. a).

(d) Nouns of the forms JlxJ , ^JlxJ and Jlxs change the final

radical into hamzah, as *j trial for

jj, *U^ Aer^w for
J meeting for receptacle for
^lftJ , *lj

221. Nouns of tfVw0 ad _pfew are formed from the imperfect

active of a verb's ground form

by substituting * for its prefix :

the second radical bears fathah, if fathah or dammah be cha-

racteristic of the imperfect, but kasrah if kasrah. Thus, tl^-i

makes
cl^-/Lj whence (4-?--^
to drink, drinking place,
 67

to write uScxf whence ^JL^ii* place of writing, school,

JiJJ
to

descend whence to
^JjJo Jj-lS halting place, j&s proceed J^aJ
whence the place whence anything proceeds (see 195).
JiJui*

HEM. a. A noun of time and place is called

t_jya)T
J.

REM. b. A few nouns take kasrali irregularly, as J^s^ * 1

^to of
*s

prostration, a mosque, ^j^* time or place of rising, the east,

'
S
place of setting, the west, kiLL* place where anything falls.

222. Nouns of time and place from verbs with j or ^ as

initial radical have kasrah in the second syllable and always

retain the first radical; thus time or place of appointment

*Xcjj-*
(

from jkJ to promise (see 142), %-*fy*

& place where anything

is put down, a place from <J>j to put (see 144).

223. Those from verbs

with^ or ^ as middle radical experience
change in accordance with 150, thus >lLi place of existence

for )'* from ^li to be, exist.

224. Those from verbs with * or ^ as final radical always

have fathali (notwithstanding 221) in the second syllable and

**

they suffer the contraction explained in 212 b ; thus,

place of refuge for U for

J^U from \s? J- to escape.

226. Some nouns of time and place from verbs with j or

as initial radical take the form J^*^ (

see %%&) ;
as

appointed time or place from L^-J to fix a time, &*** time of

 68

birth from 3Jj _- to bear a child. In both these examples ^

replaces ^ according to 145.

228. Nouns of instrument denote the intransitive agent and take

the form JxiLi , J^* or *^**^ 5

as -^? an(^ P1 -2
"-^* fl
^y from
j becomes ^j 226, thus
_i_ 0p*rt. Initial as in

a covenant from J -

229. TVe have already mentioned in 80 the nomen agentis

and nomen patientis ; they are deverlal adjectives often used

as substantives.

230. In the ground form nomina agentis are like

and nomina patientis like thus ef ;^ clerk

Jj^^U :
writer,

cl?j* written, script from c^c __ to tm'fo ; LlXjU possessor

i*L>fL*J*
owned from ulXij ~ ^o possess discerner
;
c_^L
iij^A* recognized, approved from J^ _< "know ; 0^^ f ,

worthless ;
^Jlj
o w^o attains ;
jJli owe ^Ao s^y long, abides ;

manifest-, ;&\ that which is IJtc one who

|^U pious, right-,

knows, a scholar ;
JLjl
on^ who ignores God's lenefits, an unbeliever ;

y intransitive
.jVj falling.

NOTE. Used in diverse senses we find <JUi-L companion ;

thus
cpjiJl tJ^U the companion of the fish i.e. Jonah, v-^-U
^LJl
M t?tV^> of fire. As regards nomina patientis, we have
mentioned in 73 the impersonal manner in which
passive verbs
 69

must often be translated, and shall treat of

*^-*
the objects of anger in 533.

232. From the ground form there are other de verbal ad-

jectives of which the following are specimens.

1 .
<
as ^ easy, JLi- good, excellent (see 242 Note 1
).

2. J*s ,,
^^C ^00^, beautiful.

3.
J^j ,, ^_a~>! afflicted, Sp scanty, <_x thunder-

struck, swooning.

11. J~o ,, *--J^ painful,

J-+-*?j seeing, ++&*- wise,

r>- clement, well acquainted,

JL*.+^
Z* prompt, j-jj powerful, Jj^i able.

12. grateful, JJSLZ forgiving.

J^*3 ,,
jjti
13. ^jilxJ ,, ,UJic angry.

14. ^jilxs ,,
)Li->-Jj merciful (probably a borrowed

word).

16. jsj] ^^t t0M*, ^j>-! aW(see 537).

NOTE 1. We use No. 16 to express colours and defects.

HEM. c. When
derived from transitive verbs J^*3 may have
S S
a passive sense as C^-l>- urged on, swift,
;
<J<- fitting, $*+>
_ s 2* S* $ */

praiseworthy, J^<A^> severe,

1
J^
/aw, jj^si treated with kuhl.

NOTE 2. Much of the Goran is almost in the nature of rhymed

prose, wherein ^ may rhyme with ^_ ., j^

with j

etc., but the rules are more lax than in classical rhymed prose ;
for instance
^>-j merciful, *. lj mighty, *-^ skilful, etc. are

used to rhyme with ^^ manifest, ^^l^ gatherers, ^jj^-jUi-

losers,
j^^j
(
merciful, ^Asj-U prostrating, ^^1^ Moslems,

^jfe thankful, ^oU truthful, ^,^^> contemptible, ^^

(

wrongdoers, ^^^ those who pardon, ^-ii^ neglectors, ^^--Jlc

and
victors, ^j-JLjli impious, ^^-^ sulduers, ^^L) beholders,

the like.

233. Adjectives of form JULj are intensive, as from J^l^

s &
asking we have JU^ importunate, a beggar.

HEM. a. "We use this form to indicate occupations, as

i_9^
a money-changer, low-maker, cavass.
(JLVp

REM. i. There are other intensive adjectives, as everlasting.

Jjii

234. The elative, J^aJl" I^l. ^<? woww of pre-eminence, is of

*'
'xV* o
form Jjel as more or mos#
^^-\ beautiful.

HEM. a. When superlative these adjectives must have the article

ic/-
as <A^ mos^ merciful, or be in construct state (see
iyV]1
? x--
475)

b) are of form
as wos^ of them, and 295
Upl if feminine (see

as V.M..^
'

<ui^J 1 A* wos^ gracious word.

235. No elative should be derived from adjectives which have

'
? o* 9 i-

already the form J*il, thus the comparative of \j*3\ white is

Ljlo sJij! stronger as to whiteness : but elatives are sometimes

formed, though contrary to strict rule, from the derived forms

of verbs.
 71

236. In the derived forms we have nomina agentis, as u <J

chastizer, %*<& explanatory, commentator ;

in 1^^-* continuing in

compliance ;
iv 5^* guilty, ^^.^ we^ rfoer, 2i^* owe t0Ao j9M/to

to rights, 5uu.fi..* transgressor, *** prosperous; v

cl^JI-srL*
w
motion ;
vi <uLLi* uniform i.e. part resembling part, <J->ULl4

facing each other ;

vii L^A .5 .* owe t0Ao reverts ;
vin J j.'t
X 4
avenger ;
x J-XiL^ haughty : and nomina patientis, as n ff:;.

^* AeW w
4
destroyed, ^s subjection, J-^lA separated, cL>^& brought

near in jU^ ; iv ^Jt disapproved ;

v JjtliLii etc.

237. Adjectives derived from verbs with the middle radical

doubled observe the rules in 120; thus Jjli erring for jJli,
' * O 5 J
.il stronger or mo* strong for iixll, liA ow^ w?Ao perfects for

238. Adjectives from hamzated verbs observe the rules in 131

to 135 ;
thus J4^ owe ^ fl *^* n t
J^> (j*^. ffriwotu
not

believer not ^ .

S "
HEM. a. Preceded by kasrali 1 becomes >j as &\\s reader not

'/
240. Nomina agentis from verbs of the first form with ^ or ^j

as middle radical substitute for that letter ^ (i.e. hamzah and

thus omen from

kursiy, see 16) ;
J^jU? flying, a bird, evil fe
to fly and not L>lt .
 72

24 1 . Nomina patientis from verbs of the first form with ^ or ^

as middle radical, in case of j elide it and throw back its vowel
s * . .

to the first radical thus to be feared for

*_j^sr* but :
;
i-J^s*
in case of ^j its elision must be marked by substituting kasrah
for dammah, and then ^
of prolongation becomes $ ;
thus

one who receives recompense for

&j$&*
REM. Sometimes we find an uncontracted form, as
a debtor.

242. Adjectives of form J-^J from verbs with

^ or as

middle radical become 3?* an(i sometimes JiJ :

thus, for

from ^L^o we have vJL<-*i good, sound, agreeable ;

for

from
J>
\5 is
( jl5'
'V
evident ;
for
,-
*^^ from "*
Li _. is
^^V^
"'
for
c^-*j^
from (JUt _L is
<*^*^ ^arf, and for its opposite

from i. ^. (supposing we have

5-^*- rabbinical)
also
forJL.jS. fromjli
_ isJiirL excellent.

NOTE In 232 to be found

Jl^- under form 3**
1. is : it is

from __ choose and means to be chosen whence the elative

jl=L
* r*

choosable rather than, better than

&? j-tP** : its opposite t-i> bad,

worse is also used as elative.

NOTE 2. We may consider lllJ and *.*

^ (see 196 No. 38)

as substantives derived from the adjectives fJj and *

^ .

243. Adjectives from the derived forms of verbs with

^
or
^
as middle radical follow the rules of their --
Imperfects, as
 ra

manifest like ^S t
iv of \j to be distinct, cJU--aA that which

strikes home like L! -

x ^ Iv f <-r>^ (see 45 Note), J-JL1J

straight like l^a.-.^ x of ilS __ fo ta<Z.

I"" I

1. For <*a4 dj'lJ i/ow A0rf Atfc we find &~~^!+ which

we may render a mischance.

NOTE 2. Be it observed that the nomina agentis and patientis

of Form vn are identical, and so with Form viu.

244. We have treated in 167 b ii the nomina agentis of

verbs with ^ or ^ as final radical and the nomina patientis in

170, which last section gives rules applicable to adjectives

JyLi and J-^xJ

of forms thus an enemy for j.^c
;
J!^ hostile, ,

*\. high, sublime for J-i, J^ii rich, self-sufficing

for
^^
NOTE. In the Goran j& is sometimes a collective noun.

245. Adjectives, whose second radical bears fathah, from verbs

with c5 or ^ (which we now write ^) as final radical, reject

their final vowel.

(a) If triptote (see 308) tanwin is transferred to the second

radical (compare 212 thus nomen patientis iv

b) ;
,^x* given

of liu--- for

(b) If diptote there is only the vowel to reject ;

thus

better or best pleased for jj! .

246. Nomina unitatis nouns of individuality specify one from

a genus or one part of a whole, being formed by adding ^_

6
to the. collective noun (see 292 a, 306 rem.). Thus,

one head of cattle (ox or cow : is usual for a bull} from

jjjjJ JJLj
a fruit from a grasshopper, locust
cattle, y^J ji*J fruit, *<3y>-
from 5V^, lA^ a tffowd from cL^ts" , 5

(for *^> see 191 I),

an tfrror (by some considered nomen verbi, see 196 No. 28)

from te ,
l*Ul a cloud from *Ul, J&3 fow0 from
& s-

a fiiipAl from
x
NOTE. "We find also ^Juc a quail from

249. The relative adjective is formed by adding o to the

word from which it is derived, and denotes some thing or person

connected therewith. Thus, J^u*Xi> solar from jlXixll the sun,

j*i lunar fromj^ moon, /V^ Arabian from cLyJ*Jl ^ Arabs,

English from JLj.-j>|i M* English
^J-J-^i collectively.

250. But the derivatives cannot always be formed so simply :

certain terminations are rejected, and other changes arise. Thus

JU Mecca
^, tS! (see 198 No. 12)
^\ illiterate, *-Lj^\
Medina ?&, &fj&&\ the Moslems
^L^A, and the Prophet's

tribe & makes ~>'*

289. Nouns substantive must in gender be masculine, feminine,

or common, for there is no neuter.

290. Nouns are said to be feminine

(a) by signification, or

(b) by form ; as,

 75

(0) *\ a mother,
J^-%^
o,n old woman,
Ijjp* Mary, ^c. an eye,

REM. Masculine are (J* A00c?, and A^- a face.

(b) &^~& an ox or cow, *j)-^ a chapter, &.t,r>- a garden,

good news.

REM. A few nouns ending in x are masculine because only

used of males, as i^i^ caliph.

291. Certain nouns are feminine only by usage ;

as the
\j=>j\

earth, Jjlj a mansion, ^. wind, JM!+J^\

(
the sun, \^s. a stick,
(JLftJ

the soul, self,

jlJ fire.

292. Many are said to be masculine by form and feminine by

signification :
together with others, these are of common gender ;

thus,

(a) Collective nouns which form nomen unitatis (see 246)

o

chiefly denoting animals and plants : but s'^> quail

is usually
masculine.

(5) Collective nouns denoting rational beings and not forming

s
nomen unitatis, as i (LL^ posterity, *)U chieftains, ones people
^s
or tribe. But JJbl and jT one's family are masculine only.

(d] Deverbal nouns when infinitives (mac.adir, see 195).

(e) "Words regarded as such. But ^ to be is feminine, as

^S the complete kdna (see 441): so also usually are

 <;

particles, tfXijj&vl ^ the 'an which with

* <
CV5
its
*
verb is equivalent

^
e.

/o a magdar (see 415 a rem. a), a^*JLJiJ

1 ^0 explicative 'an

367 the conditional 'in (see 367 /),

(see *), ^l^al taffi&l
M* negative 'in (see 362 )

(/) Certain nouns among which are the following ;

J-&-5
a human being, humankind, JL>- state, J----^ road, %\-A^> heaven,

v\'j*a
a way, uJO-J a ship, JJJ night, dXI-^ dominion, ^JUb
guidance.

293. From most adjectives and some substantives of the mascu-

line gender, feminines are formed ending in j^, ^j ^-, or *! ^_.

KEM. Of these * ^ is appended without further change, but

feminines in ^^ and *l _n are distinct in .form from the
masculine.

? *~
294. The most usual termination is x ', thus, JL>J (for

JL>-n) latter, last iy>J, J_*0L>~ present ifeL^., 5^-3 monkey

Meccan -%?+
she-monkey, ^S^
REM. a. A dropped radical may be replaced, as ^s from * U^
(see 212 d) : but I'llLa^ (for LlkoJi) from ak.^

REM. i. i' ^L (see end of 2 and 8 rem. a) is a compromise in

orthography between the old pausal form a ^- ,

and dJ which
we find in
c^-^/J mercy, ^^^ ward for the more modern <&>- C

and
 295. Feminines ending in ^j _i_ are derived,

() from adjectives of form )llxs which make .J^J, as

angry jL ;

(b) from adjectives of form JJuil when superlative (being

defined by the article or following noun, see 234 rem. a) in

which case the feminine is ; as, .f^lXVl ihe most beautiful

(^JjtJ

**,^*?\, .JbVI ^0 nearest LLJjJl (see 179 rem. a), JJJ>V|

^
largest ^\ J^! I
cjfj-^
^* largest of the cities.
? is-- y 5C- / *!

REM. i. The feminine of

J|V 1
(for J sjV 1 or J^
is and that of o^^r, another
(see 328) ^Jjllj Jr^l (for J^U)
is

296. Feminines ending in *T JL are derived from adjectives of

<?
o* y * * -x >
form Joe! which are not elatives, as ^^\ white *LiXJ, %-^-^
//
*UJ^-. There are feminines which have no masculine, as

*\j^c
most Arab which should come (irregularly, being elative)

from

297. All adjectives do not invariably employ their feminine

forms, and some few have none. Only let the meaning be clear

and there may be a laxity as regards form thus, :

(a) J^xs is of both genders when active in signification and

attached to a singular substantive, as a 9 raiefu ^ man
Jj--^ t>4^
and
J^JLl i'^ij.
a grateful woman ;
also when active in meaning
and predicate to a substantive or pronoun in the singular, as
fc she is grateful, \je 1&J0 / thought her patient. If
however no substantive or pronoun be expressed we must, in
order to make our meaning clear, employ the feminine form
as
ijjLi> cJL-oVj
/ saw* a grateful woman, <LJ^i- <U U he has not

a she-camel to carry loads :

also, this is required when the adjective
is passive by signification, as fcj^>- <LJilJ <<J I* he has not a she-camel

to milk i.e. to be milked.

NOTE. Being only used of has no feminine.

GodJyLc. forgiving
HEM. a. Exceptions are to be found, as J^LC hostile, an enemy

tem.Jr?&.

(b) J~*J is passive in signification and

of both genders when
S ^ Si
attached to a singular substantive, as Ju-JsJi a slain woman
*pil ;

also when passive in meaning and predicate to a substantive or

pronoun in the singular, as ct^-i..^- ,s& she is sivift, J-^sr 'i*J 1

the eye is treated with kuhl. But if no substantive or pronoun be

expressed we must, in order to make our meaning clear, employ

,
as d.Lr.* ci^ j\ / flz^ <z slain woman :
also, this is required

when the adjective is active by signification ;

whether transitive,

as <C*-l.c a skilful woman, an

a'^\ *^~^ J^?^
woman ;
or intransitive, as *-J C a powerful wind.
REM. Exceptions are to be found in either case ;
as JJjtiJ I a JJb

v~*j>. this way of acting is praiseworthy, and on the other hand

*
dJJ)
V-.c tffo God is near.
,3 <Uo-JJ wz^rcy o/

(c} Similar peculiarities are to be remarked in certain others.

NOTE. Adjectives of form ^jj\ when comparative are of common

gend
 79

EEM. b.
Adjectives applicable to females only, do not usually

form a feminine, as
i,
^^ *^-^ thou (fern.) art divorced because

a wife cannot say <j

298. Nouns have (like verbs, see 81) three numbers, the
singular, dual, and plural.

299. A dual is formed by adding ^\ ^- to the singular after

elision of the final vowel or tan win as sea

;
J^s^
a nation \

REM. 5. If the singular ends in quiescent ^, or \ which was j,

the original letter may be restored ;
as I.AT. a staff ^}^ .

. e. If the third radical has been elided before if in the

singular, it is not restored ; thus, Lxl a language for d'lxJ makes

300. There are two kinds of plurals.

(a] That which, having only a single form, is called pluralis

sanus, the sound or perfect plural.

(b) That which, having various forms, is called pluralis fractus,

the broken plural being more or less altered from the singular.
;

301. The pluralis sanus of masculine nouns is formed by adding

^ __ to the singular (see 308), as jiLtolj

a conqueror
g&Uj 5uU
a worshipper ^Juli. The pluralis sanus of feminine nouns is

formed by writing Cl^ for s when they have that termination

in the singular, or when without it by adding cul ;

as 4j.,l^w
 80

a boon t>oJL^, ^J a fruit ubV^J , 1^ yoo^ cbl~, ^livj

M0 m0fiM o/ ramaddn clAjuUJ.
REM. a. If the singular ends in 'alif maqQurah (see 7 rem. b)

with or without tanwin (see chosen for

245), as ^J&s* ^k^i ,

.J&i higher, highest for

or in kasrah with tanwin (see
^%^^ ;

167 b ii), as *,
i^.
blind for
,J^,
Sr
x &*
#=
one who invents lies for

JL&*, /jlSA devout (see 148) for s^&-^ ;

or in quiescent ^
preceded by kasrah (see 314 rem. as the Hind (man}
), ^**\
for f-*Jd\ : then 166 b must be obeyed in the forming of

plurals. Thus,

Nominative

for

Oblique

for

The singular of illustrates 167 a ii in changing from

^4JL)1
^ iy to ^ __ i, and the plural differs nothing from that of ^

see 314 rem. a. Of feminines we may note

(see 303 J).

REM. 5. Feminine substantives with sukun to the middle radical

may undergo change as ^jo\\ the earth village

;
iJL>u?y ,
^-J^J

HEM. c. A final radical dropped as in 212 c must reappear;

thus i)L prayer \ZJ\jO* ,
JlLk^ (feminine of
2^ (see 294 rem. a).
 81

KEM. d. A final radical dropped before i ^- sometimes re-

appears, as t^i a year

j\j*Zs
and c^l^H ;
but aL3U a hundred
for a!i makes eL>ll* (see 325 rem. a}.

REM. e. We have mentioned in 294 rem. a

&^& heaven which

makes cutjU^ and cl^Vj^ (see 6 rem. a).

302. The pluralis sanus masculine is formed from :

(a) Certain diminutives and proper names.

(b) Deverbal adjectives which form their feminines by adding

a as JJL? erring .
,
^jpli

(c) Adjectives of form Joe! which are elatives, as Jil more or

^ yi ,j
i
mos numerous : also the corroboratives of <Jp viz. iL^?-l
^.J-Li!
all etc. making ,Cjjx^JM etc.

y
(d) The relative adjectives (see 249) as &j& (irregularly

o a desert] a badawi ladawin (bedouins).

)jf)jj

(e) A few words, among which are ?$\ a son (for ^j ) jL3 ,

one of the four classes of created beings 191

^j^Jlc (see
A
rem. 0), ^ owner (see 340 rem. c), etc.

REM. a. It must be specially noted that adjectives have the

pluralis sanus masculine only when joined to substantives, ex-

pressed or understood, denoting rational creatures.

REM. i. From substantives and adjectives that have the pluralis

sanus masculine there may be formed a pluralis fractus, especially

from adjectives used substantively.

 82

REM. c. Certain numerals given in 323 have the form of

pluralis sanus masculine.

REM. d. Some feminine nouns in * ^- , especially those from

which the final radical (s or ^j) has been elided, form

,
^,
a pluralis sanus masculine, the termination ^L disappearing ;

as l^j a year &~>, oblique case ^^-

303. The pluralis sanus feminine is formed from :

(a) All nouns ending in x ,

as
JL^ message

<*Jt a sign C^lp .

REM. Some grammarians express this rule less comprehensively.

(b) Feminine adjectives, the masculine gender of which has

a pluralis sanus, as c^lx.*j^ believing (women) from f*y*-

(c) Names of the letters and months, as well as certain other

nouns.

304. The following are forms of pluralis fractus, from triliteral

roots, numbered as in the Grammar of Professor Wright.

25. *fod 19. jjf 13. $& 7. J*j 1.

j 26. *lxi 20.

%\\ 14.
Jlla 8. JjJ 2.

1*3 27. *xJl 21. iixj! 15. iixi 9. JJe 3.

i*3 28. , <Ixi 22.

J^^ 16. 2lxi 10. Jje 4.

UJ 29. JUS 23. JjUl 17. dixs 11.

^Ixi 5 -

*3 24. J,S*5 18. 2ixi 12. 6.

J^xs
 83

In the next table an example of, at least, one noun (substantive

or adjective) appears to each plural, but space forbids us to attempt

illustrating each singular form.

1. ^ plural of IJiJ
Is"s
jJ i*J t& as

. S'\ 9 / Ss 9
a nation **), a form
tj^a j^o

2. J
y
plural of
*
J^l *L& JUi ^Uj
? f~
^
t^^j\ white ^Lj (for i^3).

3. 0^ plural of Jlii ^Uj jUi J^*i fiuJ

'xS'-^5j J'i? ^
jti JxJ Jxi JcU as

^c^ Jy^J ^ message, messenger, apostle

,
JLJ
REM. In nearly all cases the form <JJLJ is admissible, as

4. plural of & *3 j as

X^L>- a maxim A^^

5.
JUo plural of J&i ^3 JjJ & litt iiJ J*i

a wolf 4>UJ,
wan J^f-^, (Jt?^
^ a wind
1^, ^3 a/rwi^ JUJ,
heavy J^J.
REM. *UJ is plural of *\^*\ a woman (see 305 rem. e).
 84

6. plural of
x j. .'
ff ?
<tixJ xb as

^ breast &, (*\ head

fa*;,
^- an ornament
^J
(for o^>-)) J-
>
form, figure JjJi, JJ*-
letter (of the alphabet),
S V< r f. ? '* ^
r- r? r- ^
particle uJuC, iJUj ow^, self (J^Ju , pj a male 1^-^,

5^u prostrate 5^^.

7. (J*5 plural of Jxli J-Lclj as
i* *? ^ >"

Jc-ui prostrate J^sr 3

, manifest JJ**.
|^l-i
/ ?
j
8.
JvxJ plural of J*cl^ as

9. <Ujo plural of

magician

10. IlJe plural of ^li as

^b (for ^f^J)
a judge i\^ (for fc^.j).

11. lie plural of $ Jj Jy as

'

an ape

12. IjJe plural of J^ ^ %\&

i\ brother *eM.
(for^l)
 85

13. JJLj\ plural of Jjti Joe Jxs <J*J d!i*s and some other

feminine quadriliterals, as

"

com (JJ-K 5J (for

J) terf J^ (for &), J~, %,

14.
Jbe^ plural of J^o <Jr!*' an ^ triliterals of all forms, as

S S 1 s-

cock's comb rt7/

u-J^c uppermost part, fore-lock, u-jVj&l ,
Jy
$t, ^ *W ^li^U
1 (for o) sow Sl-Sl, D^
work

riches
Jty\, talle
^, ft day
^tS
(for

jjlgf), J^.\ a companion tiU^t,

EEJI. There are a few other singulars which take this plural,

as}3 hostile Z\&\ ;

but *\&] (not ?^t) is the plural

of
*^L thing.

15. JLlxjl plural of

Jlxi and other quadriliterals, also J3 JJti

Jo J^J Jxs as

a god ^JT (for Ijjff),

li| Slfj receptacle fccj*.

16.
Jcljj plural
of Jell Jell L\J ^Icli as

^jb' follower, appositive ->\jJ, <^U female dweller ?*

 86

17. Jj Ui plural of some feminine quadriliterals, with or without

S in addition, as

JjjJk^ a city
^\&*, <..S /owZ ci-o U^-.

18. ,J>ilx9 plural of (JxJ JJtJ J*^ J^* J^ jUi ulxs JotJ

as

19. &i plural of *3 Je J^e Jl JUi UL Jtli J3u! as

efJj a ^o// ^l?]j,

^J a male ,vj, ^
(for 1^).

20. ^iLxs plural of -xJ J^cJ as

L& fool *\$L, fJ

21. ^xJ! plural of J^xJ as

for (see 17 b rem. I) a prophet *U-jl.

^J *^.J

22.
^lXi plural of J^ Jxi JcU Jubl $& as

d^U (for
cio^S)
dead
J^.
(
<

23. JU5 plural of *l

opnon j
.

REM. For declension see 312 and 314 rem. b.

 87

24. Ui plural of *Ui

a %aJ opinion ^llJ ,

jj\; corner, a class in school

as in 179 rem. a).

\j\jj (for ^1:J

25. J-AJ plural of JS Jxs JliJ JLC^ as

JUcv.
an ass
^^-
&' ? s < s "
26. of Jxd Jje as
jjxi plural
"* fj'^

Jjc a husband &lj*3

27. fiUi plural of Jxl Jxi Jfilf as

cf^d-Utfi companion <&^s^ (also ^

28. ^ P lural of ^*^ 2job JcU as

jT (for fcjl) styw, miracle, message, verse ^\ (for c

29. JjJ plural of J^lj as

51^
er^>-w O^
a companion ^^^s^".
S

KEM. a. These rules are not without exception nor are they by

any means exhaustive.

HEM. c. Beside jllc pi. fr. 5 of 5*^c slave we have fourteen

other broken plurals. "When a singular has more than one meaning
and several plurals, there may be a correspondence : thus A-A*^-

a caliph usually follows No. 20 ^U-J^- caliphs, but <uLL>- successor,

 88

deputy makes No. 17 c_aJ which by rule is restricted to

*
feminines. There are four meanings to beside its being the
<-
*
letter's name, and there are four plurals, of which No. 13
jL&\
signifies eyes and fountains. A word which takes pluralis sanus

may have also one or more broken plurals.

305. The following are forms of pluralis fractus from singular

nouns with four or more consonants.

1. JJUi plural of quadriliterals, with or without J in addition,

(a) whose four consonants are radical, and (J) formed

from triliteral roots by prefixing \ L^J or * ;
as

cAs^ a frog cjUL?, the east &.uL*, the west

^j+* Cpy*''*

iLjj\xJ+, Xj&* candlestick, minaret

jfa* and JJll* (compare
240) vulg.^jl;^, J<1^; source jjlA*.

2. J-Jl*J plural of quinqueliterals, with or without $ in addition,

of which the penult is a letter of prolongation ;

as

written *J^J\&, ^^> a chair

^ ^&r* , (see

3. j
plural of many relative adjectives (see 249) and other
nouns with four or more letters ;
as

a Moor jli* ,
Pharoah
s
REM. e. A few nouns have anomalous plurals, as
JfVjj
a woman

(see 304 No. 5 rem.) *LlJ which word , is from jj*j! whence also
a human being pi. (JwU! ;
this we may abbreviate to ^l)
especially with the article, thus J^jl^Jl ,
much as duV has become

lijf.
 306. We have noted the restriction ( 302 rem. a] that mascu-
line sound plurals can only be used of rational beings :
they are
said by grammarians to mean several individuals; whereas the

broken plural is by nature a collective and feminine in gender,

being represented by the feminine singular pronoun ;

thus \j

3
la kXs we h ave written upon
T^P ^ ^
i<^ the tablets, so take them.

REM. Beside broken plurals there are the two sorts of collectives
mentioned in 292 a and b :

~ *
IT
(a) generic nouns (jjj^Ls *U^\) which form nomina unitatis
1 '

(see 246) ;
and

(b) nouns to which attaches the idea of collectiveness (*U-iT

_Xs? '
or -*^ *ui> 1 likenesses of the plural) and which do not

form nomina unitatis; as &\ a section of a nation, + a people, etc.,

"
thus i^jo^J <&\ \
of the people there is a section who direct
/*jjJ {ly*

(not which directs) others.

NOTE. As nomen verbi &] appears in 198 No. 12, and as

singular of i^l in 304 No. 1. Beside being nomen verbi (198

s < \

No. 25), e^u3 with the signification of plants is a collective, of

sort a though without nomen unitatis, and makes a plural tUulp.

307. In case of nouns which have only one plural there can be

no difficulty of selection ; but, while the rest are called plurals of

abundance, those in 304 numbered 12, 13, 14 and 15 as well as

the sound are called plurals of paucity, being used when the

objects denoted are ten or less. Thus /lJj\ Z$~> six days pi. fr. 14

(for Jjj!) of ijj a day.

 90

308. In Arabic there are three cases Nominative Dependent

and Accusative, each with its case-ending or sign : we shall

however speak of the Oblique case when one and the same sign

indicates both Dependent and Accusative. The following tables

show how to decline undefined nouns by means of a copper

^JLLJ

coin, XilJ a night, Iff? stars (pi. fr. 6 of

jU?^),
^iLU two

dominions, ^ZZJ^s*- two loons, ^5JLi dwellers, ml .

j.U good

things, tf^.\ letter, *lio (fern.) white, jV^7 followers (pi.

fr. 16

of
jLjl_J).
Nouns ending with *, whether broken plural or

singular, mark the accusative differently (see 8 rem. a) from

other triptotes i.e. nouns with three case-endings.

TRIPTOTE OR FIRST DECLENSION.

Masc. sing. Fern. sing. Broken pi.

Nominative

Dependent

Accusative ..
DUAL.
Masculine. Feminine.

Nominative

Oblique

SOUND PLURAL.
Masculine. Feminine.

Nominative
WJ
Oblique
 01

Except in the sound plural (see 302) it makes no difference

whether the noun be adjective or otherwise and so with diptotes ;

i.e. nouns with two case-endings.

DIPTOTE OE SECOND DECLENSION.

Masc. sing. Fern. sing. Broken pi.

Nominative . .

Oblique . . .

In the dual diptotes and triptotes are alike, thus Nom. ^

Obi. /./-.*-' and so in the sound plural.

NOTE. For declension of ,'^>-

see 312.

KEM. b. No colloquial dialect of Arabic employs case-endings

regularly ;
duals are rare, and in sound plurals only the oblique

case is used.

309. We call nouns diptote when ending in _L, ^ ,

or :

such are the following.

(a) Broken plurals in 304 numbered 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23

and 24 ;
also those in 305 numbered 1 and 2 ;
beside a few

others.

(b) Various nouns, more especially adjectives such as are found

in 232 Nos. 13 and 16, also in 234, 295 and 296 ;
beside

others.

(c) Many proper names, as liU Mecca ; especially if foreign

to Arabic, as
j-o^pj! Israel, J^l j David, & Pharaoh, ^j^J-fc

Aaron, i-c.ly Joseph. Exceptional are such as consist of three

 92

letters, the second of which has sukun or is a letter of pro-

^ /
longation, thus ~Ly Noah.

HEM. e. There are said to be nine reasons why a noun is

debarred from taking tanwin.

310. Nouns ending in \ or $ (for J_^_ ^- see

or
gg
212 b and 245) have the same form in all three cases ; thus

for f-fl^- , j-flp-

or \^'os. we write L^2,r. a stick

guidance

Similarly we leave unchanged nouns ending in ^ ^- (see 309)

such as gl^ir. (fem.) angry, .j^ nearer, ,^y* Hfoses.

311. "With nouns ending in (for j ,

or
^ _. see

167 i ii and 369 Table xvm) it is somewhat different, for we

write

llcto a preacher as the Accusative of c^ i.e.

J-

&U negative
transgressor ,,

ANb ctft
^1 (pl.fr. 13)
<^

following in this the analogy of 166 0.

312. There are however certain broken plurals ending with

'
which is held to represent .
They do not follow either of

the last two rules ;

thus
<^l>- a girl has pi. fr. 16 U>~ ^n ^e
Nominative and Dependent, but jjii~ ^ n ^ e Accusative ;
so also
 a desert has pi. 23 Nom. and Dep.
fr.
js*, but Accusative

313. Undefined nouns become defined : 1. by prefixing the article

(j\
the ;
2 (a) by adding a defined noun in the dependent case, or
(b) by adding a pronominal suffix.

REM. Proper names are in themselves defined, as are the pro-

nouns ^i> he etc. and -words like \j this, that (see 340 et seq.).
? it,"
NOTE. A noun cannot have Jwo determinatives ;
thus
uJ^cV \

the uppermost parts and c?lsr^ ^

J^cl
the uppermost parts of the
partition.

314. "When a noun is defined by the article, the following cases

arise.

(a) If it be triptote it loses the tanwin ;

thus

Nominative . .

Dependent . .

Accusative . .
JJXll . . Xilil . .

EEM. From the accusative final \ has disappeared along with

&-' i
tanwin : so also from words like ^Jja V \ defined ace. of Ju\ .

(b) If diptote it becomes triptote ;

thus

Nominative.

Dependent .
{J

Accusative .
 94

If pluralis sanus feminine it loses tanwin ;

thus
(c)

Nominative .
'
*fc? ^1 Oblique . C1J

REM. a. Prefixing the article causes no change in the dual or

pluralis sanus masculine.

REM. b. From the termination tanwin is lost and ^ re-

appears, as -JUXJ \ the thrower from <_*-L* , .<**) \ the blind (man)
Sr jo , *,
Sr*

from * , iCJuV I M0 hands from Jo I .

NOTE. Nouns ending in 1 or $ (for J ^_ or & see

310) merely lose the tanwin, as LsxJl,

315. The followirig cases arise when a noun is in construct

state, i.e. when there is appended to it a defined noun in the

dependent case (see 475).

(a) We decline singulars and broken plurals as if defined by the

article ;
thus

Nom.
the seekers ^A(? eastern parts
Dep.
of knowledge. of the earth.
Ace.

NOTE. As to all see 482.

REM. a. Certain defective substantives (see 191 Note) lengthen

their final vowel after rejecting tanwin ;
thus

Nom. jM brother for T, Dep. j for ), Ace. li| for If.

(i) the dual loses from its termination, as

^j

the two children of the

<4^U!T IjJj king for
 (c) The pluralis sanus masculine loses ^ from its termination, as

f send the sons of Israel for

316. When the noun is defined by a 'pronominal suffix the

following cases arise.

(a) Triptotes and feminine sound plurals lose tanwin, duals and
masculine sound plurals the termination ^ or ^ ;
thus l&<3o her

hand from 5u, *l-^ fo* sfoV? from LAC, ISJ&K owr tt?or<fo from

C^U1, (JlxjJJ Ay too Aw^ from ^J, *^ ^ attainers of it

from

NOTE. In the Nominative and Dependent we have ^\

"
our
7. 1 3.

hands and in the Accusative uj[<^ from S$\ Ace. LJAJ^ .

(5) The singulars, broken plurals, and feminine sound plurals

lose their final vowel before \^ of me, my (see 317) ;
thus

,j->j my Lord from <^>j, icj^i^l my works from jU^l ,

^JlJLsj-
my gardens from <JL?L^- .
Having lost its case-endings the noun
becomes, so to speak, indeclinable.

(c) When a noun ends in s we use the original form viz. C^J ;

thus (*
y"-\ J
1
^y ^odk from JL^J
1 .

(e?) When a noun ends in 'alif mobile or hamzah, this letter is

subject to change ;
thus from * tlJ we have Nom. UJ L^J our

women, Dep. Ijj UJ ,

Ace. & UJ .

REM. As regards words referred to in 315 rem. a we must

' y ^
? t '\'
note, Nom. XjS*~\
his brother, Dep. *M ,
Ace. &\*.\ ;
but

my brother in all three cases.

 96

317. The pronominal suffixes which express the dependent are

similar to those given in 185 except that ^j -
of me my takes
t

the place of -J ;
thus U^JaA^ the guarding of them both.

REM. a. Beside ,<** along with me we have by reverting to the

older form ^p* (see 20 b). "When attached to a word ending
with 1 ^ , ^s ,
^ ,
& ,
j orj^-n the suffix ^j
becomes and in most with
^ ,
as ^l.r. my stick ; cases, together

the final letter, it becomes ,

as
^lc upon me (see 358 rem. a).

On etc. see 316 rem.

^\
REM. b. Like
^^J,
we find ^_ especially in the vocative,

shortened to _ ;
thus
*j(S
l
my people for .<*jp , tl/j ( 0) my
Lord for
^J (see 438 a rem. 5).

REM. 0.
Changes occur similar to those in 185 rem. b ; thus
aJjL; by the permission of him, i^j^ljJ fo the beholders of them,

wpon them, && j between his two hands.

318. The cardinal numbers from one to ten are :

Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc.

fc- 6

5 o
y^x-
10
 97

REM. a. For clJJ and words like it see 6 rem. a. The

2
radical letters of c^> are (jwJu-o (see 328 rem. c].

319. The cardinal numbers from 3 to 10 take the feminine

form, when the objects numbered are of the masculine gender;

and conversely, the masculine form, when the objects numbered

are feminine : as C?ljt seven verses.

320. Excepting the duals gjj,, and ^xU. or

^jL;, the

cardinal numbers from 1 to 10 are triptote ; (j\^J standing for

^JU3 (see 311) Accusative &UJ.

^&/

321. Cardinal numbers from 3 to 10 are substantives: either

(a) they follow the objects numbered and stand in apposition, as

of three men i.e. of men, a triad; or (b) they are

*"
,-*
followed by a plural noun in the dependent case, as +\->\ &-~>
?\

six days. For the multiples of 100 see 325 and 496 rem. a.

REM. "When these numerals take the article they lose tanwln,
as also when in construct state or defined by a pronominal suffix ;

Nom. and Dep.

while a Uj has
^UJ Ace.
^jJUJ.
322. The cardinal numbers from eleven to nineteen are :

Fern. Masc. Fern. Masc.

15 11

16 , ... . _
17

is 13

19
 98

M. a. We find i* UJ and other forms, for 'iJ$

REM. b. These cardinal numbers are followed by the objects

numbered in the accusative singular.

REM. c. These numerals may be called indeclinable, except

v
J\ and a^Jbjs.
(l-fL *) 1.1L3J. which have an oblique case

REM. d. Since long ago these compound numerals have suffered

contraction into one word, and are further corrupted in colloquial

dialects.

323. The cardinal numbers from twenty to ninety are :

80 jL,
60
&$ 40
&{r^ 20

90 g 70 ^^i 50 ^JiJ 30

REM. a. For ^^Jo and ^jL*J see 6 rem. a.

REM. J. While of common gender these numerals are declined

as masculine sound plurals, taking an oblique case in -

C ^ -* ^
^j ;

thus etc. are substantives and

^J^L, ^fp-JLJ, ^...^jjl, They
usually take after them the objects numbered in the accusative

singular (see 499).

324. Numerals compounded of units and tens require and

j
between the unit and the ten thus Nom. mne
;
^^LX> ?-*"l

and Ace.
fifty, fifty nine, Dep. ^-j^cLj ^J, ^^

325 The multiples of UU ow^ hundred are as follows ;

200 300 ^U
, Cjl5, 400 ^U jjf ,
etc.
 99

KBIT. a. For aLJt we may write a!jl and (see 17 b rem. b]

1*, which last represents the usual pronunciation. There are

other plurals beside the one mentioned in 301 rem. d.

S o*
326. The multiples of e_fLS\ one thousand are as follows;

2000 jf\, 3000 ^T Oi3, 4000 ujiT &;f ; oI S x*

,
etc.

REM. There are other plurals of uJLM beside uJ^ 1.

Jft,
Jvi
fern.
^jJj^l
the first, masc ^L* fern. 4-^4 U second, masc. uLJL>
fern. alLlU MinZ, masc fern. etc.
juJ^J &Ju\j fourth,
^

Jlc
)V 1
(see 295 rem. b) and

or are or These words

^J/iM (for ^pjfS'l JP$\) J^l jtj.
have plurals, and will be further treated in 486 rem. a.

REM. c. From masc. ^jU fern. a^jU sixth we can obtain the
5
radical letters of c^~> given in 318 rem. a, as also from the

fraction \J^$J^ a sixth part.

340. The simple demonstrative pronoun is J fAw, A0, which

in course of declension takes many forms, the commonest plural

being, masc. J! fern. *% \

these, those.
*
\''
REM. c Closely connected by origin with i J is J possessor,

which is also declined, making in the singular feminine Nom.

' * ' ''
\''
CUM \

Dep. d^' J Ace. CUJ,

\
none of which are found except in

construct state (see 481).

 100

X , . X, J'X,

REM. d. By prefixing LLzlike to \J we get |J& ^w, so and so.

341. From the simple demonstrative pronoun compounds, which

admit of declension, are formed (a] by appending d/LL/ L*^ i-a

or
^ either (i) alone, or (ii)
with J interposed ;
also (b) by

prefixing LJ& .

a (i) clSl tfAatf is used whatever the sex or number of persons

addressed; but we may say to a woman LL^J, to two persons

> x ^ '* ^ ^'*
U^^J, etc. The plurals cl/^l and LLxj^l ^os^ are of common

gender.

(ii) Similarly LG^ or cl3ll 3 ^^^ is used in conjunction with

pronominal suffixes of the second person ;

thus --5^ -J therein
(

you.

REM. By prefixing tl/ like to (JjJ J we get LlXl JJ' m like

manner, so, see 463.

b. The particle U (which is also an interjection see 368) we

may prefix to \<3 and write ! Jub this ;
which word has a singular

feminine |JJ&, and as one of its plurals or ase of

*YjU ^TljLjb

common gender.

345. We find in Arabic only one article, viz.

J \
,
\vhich is

called the instrument of definition and always written in con-

junction with the following word ;

thus
>TjJ
a reading
;TjJbl
the reading, the Cordn.
 101

REM. a. The article is also called *

u^*il ('alif being

merely prosthetic, see 19 rem. c) the

Urn of definition, and it is

said to have two uses :

(i) J^XJ \ L] the article of familiarity when its presence implies

that the word, to which it is attached, expresses a thing or person

s iCo ^
known to the hearer; thus
^^V ^
^)^j-i. they shall inherit the

earth i.e. the earth which we know :

(ii) ^. t y 1 1$ the generic article, not implying that the word,

to which it is prefixed, expresses an individual person or thing ;

in this case it shows the genus by indicating one member of

~& i *
a class ;
thus ^jlSJLM &*&i his mother shall have a sixth.

NOTE. Arabic and some other languages are more regular than

English in respect of the generic article, for one says "Man is

mortal " but
'

The horse is a quadruped," whereas in these cases

we must write Lwjj Vhomme and wjul le cheval.

346. Among the conjunctive pronouns are masc. ^jJl fern.

who, which, that ;

^ he icho, she who, whoever ;
Ui that which,

whatever. They are also called relative pronouns and, with ex-

ception of ^^\, are interrogative (see 351).

347. As may be found in 20 b, initial J^ of

^^ \
represents

the article, to which is joined J (see 341 a ii)

and !j or^J

(see 340). Of the many forms taken in declension we must,

beside .--fj-M the feminine singular, mention the masculine plural
 102

OJJJ. When used adjectively (as above) these words refer to

a definite substantive with which they agree in gender number

and case; thus <L&-Lr^ ^ JJ 1 <LL!I God who created it, uoj^\
Uijljf' ^-sJ
\ the land which We blessed : when used substantively
x
*"*'
^*
however they have the meaning of * or I*, thus
^-J^J
\
ui^c!
We drowned those who.
f. & .~o
REM. b. The nominatives must originally have been^ jJJ \ and
1 but in place of these words the oblique case is always
l^jOuJ
used (see 308 rem. 5) and a shortened form.

348. The conjunctive pronouns and L* are indeclinable :

jJ*
the former refers to beings endowed with reason, as
{^J*j ^5-^-*
<&* Moses and those who (are] with him while the latter is used ;

of all other objects, as ,jje l^j ly reason of that which he has done.
'
**'*
Unlike t/A-Jl these words can never be used adjectively.

351. All conjunctive pronouns are interrogative except

^JJ],
thus L^J\
^ who art thou ? Jxi U what has he done? see 570.

REM. The interrogative U is

usually shortened to + when

joined with a preposition, thus ^J why? i.e. because of what?

So also \^S the like of what ? becomes '+ and il how much ?

353*. The pronouns .Ji and u are sometimes indefinite. Of

this sort is
Spk^MJ \ U the md which introduces a clause equivalent

to a magdar (see 488 and 514) ;

thus ^J^>-
}
U jJiJ W^
^ ' " after

that thou earnest which is equivalent to i_L^* J&j ajter thy

 103

coming. TVe find the indefinite L in conditional clauses

(llLjJjT U 406), also in reference to time (JUjJUllT U

367 p and 407) ;
when added to certain adverbs it gives them

13.
a conditional and general signification, thus ui-Jf~&- where

wherever, ^i\ where? U^jj wherever ;

if appended
f

to J^ , ^,
U
1
y
*
.Jv.

etc.,

it hinders their regimen (dLsULjT I* 436 rem. d) ;

sometimes it

is attached to a preposition
(*J^Jj-i
\ U 470 rem. /) ;
and there

are other uses for which it serves.

NOTE. Similar to the adverbs mentioned above is

U^ (for UU)
whatever from I* what.

354. The particles are of four sorts ;

viz. prepositions, adverbs,

conjunctions, and interjections.

355. The prepositions are divided into separable, i.e. those

written as separate words, and inseparable i.e. those which are

united in writing with the following word.

356. The inseparable prepositions consist of one consonant with

its vowel. They are :

(a) c-> by, by means of, by reason of, for the reason, in, on, with, to,

of, in exchange for, see 456.

x-

(b) C^J by in swearing, see 462.

(c) J belonging to, for the use of, to, due to, in, for, of, see 453.

(d} by in swearing, see 462.

 KM

M. a. Changes occur after L_> similar to those in 185 rem. b,

as *j , UJ ;
see also 20 rem. a.

REST. b. Before a pronominal suffix the preposition J becomes <J,

as <U ,
lJ etc. ; except with ^ me when we have
^1 .

REM. o.
Erroneously L> like is reckoned among prepositions :

it will be treated in 463.

357. The separable prepositions are of two sorts :

firstly, those

which have different terminations and are biliteral or triliteral ;

secondly, those which are substantives in the accusative singular

and end in _^_ , having lost tan win on account of the following noun.

358. The separable prepositions of the first sort are :

(a) ^j to, towards, until, see 451.

(b) ^^ s> s
till, see 452.

(c) ^z over, upon, against, to, for, on account of, concerning, by

means of, incumbent upon, see 459.

(d} ^ from, away from, of, see 449.

(*) ^J in, into, over, among, upon, on, concerning, treating of,

see 455.

(/) U& or *-^ w tth, beside, near, see 458.

or see 457.
(g} ^J* <jLZ with, along with,

(h) ^
jr
of, to,
o
from, on* out of, see 20 d and 448.

(t) && or &tfrom a certain time, since, see 461.

 105

REM. a. Before suffixes the final syllables of \z> and

jVjJi
i_jjJ are diphthongs ;
thus
f\ to thee, \& over us. Changes
occur similar to those in 185 rem. I * ^em
;
^-^5} (fern.),

lj*-^jLLc over them loth. "With

^ me we have J^Jl
to me etc.,

and in case of
^j as CL->^ fo/ter relating to me
^i Jj (see

317 rem. a).

REIT. 5. In connection with ^_$ we double the ^ of

^^c, ^y/,
and JJ, thus ^^ /rom 010. The y; of ^c and
^ is assimilated

in connection with
^ or lj, thus Ll ^ji
j. <A^y w?^r disobedient

in that which for U ^c (see 14 ft).

359. Separable prepositions of the second sort have been

described in 357 and will be further treated in 444 ft.

Among them
?
are &xj after,
^3 between, (^s? under, uJ&-
< *
behind,

^. J "beneath, *&& beside, in the mind of, '& above, over, J-.^.a before

of time (see 466 to 4/0).

360. The adverbs are of three sorts ; firstly, particles some

inseparable and some separable ; secondly, indeclinable substantives

ending in J- ; thirdly, nouns in the accusative.

361. The inseparable adverbial particles are :

(a) \, interrogative, see 566.

8
 106

1 T.

KI.M. When this 1 is followed by we write the two thus \

,
|

as V id ! *fla// ^<?n? indeed be to us a reward ?

|jL>- j5

(J (abbreviation of see 364 e) prefixed to a verb in the

(b) uJj

imperfect to express more emphatically its future sense.

(c) J verily, surely, certainly. As

^?jJ jJf-jJT lie c^il^ ^ iJ T

C
? Jr
T 5
jLJj
clJ Verily if thou removest from us the plague, surely

we will believe with thee, and we will certainly send. This la is

always affirmative, and of it there are said to be five sorts.

362. Among the separable adverbial particles are :

and behold lol Of these is followed only by

(b) Jj U| I

\^
a nominal proposition (see 513) and refers to the same

time as the preceding statement.

(e}
it truly, see 568.

() ^ not, called tlttJf

^j the negative 'in, see 558.

(
m ) U\ vejr ify precedes a noun in the accusative or one of the

pronomimal suffixes given in 185; but the 1st singular

can be
^J |
or
?
^3
" j
and the 1st plural
U.j|
or Li
s
j.
In such
i ,~0
case the suffix a may be ^UL) 1 the pronoun of the fact,
j-?**e
not being needed to express the sentence's meaning, thus
/i -*>'**&
<UJ \ Ul <Uj i<*n7y / am God (see 367 g}. By means of

\ the subject may be introduced, upon which often follows

a predicate with j (see 361 c) as i-.li l^L^J 1 li ^

 107

verily this (man) is a skilled magician. For government by

see 436.
>j

() U3 j only, truly, see 436 rem. d and 585.

(?) o 1 y^* y<?<* ;

used with an oath, as <UJ 1
$ ^j\ yes by God,
"*
c *
whence the vulgar Nubia
\^\ and in
Jj-Jl
for which at

Damascus +AJ ^\ is said.

(*) ^1 where? Ull wherever, see 353*.

(u) ^^JJ y<?, yea sometimes to be translated (as in Goran Ixiv, 7)

on the contrary, for to a negative statement it gives con-

tradiction. Compare si in French.

(z) oJ is usually employed with the perfect (see 402, 403 b)

to express more emphatically its past sense : when used

with the imperfect we render bJ sometimes.

(bb) \ thus (
340 rem. d) and LlXlxf in like manner

(
341 a rem.).

(dd) ]| not is used :

(i) as negative of the future and of the indefinite present,

see 408 e rem. a, 439, 555, and 584 a ;

as representative of the other negatives after

(ii) ^ and, see
482 d rem., 560, and 580 ;

(iii)
as negative of the jussive, see 417 b and 420.
 108

(ee) 4 , ,
o^en with ^ prefixed but, yet (see
584 ft).
We
place .?i-J only before nouns and pronominal
suffixes in the

accusative case (see 436). "With the 1st person we may

write llj as well as

is used with the jussive which is then perfect in sense,

see 412 and 418.

not a contraction of S (i.e. 5 7 t?/ wo ft

^0)
(hh) ^J >! >!
>jf
is followed by the subjunctive, see 411, 415 a i, and 556.

(kk) L* wo^ negative of the definite or absolute present see

408 e rem. a and 531 ;

also of the past see 557.

(mm] *x3 yes, yea (for 1x3 it is agreeable) affirms the preceding

statement.

(00) J-k interrogative, see 567.

(qq) UJz> demonstrative here] whence (see 341 for an analogy)

there.

363. "We have treated in 357 and 359 certain accusative

substantives which serve as prepositions ;
the same nouns may
be used as adverbs, but they must invariably end in JL. Thus

afterwards; cL^- where, cJ~4-^- ^-* whence,

whither, Uii*- wherever (see 353* and 406) ;

j, t ^
lj , JiJ ^ beforehand.

364. The Arabic language would however be poor in adverbs

but for the adverbial accusative which 7

is
extensively used as will
 109

be learned from 422 b and 444. Here we may mention IjJl

<5-

ever, \^x-^*>- all together. Also, of the same class are the

adverbs :

(e) in the end is prefixed to the imperfect to express real

uJj
futurity, see 361 b, 408 c, and 587 d.

how 406) as so that he may see

(g} i-Jtj> (see ^jL&J uJ&JJaj
how ye will act ;
more commonly it is interrogative, how ?

REM. b. For JxJ see 436 rem./and 442 rem. g.

365. The conjunctions, like prepositions and adverbs, are some

inseparable and some separable.

366. The inseparable conjunctions are :

(a) $ and, see 576 to 583.

^
(b) t~j so, and so, so that, and thereupon, then, see 406 c, 415 d,

540, 576, and 587.

REM. These conjunctions ^ and t_ may be preceded by I (see

361 a), thus

ji&5 $*\ D U* not therefore understand?

(c) (j . This may be (i) the li of command (see 417 a) which is

usually prefixed to the 3rd sing, of the jussive, to give it an

imperative sense ;
and when following ^ or u-J is written

without kasrah thus J : or (ii)

the li which governs the

subjunctive and means that, so that, in order that (see 411

and 415 b).

 110

367. Among the separable conjunctions are these :

4\ when is prefixed to a verbal or nominal proposition

and
(a)

refers to the past ;

thus
plii^l ^ and (remember the time]

ichen We delivered you.

see 405.
(b) \j[ whenever,

\
that, so that, in order that governs the subjunctive (see 41 1
(*)

and 415 a i); also the perfect and indicative (see 415 a ii)
:

it is used after certain prepositions (see 470 rem./and 488).

9 ^ -""
C .-O 5-

Notice must here be taken of iJ&J \

^1 the explicative 'an,

which introduces a quotation, as <jj] j\ if^y* Jj ^^JJ

(J_A-^- JP0 revealed to Ifoses (saying) Throw down tliy rod.

(/) v^i / called

^/^^ ^i ^ 7'^ conditional 'in, see 406 i,

413, 417 c i, and 588. The compounds are :

j\j (although only when no apodosis* follows, most

usually) and if\

verily see 361 0;

^xJ if,

^ &
\
(for I ^1 see 14 i rem. I) if not, but commonly

meaning except and with a preceding negative only,

see 586 a ;

* The a sentence the which expresses

apodosis of is consequent clause,
a result as distinguished
;
from the precedent clause, called protasis, which is
conditional.
 Ill

l^| (for
I* |M see 14 b rem. b) if and when repeated
U! j ..... U! *tMr
C. C, -O <- -^ i.x '
..... or, as
U}; ^fiL" ^ U[
either that thou dost throw or
J^Aii^J
1
^=s^ )j j\ (choose)

that we be the throwers.

(a) )\ that. Like

^| it precedes a noun in the accusative or

one of the pronominal suffixes given in 185; the 1st

a* -T- $"* i>
singular being .
^J\ or ^Jl and the 1st plural \U\ or ut.
?
In such case the suffix s may be pronoun of the fact (see

362 m) as
JucJ Mt^^ ^^^ AJL> because apostles used to

come to them. Beside ^b we have V which also means

because, and J^Li as though, see 436 and 470 rem./.

t ^i
or gatherer or a loser.
(7i) j^ asjLol>- j^l JLlL>-

(i) XJ M^/, flwrf then, implying succession at an interval.

(k] till, see 405 rem. 411, 415 and 452 rem. c.
J*^- c, c,

Beside being a conjunction C !L>- is a preposition see 358 b.

() &J o/for, ^'Aew, is used with the perfect.

(o) )J /, see 404 and 588.

(p) \* as long as, as far as; used with the perfect (see 407) and

jussive (see 418): it is called the ma of duration

(see 353*).

368. The interjections are numerous :

among them we find U 0!
which is used before nouns (see 438 a) without the article, as
 112

1$3
lj
people ;
l^j!
or
Iff!
U \ used before nouns (see 438 5)

with the article, as ^lijT \^f\ \J

mat ;
U /o ! as *y1 ij!
/o ye are those.

369. The following pages supply paradigms of the verbs. First

of all it is essential that Tables I and II be thoroughly well

learnt ;
thus with IJo to wound (see 35 rem. a).

kalama kalamat kalamta kalamti kalamtu

kalama kalamata kalamturaa
kalamu kalamna kalamtum kalamtunna kalamna

yaklimu taklimu taklimu taklimina 'aklimu

yaklimani takliraani taklimani
yaklimuna yaklimna taklimuna taklimna naklimu

Also to be found in Table I are Jsj __ to kill; -^r to collect ;

to lose and J- to be quick.

J.A>>.<- ;
cji
Table III gives lii to wound much and to address, accost ; jib
to fight with ; IJ&1 to preserve and rfwrw Moslem ; *JJLj /o

J..7LLJ to fight with one another ;

jJl_:ClJl
^o ^W5A ;
l/^-
3!

asunder to ask pardon ^o Je yellow.

;
^su&Q ;
Jj;\ andju^l
Tables Y a J and give & _1 ^o extend ; cJU^- ^o ^ w

of love _L ;o fottc^ 6jJ ^o stretch much or o/ifew 3<3t and

;
^JlJ ; ;

3U /o contend in pulling ; 5&! #o increase ;

jj to stretch oneself;

<33UJ and ^UJ of two persons together to stretch a cloth;

to let oneself le dragged] oc^l to become extended; 3&&1 ^o

 113
i
Table VI gives (^j^\ to entertain ; &&\ JL to be well brought
-i* '-* * - *
up ;
Col __ to relate ;
<U 1 ^_ tfo 0rf0r0 ; "+j\ ^L to suffer ; cl^M to bestoto
~
a good education, punish;
Xx"
to consult UJll
< S^ '

f*\ ;
to afflict ; ^J\J to

proclaim ;
^ lJ and
J^y deliberate in common ;
J-sXjl
and
Ja^J,

/w, r^^tW ^a^^ ; J\2\ to ask permission.

Table VII gives (J*l-J '

to be brave ;
(J^J-J -7-
^o i t distress ;

*
Li _n ^o interrogate ;
^o appoint as chief ; 1s V ^o reconcile ;
(Jw|J
.* ^ X - x
V! ^o 80^; (Jw^J ^o become chief; (J^*\Z5 to feign poverty ;

^ *?^ ^o grieve at 1\ tfwywr *W.

itself; (JwU^J ; /t.:;^\

/
la _
1-

Table VIII gives to fc pleasant;

JJ3-^-
^0 ^ /OM> ;

TjJ
^l ^0 r^ ;
^,L^ ^_ ^0 sin ;
LI) ^0 inform \
\'& to read together,

teach mutually ;
\^a\
to teach reading or reciting ; L^^J to call oneself

a prophet ;
LLLfsf* wrongly to attribute error to oneself; I
luJ\ fo

skinned ; \3>\ to administer well ;

}'A r.Li\ ^0 ^tr^ one to read.

Table IX gives i>j to promise; C-^,J

^0 inherit;
J.5-j
ji.

<o /^ar ;
11J ^0 jo/^y a^ hazard and ^ay ;
^o ^ws^ ^0
<*l^Jji^

inherit; tr&\ to feel sure; laJLJ^ to be admonished to divide

;
^+J\
by lot a slain least ;
to expect ;
^0 i^ ^sy.
^Jijp^jl Jjuh&jl.

Tables X to XIII give JlJ _L ^o *ay ;

jLi
_ to go ; ujl^
make go continue in com-
^o/ear ;
^^ to fashion; ^> to ;
jU? to

pliance; y5\^i to accompany; \s\-.\ to encompass, comprehend; JjJiJ

to counterfeit, forge; *+J to appear clear; to help one

jfe*J
 Ill

another to travel in to be driven to

;
^j\Lj company, j ;
j^Ls
choose ] *\Ji^\ to hold oneself upright.

Tables XIV to XVIII give U-JJ-^- to hope for ^cj^S to direct ;

to le pleased ; ^j% to make pass and to give a verb

%-<>j

a transitive signification ; .J^ #^'0 mutually; <*^Tj\ to put of;

& ^ x- ' ' ' '

'\\
AST* ^o wifl^ oneself manifest to exalt oneself] .Is^i ^o fo
',
.jlvv
manifested] ^j'jb\ to be directed aright] **;*[ to ask for drink.

Concerning the vocalization of Derived Forms, it maybe helpful

to note that, in the perfect active, fathah is characteristic vowel

of all : but in the imperfect active we find (except for iv having

sukun to the first radical) in Forms n in and iv

UA I
......
in Forms v and vi

AAAA
and in Forms vn vin and x (sukun being duly noted)

AA I ..... '

In the perfect passive we find

U I
....... as
$ JJy jjj etc.

and in the imperfect passive

U A A ..... as
fa JJ& r
Lj etc.

NOTE. Nomina verbi are treated in 195 to 212 ;

while

inmiiiia agentis et patientis find place in 229, 230, 236 et seq.

 115

FIRST FORM OF THE STRONG VERB.

TABLE I. ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ.i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

m. 3.
Sing.

m. 2.

m. 3. Dual

c 2

m. 3. Plur.

. i.
 116

TABLE I. (continued.)

Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

2. Singular

2. Dual

2. Plural

VERBS WITH OTHEE CHARACTERISTIC VOWELS.

We have seen however, in 91, 92 and 93, that all strong
verbs are not conjugated like the above ;
for instance,

Imperative Imperfect Perfect

Indicative

m. 3.
Singular

ijJLjL) C LiJ m. 2.

m. 3. Singular

m. 2.

m. 3. Singular

* J V * X JX

PJ J cj > m. 3. Singular

m. 2.
 117

FIRST FORM OF THE STRONG VERB.

TABLE II. PASSIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

ra. 3.
Sing.
Q } 6 * J x x J

.jus

m. .

O m. 3. Dual

ul

Ci 2.

m. 3. Plur.

Ml 3 x J J ^ J J x ft J
m. 'J.
 118

DERIVED FORMS OF THE STRONG VERB.

TABLE III.

PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect

J313 J5Uy JJ15

x ^
is
.
^ J .
> xxOP

JJUlj ^3^"* Jjj^AJ tJ^lA^I jjUj VI

VII

VIII

0x0 dxOx 5x0

U*?l XI
 119

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE

RADICAL DOUBLED.
TABLE V.a. ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. I. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

a *> j * ojdx
m. 3. Sing.

m. .

5 5 jS j

jut c. 1.

ra. 3. Dual

c. 2.

IjjJ m. 3. Plur.

m. 2.

f.

c. 1.
 120

TABLE V. a. (continued.)

Imperative.
Feminine Common Masculine
) OJ J J
ci-
.ijuot 2. Singular
x J OJ
2. Dual

2. Plural

We find also in the Imperative JLC, j^ and jcc ;

while the
u Jx w* J x ii J x

Jussive has also *>-*.), JLOJ and JLO-J.

VEEBS WITH OTHEE CHAEACTEEISTIC VOWELS.

Attention is drawn in 1205 to these verbs, which have
peculiarities beside those below :

Imperative. Imperfect. Perfect.

Jussive. Indie.

m. 3. Sing.

00 2
^~*>J ^
41. 2.

j j

m. 3. Sing.

m. 2.
 121

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE

RADICAL DOUBLED.
TABLE V. 6. PASSIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. I. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

m. 3. Sing.

m. 2.

c. 1.

5 x

m. 3. Dual

c. 2.

ix
m. 3. Plur.

1,* X &
m.

c. 1.
 122

DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH MIDDLE

RADICAL DOUBLED.
TABLE V. c.

PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect

II

iJ>o III
.
u
,.j

IV

J 5 XX.

iiCJ]
VI
iCJ

^\ VII

sir VIII
fixo
 123

VERBS WITH INITIAL RADICAL HAMZATED.

TABLE VI.
PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect
o

x I Ox Jxg
dJI AJbt AJU

Jxcx

' -I * 3 WxJ

\J^>\ IV
o 2cx j 5xx xix

0^x0 J^xOx
Oifc*t xxxO^^J x x

Form VII is not found.

 124

VERBS WITH MIDDLE RADICAL HAMZATED.

TABLE VII.

PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect,

>t .***> L*k

J.C.

tt JU1
x Jt
Ji-i

f
II

III

IV

VI

VII

VIII

0x0 J OxOx x x
X
 125

VERBS WITH FINAL RADICAL HAMZATED.

TABLE VIII.

PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie. Perfect Tmpera. Indie. Perfect
I Ox *,

ft

2x0., IxO xOx

|x

i
II

III

IV
t i- -j fix

tuui VI
1 xOx
CLo ,-^ji i Vil

2 x xOx fx x
VIII

2x x j e. o i o i
X
 12G

VERBS WITH OR AS INITIAL RADICAL.

TABLE IX.

PASSIVE. ACTIVE.

Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect

4:

*
1

Of- J J * ,0f.
IV

VIII

Fin-ins II, III, V and VI resemble strong verbs, and VII is

not found.
 127

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH _,

AS
MIDDLE RADICAL
TABLE X. ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj.

Jl5 m. 3.
Sing.

CJIS f .

?^
m. 2.

cJISf.

cJJ c. 1.

Njll m. 3. Dual

Ullf.
^ A

c. 2.

m. 3. Plur.

x Jx x J .

m. .

US c. 1.
 128

TABLE X. (continued.)

Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

2.
J3 Singular

2. Dual

2. Plural.

TABLE XL
Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

2. Singular

2. Dual

2. Plural

TABLE XI. a.

Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

2. Singular

uu. 2. Dual

2. Plural
 129

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS

MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XI. (continued from page 128). ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

m. 3. Sing.

m. 2.

w C. 1.

t;L, m. 3. Dual

UjCf.

c. 2.

m. 3. Plur.

m. 2.

' , *

i-j C. 1.
 130

MUST FORM OF THE VERB WITH j KASRATED

AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XL a. (continued from page 128). ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj.

m. 3. Sing.

f.

m. 2.

f.

UU.I Jllf c. 1. .

L m. 3. Dual

;*. c. 2.

lli m. 3. Plur.

m. 2.
 131

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ OR

AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XII. PASSIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

Iu5 m. 3. Sing.

JIB OJLJf.

J> JU5 JU5

cJbi

c. 1.
J15! J15!

m. 3. Dual

C&c. 2.

t^JL5 m. 3. Plur.

Ox J x x J

61 i
J *r J J f

kyu m. 2.

Jii uis c. .
 132

DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH ^ OR

AS MIDDLE RADICAL.
TABLE XIII.
PASSIVE. ACTIVE.
Indie Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect

** J Ul fJ
II

gjli
III

3. m. Sing.
iuJ IV
2. m.

o Z** j Z".

VI

x 3. m. Sing.
J-JI VII
it 2. m.

3. m. Sing.
VIII
2. m.

0x0 J s
t 3. m. Sing.

. m.
 133

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS

FINAL RADICAL.

TABLE XIV. ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Indie.

1 Ox

U*.j
m. 3. Sing.

m. 2.

f.

Oft J Of O'e.

c. 1.

m. 3. Dual

. c. 2.

m. 3. Plur.

J x x J 0.

a i o OJO x x
m. 2.

. i.
 134

TABLE XIV. (continued).

Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

J J J
2. Singular
j-jt

' 1 OJ
2. Dual

! JJJ 2. Plural

TABLE XV.
Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

o
2. Singular

2. Dual

2. Plural

TABLE XVI.
Imperative.

Feminine Common Masculine

* o
2. Singular
*?;!

2. Dual

2. Plural
 135

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ AS

FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XV. (continued from page 134). ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ.i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

m. 3. Sing.

f.

ra.

c. 1.

CjJb m. 3. Dual
"
f.

c. 2.

fi * Ox J Ox JO.
m. 3. Plur.

2 jo x j Ox
m.

(LjJb C. 1.
 13G

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH MIDDLE

RADICAL KASRATED AND ^ OR ^ AS
FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XVI. (continued from page 134). ACTIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

f 0*
m. 3. Sing.

f.

m. 2.

f.

c. 1.

m. 3. Dual

f.

c. 2.

m. 3. Plur.

,*il
J X

p!**>i m. 2.

%t
i*- c. 1.
 137

FIRST FORM OF THE VERB WITH ^ OR

AS FINAL RADICAL.

TABLE XVII. PASSIVE.

Imperfect. Perfect.

Energ. i. Jussive. Subj. Indie.

WxxOJ xOj xOj xOJ

wj m. 3. Sing.

Z * * 6 1

m. 2.

" f.

c. 1.

ra. 3. Dual

c. 2.

ra. 3. Plur.

ra. 2.

c. 1.
 138

DERIVED FORMS OF VERBS WITH j OR ^

AS FINAL RADICAL.
TABLE XVIII.
PASSIVE ACTIVE
Indie. Perfect Impera. Indie. Perfect
, , w * ' * * * *

n. pat., m. ^juco f. Sljuuo n. ag., m. JAA f.

JbU ,>U III

yfc^
' * J * J G' * J
n. pat., m. , J?L^o f. d'Jdl&o n. ag., m. 1U^ f.

0* , Of. OS. OJ 'Qt

n. pat., m. i^^j-o f.
olo^o n. ag., m. ->.j-o
f.

5^xJ 5 x x J UxxJ 5--.4XX

n. pat.,m.
^Xa^JLc
f. 5^JU n. ag., ra. JjJU f. 2-J.a

vi
n. pat., m.
^UU f. S'NjlxLe n. ag., m. Jbu* f.

n. pat., m.
^^X&^uf. 3>a*Lo n. ag., in. J.a~U f.

VIII

n. pat., m. ^juy-o f.
Slju^-o n. ag., ni. j^
f
^ f. 2u
"

xOxOJ X^OJOJ 0x0 OxOx xOxO

 PART III.

SYNTAX.

[From section numbers below there must be subtracted 400, in order to ascertain

the corresponding section of Wright's Arabic Grammar, vol. it.]

401. We have observed in 77 that an Arabic verb has two

States : of these the Perfect indicates,

?
an act completed at some time past, as *Ju
(a)
^j* j->

Moses plucked out his hand ;

(b) an act which has been already completed at the moment of

speaking, and remains so, thus

^LiJ^C l^-M i>~*j! ^LJ! Jl&l
'
s C-O sS '

J^JU)] (
Jx shall I seek for you an object of worship other than

God, seeing that He has favoured you above all creatures ?

a past action which still continues, as Cp^JJSJ! &??

(c) ^>5
His throne comprises the heavens ;

(d) an act just completed at the moment of speaking, as c^J

I
Lljj^ repent
toward Thee ;

(e) in treaties, promises, bargains and the like, an act which,

though future, is quite certain ;

(/) something desired, as <Ou! <U^ God have mercy upon him,

im and grant him peace.

 140

REM. Europeans translate ^*JUlT cl/J <U-N ^v^

God the Lord of all creatures, but the verb is declarative (see 50

rem. a).

402. The perfect is often preceded by bJ (see 362 a) to add

assurance of completeness ;
which may lie

(a) in certainty, as U-y \JLL^1 JJ We sent Noah, L^LsOJ Ls

u so/row #

springs gushed, every tribe assuredly knew their drinking -place ;

or

(b) in being expected or contrary to expectation, as JLJ^>- t\5

du^j / have brought you evidence.

NOTE. If preceded by affirmative the influence of &> in no

J is

way affected.

403. The pluperfect is expressed,

(a) by the simple perfect in a relative or conjunctive clause *

which depends upon a clause in which the verb is perfect ;

thus

gracious word of thy Lord was fulfilled to the sons of Israel by reason

of what they had endured ; (jwliLTf ^z\ \sr* \^\ \&J so when

they had cast, they bewitched men's eyes ;

(b) by the perfect and &J, with or without j, provided the

& 3. ^

preceding clause has its verb in the perfect, as bJ L^Jj

j^jj \*\j
? and when they saw that they had erred ;

*
A rt I;itivu or conjunctive clause is one coupled to its ruling clause by
a relative pronoun or connective
particle.
 141

(0 by (^ t 1> e prefixed to the perfect ;

(d) by ^S and the perfect, with bJ interposed, or prefixed.

404. (a) When two correlative clauses f olio w jJ */ (see 367 o)

or any similar hypothetical particle, perfect verbs in both clauses

may correspond with the English pluperfect subjunctive ;

as

J3 ^ +(&] ^J>> if Thou hadst wished Thou wouldst have

destroyed them beforehand.

405. After \^\ when, whenever, as often as (see 367 b) a perfect

is said to take the imperfect's meaning ;

and perfect verbs in two

correlative clauses have either a present or future signification,

provided the first clause extends its conversive influence to the

verb of the second;

and when
thus *jJz> id
the boon comes to them they will say, This fboonj
\jjlj
iL^sM
fP*^f ^
is due

to us. Sometimes J\ \ is followed by an imperfect, and sometimes

preceded by \? or the like.

HEM. o. So also with two perfect verbs after \ \

,<^- (see

415 o) as l\l> Ijls- 5

cLJoi U| ^Jz^. until, when they (the

winds} bear cloud, We drive it\ or in English idiom, till they bear

cloud, when We drive it.

406. (a) After

^ if (see 367 /) and words similarly of

conditional meaning, the perfect is said to take a future sense and

can be rendered by the English present ; as, for instance, after

 142

^t who, whoever, U what, \A%* whatever, cL*^ ivhere, and the

like. Thus

whoever
^-jJUlT
u wa<fo
^&to ^ward
&\ if we be the victors,

against his covetousness,

^ j^U^
*U>
S|

Aa* fo t0tA<?,
|Jji ^^- ^ ** wherever ye wish. In

ct rtiiin cases this rule applies to *\ or.

(b) If the words j\

etc. be followed by two clauses, the first

expressing a condition and the second its result, both verbs may
be perfect.

(c) If the perfect after ^ etc. is to keep its original sense, ^o

or one of \i c^AlrM the sisters of the verb Mna (see 442) must

stand in the protasis before the perfect verb and uJ must mark
the apodosis. Thus ^ cLui
^ Ijj
Cl/li $S\j (JLi- ^~> Q
^sJ\^\ if thou hast brought a sign, produce it, if thou art of the

truthjul.

(d and e) Other cases arise in the use of ^\ and similar words.

HEM c. "When l etc. are interrogatives or simple relatives, and

?

^-^^- a simple relative adverb, without any conditional signifi-

cation, perfects dependent upon them keep their original sense.

407. After I* as long as (see 367 p) the perfect has a present

or future signification ;
thus
^Sxla^T l <UJ^ \
Jul, fear God as

far as ye are able.

408. The Imperfect Indicative expresses no temporal definition,

but indicates a state existing at any time. Hence it signifies ;
 143

(a) what is always taking, or may at any time take, place (the
indefinite present) ;
as
jj O*^ ^^ T:J^ *** f^e land's} plants

come forth by permission of its Lord:

(b) an incomplete act, commenced and continuing (the definite

c >
> , , .

present) ;
as iJ '^^ I counsel you \ :

(c) what will occur (the simple future), as

,y^*J
9 ex y^.?
t
TTJ^*
^"~ *
<
^^
thus shall We bring forth the dead ;
l&i&sr +^J\ make mention

of the day whereon ILe shall assemble you. The future sense may
^ x x
be made more distinct by using 364 thus
u-5^j (see e], uJylJ
so ye shall know ;
or (j* (see 361 5), thus
S-jj
.> ^
increase to the righteous.

(d) "When appended to the perfect without intervening particle,

it expresses (either what is explained in the following subsection,

or) an act which was future to the past time of which we speak ;

thus <^J3o <*J1*J he sent to inform htm of this.

J-^ji

(e) Under circumstances similar to those mentioned in the

preceding subsection, the imperfect indicative frequently expresses

an act which continues during the past time, and then it can be

translated by the English present participle ;

thus

he grasped the head of his brother, dragging it

towards himself \
&f% ^^j \JUb

ID JiilCj they inherited the book, taking the vain goods of this nearer

(i.e. the present world) and saying, We shall be pardoned.

 144

REM. a. After 5 not the imperfect indicative retains its idea of

incompleteness and duration, as Ij^j Sj ?:s^- ^*?=**- i/P'

a* to that (land) which is lad (plants] do not come forth except

scantily. After U not it has the present sense, as *ASJ U

resent.

409. By prefixing jl? to the imperfect indicative we point out

a ]>
i-t net which continued or was repeated ;
thus \jj\ L*
JKj worthless was what they were doing,
^yUdLJ o
\j> ^.^
00 esteemed weak.

411. The Subjunctive mood has always a future sense after the

adverb ^J no (see 362 hh\ as .^^ thou shalt not see Me :

also after certain conjunctions, amongst which are j\ that, as

*' o ? > s "i

Ix^ysT ,^1 Sj
J 7i<3 wishes that he may expel you ; il ^
1

(pronounced

14 b) that not, as
Si see
VT
1} $Jjf Ji Jy! 5
^1

JLs
1 '

(it is} binding on me that I shall not speak concerning God

except the truth ;

and J that, so that, as
^ S...^.l Ij ^^^ J0u
^^ JLTos<9s so that he shall commit

disorders in the land and shall leave thee and thy gods ? For further

particulars see 415.

412. The Jussive mood takes the perfect's meaning when

preceded by jj not (see 362 /) or 123 not yet, as *J1

J^i-j-J

e-jLiX^
j^? I-v4-^ has not the covenant of the book been made

with them ? See 418.

 1 i:,

413. The jussive after ^ */ and words similarly of conditional

t

sense (see 406) also takes the perfect's meaning as ~a>

;
&\
*****
ilr*5 LJ^y^ l?7?-kf ^~* tf an ev ^ t>
fM
e a them, they attribute

it to the bad luck of Moses and those who are with him ;
llJ U U^,^

l^j lj^s~*~i
>l
tf*
& whatever sign thou bringest us in order that

thou mayest bewitch us with it. When the first of two correlative

clauses contains an imperative, and the second a jussive, the

latter has the same meaning as if the first clause contained

a verb in the jussive preceded by thus <^j\^\

^}\ ;
\^j^^\
^' Ox
lj J^L*J
enter the gate (and) We will pardon you meaning if ye

enter the gate We will pardon you. See 417 c.

414. The imperfect Energetics are future in sense, as jtLjJV

off your hands and feet on opposite sides, then I will crucify

you all. See 419.

415. The Subjunctive mood, which can occur only in a sub-

ordinate clause, indicates an act dependent upon, and future to,

that mentioned in the previous clause : it is governed by certain

particles, amongst which are the following.

(a) i.
By ^\ that after verbs expressing inclination, order,
x i ^
permission, necessity etc. ;
as also by J >\ that not and
^ not.

Thus
JP|^C uUly ^ ijj L5"^ y ur rd may P^haps destroy

your enemies', see also examples in 411.

 1 1;

NOTE. When Uj used, the ruling verb may be

^
is understood,

as

said,
^JLil'T $* ^ m J; $
Moses (choose] either
rf
that thou or
i

we throw.
u ^We
*
find

^$ as
\fM $$ VgpLS tfi<0T pj
the unbelievers have

<userted that they shall not be raised (from the dead) : here \ stands

for
l^J !
,
and this is common when the verb is negatived, as well

as when the verb is strengthened with tx5 ,

^ or
uJj .

ii. But if the ruling verb makes an assertion (without ex-

pectation, wish, or the like) and the verb following ^\ expresses

a past or present sense we use the perfect or imperfect indicative

after $. Thus ij ii*L>- ' & >~^ ye wonder that an

r '"'^*
admonition has come to you, *\3 &\ **^-\ I know that he is

sleeping. It is however more usual in this case to employ

a nominal proposition (see 513) using ffl with a pronoun ;

thus lyi? uJol ii*J he knows that thou standest, 15?

^5 l3!

5 could they not perceive that calf) did not speak

l^Kj it
(the

to them ? If the ruling verb expresses doubt or supposition

3.

concerning a thing future, ^\ may govern the imperfect in-

dicative or subjunctive as MgJi .they thought it

;
[ >1
^1&
was about to fall upon them.

HEM. a. As regards the 'an which with its verb

l^ou^lT ^\
is equivalent to a ma$dar, see 488.

(b) By J in order that and its compounds ;

thus
J^UJ
\ jJfc
^
kU wr7y this is <a plot which
 147

ye have contrived in the city in order that ye may drive out of it

its people.

HEM. a. Originally J was a preposition (see 356 c], and

when a conjunction it stands for ^ for that, as is seen in the

negative 1LJ (for ^ ^)J) : we cannot say liJ .

(c) By .J^- till (also originally a preposition, see 358 i) :

but if no intention or expectation of the agent be implied, there

follows the indicative, or as in 405 rem. c the perfect.

(d) By u-J so that when it introduces a clause giving the result

or effect of a preceding clause which expresses a wish ;

thus

^T)jL*xJ i-iy^&jo \jOj^\ ^ (&Q^*"i (1>\ f^ij <"**' y ur Lord

may perhaps make you successors in the land, so that He may see

how ye act. There are other conditions under which <_j governs

a subjunctive.

416. The indicative must be used in all clauses except those

governed by J)l or other particle with the sense of \

;
as

^Jxio Ajj Cl^ljlM _jjjL^iJ

clXJj^ thus We diversify the signs
's s - i -O ' 1
to a grateful people ;
^yUxJ ^ t* ^JuJ! *** &\ I know from
God what ye know not ;
* wo ^f* ^ jJrJ^ * lij ^* cM-^ Thou
causest to err whomsoever Thou dost wish, and Thou leadest aright

whom Thou dost will ;

l Jo --*^ perhaps they will take
.

warning^ ^j& lib \S\ lo, they break their promise; ^jj&c J]
^ when they transgress on the Sabbath.
 148

417. The Jussive usually conveys an order, being connected in

in form with the imperative.

(a) It is used with J prefixed (the li of command, see 366 c i)

in place of the imperative ;

and if
j
or t_J be also employed, we
we may write J : thus
jLjiJuT JJjij &&\ ^Lc upon God

then let the believers rely (as to this verb's final vowel see 20 d).

"We seldom find J thus used except with the 3rd person, which

is wanting to the imperative.

(b) "With the adverb 5 we use it to express a prohibition, or

a wish that something be not done ;

as buu&J 1 do not thou (masc.)

commit disorders-, *yb\ * &xx? ^ 2 t<3VT

^J L^-v^U $
- -
>-o _

do not thou make mine enemies to rejoice at my trouble,

and do not place me with the wrongdoers.

(c) i. Also we find jussives in the protasis and apodosis of

correlative conditional clauses, which depend upon J)\ or any

particle having the sense of ^ (see 406 and 413) : in the

protasis, when the verb is without jli and is imperfect ;

in the

apodosis, when without i_j and having an imperfect verb. Thus

\~ *jJ&. *xlT
"'
J-^i ^ "ft '*i
,j if they see the
*'<* s
path of
i'
error, they

will adopt it for their path ;

*Jo-lj <dL
^jejs.
j U
Q if worthless

yain come to him like it (the former) he accepts it

(also) ;
,^J-J ^f*
Alb JuJ
- \"
<tiJ
-
\j whosoever believes in God. lie shall direct his heart.
>

If however u-J marks the apodosis, we must use an indicative ;

 149

as li f-J-J ?J. " whosoever believes in his Lard, shall

not fear.

ii. The jussive may appear in an apodosis when the protasis

contains an imperative verb ; as

(^&y3 j^vj |jJb iV^J V \
5
k
^i
^ ^ f? i*

l^yl^- 1> ^Jci-tf and thereupon (We said) Take the tables with

force, and command thy people (so) shall they grasp the best part

thereof-,
*~
^-Ic^L
+
JL
' &j>\ ^J^U. J^Jl
send gatherers (and)
^ ^ oi j.

^gy *Aa/ drtny ^tf yery skilled magician', ujpl Jj^l Lfl/
*AoM? r<? (Thyself, and) I shall look upon Thee. This construction

is explained in 413.

KEM. 5. The conditional sentence whose apodosis must he intro-

s
duced by uJ is further treated in 587.

REM. c. When (i) the apodosis has a jussive, connected with

a following imperfect by <_ j or

J,
we usually employ the jussive

again ;
thus itJ
JtfJ iLl iLli" ill*, lijj
iUT ^^/J ^
*/ ye ^nrf ^o 6^0^ a /a> ?oa, A<? will multiply it to you and will

pardon you : so when (ii)

the protasis has a jussive, connected

with the following imperfect by ^J or

J ;
as
l^ir^J ^AXJ ^|
i.^'j j^ii 4-I-J i
^^-J \si) if ye condone and pardon and forgive,
J -0
surely God is forgiving and merciful. Here also AjJw

and does right, He shall efface from him his misdeeds and shall cause

him to enter gardens (of Paradise).

 156

418. The jussive is also used with the perfect's meaning, as

we have seen in 412, after *J not or ISJ not yet] but in

these cases we have the jussive's form and not its sense. Thus

\ ixjl> iJ! has there not reached you a story ?

NOTE. When ^ if precedes, we observe 406 a ;

thus 1J
>|

ijjj &^y / ow -EonZ rfo wo show us mercy.

419. The imperfect Energetic (see 414) has several uses,

amongst which are the following :

(a) "With <J verily (see 361 c) prefixed to it in a simple

asseveration, thus
fi~ytt & ^& ^^ d#J && thy

Lord proclaimed (that] he would surely send against them one who

should afflict
them ;
and in asseverations strengthened by an oath,

thus
j^U
Ui ,5?i ^ fa& uPjj Jl $ *W> On the

contrary by my Lord ye shall be raised (from the dead), then ye

shall be informed of what ye have done.

(c)
With J in the apodosis of correlative conditional clauses

in which case J must be prefixed to the protasis also, as

^xj
^IjJds^.
'

^ ^y^ ^4;
^ j**i y verily if our Lord do not

pardon us, we shall surely be of those who suffer loss.

420. The Imperative cannot be used in negative sense : instead

we must employ the jussive as in 417 b. Thus txJfc

repent

thou, iy 5 do not (thou) repent; UjJJLj ^ jijjaJtj UJL$'

-Jp^b speak Arabic to us, do not speak in English.
 151

421. The verb may govern a noun in its accusative (or oblique)

case, and by help of a preposition a noun which we then put

in the dependent (or oblique) case. We shall have frequent

examples of this government, not only by States and Moods,

but also by nomina actionis, agentis, et patientis and by other

nouns possessing verbal force. Sometimes the verb is understood ;

or it may lie concealed in a particle.

422. The accusative of a noun is governed by the verb, either

(a) as an objective complement, assigning a limit ;

or

(b) as an adverbial complement, see 440 et seq.

423. Most transitive verbs take their objective complement in

^j JuJ&jT Ju* -SJ $ do not thou follow the

the accusative, as

path of the transgressors ; many however govern the object by

9 r<3 ' s>

help of a preposition, as jJyJT *>& ^Jj

\SJ when the plague

fell upon them ;

some govern in both ways with the same

meaning, thus *J$M they accused him of lying, and

^ AJ \
ISS^c!

IjiJljb
^J<i
We drowned those who charged with falsehood Our

signs. More frequently a verb which governs in both ways has

different meanings, thus &L he perfumed it with musk, & iljCL*

he held it fast ;
and diverse significations may attach to the same

verb if used with different prepositions, thus

^^ to desire,

which is transitive and intransitive, has

^s L^J to like, & cJ^-cJ
to dislike, and to supplicate.
^]j c^cj
 152

a. Amongst jEjlxliJT tie transitive verbs (see 75)

.
jUiV,!
we include those which govern by help of a preposition alike

with those whose object is in the accusative. Besides being

transitive as
jlc ij
to fall upon, the same verb may be in-

transitive as iLJJj
to befall, come to pass, thus J}*sz
'

%^j*
w the

truth was established.

REM. b. Dictionaries will teach a student how each verb may be

employed. Be it observed that, in Arabic, verbs to come govern

the accusative and require no intervening preposition, thus

I came to him, <U l2g!n / came to her with it, i.e. I brought it

to her,
'
z l- the magicians came to L>-
jf^yJ a^s Pharaoh, J
.-kr
+\'"
^^
**
they brought a mighty enchantment.

NOTE. Verbs to come may govern an accusative of the person

or place; and even another accusative as in Goran xix, 28

fi-i>
^^r &U verily thou (fern.) hast come to a strange thing.

REM. c. A sentence may stand as objective complement, thus

b U Uj^6 We destroyed what he was making (see 514).

As regards Jb to my and its derivatives we may note, that when

followed by 3j&>- a narration we use j\ jU, thus
Jj-^J ,j\ J^

IxiJ^
l-M say ^OM, Verily I am God's apostle to you, and what

follows it is commonly a quotation, as ^y^f* ijj

lLj| JU ^
<iirf, Certainly ye are an ignorant people. Very sparingly, if at all,

is it permitted to use ^\ Jb .
 153

424. Two objective complements in the accusative may follow

certain verbs, of which there are two sorts.

(a) Those whose objects are unconnected, they being causatives

of which the ground form is transitive and governs an accusative

(see 41 and 45) ;

thus
Cl^l^ J^*-^ I Iring you messages,

jl^Lff JillT ^IJtf

He causes the night to cover the day, U \jl
j^l^jT
take what We have given you,
^J^\ ^ A&J tt
/ will
show you the dwelling of the impious, *&?& ^ *Uo ^ V^tf
He causes whom He will of His servants to inherit it : also some

other verbs of causative nature, meaning to give, lend, etc. as

J^l^Tjj
U \jU*
eat what We have provided for you,
^jT tf Ail

direct us (in} the road, JL-*i *^J j ,j

v
$ it
(the calf) did not direct

them (in) the path, c >\ ^ \

%r
jL>
<

lxJy*^lJ they lay upon you the evil

of punishment.

(b) Those whose objects stand to one another in the relation

of subject and predicate ; being (i) verbs signifying to make, adopt,

name, etc., lj>5 <LJJc>- he (into) atoms, U^l l&llxks

made it We
'
&* f>

divided them into nations, JL~-i J^Js^Cj V they do not adopt it for
^j

their path; or (ii) v^^JJLJ 1

JUi! the verbs of the heart, which are
' T.

so called because their action is mental; for instance

i
^j* to seet

think, know and its iv passive ^ *\ to think, believe, iLc to know,

l~j to deem, Jl to think, etc. ;

thus |^i I^l6 / thought her

patient, yj>* ^jSasT they find him mentioned (lit. written).

 154

RBM. b. Verbs like

^j\j
and &>J may also be
^.sf
'

JUM ^
verbs of (the organs of] sense.

REM. d. Three accusatives are governed by cJjill JU^l in

their fourth form, as M??^ "iLJUjM

faj.
^e w ^ make you think

your actions foul.

426. All verbs, transitive and intransitive, active and passive,

may take their

ownjjl^i infinitives (see 195), or their deverbal

nouns of the classes nomina vicis et speciei ( 193), as objective

complements in the accusative. Thus Ly<?

**3f0
he gave Mm
a beating, \xJ& ^ e ^e8 ^re ^ eagerly, he received
T-^ tjjj^j ^j*>
a beating,
IjUx^a], ^&4 they were puffed with arrogant pride.

This accusative is called

J^Jo&B jyL<UJl the absolute object or
C' S. * t.

Jjua^Ji,
and it may appear, or be u_JJ^* eliminated', thus

Ur!U JUj A does right for li^U 1^ J^Jw, also iLl^. illLj
^ s- s ? 9ls

for l*--7^.A
lllL <O^j A follows it in swift search. We have given

(
202 Note) cL^4\ as derivative of the second form to which it

serves as magdar, thus ^<-V-> \5\& l^jtkc!

I will chastize them

very severely ;
but the magdar of a different form may be employed,
or even of a different verb provided it be synonymous.

NOTE. Verbal nouns, nomina actionis agentis et patientis, etc.

can like finite verbs take Ji&tfT JjSjUTl ;

thus

^-V.A-l \$\ JLC GW *s their very severe chastizer.

 155

427. It has been observed of nomina verbi (in 195 and 421)

that, when infinitives from verbs which govern an objective

complement in the accusative case, they can govern an accusative

instead of a dependent. This is especially the case if one or more

words divide an object from its governing infinitive, because a de-

pendent case cannot be separated from the word which governs

it. Also, when an infinitive is defined by the article, its object

must stand in the accusative, because the noun so defined cannot

take after it a dependent.

REST. c. Beside infinitives (nomina actionis) there are verbal

nouns of similar force and significance which govern in the

same way.

428. Infinitives govern by help of a preposition, with rare

exceptions, when from verbs which are transitive in that manner.

429. Frequently however an infinitive governs its objective

complement in the dependent with J (see 453) instead of in

the accusative. Thus

*^ JJJ L^a5 \+s We wrote an ex-

position of every thing. So it is with certain other verbal nouns.

430. Nomina agentis can, like infinitives, govern a noun in the

^ <~-o <y f L -
accusative, as 1 cL>X& <LU \ God is a chastizer of the people,
j^ftJ

or in the dependent, as
/%j-^J
\
cLxLj^ <uJ \ God is the destroyer of

the people.
 156

NOTE. When from verbs which are transitive by help of

a preposition, nomina agentis must govern in the same way.

* s &
Thus our Lord shall we return
^1&* l$j
j Jj lJ
j verily
to ;

denied Our signs, and were

neglectors of them ;
'^^ j^Jj
*-> \
\j*& they thought
it to be falling

upon them ;
l^.J .JV
AJU>- .11)1 ^^"^ ^-% ^ ^ these are the victims

offire, dwelling perpetually therein.

431. What has been said in 429 concerning J after an

infinitive, applies equally to a nomen agentis.

HEM. When by rhetorical transposition a finite verb, which is

transitive without help from a preposition, follows its object, we

may use the accusative, as I*

^j^i-laj i^lLJol lyli ,^-Sj l)^4J^

they did not injure Us, but they were injuring their own souls ;
or we

may employ J ,
as
^jjlfc^f 'L^jJ^ ^.^-n
those who fear their Lord.

In like case a nomen agentis cannot govern an accusative

',?,-" V*
but requires J, thus iiil tfciftfo If the
(jjfcjo ^J y0 it.

transposed object be a pronominal suffix, IS 1 may with the finite

verb be employed instead of J as in 189 b.

433. Beside the nomina agentis, some other verbal adjectives

govern either an accusative case or J with the dependent.

NOTE. When from verbs which are transitive by help of

a preposition, these adjectives govern in the same way. Thus

 157

J j Zfc W* do everything
jL> *^ ^c jJfc
is to ;

binding upon me.

435. Frequently the accusative depends upon a verb which is

eliminated :

(a) In phrases of command, exclamations, etc. we must supply

the verb to which the accusative noun serves as <^injJ \

Jyu
(see 426). Thus * gently ! for ^i ^, clbJ

awrf obeying for <^cli?

%-*%\j UXi J^i / ^^ar M?e// anrf implicitly

obey.

NOTE. The native grammarians represent that t ^J lsxj stands

for LNJlsrL^j ^Awil I praise Thine absolute perfection.

(5) In other cases the verb must be conjectured, as

where we may supply **z-~3\ thou hast come to people and a plain
x', &
i.e. to friends and a smooth place ; tJJo \L>^J* that is c
^AoM Aa*^ found for thyself roominess (see 27 Note) ;

that is
j (see 178) ^warrf thy foot ] cL ^j
c
that i

behind thee.

436. The adverb ^1 and the conjunction \ take the following

noun or pronoun in the accusative case instead of in the nominative

(as one expects the subject of a sentence to be) because, so it is

said, these particles embody the verb to see ;

thus JUi
+&3j ^>\

verily i.e. see that your Lord is God, U iifc[

ilff $ &yA*3 ty
 158

do they not know that God knows what they conceal

^ylx? Uj ^f^> t

So in case of their compounds and

and what they reveal?
i f '
/f
^J
?XJj (see 362 ee and 584 b) but, yet, ^IS as though (see

367 and when coupled with a preposition, as ^Ij and J)V

-'* ^
g),

because ; thus ^^Jjcj ^ -^ rP ^ mos ^ / ^m ^ n

Li as though it were a canopy,

that God sees ? In the above examples the subject

immediately follows j\ etc.

and under such circumstances J (see

361 c) may be prefixed to the predicate ;

thus

verily we perceive thee (to be] in error ;

surely thy Lord is prompt with chastisement

and certainly He is forgiving and merciful. There may however be

a separation, between
^ etc. and the subject, caused by an

adverb of time and place or by a preposition with its complement ;

thus IxJ Vjx lijijlj f^rlij^ MT? ^ verily enemies of you are (to

be found) amongst your spouses and children : when this separation

occurs J may be prefixed to the subject of Jjj or ^1, as LD ^1

shall there indeed be to us a reward? If the predicate be

negative we must not use J ,

thus
^Jdx*! I
ci-os^ ^ <U 1
surely He
doth not love the transgressors 2^ 1 '
$ J
;
/^s^ ^~\ /^--^'.-
i
1

We will not allow to be lost the reward of the righteous : and so if

the verb be a perfect without &s, thus

;j-^"' ]
+j&\ j\

~+Jj.\.~
a j
^^J surely the people despised me and were just on the

of slaying me.
 159

REM. a. These particles, together with those given in rem. /,

are named LfjjbcMj ^\ 'inna and its sisters. The word governed
is called their *ZA noun (see 525 rem.) and the predicate
J-^-
REM. d. In 353 * we have mentioned XJlxJ! U the hindering

md, which when appended to J}L \

, J;V^ and ^t^p is followed

by a nominative ;
thus dLi-Lj L6ijfl L*-M tfrwfy yowr children are

a temptation, JSJLi
IJo^il Uj\ \j&.\j know that your riches are
t tf ~o
a temptation. The same influence is exercised by ^ULii j-^^>

(see 362 w and 367 a) as clX^jJ iV^ ^i ^ rM ^ thy people are

generous.

REM. 0. A lightened form of these particles may be used.

^ ^ & & *

REM./. The words c^J would that and J^c or JJLJ perhaps

govern an accusative like ^\ etc ,

thus ^jil^jLj lJLl*J perhaps ye
' ^'
will take warning. We shall mention JoJLJ in 442 rem. g 2.

438. An interjection usually precedes the person or thing

called ;
while for vocative case we must use the nominative or

accusative.

(a) As has been noted in 368 \J ! takes its following noun

without the article.

(i) We use the nominative in the singular without tanwin

when a particular person or thing is addressed by the speaker

directly and without explanatory term ;

thus 2&s?* lj j\Iu-

h am mad,
JJ"j W. ^ man or ^ Ir UJ/2 ^ \~*F* J^* Moses said,

Pharaoh !
 100

(ii) We use the accusative when the person or thing called is

indefinite and not directly addressed, \^-j lj somebody ! ;

as also

when an explanatory term is appended, thus JU^| ^ t> sons

of Israel, ^^\ \$ brothers of ours.

REM. a. These rules hold good in the absence of an interjection,

as \& ^^ 9 r*\ ^j our Lord, pour upon us patience.

REM. b. In the vocative ^ is usually shortened into (see

317 rem. b\ thus /y> LJ my people, e-/J my Lord : but this

abbreviation in not permitted with derivatives ending in $ or

+
from verbs whose final radical is
J or ,c
^r
. Beside c
^r s
and '
j,

there are other forms possible, as 1\

^\ jU he (Aaron) said,

son of my mother.
i

P w -^
REM. d. One word only, viz. AjJI , may retain the article and
? i -^3 > I *
follow \j ;
thus aJJl \J
(?o^ or irregularly <LU| \j .

(J) The noun following tjj\

or l^j! Ij, whether singular, dual

or plural, must be nominative and defined by the article ;

thus

/ \Z\ ^.^3T l^t \J ye who believe !

439. When i is immediately followed .by an indefinite object

and denies its existence we make the noun accusative and, if

f & ^i ^yJl --

possible, we omit tan win ; as

^Jb J^ 4J^3 <LUl God,
there is no god

but He. But if an explanatory term follow, tanwin is retained ;

as ljU- i ^Aw I* no ow^ knowing the Cordn by heart

ji^^c jJiJr^J
amongst you.
 161

440. We have been treating objective complements since 422

and shall now consider the adverbial complement. This sort of

accusative depends (a) when expressed by \a -L. to be, exist (and

by certain similar verbs, see 442) on the idea of existence or

being, which is limited and determined by the accusative ;

and (b)

on circumstances detailed in 443 et seq.

441. When employed as the* logical copula li is called ^l

<L^SlLn the incomplete Mna because to complete the sense there is

required an attribute, which we must put in the accusative. Thus

f " ? s-
'????,'*>
were guilty people, a.JcitrM
^+^sf* l^yi \y\$> they ^+*]\lo ^yoj
s L t

they took it (the calf for their god) and were wrong doers, *yj
LU.J
i .'*,s ? t

^U\cL bJ.j
!yji
We said to them, Be ye i.e. Become abject apes.
. 3 -O I

Also we may note be thou (one) of the grateful,

^^-iuLM ^y j*

^
""*
-^

which is equivalent (see 448 /) to

^J-^Ll
. But when the

idea of existence is attributed by >l? to its subject we can only

employ the nominative, as (^ there was an ape : here the verb

5^J?

is <L^\JDl ^>Li the complete Mna, because it contains the attribute

and requires no other, for \

jJS
would mean he was an ape.

f
REM. a. The subject is called ^^ IJ^]. and the predicate
j^>-
^l?, while the natural sequence (see 518) is verb, subject,

predicate ;
this order may however be varied if sense allo\v.

* In a word which unites the subject and predicate of

logic the copula is

a proposition, it Is known as ^U\*M| the fastening.

11
 162

HEM. i. Sometimes l? is uJ*Xs^* eliminated, as

>
it will be

better for your souk, where ^^xf is understood.

442. The same construction appertains to \S

CL^yM <fo

sisters of kdna which are often used as synonyms of ^l without

relation to time, though they add some modification to the simple

idea of existence. In this class are to continue,

fta ,^tf
"Ci '

to remain, j\>
to "become, JJs _. fo or do all day and not

a few others, most of which may be aL^lJ : while \J^ not to be,

which is always $s\J t expresses the negation of existence ;

thus dJJL? _>

jj**y
*** me i* no error*

REM. g. Instead of an accusative or a preposition with its

dependent \? may take as attribute a verb in the

(^j>\^>~.\

imperfect, thus following the analogy of (^ (see 408 d and e,

and 409). With this construction we can connect that of

^ <~~e f ^l
JjJU&n Jliit ^eris o/ appropinquation, which are of two kinds.

(1) Amongst those which indicate simple proximity of the

predicate is 60 _^_
(see 157) to be just on the point of: commonly
its predicate is an imperfect indicative, thus they
^J^iiio ^J\
were on the point of killing me. (2) Amongst those which indicate

a hope of the predicate's occurrence is -^ perhaps :

commonly
it is construed with ^\ and the subjunctive, as J)T tj"J <+>

ly yowr Zor<? may perhaps destroy your enemy, but it

 163

can take as accusative a pronominal suffix like JjD (see 436

rem./).

443. Brief allusion has been made in 440 b to other adverbial

accusatives which determine and limit the subject, verb, or

predicate of a sentence, and sometimes the sentence as a whole.

These adverbial accusatives are of different sorts and indicate :

444. (a) The time in or during which an act occurs as ; j

them (the gardens) perpetually,

iJo^
l^-J abiding in
^^^ *M

when their jish came to them on the day of their

sabbath, j
Cl* *A jL* liUXSJlj HlJ ^U ^y* &X^j
4-LJP fj+*ij\ and We appointed with Moses (a period of} thirty

nights and We completed them by means of ten (more] so that the

set (duration of] time of i.e. appointed by his Lord was fulfilled

i.e. came to be in all forty nights. Here

^^ and
^MJ\ are

adverbial accusatives of time.

(b) Locality, direction, and extension, may in certain cases take

the accusative ;
as
Ijlljj ^*j. fa he looked right and left. Of
this sort are the words given as prepositions in 359.

REM. a. We must use ^J in, when the place is definitely

' '*
\T v.

specified, as QjluJr
'

J^U ^J c^*JJ I / stopped at the place where

al Ilusqin was killed. But with a verb meaning to remain or the

like |J)lx, and similar vague nouns of place, are employed

without preposition and therefore in the
^
accusative ;
thus
^
^j\ if it stand firm in its place.
 164

NOTE. Certain substantives signifying time or place can be

uJlo* annexed (see 475 and 478) to a verbal sentence, but

thus |f>^^- S 5
only in the accusative case ; L^J IJ J^-wlj lj

on tffo
<fay on which they did not keep sabbath, fish did not come to them.

REM. b. The accusative of time and place, illustrated in above

examples of this section, is called c the vessel (see 221

Jj2l
rem. a) or -J
Jy^UJl that in which the act is done.

(c) The most important however of adverbial accusatives is

f -

called the state or condition, i.e. of the subject or object

jlsM
or of both, while the act is happening. Thus
^^ "fcfTj
^
uLoj ^u*ii $2^ L_5~^i
w ^ en Moses returned to his people angry,
f -a-o *

afflicted i.e. in a state of affliction and anger i^4J 1

;
J-^-> ^to

*'^ ** ^^^ ^w^ ^ winds, heralds

of His mercy lit. between the two hands of His mercy i.e. in advance

of rain;
.^Asj-li y^s*^' ,c^^
^ magicians were thrown down

prostrate (adoring}.

REM. a. The hal is lLaj redundancy; thus Utajf ixj^ ^J\

' '

S**
<CArv.j
ca/^ </?o yowr Zor(? humbly and in secret. Here the
command to pray is of itself a sentence ;
and the conditions,

grammatically superfluous, reply to cJ^ how ? as the accusative

9 *'--

called JUel must always do.

C-O

REM. i. The hal depends upon a regent (Jl' J-*tc) which

maybe (1) a verb, as UU^ ^^ J-^~

^/oses fell down thunder-

ttruck; or (2) a deverbal adjective, as t& aJJt J^l-

 HJ.J

--4^> verily I am God's apostle to you all, where ^-J

is accounted

a deverbal adjective, being equivalent to

J^J ,<j!

/ have been sent; or (3) a demonstrative pronoun or other

expression having verbal force, as J^Jl

r0 the victims of fire dwelling continually therein, where

is equivalent to l^J jjllj they are pointed out as.

REM. c. The Ml is (1) usually &Ju> an adjective expressing

a transitory state, as
IcJ-l Vjjll^ IU-J,w their fish came to them

manifestly :
though the adjective may express a permanent state,
"5* ""

thus our Lord, receive us dying, as those who

^j~*LZJ* \ZJjj \2%j
$>
' ? ? "i
- ^i--o 3i .^3 s s'
are resigned to Thy will; epj^s***-* ^^u \j j& \j jjlXuJl JM^>
^i b ZT^ created the sun and the moon and the stars, held in

(a state of) subjection by Ifis command. Sometimes however

(2) it is an infinitive with the meaning of a participial adjective,

as U&.J <&* L_ oJ LUJci-1 I received that from him by hearing;

or even (3) a concrete substantive, as
^jls^bJl +\^ li^j^
cpll^, CLJUT
^IlT; Q\&tfj JiljTj jl^j
*o sent upon ^
them the deluge and locusts and lice and frogs and blood (in the nature

of) signs, separated by intervals. Lastly (4) Ml may be a proposition,

as in 583. There may be more than one Ml, with or without

J and between them, as can be seen above.

REM. e. In all our examples Ml is

x^J indefinite, and this is

most usual.
 166

REM. /. We call the subject or object to which a hal refers

or J^ )*i and ifc is Usuall 7 *j* definite as

happens in all our examples.

NOTE. Occasionally jLsV t^->-L is eliminated, as ^J^\

\jj ^l^L^ as to that (land] which was lad
i\
* ~j&
*"~
$ its herbage
"\ '
does not come forth except scantily, where 4Jw must be supplied as

9ahib to \<^J .

REM. g. Also it will be observed that in all our examples the

hul is placed after its regent : as a rule it occupies this position.

(d) The accusative may express an agent's motive and object in

the act, its cause and reason; as call ye upon

\jCtbj ll^p- yj&Ji
Him out of fear and eager desire. Definition by the article is

unusual, this accusative being indefinite except when in construct

state (see 475).

REM. Only a mental or intellectual infinitive can be

J^-JJ J&a,*

employed in this way ; thus, we may read into Elementary Arabic :

,

First reading book, page rf line 4,

yjj& (we warn them) ly way of

excusing (ourselves). Reply is given to the question iJ why ? (see

351 rem.).

(e) Other determinations and limitations of the predicate may

be expressed by an accusative called the specification', thus
J-^LJl
l;l David is cheerful in spirit.

REM. a. Like jls^ this accusative is fJLs see c rem. a. It

must be an indefinite substantive.

 167

REM. b. "We have mentioned in 322 and 323 the accusative

which follows cardinal numbers from 11 to 99 inclusive : it is of

this sort, being called J jl \

\-~? the specification of number, and

is most usually singular, see 499.

446. Relations of time and place are designated by prepositions,

as also are many ideal conceptions. We shall treat those mentioned

in 447 as indicating motion from, in 450 motion towards, and
in 454 rest at a place ; while in 470 compound prepositions
will be found, over and above those detailed by 355 et seq.

447. The prepositions indicating motion from or away from

a place, are
^^ out of, from, and ^ away from.

448. "We designate by help of

^

(a) the local point of departure from a place ;

as

he expelled you from your

l
land, ^+ \J-ZT

so We sent upon them a plague from heaven, k_j&&- ^* from

a contrary i.e. on opposite sides. Hence it is used with verbs
A - t,*

which indicate etc. as

liberating, preserving, warning, ^(s?\
j* J' t

^ We delivered you from Pharaoh's people, *,V^ J-* &

a warning from i.e. against everything.

(b) The temporal point of departure ;

as
Jpsy
'

^.^ from
the

Ifegira i.e. from 822 A.D.

REM. a. "When used in any of the above significations, we say

that
^ is employed t\ ;3aj iJ to denote the beginning.
 168

(c) The causal point of departure, the origin and source of

a tiling; as S\
^ '&&\ I know it from God, &* j^
T=r

an admonition has come to you from your Lord, +S&~\jj\ ^~+

'Jjj

from among your wives originate enemies, j\ lx* *j&7 I*

j$ 1|

liJ*Uf- UJ lljj <-l^.^>

I2jl thou dost not resent anything of which

we are the origin except that we believed the signs of our Lord when

they came to us.

REM. a. Here
^ is employed J-JjLjJJ to assign the reason.

(d) The distance from anything, especially after words signifying

proximity, when in English we must render

^ to ;
thus ^>-'J \

^Uuk^
'

^ ^-r^.f J-^^ surely

the mercy of God is near to the

righteous.

(e) The difference between two things when compared : hence

the use of
9
^
3-
with an elative (see 234) when comparative ;
thus

handsomer than he.

REM. a. Sometimes '-+ with its complement is omitted ;

as

ejS1 the last abode is letter than this

world for those who take heed to themselves, where U)3J\

^ may be

supplied.

(/) The relationship between part and whole, between species

and genus; thus

^jjpuJT ^^ f^U ^^ he said, Yes, and

ye thall be of those who are brought near (me), & +j*

 169

the chiefs of Pharaoh's people,

l^L \^j &/*-^ ** \j&~\ inhabit

this village and eat therefrom, IL *l^jUDl the fools among us.

REAI. a. Preceding a definite noun, which is usually plural, ^

may indicate an indefinite quantity or number ;
as
^
CL?UliaJ\ eat of the good things. Together with an indefinite
be subject of a sentence as in the following
dependent ^* may ;

dJJ! ^! If**^ tf? cpUtfl I* no mischance except by

c;<-^ befalls

permission of God.

REM. b. Governing an indefinite noun after a negative particle,

f+ gives the clause an absolute

and general sense ;
thus 1LJ t

<UJ liT? y
e ^ ave no 9^ whatever.
REM. e. In these examples
^ X3-O
is

,
used
^
^s-^uJj
. O >
to indicate

division into parts, as also in JS Jy^ u^-^\ 7F0 produce

4^-J^iJ^
all sorts of fruit ;
sometimes it is employed u-^-^jJJ ^o indicate

composition.

(a) After indefinite U and U^ whatever we must

U
use
^
before the explanatory word ;
thus J/l ^ ^ Uj U U^ whatever

thou brinaest us of a sign : in this case we have a general term

rendered more definite, as also when \* indicates the material

of which an article has been made ;

thus *-$~>-
^ 3^. a ca V
(made) out of their ornaments.

REM. Here
J^*
is employed (jU-Lj ^ explain.

12
 Another use of
^ is called
J~^$ the specification thus

^^ ^
1
(A) ;

cjV^Iif^ 1^5 i^Jtj <

Ji"
^
r
w ** ^
people of Pharaoh with years (of barrenness] and with diminution of

fruit.

NOTE. There is yet another use of ^ in

L^U lC*J& U so 7F<?

took vengeance on them.

449. By help of ^z we designate distance from, motion away

from, and the like : hence it is used

(a) after verbs which denote setting free, forbidding, etc. as

l^tf! *xc V*^;l he puts away from them their burden,

^ X^^f^.
he forbids them from the disapproved.
^xx^ll

(b) After verbs which imply the removal of a covering, as

s ^"^ O^ "*^

asking etc., thus

4-0--J
1
^^ i^J Uc ^J aw<? as^ Mew concerning the

village, J^TJ^
\2-. t^^^i^ thou hast removed from us the plague,

After verbs which imply turning away, as < \3o

(c) ^Jjlc
^A^y w?er neglectors of it, dJl^lCo <Lxc
Jfo -fo <9^^s /rom Am Afs

misdeeds, v_!^2jcJ I ,^y* ^ l-x ^3J t^Aew ^<? aw^^r became still

(so as to be] away from Moses, ,J^ ^- t

Jp?
l^j I will cause to

turn away from (the direction of] my signs, ll U^ Ijic they

disdainfully turned away from that from which he turned disdainfully,

<&c c he avoided it.

450. The prepositions indicating motion to or towards a place

are and
^J to,
^1^ wp <o, J to.
 171

451. Opposed to
^ and j
is
^Jl which signifies

(a) motion or direction to or towards a place ;

thus 1

J j We sent Noah unto his people,

J^-A*!
\ J \
to Him is the

returning, JJLsr
'
J ^aJ\ \
^.^Jj but look toward
the mountain,

i^y*
'

,<-M
r

^
^^-j^
'

7P* revealed i.e. indicated Moses. Hence,

because inclination is implied, follows verbs of excusing and

^J|
' * ? s
repenting; thus ^\f M L-^J / repent toward Thee, ^\ &j&+
Y i'0 aw excuse to your Lord.
IxJ^

(b) In respect of time usually indicates during a con-

^Jj
tinuance; as J^f-i ,J! until a fixed term, '&>&& \ + .Jl during
all the time till the day of judgement.

HEM. When used in the above significations, we say that J!

is
employed
*
ty Lj ^0 designate the limit.

To show that one thing we

(c) is added to another use
^J j and
hence ^T ^\
s ^^ * (see
23 rem. d) to its end, which is definite but

serves for etcatera.

452. In addition to implying like an

^Jl motion towards object,
-Ir*- must indicate arrival.

REM. c. When ^&- is a conjunction (see 367 k] it exercises

no governing power upon nouns.

453. Whenever possible J must be so translated as to indicate

abstract relations, those that are concrete being expressed

 172

thus c^ \
to a dead country, but
e^l
<fm*0 it for the use of a dead country. This distinction cannot

always be preserved ^as is shown by 429 et seq. where J

indicates an action's relation to the direct object which stands in

place of an accusative; thus iLj or iCs^M I advise you

^->\
(see 423). More often however we employ J

(a) for passing on the action to an indirect object ;

as

*^U Moses said to his people, liJ Jjcs>4 make for us, lJ
he multiplies it to you, LLX>- ,!j lxJ^xi\ pardon (the sin]
to us and

have mercy upon us : so with reflexive verbs, which govern self as

*t \ ? "6* ' "
-

their direct object ;

thus J^s4 $j ^.X.cs^ \3J ^A^ ^

manifested Himself to the mountain, and we find the sense of

in
^^LJJ *Uio 1

jj Zo, ^ is white to the leholders ;

also by
^jjb

taking praise as the direct object, we may place here <UJ ^-^J
CljVj^LJ! Jj l^ whatsoever is in heaven gives praise to God-, and

unless wholly idiomatic t.lJ he "believed in thee. In these

Zj*\
cases J and its dependent are not essential to the clause, whereas
x-

it is different in

(5) the dative (i)

of possession ;
as 5&s2 \

5j
tll2T 2 to Him

belong the dominion and the praise, *J which lows lit. to it is the
J^>-
(power of) lowing, IjJJ
*\&\ ^Lc ^yi&tj M^y c/y ^o ^A^/r idols,

^ j^>~ better for me, tlJo^iJ c^ij a daughter of the king (see

492) of permission or right; as he makes

:
(ii) u^Uikif 1^3 ^55^
 173

lawful to them the good things, ulxJ >

I give thee permission :

(iii)
of advantage, contrasting with
,^Lc (see
459 b) ;
as U3 cJ\
on behalf of us to Lord but IcJ cursed him;
cl^j pray thy 7*0

O "
^
also
^ JJu ^^Jj ^J^> a guidance and a mercy for the benefit of those

who, g^Vt ^Jj &1*. IpSff a JJb

,J>
liJ
i*5$Tj <* w^ <?<> 2%<w

wrtYtf /or ^< i.e. place to credit of our account advantage in this

world and in the next, A2> lJ Mt w omn^ ^o us.

REM. -J.
By use of J we express the verb /o Aw, as 11
^U
brother.

(c] Attention is drawn by J to the purpose or cause of an act ;

thus iJ for what reason? (see 351 rem.), 1*1 c^Jla

J^X. JJj
^C-9 ,
1
^)^*J *J <^ i^A^w section of them asked, Why do ye warn
I^A!

the people ? C-JUblJ iooA /or the use of students,

<*pl^i ^j^j
Jj&]
LZjbllT We diversify the signs for the use of a people, +g^j\
(

^s'
^] l&U^ make mention of the day whereon He shall gather
'

^-
" \+ '

you for the sake of (what is in] the day of assemblage (of the angels}

i.e. the day of judgement.*

REM. Here J is
employed J-ASiSJ to indicate the cause.

(e) Also J marks the time of an occurrence ;

as "*
L>-
UJ^
n^ w ^ en Moses had come to Our appointed time,

* This is in accordance with Bajdawi.

rendering
 174

on Moslem new year's day a jpowtf o/

r? ^y J j ? lit.

M?A<? a night has passed from Mukarram.*

NOTE. Many verbs indicating a state of mind, friendly or

hostile, advantageous or disadvantageous, take J of the person

?' S>'

towards whom the feeling is directed ;

thus <U L^Jk I hate him.

454. The prepositions indicating rest at a place are (

-j in, into,

c-> at, in, by, with, .+ with, along with, jjSJ or ^ijJ with,

beside, near, and JLC 0y0r, 0J0V0, w/?ow.

455. "We designate by help of

^
(a) rest in a place or during a time, and motion into a place, as

^jO\^\ ^fS \s9j CpUyJwuuJl ^? \s* &^ to Sim belongs whatsoever is in

heaven and earth, *\3\ ^~? .<-* ^Jii^ He created them in six days,

j3V\ i
"
U lilaisl ?T wrofc Y /or Aw itfw<9/^ upon the tables,
~ ^
1- x
LJ Jjl -J iaA^j l^J ^A^w a falling took place into their hands i.e,
u>r
o/
when they grievously repented, -J
wi^Ji
J\ remember what is in it,
-o <-- o %
c^tJlJ^ J on ^Ae sabbath day,
^^\s>- ^\&&\
J
J-j'}^
send

gatherers into the cities. This meaning applies also to less concrete

relations, as ;Jji^/J i
l&w&Vj ^jh-Y) pardon (the sin)
^ LJ^J^\
^^

to me and my brother and cause us to enter into Thy mercy.

(b) By rights ^ means in the midst of as may well be seen

with a plural or collective ;

thus

Further explanation of dates will be found in

Wright's Grammar vol. n
..n.l 111.
 175

.<J Moses said to his brother Aaron, Do thou act as my

deputy among my people, and behave uprightly.

(c) We use
^J to state the subject of thought, conversation,

or writing ;
thus
iyT iff

treating of the Arabic language.

(rf)
Further J is employed with verbs of desire, as &+
^r^
lie liked it.

REM. We say that ^j is used ^Jus)J to indicate time and place.

NOTE. The phrase l^J U$lf

j

blessed is equivalent to u>Lx^j\j :J I .

456. Whereas .

^ indicates amongst we more often express with

C-? mere proximity thus

^JJ^ ^ passed by a man, lllxj
(
;
J-=f>^
*
~* ^ *
Uj'l5b
if*y*
^ e 8en t Moses with Our signs, J^AJ UbXi^
.
'

^^
j
force, ,^>y*J ^j^3 "?. ^ey associate bad luck with Moses,

{
^ - ^ W> -^ x- %<
*! ^ O . ." ' ^
<L)5L? ^r^ '* in me no error, ^J-s'lj u^J*J cp'^VlLJ^ o*^^ -^
created the heavens and the earth rightly. Accordingly verbs with

certain meanings govern t > and its dependent in place of an

accusative ;
thus 4j
^/^4^ (^ ^ ClJ^j / saw; that which they saw

not, $*h~ ^ *^j"*i &) ^*-^?>

^ ^ey do not comprehend anything of

Ills knowledge, *UJ: l^J

^tjjSiLJ
3 then ye shall be informed of

what ye have done, c_jlJL> ^^LzS ^^\ those who hold fast to
i -^ j
the book, &^\ +2+J o'A^J^ 1 begin with the name of God', and c->

with its dependent may take the place of a second accusative, thus
 176

bVi L^-v*-U S do not cause mine enemies to attach ignominy

^J
to me,
jbTfl3A) p-A/fd
r*wi *Am o/ ^ <%* o/ GW. Some-

times a verb governs in both ways with the same meaning (see

423) ;
thus <UrU
j-jjj
lit fo seized the head of his brother,

and
ijp ^J
rf..i yJtfM? S drowsiness does not seize Him nor sleep ;

* auutoi** o/ God, and C

c?o ^ worship and of Thee alone we ask assistance ;

LJ \y^a they treated it unjustly, and lj^,.il?

I* ^(9y ^ not injure

Us. Under this general idea of contact are represented the

following.

(a) The relation between subject and predicate, especially in

negative propositions ;
as
^*jJv ^fs^
U we are not believers.

(b) The relation between an act and its object, especially after

<L^:)LJ1 intransitive verbs; thus ^

(J^tJ^ uJtpMJu A&^Lf
commands the approved to them; \^\ we have believed, but ISL^l
* <-
gj

^T^JUl! c_^J
t^ Aay believed the Lord of the worlds: we notice

this particularly after those indicating motion, which must then

be translated by transitive verbs (see 423 rem. b) ;

thus LlX33

Cpu^Jlj i^iljj (*\f?v

L-Jo <LJ b this was because their apostles

used to bring them proofs, ^aCuT J^r 1

} ^^rf ^1?^ ^ caused the

children of Israel to traverse the sea.

(<?)
The relation between an act and its instrument or reason ;

thus 1j ^AlTjpi iUT^L L^Jj this shall be because God

 177

is the patron of those who believe, ^ laJ^LVJ *"UlT <

CpVj^ JP ^ JF* <MW* fo descend by means of cloud the water,

and we produce by means of it

(the rain) all sorts of fruits,

by God 1
s permission, held in subjection by His
*y*^ CLJ^^****

command, d/Ua^o \j\ <&j*

$U&-a^
-Jj>\ JJ

'jS^
\ and We revealed to Moses, when his people asked drink of him,

saying (see 367 e) Strike the stone with thy rod, Uj

fkj-^ LLjQ
^
^ Ji-Uj \y
li thus We try them by reason of that in ivhich they were

impious, J&& ta
\&AJ\J ^-iiJ
^?^ (^y 9
IJlXcVj
We appointed

with Moses (a period of) thirty nights and We completed them by

means of ten (more),

.gi^j 15?^^ y*^fl ^^ <1^-^-^^ jJl
verily I have chosen thee above (all) men by reason of (My putting thee

in charge of} My messages and because of My speaking (to thee).

>- {-
HEM. c. To express without we can use J^ ;
thus
^ ^\
t

JLs^
'

jJu i^s)
y \
^j* &is&3. th se w ho behave proudly in the earth

without justice.
~ -*O
HEM. d. Some would place in this sub- section <UJ| J^j by the

name of God while others supply &$\ as above.

HEM. e. Arabian grammarians have divers expressions to denote

the uses of 4_>.

>

NOTE. We find <_> used in the sense of

^jlc,
thus
^j <\
Lj they thought that it was falling upon them.
 178

\')7.
By of ^J L*) with, along with, we indicate
lu'lp ^ (or
?<~ ~s-

association and connection in time or place ;

thus
^* <d^\ send
him with me : there are also less usual meanings.

X x'

459. We employ ^c over, upon, above

(a) in its local sense ;

thus *U*J \
+&* UHtoJ and We spread
c-e' ''ss ^o j?.

for shade over them the cloud, c 1J A0tt ZT<?

^j~^ 1
L^- c$J-:LD
established Himself upon the throne : and a similar sense may be

discerned in V^j ^*J ?A the plague fell upon them,

ls-jp\ i^-P-^

_$jLZ$\j ^J&\ ji^ift bjJjTj

(
wrf TFe s<?w ^ow7 wjoow ^e manna

and quail, \5\& j*^*-^

u-Jlil I fear in your case a punishment^

)jL**'^
\
J-^ylliJ ^JJ^ ^^Lc w/?o
^ortf ^^n ^^ 2/J0 believers rely,
' *"
x v?
iJtJi
^.^-Ji
those upon whom Thou hast shed blessings.

(b) As implying disadvantage (see 453 b iii) ;

thus cll^ji

6W w?fls
awyry t^eYA him,
i^jJ^ ^*J ^^ ^^ A against

them. Also we use Jx

^ after words signifying difficulty and the
c-o

opposite ;
thus ^i^5 llsd '

L^ %J^C. he makes unlawful to them

i
^
the foul things,
^-^*J ^J^ ,j^ clXj^ ^" w^7i ^o^

() To express an obligation ;
thus
^~Tf cfcJT l

distinct delivery is incumbent upon Our apostle, *-\~-&

' ''

jli--<
w not the covenant of the book taken upon them, <J-4>
is
binding upon me.
x" >" ' "

(d) To show superiority in one over another ;

thus
 179

M lie has favoured you above all creatures,

and He is all-powerful over everything.

(e) To give the condition serving as basis upon which a person

rests ;
thus
^LM*8l ^ J ^c J$ he followed the Christian religion.

(j) To indicate the subject spoken of ;

thus (
Jj:
^ytf *
j\

<JLsJ
^
aJJ \ that they should not say concerning God other than the
3j
truth.

HEM. a. Other uses exist; as ,&~*

<J^~J LT^-/ ^ f
admonition has come to you through one of yourselves.

462. "With an oath (*MJ$) we employ J iy provided a substantive

follows and there is no verb of swearing. The complement (^j\^-

A^JU 1
) may be an affirmative verbal proposition, and the verb

may be imperfect, in which case j is prefixed to the energetic

form ;
thus JfJ:^
) ^ m & Lord, ye shall be raised.

463. While commonly reckoned among prepositions L as, like

is a substantive and synonymous with Ji likeness (see 482 /).

"We find it in 1 j^ thus, u-J & in like manner, so, and ^li as though.

NOTE. Attached to cL^ we find aLslLlT U the hindering md (see

353*), thus I^JT

j^j
U? C^j liJ Jx^i ma^ /or w* a ^ /^
their gods.

466. To signify at the side of we employ &lc ;

thus

*_:**] and with God there is great reward, L!/J.C

^-\2~
 L80

virtue of the covenant He has made with thee, L&AXC l3* &$&?
fl*y fi n d him written down with them i.e.
J-3^yTj ^"5^ ,c"?

mentioned in the Old Testament and Gospel, ji i&l UJ} Si

jJl verily the cause of their good and ill luck lies hidden in the

counsels of God. When used of time C&c may indicate a particular

/ - "*

moment, thus l^J& JC^T. t^-4J! //<?/ wr0 at the time of writing it.

467. Signifying befween

^
^ indicates an intervening space, thus

the Flood and the Hegira. Of

common occurrence is <<3u

J^J
beticeen his two hands i.e. in his

presence, and ji-^^l ^^ between their hands i.e. before them ;

thus

468. Signifying beneath Li-osr* indicates the lower part; thus

under the tree.

HEM. b. Its opposite is above as

sjJ ;

Ife is all-powerful over His servants.

469. Signifying below b often indicates something inferior,

and

(e] that a quality belonging to one is not possessed by another ;

""
x I, p p t
^^

and those who are not that are among them.

HEM. Beside 3&, ^J d*:-^ and there are other nouns

,
^,
in the accusative 359 and 444 which are employed as
(see b)

prepositions : for instance,

 181

& Jl
(a) ^3 before of time ;
thus
j) ^ \ lS

y0 believed Him before that I gave you permission. Its opposite is

&1 after-, thus l^-Sb>i &tj

vfi\ 5-* \j5u*Ju
^ ^ wo ^ y* commit

disorders in the earth ajter its ordering.

(c) *\j* behind, thus <J-^ \ look behind thee :

equivalent
Tjjj J^lij
<

is fcgl j>. ,
thus *$b>~ ^j f^c\^ vrt* ^* ^*^ -^
and what behind i.e. what is and shall be.

470. Compound prepositions have usually ^ as the first part,

and the second part must be in dependent case. Thus

77"^
(i) L^ ^
Aa// caw^
;

^iVw
as

#o
>tf VT ^^ ^
w^r gardens under which flow
^Ui- JlkbJ j I

the runnels

of water.

(c) J3 ^ and &^ ;

as
3\ \\ *
&
coming to us,

aforesaid) We sent Moses, L/*? i"^ J^l'i.^ U.^Ll> wi? have

ye wrought in mine absence after my departure, !^-L* ^jj^\

Ij&jJu
^^ \\3 L5 Cjjlj^LlM ^Aostf ^o ^fo z?27
things (and) then

after that repent.

HEM. 0. The construction may sometimes be made more concise

by omission of a preposition ;
thus
JUj-JJ Cr^^ ***J* 15"^* J^*'^
IfjUL^J instead of *y ^^ awrf Jf<?^ chose from his people seventy

men for Our appointed time.

 182

471. The infinitive (see

195 and 426 to 429) like other nouns

by the article or otherwise thus

is indefinite unless defined ;
^j
J
'
lJ J therein, you, is a great trial from your

UJjkljU J verily those who chose the calf (as a god), wrath shall

overtake them from their Lord, and ignominy in this present life ;

iSo' .)\ yjjjc* It is a way of excusing (ourselves] to

^Jl^ they said,

your Lord.

472. The rection* of nomina agentis has been treated in 430,

431. They and nomina patientis (originally adjectives, see 80)

are frequently used as concrete verbal nouns, designating a person

or thing to which the verbal idea closely attaches itself, while

remaining immovable. The Imperfect is nearly akin, but being

part of a finite verb indicates motion or renewal.

NOTE. "We retain Professor "Wright's term nomen concretum

verlale, though it might perhaps be as well to employ the word

participle, here and elsewhere.

473. For a specific indication of time we must look to some

other word in the sentence thus lfc T;ji JJj.ft.Lo

^JlS
~
;
^.^-cClJ^
x
'$>
^ w^
I
?

'jP
^ 15 *(*** ^Q
^ e ans w erea>> massacre their sons

* we mean
By a word's rection, its influence in regard to construction,
ro< |
airing that another word be in a particular case : the corresponding term is

.^ action of governtnent.
 183

and we will save alive their daughters (lit. women) and verily we shall

be subduers over them, where (J* gives a future sense to all three

clauses.

(a) In a clause which is not circumstantial the concrete verbal

noun refers to a present or future time ;

thus '&> IsuHf ISJj

SjiJlj
1& ij&r\
Lyij^f'J^
^w ^ en ^ removed from them the

plague until a fixed term, which they were about to attain &3l\Jt> ^\
-U* ly tf U J-k^5 J
f*
U j^i* 0* to these people destroyed is

that (religion] in which they were, and vain is what they were making ;

of you is an unbeliever, and one of you a believer ;

lX) Ui JjT ^, <u lSJ\J ^^y *a^, Whatever sign

,^0^
thou bringest to us we do not believe in thee.

(b) But the concrete verbal noun in a circumstantial clause

refers to the same period of time as the ruling verb ;

see 583.

The Imperfect Indicative will be found used in nearly the same

way ;
see 408 e.

474. TVhen attached to a verb as adverbial accusative (see

444 c) a concrete verbal noun refers to the same period of time

as the verb itself; thus l-ilr* c^>uT l^rLb\ enter the gate pros-

trating yourselves ;
l^-j ^jJli CpUp- *yl^& lie shall make

them enter gardens to abide therein, an instance of

JjJ&
indicating the future.
 184

475. A noun, when governing another noun in the dependent

. is called by the Arabians u-?li* annexed, and is said by

European grammarians to be in construct state. It is shortened

in pronunciation by omission of tanwln or of the terminations ^

and ^j, in order that the speaker pass quickly
to the governed

word, which is called J1 i_Jl*oJl that to which annexation is

made. Their relationship is known as <Li(*e\ annexation.

REM. There are two kinds of annexation <CLiLJLs^

'

aJl^Vl the
c^ *
c

proper annexation and dJLxs^ '

the improper annexation :

Jlc AiLs^l

in the former ujL&j] may be

&Jx* defined or lj undefined ;
in

the latter it can only be xi , except when the article is prefixed,

see 489.

476. In the construct state of a governing noun, followed

immediately by the dependent of a governed, can be represented

all ideas which we express in English with the preposition of.

Thus p3i *j
the chapter of the cow,ss^\ *l>- in presence of

the sea i.e. situated by the sea, A-l^Jl J^i Ijjj ^] if they see the

path of true direction. A word may be governing and governed ;

as
g^JJl
>*J LlXlU the Ruler of the day of the judgement, <-l;UL*
-
"
. * o ^-i
the appointed time of his have ye hastened
&^j Lord, iLjJ^l f&*?\
the affair of your Lord ?

478. (a) The governed word (J uJLdAJ) in proper annexation

 185

may be nomcn substantivum,* a pronoun or other word regarded

as a substantive, or an entire clause (see 488). Thus *^i

^UlST the chapter of the overreaching,

A-*j3j ^F* Moses and his

people,
^JUJc! JLL^. '^T\ *l&Jj ^J\f(i ^1 04*3Tj and

those who deny Our signs and the meeting of the last (dwelling}, vain

are their works,

*$);
\* ^~j*
'
x^
& \$>
5>-o >
at
x
f ^ e 9od things

which we have provided for you, JJ \ Uj the story of those

\jj& ^j
who disbelieved.

(i) The governing word (^jU&Jl i.e. the one in construct

state) must in proper annexation be nomen substantivum* in

which category are accounted prepositions, as

lyi| joe after its

ordering ;
so also are numerals, for which see 496 et seq. Thus

*ist> the Lord of Aaron, they tasted the

<JL>j **P! J^?j iy^J
mischief of their doing, .^SJiJT c^^Jo i-Xc 4JUij w<? 6^0^ ^^
acquainted with what is in possession of the breasts. An adjective in

construct state is improperly annexed (see 489) unless, as in the

following examples, standing in the position of a defined noun so

as to have the force of a substantive thus

;
^-j! I
^^-
x---
the

handsome (part] of the face or even the handsome face, w^Ul 1 Lllc
5, -G '

i'(3tj>l^j
/Atf Knower of the hidden and of the manifest. As regards

superlatives, see 486 and 493.

* We use nomen substantivum here as in 190, to include primitive nouns,

infinitives, and simple substantives.
 186

M. a. In proper annexation the article ^\ can never be

prefixed to uJlaSJl, in the improper it may (see 489).

S f. '
NOTE. The annexed word can be governed by a verb u

eliminated, as

mention of
^U ^ dJ^JjJ
He
g
<

.
fc
make

the day whereon shall gather you for the day of

assembly, this will be the day of general deception : here we must

prefix J^jV.

480. Instead of having an adjective attached to it, a noun may

be in construct state qualified by another noun as
;
jj^ u^Tj
f
a sincere man : this is common in specifying the material, as
J^
a calf (made) of ornaments.
^L>-

482. The following substantives are used to express the whole,

the part, the like, and the different, by being annexed (uJli*) to
to

a dependent.

(a) Jo the totality, the whole. If the leading substantive

5*
defined and signifies something single and indivisible, <J- means

whole as c:jf.rJ \
Jp the whole house ;
if it is definite but plural or

collective, we must render J- all, as

CpVjiLff Ji- all the fruits,

^jj uu \ all the cattle ;

if it is indefinite Jp means each, every, as

not believe

in it,
ff

^f> cP L^-A^ ^Uo^J My mercy comprises everything. In

^ -i >*

402 a will be found /^w) ^-i every tribe :

here, as may be
 187

learned from the context, is collective (see 305 rem. but

(jJj| e)

is used as a singular.

(b) r^>- the totality, the whole, much resembles Jp ;

we may
however say U~*c>- lj- to you all (see 4'44 c rem. i 2) but not

llc something different may usually be translated other than :

thus c
JJ ^ iD U UlT
Him ;
ijj lL*j! ^JLjT
'\ shall I seek for you a god

other than God? j c/^lc j

^ wrongdoers among them substituted a word, other than that which

x-

was told them. For without see 456 rem. c.

J^M
REM. a. We employ ^lc as a negative, thus J& ^
(
impossible-,

but if repetition be needed we must after the first negative use J

followed alike by a dependent, thus *-^-^ m*%JU\ ^^ \ klT.0

^^.jLajTij iv^-^ V ^^^^^ ^ ^^ of

1 those upon whom Thou

hast shed blessing, other than those who are the objects of ( Thine) anger

and are in error.

(/) J^J Meneu, like, as <LXu the like of it, like it.

REM. a. Similar in sense to J~ ,

but without case signs, is C
see 463.

486. Properly annexed, in construct state, are found deverbal

adjectives expressing the superlative, of form Jjo! (see 234) or

 188

Jil (sec 242 note 1) ;

thus
^-^jjT i^-Jl L^O^ 0w
the most merciful of the merciful,
',j>yjuji J^ L^O^J 0w
the best of those who pardon. Here one item is made to stand

prominently out of a whole designated by the dependent ;

and
'*V?
being in this annexation definite substantives (see 478 b) J-xJI

and Jots need not vary in gender or number (see 493 rem. ),
o-o o i I
thus tffo greatest of the cities, tf/w fos ^'wy
gjg,t&iJlj3! l^iXueM
^fl is in i.
tj.
REM. a. Being superlative Jj^ first stands in annexation of the
c <-* ^ ^* ^>
same sort, thus
( ^-^j^l
1
J^ u! /w the first of the believers. The
other ordinal numbers ought not so to be used, for they are nomina

agentis from transitive verbs, see 328.

488. When $ governs a verb (see 415 a) it is S^^u^IT OT

the '# which with its verb is
equivalent to a magdar (see 195) and

the same construction appertains to the indefinite I* (see 353*).

Thus lUs- \^ <A*j

J ^4^ ^ c)-^ r? 1%^1 ^^ w75 ^ wronged
before that thou earnest to us and after that thou hast come, which is

equivalent to

before thy coming to us

UlS} (^^ <&
and
^
after thy coming to us.
VllS
^ L^oU^ J^J
Clauses of this
^
sort frequently stand as
^J| ujLk^jl (the second member of an

annexation, see 478 a) in lieu of a dependent.

489. When improperly annexed the noun in construct state

inu>t be an adjective, thus handsome of face,
^-jlT f*- -
 189

c >U*J \
prompt of chastisement. Here the dependent though

always defined by the article exercises no defining influence upon

its governing word, which remains a^y (see 475 rem.) and can

be defined by the article, thus < _?uUl I

j^2N 4-LJI God the prompt
to punish*

490. Except by poetic licence, nothing can intervene between

a noun in construct state and its following dependent, consequently

an adjective qualifying the first member must be placed after the
>

second; thus
^J3f ^-^\ ^3ulT
(1 <4 fiJ '**^\ praise

belongs to God, the Lord of the worlds, the compassionate and merciful.

492. In proper annexation if the second member be indefinite

the first is the same, as +Jaf. AJ cl^l~c X&P^- -Jlil

^Jj
verily T fear in your case a punishment of a great day. But if the

second member be definite so is the first, as

^x +
^
'

7F<? MWMJ |M0p/!f ^o inherit the eastern parts of the

land and tJie western parts of it. If we desire that the first noun

be indefinite while the second is definite we must employ the

preposition J thus
J^JJJ a son of the man (see 453 b :
,
^j\ i)

certain words of wide signification may however remain indefinite

even when followed by a definite dependent.

493. The examples in 486 have each its dependent

<J \
)
definite and therefore partitive : if indefinite the dependent

* This sort of annexation is treated in Wright's Grammar vol. n 30.

 190

must be explicative, as *UJ J^I & they are most excellent women,

]a\. >* <LLM God is the best preserver. After the superlatives
/ *

and the indefinite dependent is likewise ex-

jy first JL>..J
fast

plicative thus JjT J|| the first verse, the last day.
;
f&.'j^
REM. a. If the dependent be definite the noun in construct state

(viUsuJ!) may resume its characteristic attribute as an adjective

and conform in number and gender to the object or objects

mentioned ;
thus j\&A\
( u/-?^ L<
^ *"* ^e largest of the cities,
_ C-o 7 9, '?

^1 Jk^J I
C^ljjio ^Jb 7wy are the largest of the cities.

494. Attention has been drawn in 480 to a way of specifying

the material from which any thing is made : this also may be done

by putting the material in apposition to the object, both being

either definite or indefinite ;
thus )lk^ ^jj ^~* ,^^ +** ^^ \j
ItV.vA.'*- and the people of Moses after his departure took for themselves

(as god) a calf of red gold.

495. Of two things which are identical, the second may be in

dependent case and the first in construct state.

(b) This happens when a specific noun is preceded by a sub-

stantive designating the genus, as c-?li^! 1 sT lj equivalent

*j

to
t-^^9 \ tes?[} & JiJ \ \ the chapter which is the opener of
'&jj2A
the book.

496. It has been mentioned in 321 that cardinal numbers from

3 to 10, when in apposition to the things numbered, agree with
 191

them in case ;
but when placed in annexation before them (see

478 b) govern a plural dependent. A plural of paucity (see 307)

'
'~\
must be employed if the substantive have one ;
thus JU-r^
* "' -& &
e created the heavens and the earth

in six days.

REM. a. Exceptional is JU one hundred which, in dependent

singular, always follows the governing numeral, see 325.

a i.-

REM. b. Should iaJ! *Jk- the plural of paucity not be in

o <-
^
common use, there must perforce be employed |pLJ 1
4-^r the

plural of abundance.

REM. c. "We must remember that a pluralis sanus is plural of

paucity, thus CpL; \

l^j
\ its verses are seven in number ;
%^*~>

(o t is a generic noun which forms a nomen unitatis, being also

a plural of abundance, see 304 No. 28 and 306 rem. a). If

however an adjective specifies the objects numbered, J>? must be

employed as in 448 /; or the noun must be put in apposition to

the numeral, thus

^^L*^ four ^Moslems, c^ljL^J* L^-J
<

*-*-?j^

six believing women.

499. We have seen in 444 e rem. b that cardinal numbers from

11 to 99 take their objects numbered in the accusative singular;

thus *jp vg^y* J^*-!

-^0*0* chose from his people
iL^-J iTjj?-*^
<t *^ >" O ', ;
^ S
seventy men, <ti\
I'j^s. ^UJ ^ibj ^^ ij?**
^ chapter written at

Mecca and it (has) eighteen verses ;

so also with <tilJ twice in 444 a.
 192

Very rarely they are followed by an accusative plural, as

\*J*\
y^Lc twelve nations. In gender the tens (^JA^ ,

etc.) are but units conform to the gender of the noun

common ;

x ^ V
o ^ <. o^ ^u-o .

denoting the objects numbered, thus uL. jy L^iJ (^^.^LJ\ \

twelve springs gushed out being feminine, see 290

(^- a).

506. Cardinal numbers agree in gender with nouns denoting the

objects numbered according to the following rules ;

there being

constantly borne in mind the peculiarity explained at 319.

(a) The numeral agrees in gender with the singular of the

substantive denoting the objects numbered, even if the plural is of

different gender ;
as
^.+..\.~i jJ^J*^^ five years (the singular 4.H

being feminine), CL>\jLdj

J
4JtJ nine Ramadans (the singular

)\*+j being masculine), 1>-JJ1A <u|UJ eighteen men.

(b) When the objects numbered are designated by a noun of

general signification, its grammatical gender is usually followed by

the numeral as lillil llj| twelve tribes (the sing.

;
J^J. |Li

being masculine). But if another substantive be attached which

determines more precisely the real gender of the objects, then the
x- ^ V*^^ ^ -*"

numeral agrees with the second noun thus \ l&l*laJ

;
iyk ^J^>
UJil UbU^l We divided them into twelve tribes (i.e.) nations (the

sing. &\ being feminine).

512. To every i-XJf- totality, sentence there must be a subject

and a predicate, the latter being called jcJl^Jl that which is

 193

supported, the attribute. The subject is called dJ j &&&1 that by

which (the attribute) is supported, and the relation between them is

termed jl&ll the act of supporting or causing to lean, attribution.

513. The subject may be a noun substantive, as

^j*
L^M Jl5
the chieftains of his people answered or an expressed pronoun,
&*ji ;

/G-O f
^
<-~0
!j

as
^l^jil !j c^&] y* ' M ** guidance and the criterion, J'^JUL*
-^
t< is aw excuse ;
or a pronoun concealed in the verb*, as
J.yi.Xu,*
* c ' '
Xj
Ix
VT
I

^.3
Sr x LALL^JI
I
~/- -?
JF drowned them in the sea, u: ^.^.
.4>J
j ^
Sr ^
^
JTtf giveth life and causeth to die or a conjunctive clause (see

572), as uOJ^T ^ Uj Cp^LUf-4 U aJJ

^J ^r
whatsoever is in heaven and in earth, \-*^ ^

unbelievers have asserted', or a preposition with its dependent, as

J J in ^ J

who are not

^5 ^jj ^l^lT 1 ^ ^oorf are

The predicate
among

them, and those that are among them.

may be a noun (substantive or adjective), as cl/J

^y+ Of^j \^^}
s t- f ",-& f
'**AJ\A
*'
\ but I am an apostle from the Lord of the worlds, L>
jJL)
1 '&
i"f '% *
I.^Cs*
'
He is the potent, the wise ;
or a verb, as
{ ~>)-s* ,J^ \3$J

so when Moses awoke ;

or a preposition with its dependent, as xJ tfc
'
r*"

M^y in it] or an adverb, as

/ \jJb \J\ I am here ;
or a conjunctive
Is'* ^-O ' -^ ^ ^ < I

clause, as l^Aj.^ *> He ^JJ

.

1 is your Creator, <LUi U i

iA& ^Aw i*

what did it or Aw is what he did. Be the predicate what it may,

^ ~^ S
every sentence beginning with its subject is &&
i

\
<OXf a nominal

* Tables of these
pronouns, prefixed and suffixed, are giren in "Wright's
Grammar vol. i $ 89.

13
 194

sentence (which may be simple or compound, see 519 and 520)

thus yaaTf i^bffji He is the sublime, the mighty, 4JJ Jaffi &\
turely the earth belongs to God,
Moses awoke. On the
^u! \^y*
other hand we call fljij j^=f- a verbal sentence (simple or com-

pound) any one in which the predicate is a verb preceding its

God
subject, thus illT
J^\ is Self-sufficing, UJjJajL^ '*&.jLj 5
the guarding of them both does not weary Him ;
or in which the verb

represents both subject and predicate, thus ^3^J they turned aside.

The subject of a nominal sentence is termed ! jci^Jl the inchoative

(except when put in the accusative by a preceding \

,
for it is

f
then known as j\ 1^1 see 525 rem.) and its predicate
j*JSR\
the

enunciative ',
while the subject of a verbal sentence is called

the agent, and its predicate JJtfiJl the action or verb.

REM. b. Here Professor de Goeje adds the following :

The difference between verbal and nominal sentences, to which

the native grammarians attach no small importance, is properly
this, that the former relates an act or event, the latter gives

a description of a person or thing, either absolutely, or in the form

of a clause descriptive of state (see 583 0). This is the constant

rule in good old Arabic, unless the desire to emphasize a part of

the sentence be the cause of a change in its position.

514. A verb with >1

or U (then called maQdariyah, see 488)
may serve as subject either to a nominal or to a verbal sentence ;

thus
Jjj\ ^ s.
<JUf*~ that I say so and so is incumbent upon me.
 195

515. The predicate may (see 513) be a preposition with its

dependent, and when the subject precedes we have a nominal sen-

tence; thus J.,&^UJJ jl*Jl the result is to the devout. If however

< a x
the preposition and dependent stand first, thus
^-^ 1
^ \ the

returning is to Him (see also next section), we may call the phrase

jk Lfcsy- a local sentence (see 221 rem. a and 527 a}.

REM. The logical emphasis falls upon the later word as in 436

rem. b.

516. If the predicate be an adverb or a preposition with its

dependent, and the subject an indefinite substantive or a clause

(see 514) containing a finite verb governed by ^|T,

then the

predicate must precede, thus t-Jj u5*Wb

he took the tables and in their inscription were guidance and mercy,
l^i^ ^ ffi\
^\

?*- iJ it lows lit. a lowing is to it : but either order is permitted

if the indefinite substantive carries with it an adjective, expressed

or implied, thus fjf &\* ^ or iJ Jjf cl^Jo- to them is

a painful punishment. In case of a sentence expressing a wish,

however, its subject if indefinite must precede, as !JljLl iiLi

peace be unto you and should the subject follow, it must be defined,

517. The subject also necessarily follows its predicate in

a nominal sentence, (a) when the \'S*Z* contains a pronoun making

reference to a word in thesi- as J its master is
l^l^l^j^jJl
 196

* 3 3
in the house-,
(b} when the Ijol* is restricted by uJ^ or It, as

obey God and obey the apostle, but if ye turn aside, then only

the clear delivery (of his message} is incumbent upon Our apostle,

4iLjT Si liJ I* we have nothing (to do} but to follow him, (see

585 and 586) ; (c} when the

J^>-
is an interrogative, as lib \
trho is he ? ,
-jjfc
U wAfltf ts #? (see 570).

518. In a verbal sentence the agent (i.e. subject) must always

follow its verb (i.e. predicate) ;

thus <U-& his Lord spoke to him,
<U^J

dJly this it is held to do where a verb

'^'f^ plante spring up
:

x*<-,e xc%
represents both subject and predicate; thus '^J V^ ,<-^^ he threw

down the tables.

519. In addition to simple sentences, nominal and verbal, we

find compound, each consisting of an inchoative with a clause as
enunciative. In one sort of compound nominal sentence, a noun

(substantive or pronoun) is transposed to the first place and

'

x # u
*
followed by a verb, thus %^> J.S c^u^ ic^^-j (
a8 ^) -^ mercy

(it} comprises everything. Here the agent of the clause dJclfc)]) is

a concealed pronoun, which corresponds in gender and number

with the inchoative of the sentence ;
and the inchoative contrasts

(tacitly or expressly) with another inchoative having a different

predicate, thus >j \5

^^ jlil ^y* Moses aivoke while Aaron was
(xtill) tleepina,
uX^ LJ JuA
Ijj verily
as for us, we repent toward

Thee, jJU*J
i && 4^> I"* *t of them do not know, Jb
 11)7

J$ btcaune they denied Our signs, y*>--f i^i*J perchance

^Soi^J i-OjD perhap* ye may

ye may be mercifully dealt with, be

guided aright.

520. There are also compound sentences in which a pronominal

suffix called the connecter replaces the noun transposed.

kjjpl

They may be (a) compound nominal, thus f.lj J->~\

*$-* *-Ul

with God there is great reward ;

or (b) compound verbal, thus SJjJl
9 9 *' O s > &
4->LLJ r'rS? t-L-j" ^-'1 (* M /w^ Y herbage comes forth,
- ^i ^ '

I <
^o) ^ooc?

*Li! a,j cL^-tf! -j^Juc (as to) My punishment 1 strike with it

Jy^
whom I will. Transposition for the sake of contrast can well be
observed in Elementary Arabic : first reading book page r bottom

line, and page r t at top.

521. We may regard as verbal a sentence consisting of a de verbal

adjective and following noun, thus c^C'JJ> LJ^ thy people are

generous (see 552 b ii).

522. There does not exist in Arabic a substantive verb, i.e. one

which would unite subject and predicate in a nominal sentence

without connoting the idea of existence ;
for {.}& though occasion-

ally supplying the place of logical copula, ascribes to its subject

the attribute of existence ;

and being attributive, its predicate and

those of must be in the accusative case (see 441

J;0 CJ\^O
and 442).

523. The absence of logical copula expressed by or contained in

a finite verb constitutes the essential characteristic of a (simple)

 198

nominal sentence (see 513) ;

so that when a definite noun

(substantive or pronoun) and an indefinite adjective stand in

juxtaposition we have a complete nominal sentence. The fact of

the former being defined (no matter how) and the latter undefined,

shows them to occupy the positions of subject and predicate; for,

as will be seen in 536, a descriptive epithet must agree with its

noun in respect of definition as well as in gender, number and case.

Thus 3^4^ j: <ULJ \ God is self-sufficing (and ) worthy to be praised,

'La the chapter of the uppermost parts is Meccan.

524. If both subject and predicate are defined, we can make

sure of their relative position being recognized, by inserting

^
<"0 ^ - *-'*
between them ^J-^U \ '+.**> the pronoun of separation thus L!>J V \

^ ^P&J \ 1& those are the prosperous.

525. If the predicate be a nominative and the subject placed in

the accusative after or the like, a pronoun of separation is

J^j

unnecessary ; thus <UJ^

i^-j ^ verily your Lord is God : there

may however be inserted such pronoun of the same person as

Q ~4 (see 436 rem. a) ;

thus
UiJj ^-Ot <^J3\ truly
Thou art
our protector.
s,
REM. A noun governed by JM etc. is not called 1 JoX4 inchoative

by Arabian grammarians.

527. As a general rule the subject of a nominal sentence must,

if not exactly defined, be specialized. No information is conveyed

 199

by A horse is grey "; but we can say

djlc.
a grey horse is handsomest, where (jwJ-J though xjJsiJ indefinite

is specialized by its adjective ;

so also there is obviously a partial
S * "5* -o f: o
determination in a desire do evil and
-
JL-i Jl2iJl
9 x
^J *
*-~-*-j
to is bad,

in
^jS* *!ac /*j <^^<\ a punishment of a great day is to be feared

(see 492). These examples differ from true definition, which is

only attained by use of the article t^jb^LJJ in order to distinguish

(see 345), or by annexation to a defined noun (see 475 et seq.) :

there are other cases where the subject of a nominal clause can be
"

indefinite, among which are the following ;

(a) In a clause called at 515 zarfiyah (i) when the predicate

stands first, as &*!

+ffl\ '**
there is a section of the people ;
and (ii)

when the subject is preceded by an interrogative or negative

o <-* - o

particle, as ^U! I -j * l JJ& is there water in the cistern ?

<JL>j~*
&
'cJ we have no drink.

(e) When the sentence expresses a wish, as X&J& ^^ peace be

unto you-, see 516.

(/) Words containing the conditional meaning of ^ */ (see

406), though indefinite by their nature, serve as inchoative ;

thus jlJtj

whoever is
^JJ
made to
^
guard against
if any one believes God, d-J*J

his own covetousness.

^ j^J ^
529. A pronoun of separation is sometimes omitted if the

meaning remains clear, as in Elementary Arabic : First reading book

<_* / x V- -
., I.

page r ^
top line IJo*! 1
jjjJLJ
1 clXl^ Mt' fa the great priie.
 200

contrast
530 To give emphasis and occasion ^~**
!
A-OJfSJi
be introduced
pronoun of corporation
it
JUhilSJf *A* may ; being

treated in 524
wholly different from the pronoun of separation
et seq. Commonly it follows the subject, or a verb which repre-

sents both subject and predicate ;

thus &&> (-vi/j (** i^.^
those only who fear their Lord,
,^-JUJT IS?
&\ if WE be the
rictors ;
see also s? ^^J at 415 a i Note.

NOTE. The pronoun of corroboration may follow conjunctive

pronouns in an oblique case, thus ^^LjJ LLJUlj *Jb

^JaJ/ar
those especially who believe in Our signs.

531. If however in the description of persons or things (see

513 rem. 1) a nominal clause lacks precision, we may use ^o

or one of its sisters (see 442). "When so employed the imperfect
has its usual meanings : but a perfect, beside examples like those

in 441, may express the present, as JlcVVj *^>J! i^ -*4^

UJO 5^5?
^ P u ^8 away from them their burden and the

fetters which are upon them] especially is this the case after an

interrogative, or U not, as Jl
^J^. *j&2 *L^ ^& U / am
not ready to judge between you until etc. (see 557).

533. We have observed in 73 that passive verbs must often

be translated impersonally :
commonly a 3rd person singular
masculine is used to avoid specifying the subject, thus J-J JJ

^J whm it was said to them. In case of lc which governs

 201

only an accusative of the sin, we render lU jl*l- we )

pardoned, for it will be pardoned to us gives too explicit a subject.

Nomina patientis of verbs which are transitive by help of a pre-

position (see 423) can only appear in the masculine singular,

changes of gender and number being marked by an alteration of

the pronoun ;
thus ^lc cJLijc* fc he is an object of anger, -&

she is an object of anger, *-vr^ clj^aUJ! the

objects of anger. The neuter plural of adjectives is sometimes ex-

pressed by the feminine sound plural, and sometimes by a broken

plural, but never by the masculine sound plural thus

;
l&ljaJoj

ClAtllL) i d?l.v,M..,r L>

'"
and We tested them by means of good and
c~

evil things,
^L\ Ui
5 1

j^jk 'g*
otiJf ^j %ac he makes

lawful to them the pleasant things and makes unlawful to them the

foul things.

REM. a. The passive of directly transitive verbs may be used

personally or impersonally, thus c^Lc he was overcome or there

was a victory.

534. To the subject and predicate complements are joined by

subordination (the accusative or a preposition with its
dependent),
or by coordination which is more usually called apposition.

535. Pronominal suffixes may have a reflexive meaning when

attached to a verb's object, but not when attached to the verb

itself ; consequently for this purpose we must employ jJ*Ju

soul

14
 202

or the like, thus ^Vi? JH"**'' \? ^ were inJur 9 themselves:

to this rule however verbs of the heart (see 424 b ii) supply

exceptions.

536. Complements coordinated with a subject or predicate are

called appositives (see 304 No. 16), the usual apposition

i-J\p
being of noun to noun and the more rare (see 540) of verb to
verb. There stands first
cjli^Jl that
which is followed and then

jd1 the follower.

(a) After this fashion the adjective is joined to its substantive ;

they agreeing in gender, number and case, as well as (see 523)

by definition or by being undefined : thus -f^^ <J

^ manifest

error, v^l*]T JJJ! to the dead country, l&jws-"^

' ^Jj ' UUclJ
\~\

%~+\*s?
'
/ saw their congregational mosque or their mosque which

collects, *J^V\ j\t] *UJ the meeting of the last abode. A noun

may of course have two or more adjectives connected with it,

thus
*^/-^ \3*^y\ 4-^ the name of God the merciful
(***

(and) compassionate : sometimes a nomen verbi (nomen actionis

or other) takes the place of an adjective, thus J^- an in-

ijy
definite hdl, a defined noun. In the above examples
&*ijxJ* ^i\
all words are singular, and concords in case of the dual are

equally simple : but with plurals the matter becomes difficult,

though the rule as to definition is happily unalterable. A sub-

stantive (i) in masculine sound plural representing rational

creatures must be followed by an adjective in the plural, thus

 203

erring sons, +\
&$ (see 304 No. 5) noble

believers, '^cl^ ^)}$* (

see 305, ^"* ^) accu ^ 8e ^ unbelievers ;

while a substantive (ii)

in feminine sound plural may be followed

by an adjective, singular feminine as <CLo- C^Jli, gracious

messages, or plural, either broken as C^l;>- (see 304

j'j

No. 17) woik gardens, JLj c>|yo (see 304 No. 2) wAi'fc <wk,
or feminine sound as CuUJl* CL^Ul ft^n* separated by intervals.

A substantive in broken plural if (iii) denoting rational beings

may be followed by an adjective in the singular feminine, thus

iLli the English students, l&^ JU-^ Moslem men,

5 ^ **

J Moslem women, -V
-V.^^ ^->^-^ strong kings, j^~
* Jo A-> strong girls ;
it is however better, if the sex be indicated,

to employ an appropriate sound plural, thus ^jjALS^i J^j an d

Cl?ULil^ *LCJ. But if the broken plural (iv) denotes objects

other than rational beings, no matter what their gender in the

singular, its adjective may be feminine, singular as

great fishes, or plural as CUlJJl^- Jj^> beautiful forms ;

or else

a broken plural, thus

J^c fAjj powerful winds, *\ J^T noble

mountains. Next as regards collectives which are treated in 292

and 306 rem. : those (v) denoting rational beings usually take

an adjective in that sound plural which corresponds by natural

gender with the beings, thus )jAJULM !}^1 the wrong doers,
' 9 ' yJ <*

o were a blind people,

Xv->^ truly they $j*
 204

Mahmutfs numerous family ;

but the adjective may be

singular aud agree with the collective's grammatical gender, thus

f,^A- s_pl-^ excellent posterity, dJLjls &2\ an impious nation.

Collective nouns (vi) which do not form a nomen unitatis and

denote living objects destitute of reason (see 290 a) are, in

respect of concord with adjectives, similar to (see iv) broken

plurals denoting irrational creatures : those (vii) which form

a nomen unitatis, and denote objects other than rational, may

take a feminine sound plural, as CU jlli 5^>- flying locusts ;
or

a feminine singular, as <Uji \

J^JJ voracious lice ;
or a masculine
-"
** <3

singular, as t^OM j*J^\ the fresh fruit ;

or a broken plural, as

JUj cf^ls"* heavy cloud.

(J) Being definite by their nature and regarded as substantives,

the demonstrative pronouns (see 340, 341) must be coupled

with a defined appositive : if this definition is caused by the
article we usually find the demonstrative preceding, thus ulXj^

j^Ll
I this prize,
^ftjl * jjfc this village ;
but if the substantive

be definite in its nature or defined by a following dependent,

it must precede, as Ij* Jyls^ this Makmud.

NOTE. "We find in Elementary Arabic : First reading look nearly

at bottom of page rf
^^J^jli xS^i ^^ become abject apes:

here the appositive is in masculine sound plural because human

beings are addressed.
 205

537. Sometimes we find the adjective -*~' all following

a substantive or pronoun and agreeing with it in gender, number

* ;^ r *'
and case thus I will crucify you all.
;
^j^^-\ j&LlU?^!

539. In addition to its use at 535 JLa3 can signify self

without reflexive meaning, thus <&Ju

*^-*l\j
I have seen himself:
9
<-
-~\
if a plural be needed, ^J^Jo \ must be employed.
o

REM. a. There is a class of appositives called &->i^M or 5u$l

having two divisions ; (
1
) $* T
Su^l 1 the corroboration in

meaning which includes Ji> ~r*^T> an ^ (J^ with

~O ^
t*^"
c ^*
* ^ ^
a few other words ;
and (2) 7 Ju^ill ^0 verbal corroboration,
X' X-

when any word is repeated, thus lx> l*j y, y^.

REM. b. Three more classes of appositives are in use. (1)

djLSJI the qualificative which may refer to its

1^^ (see 536)

directly, in which case it is a simple adjective, thus ,%sr <UJl

1 J$ \ the living and everlasting God ;

or indirectly, applying to
a following word and with it forming a qualificative clause.

(2) JouJI the permutative of which the most usual kind is

JCy
he substitution of the whole for the whole ;
thus

M (tn) ^A straight road, the road of those upon whom

thou hast shed blessing, other than those who are the objects of (Thine)

anger. Here ]o\j*

is badal of 10U*, and
j+s.
of
..^jJt. (3)

_Q \A'~ the explicative connection, being a substantive which

 206

explains its l&*\ '

thus *-3Jl Jr>/^ ihe a P* tle the Pr P^>
* ~
I r

^.ji <U^y <~>* u!^ J/0w*

*fl*^ Aw "brother Aaron, '&L>- J-^T

a calf a body i.e. a calf in bodily shape.

KEM. 0. One verb may be substituted for another by J3J

substitution i.e. the permutative ex-
(Jlia.25T <A# comprehensive
^?' 9 * '
in the previous verb; thus
plaining something involved Axi^plJ

M* ?7 of punishment, killing your sons and saving alive your

daughters.

540. Two verbs used asyndetically (i.e. used without a con-

)

junction) are regarded as in apposition,

thus <3k-s~ be arose
j^>
5
and prostrated himself, Jlti (Xsr A* continued long in prostration ;

but the insertion of i_i is better.

541. As regards concord in gender and number between the

parts of a sentence, the following rules hold good. We shall

treat in 552 of nominal sentences, and at present confine our

attention to verbal sentences (see 518) ; premising that a mas-

culine singular subject can only be preceded (or followed) by
a masculine singular verb, thus ^ Pharaoh
1
and that
^^cJ J said,

the equivalent of a plural subject (such as a relative sentence,

s -3)^0 s
etc.) takes a preceding verb in the singular, thus \^ ^fj& \

f-=J
the unbelievers have asserted.

542. (a) If the subject be a singular substantive, feminine

 207

according to 290 a, and (i) immediately following its verb,

the verb must be feminine singular, thus Jo UL^S&i a hand became

extended : but (ii)

if one or more words intervene, while the

feminine is better, the masculine is permissible, thus ^Jja! 1

l^J ^-aJ

the eye saw it.

(b) If the subject be a singular substantive, feminine according

to 290 b or 291 the verb may precede in either gender, though

preferably in the feminine if the subject follows immediately,

thus
LLxjJ
^^v*K ^^i the word of thy Lord icas fulfilled : but

we find
Jy JuJUS!
fcl
^Si^S^jjeu
\J so look how was the end of

the transgressors.

REM. The concord usually remains if, in negative or inter-

rogative sentences, the subject be preceded by ^-* ;

but in

Elementary Arabic : First reading book page r^ line 4, we have

\+ &\\ I* no mischance has befallen.

(d) The verbs 1*3 and ^-j take preferably the masculine form,
be the subject's gender what it may ;
see 183.

543. If the subject be a masculine sound plural the preceding

verb is with rare exceptions singular masculine, thus dJJI -Lc

^^L^J JJ^iii 1
upon God then let the believers rely.

REM. b. When meaning family or tribe

J;^f, the sound plural
of \ son, may be preceded by a feminine singular verb ;
thua

j i^l^T the tribe of Israel believed Him.

 208

544. If the subject be a broken plural the preceding verb again

with rare exceptions is singular, and of either gender no matter

/ 1 O * S
which, thus l^JUot! \^i
-k-~ (from J-^c masc.) their works are
/ %*.f^> M, / *f"

vain, )a3
(from Jdf-j fern.) the feet were cut of. But if
J^rj^\
the broken plural denote male persons the verb is better masculine,

thus l* *l^LJJl Jju Uj IfJJ^Ji

wilt Thou destroy us on account of

what the fools among us have done] though we sometimes find the

feminine, as JJJ 1^-J

\j L^ 3 li
apostles used to come to them.

545. If the subject be a collective or other noun mentioned in

292 the preceding verb must be singular but may be of either

gender; thus )LJT Jlj the chiefs said,

<t*J3
ali&SiJ Aw j?*0pfc a*W
of him, *^* ^ c^-Jli Jl J awrf when a section of them said.

546. If the subject be a feminine sound plural the preceding

verb must be singular but may be of either gender, unless denoting

female persons when the feminine is preferable.

548. When the subject has been mentioned in a preceding clause,

the verb must agree with it in gender and number according

to the following rules. A masculine or feminine singular verb

follows a like subject ;

and a masculine plural verb follows

a masculine sound plural, thus the Moslems

\j>\j ^^LlAJT^i
journeyed and came, as also the plural of pronouns, thus
\ JLs
' VT o
2 l>-
yU 4 Vu.V '

l^J and when the boon came to them they said.

In case of broken plurals the following verb must be feminine,

 209

singular or plural, thus iJs*"

9

c^Jjj .^\ J~/-!

H* sends the
c -^V*^
winds and they bear cloud where
^^ \
might also have heen used :

if however male persons are indicated the verb in masculine

f came
plural is used, thus \<p\*) u5*y? */^ ^
^~ the magicians

to Pharaoh and said ;

or if female persons the verb is in feminine

plural. Following a collective noun which indicates a pre-

dominance of male persons the verb is naturally in masculine

plural, thus ^p jJu <Uj <JLsJ

LJ
^j&Jj AJ1 ij*^ f {}? among
the people of Moses there is a section who direct (others) by the truth

and by means of it do justice, i^&Q \ < aL>- ^AJLck a posterity

\j-Jj)

succeeded who inherited the Book : other collectives treated in 292

are followed by a singular verb of either gender. Lastly if the

subject be a feminine sound plural the verb would naturally follow

in feminine plural though the feminine singular occurs, thus

Iw'Lf ISJ
&j q^flj li*T we believed the signs of our Lord,

when they came to us : but when female persons are indicated the

concord must be strictly kept.

551. A verb sometimes agrees in gender with the logical

subject i.e. a dependent annexed to the grammatical subject ;

this is most usual with words explained in 482, thus l^J^Uf- LJj
>!
JL$ although every sign come to them.

552. In nominal sentences the concord of gender and number

between subject and predicate closely resembles that in verbal

sentences.
 210

(a) When the predicate, being verb or adjective, follows its

subject, they must agree strictly in gender and number ;

thus

iylc j* /W^ *3^\ God knows lest lit. is more knowing than any

other, ^jyJ\>
t u- o..c, IfJ '-A IjLl so behold it swallows up what
**
9 f 9

they had caused to put on a Jalse appearance, *j*Jl^ ** they are

attainers of it, 1 *^ perhaps they may repent, IxJJLJ
jiz>-^ fV^
perchance ye will take h?ed to yourselves ;
but a broken
s
plural may be followed by a feminine singular, as
^-.
the fahes are large.

(b] When the predicate precedes its subject, as in negative

and interrogative sentences (i) they must in a nominal sentence

agree (see c) but (ii) in a verbal sentence (see 521) the

y _ ^O Z

predicate ought to be singular, thus J^JjUa^ ,%?! the truthful

are trustworthy.

(c} If a subject be collective its predicate may follow in the

/ 9 **-'

plural, thus J;.i>&Ui Jj^J) the people are ignorant. Similarly,

when a verb is placed after a collective subject, thus &j^[Ji.Jt

shall men direct us ?

(d) A predicate frequently agrees in gender with the logical

subject i.e. a dependent annexed to the grammatical subject,

compare 551.

553. In negative and prohibitive sentences a negation may

apply to any part of the sentence the predicate, the subject (see

439), the object, the circumstantial expression (JlsM) etc.

 211

554. The negative most often immediately precedes that part

of the sentence which it denies, but this is not necessarily so.

555 (a) The predicate of a verbal sentence in the imperfect

* 9 *

with present sense may be denied by 1 (see 362 dd), as & $

U^.V'.fij>.
the guarding of them both does not weary Him ;
or with

the future sense, as

^J^^\ ^-\ ^a.J 2
Cj surely We will

not allow to be lost the reward of the righteous-, or with a past

sense, when preceded by a verb which expresses the past, as

l^JJo t <o] |PJ i-M did they not perceive that it could not speak

to them?

(b) We rarely find ^ attached to a verb in the perfect, except

when used with J to continue a previous negation.
? *

556. The particle ^ (for ^\ 3 see 362 hh) is a very strong

negation of the future, as can be seen in 411 and 415 a i.

HEM. For and \SJ see 412 and 418.

557. The particle U not (see 362 kit) denies the perfect when
with one of the meanings treated in 401 a to d ;
when joined
to the imperfect it denies the present, as is noted in 408 e

rem. a.

NOTE. An instance of I* denying ^l is given in 531.

558. The particle ^ not (see 362 ) beside being found

in nominal sentences, thus clJoiiii Jl & j\

this is only Thy

temptation, may be used before the imperfect indicative and the

perfect of a verb.
 212

559. The verb 182 and 442) which usually

( J^J (see

expresses the indefinite or definite present (see 408 a, b] is

commonly Lejti incomplete, as ^U e^J or

^kUj cLwLJ
/ am
not an onlooker; though it may be aL^U complete. It is also

employed as an indeclinable particle, denying more strongly than

* that part of the sentence to which it is prefixed.

560. "When a sentence containing one of the negatives l^ ,

iJ ,

UJ ,
jJ
or
(J^J is followed by another negative sentence, with

2 and to connect the two, (a) the second sentence is negatived by ^

when no special emphasis attaches to the form of negation, and

(b) the first negative is repeated when the independence of the

second sentence is emphasized ;

but (c) when the two verbs are

conceived of as forming parts of one action, no second negative

is required, thus UJ J^T^

^^J ^~*^ ~jJ. (^
>
& tf our ^ or ^ had

not been merciful to us and pardoned us.

REM. a. As regards the use of 5 instead of repeating ,

see
J^s.
482 d T. a.

563. The prohibitive 5 governs the jussive, as may be seen in

417 b and 420 : this happens also with the energetic.

564. All interrogative clauses take the direct form, thus iJ

thou write Arabic?

he inquired whether thou couldst write Arabic ;

the difference
 213

between direct and indirect questions being ignored, both in the

arrangement of words and in the moods of the verb.

565. Spoken questions may be indicated merely by the tone

of voice : but written inquiries are usually introduced by one of
i ,-i ,.

the following particles, viz. 1, ll or JjJ> ;

unless provided with

an interrogative adverb, such as

^\ where? i(^ how? or the

like (see 361 to 364).

566. The simplest is thus

^*\ *iis^
\
interrogative *!Ljj
have ye hastened the affair of your Lord ? This particle may be
prefixed to , , uJ or Jj j
thus V^-V UJ ^j\ (see 361

a rem.) shall there indeed be to us a reward? do ye wonder ?

lils^jl '

y * '"
o"
^j*JJi*J ^j\ do ye not therefore understand?
o^
567. The interrogative Jj& introduces questions of a more

lively sort, thus

j&u \jti
U \ }*. t> *W they be

rewarded otherwise than with what they have been accustomed to do.

Upon the use of this particle there are certain restrictions.

!
568. The particle i\ (originally meaning is it not the case that?)

affirms a certainty, thus

<jis:
^ fl truly to Him belongs the (whole)

creation. It is frequently followed by a further asseverative e.g.

thus JLiT C&c i\ verily their luck (or fate) is in

UJ|, 1&JU& UJ^
the hands of God only.

570. The interrogative pronouns ^ who ? and U what ? (see

351) may stand in any one of the three cases, nominative,

 214

dependent, or accusative. To render the interrogative more

<
vigorous we append the demonstrative pronoun J (see i
340) thus

^C* u \ j Uj so what do ye enjoin ? and this may happen when

9 *o 3-*O "

!^jj! follows,
thus &' -*~ *f \ iJ
^ who is he that shall

intercede with Him ? The pronouns ^ and U are always used

substantively, but cannot govern a dependent or be followed by

a substantive in apposition.

REM. d. As to ; for U, see 351 rem.

572. There are two kinds of relative sentences-, (a) that called
f
X
<uLtf a qualificative which is immediately attached to an indefinite
substantive without intervening pronoun, and (b) that called

<LLtf a conjunctive, where introduction is made by a pronoun

which is definite in its nature. The conjunctive pronoun (see

is called that which joined to HjjU

346) J*^Jl is joined i.e. I

the conjunctive clause. As examples (a] the following are indefinite

9 ~ ^
V~^ &^
clauses; ji-J*J fjj j;^
3
LJ
^^J Kl a nation who direct (others]

by means of the truth and who by it do justice,

^ylGw *
l^J *\a\ jJx *o M^y ca^ upon a people who clung to their idols :

(b) the following clauses are definite;

and ask them concerning the village which is

situated by the sea,

i'lTp! &f.) &}*&$ j^rt^' ^ose who take heed

to themselves and give the appointed alms, tii+ ^y*j Moses and
i^y*
he who is (or those who are] with him, 3v^z Uj tl^^J l^-J cJ\
 215

CJ^c^ entreat thy Lord on our behalf by virtue of that which he has

covenanted with thee.

HEM. a. When the antecedent substantive is indefinite we

. tf?
cannot in Arabic employ a conjunctive pronoun; for is
gfJJl

347) always definite, while and I* though sometimes

(see ^^
indefinite (see 353* and 527 /) are always used substantively.

HEM. b. follows the next section.

REM. c. Among qualificative clauses may be accounted those

mentioned in 539 rem. b 1.

573. The qualificative clause (AJL^JI) necessarily contains

a pronoun (called SuUJl), referring to the qualified noun and

connecting it with the said qualificative clause. This a'id, in

case the clause be verbal, is a pronoun concealed (see 513) in

the verb; as
clSylj ^j^-iU- gatherers
who (they) come to thee,

. c_c_L>- c_X>- a posterity followed who (they) inherited

the Book : in case the clause be nominal, a separate pronoun is

employed ;
as cLxJ^l^ ^a> ,V?-J
a Prophet who (he) is thy

companion. Frequently the a'id appears as a suffix in the

accusative, thus a^v^L^ ^& ^ this is a plot which ye have

or in the dependent, as
contrived ;
l^ilJ^ <OJl ijj
a people of
? ? ? 5- '
whom God is the destroyer,
^J^J +& J*f-i <-^ until a fixed term

which they were about to attain. If however no 'a'id is needed

to make clear the meaning, it may be omitted ;

thus &&? *
 216

assemble you, whence

(make mention of] the day on which lie shall
*ui is eliminated.

REIC. In theory a 'a'id ought to be of the 3rd person, hut in

practice it often agrees with the suhject to which the qualified

substantive is predicate ;
thus ^y^ff?
*jS
iLi verily ye are
^

a people who (ye) are ignorant. Compare 575 rem. a.

574. The conjunctive clause (LoJ\) must begin with a con-

junctive pronoun. Now it has been shown in 346 et seq.

that, like ^J* and I* when definite, u/^1 is used substantively

to mean he who, that which ;

thus ei^l^ ~>-^ ^at which was lad,

*jfr? A-iff
~ "
jpf i-^Sj "
,
j

&*
jJl those who follow the apostle,

the illiterate prophet. Only i^^l can be used adjectively, and

then like all adjectives it agrees with its antecedent, a definite

substantive, in gender, number and case, its agreement in case

being best shown by the dual which has case-endings : thus

\Jiil
d^>^\ (jlJ\fe"'
M
\JJ\
show us the two devils who led us
"^
' & -*

astray, where ^jJuJI is oblique (for the accusative) agreeing

with again UL^, U^ show

^lidLtf; ^liff^ll^ljTl^!
us the two devils who lead us astray. In both these examples the

real subject in the relative clause is the pronoun called 'a'id, as

will next be explained.

NOTE. Whether used substantively or adjectively can

^\^\
only apply to masculine rational creatures, compare 302 rem. a.
 217

575. The preceding section shows that Arabic conjunctive

pronouns are not used quite like our English relative pronouns ;

for the case in which they are put is independent of the conjunctive
clause. If standing first as substantives and forming the subject
of an independent sentence, they are in the nominative ;
as is

i/dJ) when attached adjectively

to a substantive in the nomi-

native. But in every other instance, though at the beginning

of a conjunctive clause, they are subject to government by an
antecedent, whether noun, verb or particle :
consequently they
are in the particular case which their position requires, viz. either,

that case occupied by the demonstrative pronoun implied in them,

thus Jjti Uj by reason of THAT which he has done ; or, the

same case as the antecedent substantive with which they agree,

thus
UjjJl ^j^\j^(j \jL*\j
so believe the light which We have

sent down. To elucidate this difficult matter we have employed

J
**

in the first instance two examples which do not display ^**^ \

SjUM the pronoun which refers back, and we now propose showing
to what use it serves in (a] the nominative case, (b) the accusative,

and (<?)
the dependent.

(a) If a 'a'id stand in the nominative as subject, it is repre-

sented (i) in a verbal sentence by the personal pronoun concealed

in the verb, thus
*^^ ^
cl^o he sent him who struck them,
*" jJ\ u/4^
^
jf\ V^- ^ y followed the light which has been
e

sent down with him,

^^JTtfxifj *~rS\ ^- $& &* ^*\
& We delivered those who were forbidding the evil
 218

and We visited with grievous punishment those who were unjust.

But (ii)
in a nominal sentence the 'a'id is expressed by a separate

pronoun, as cJ^-i-L 1& \* that which is sweet smelling or whatever

is sweet smelling. The separate pronoun however (iii) is not

required in a nominal sentence when the predicate is an adverb,

9 s
as \jJ*
^ L^-o^-tf
/ struck the one who is here ;
or a preposition

\vith its dependent, as ^-J t*

1^J3 they study what is in it,

J <&* ^" Am
iJJjjL) 1

^ '*) JJ
'
\
J *>\*sz?\-i o JF<? sar^ and those who

were with him in the ark.

(b] If the 'a'id be an objective complement in the accusative,

it is appended as suffix to its verb, thus
^S-asr t/<xll
he whom
* '"" '
'
i *\ i
**
'

they find, *u.J v^ *X>- take what we have given to the

^J^jJJ
prophet. The suffix however is very frequently eliminated, thus
*til * whom I wish
? y -,
for ^*Li>|
^ he (or *&*l

/ M?/M, ^jft-l.*5 i Jb l^ w?Afl ^A^y ^'^r^ constructing,

^-~^u
6W ai^ ^o e w?A0 y^ rfo.

(<?)
When in dependent case the 'a'id fiVo
represents our relative

pronouns, standing in cases other than the nominative and

o* . tf-
accusative. Thus JJk c^Oixj! iod^^ those upon whom Thou
hast shed blessings,
^ Vj CLJljU u ^jl J2e
belongs the dominion over heaven \*r>,^ ^ \*Z*J
and earth, fa 13JL9

when they forgot that of which they had been reminded, &+s L$> U
are. There are occasions on which a 'a'id may be
 219

omitted, as for instance when it and the preceding conjunctive

pronoun are governed by the same preposition, as L"ic liz \j&

they disobeyed in that in which he disobeyed where <& is eliminated :

but omission is not permissible if the preposition be used in two

senses, or if it follow different verbs, thus <L:Lc ^3 1^3. \s. UJJ

so when they were disobedient in respect of that from which they were

forbidden.

REM. a. In theory a 'a'id after

i^j] ought to be of the 3rd

person but it is not so always :

compare 573 rem.

NOTE. In relation to a a'id

U^ exactly resembles l^, thus

jl aj IxJU U^ whatever thou bring est us of a sign.

>

576. Copulative sentences require J or uJ (see 366) of

which the former is used to connect words and clauses as

' , ' ? &
a simple co-ordinative ;
thus
Jj^-^JJ ^JjJ-^ ^V ^ ave hdped him

and assisted him,

lydL^Jj lyj<.X:LiJ
in order to warn you and that

ye may take heed to yourselves, li^J^iTj jjwliflT^^' ^^

they bewitched men's eyes and terrified them, <Jjjl..ft Lr.
\^,L

\
they were overcome there and were rendered con-
^jyil^ ^^iaJ j
temptible. The particle uJ however sometimes unites single

words as is noted in 540 but more usually it connects

two clauses showing either (a) that the latter is immediately

subsequent to the former in time, or (b) that the clauses are

 220

linked internally as for instance by cause and effect: thus (a)

your forms-, j~* lA?*-> \j* ^t* ^^^ u5

^ e threw down

his rod, and behold it became manifestly a serpent ; la/ju^-j,

convulsion seized them, he said, my Lord; (b) ^z~*+*Sj ^^\.

&Ju>J\j (because)
He gives life and causes to die, therefore believe

God and His apostle, the illiterate prophet, who believes God

and His words ;

also follow him. When 4_J means because it is

usual to employ ^^, thus l^JL^ I* ixJ J;Ls

\^z* ^Ja-Jkl.

go down into Egypt for (there) shall ye find what ye ask. We

have seen in 415 d, 417 c and rem. c, that uJ may be used

to separate an apodosis from its protasis : after the disjunctive

particle LSI (see 367 d) c_J must always introduce the

C^fi> ^

apodosis, thus
^JL^
'

*\j-^r
^-* ^>^ J*t^j tf*\ tf*
^
as to whoso believes and does right, he shall have a most excellent

reward.

577. If a second subject be added to the concealed pronoun

which serves as subject to the verb, we must employ a separate

. .
^,

personal pronoun in repetition of the latter, thus l<3l y uLXi

VT
^xs* <
^^rj j5
^ >-

^--~J
c
\
9

(/*~
~o
i\ ^ * ai ^' ^ Adam, dwell thou and
s ^ ^ ^

</<y t0t/<? w M^ garden] but L!^>-J U^x^i is permissible.

 221

578. If after a pronominal suffix expressing the object a sub-

stantive be connected by J, we may employ a separate personal

pronoun in repetition of the suffix, thus *liTj put him

ji fy>-^\

off and his brother ;

but this is not usual, compare Elementary

Arabic : first reading book page 1 line 6. Also we may write

i ^
s*~j\ ;
or we may employ (see 189 a) thus
l|j

-jl put off his brother and him.

579. "We must repeat a preposition, if with its pronominal

suffix a substantive is connected by J ;
thus
,^^j
^^
.A J^l
s

pardon (the sin) to me and my brother.

580. "When preceded by j connecting two nouns, ^ represents

all the antecedent negative sentence except that word for which

the noun that follows * is substituted ;

thus f
y ij
<*> a Jo- 15 S

drowsiness doth not seize Him nor sleep : here 3L represents

582. The copulative particles are sometimes used in Arabic in

place of an English disjunctive or adversative ;

thus Uj ^J3 l^Jla

J^^ &
what has been
*^jl
sent
\+i &s*&.l
down to us,
^^ ^ th *y

and they ignore what (has come)

* ay> m lelieve

since, although it is the truth. We have noted in 540 the

use of u-J between two verbs, the second of which modifies

the first.
 222

583. Mention has been made in 444 c rem. c 4 of L>-

a circumstantial clause, which will commonly be found prefaced

the copulative particle meaning whereas

'

by Jls^ fy i.e.
_J,
often

or seeing that. Here j serves to connect two clauses the second

of which describes the state or condition either of the subject

or other part of the first clause, or else of a new subject.

(a) The circumstantial clause may be nominal (see 513) as

J shall I seek for

^~JUff j&jJ fa l^Jj fig\ $iff jicl

you a god other than God, whereas He has favoured you above all

creatures: here the second clause refers to <d!\, and is compound

nominal (see 519) having a finite verb for its predicate.

(b) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and affirmative,

its verb being in imperfect indicative preceded by

bJJ
. Without

&j we must not employ J, and by omission of both we obtain

sentences like the examples in 408 d where the second clause

is
~jiXJ& u^~ hdl indicating the future ;
or like those in 408 e

whose second clause is U& JU- contemporaneous state.

(c) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and negative, its

verb being in imperfect indicative preceded by ISJ, or in the

jussive preceded by pj ;
thus lil tlSo lij JW ^ &%&*
1 created thee beforehand when thou wast nothing. If 9 be used,

2
is nearly always omitted, and not seldom in other cases.
 223

(d) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and affirmative, its

verb being in the perfect usually preceded by thus

jJij ;
j^ic **
J^J p* <JJ^uI^ &j & it is easy for Me, seeing that I created

thee heretofore.

(e) The circumstantial clause may be verbal and negative, its

verb being in the perfect preceded by

U^, or even by U alone :

if
(JjJJ be employed it is preceded by 5 ,
thus J lie JLL5 1J

f$ v^Jj cL^Jj f*Jll ^ *( why dost thou enquire con-

cerning what of their property is in my (two) hands, seeing that

thou art not heir to them f*

584. Adversative, restrictive and exceptive sentences call for

notice ;
the commonest adversative particles being J and L)

(a) We employ S (see 362 dd) in opposition to a preceding

affirmative proposition or command; thus JJ\ l-i

-^JJ J-J
jjlj-J i -3fw, wo^ Aaron, was called the interlocutor of God.

(b) We use
j
and )
(with or without j,
see 362 w)

in opposition most frequently to a preceding prohibition or

negative statement :
J^ ^

J] )&
* This is taken from line 5 on page 18 of Chmttotnathie elim
example
de VArabe literal avec un glossaire par Hartwig Derenbour^ ct Jean Spiro,
Paris (Ernest Leroux) 1892 ; copies of which (second) edition I have placed in
the Bodleian, Cambridge University Library, and the British Miweum. See
also the opening words of Cor&n ii, 270.
 224

not see Me, but look toward the mountain ;

J^/j there is in me no error, but I am an apostle.

585. "We have mentioned L*J'j at 436 rem. d, this word

being most commonly restrictive (see 362 n). It is usually

placed at the beginning of a proposition, and that portion of

the proposition which it affects must stand at the end; thus

*1-H CicLc
1^-H-k ^l Me r * luc ^
(
or ^ a * e ) *'* a* Me disposition

of God only ;
see 517 for a restricted inchoative.

586. Exception (s\) is of three kinds; -^l the

joined, in which )
JlJJl the thing excepted is similar in kind

to the general term (&* ^iiLiJiJl

that from which exception

is made) as j& 1j <U^ i there is no god except He\ ka!&Jl the

severed, in which the thing excepted is different in kind from

the general term, as

^Ur^.
^ +)&\ *& U the people did not
^< f
stand up but an ass; and the emptied, where the general
cJlAAJl
term is not expressed, as p\ x\ \?L+ LS&J l^ thou dost not resent

(any action) on our part except etc.

"& (*

(a) The commonest of exceptive particles is JM (see 3 367 /)

in employing which the following rules are observed.

(i) After an affirmative proposition containing the general

s s s
term, a thing excepted must be in the accusative; thus ^Xs:^

J&\ s\ JuJU*H the angels prostrated themselves except Ellis.

 225

(ii) After a negative proposition containing the general term,

a thing excepted is best placed in same case with the general

s
term ;
thus ilx'I S j
<j

3| ^^ MM w nothing but Thy

temptation, <JjT
)JJ
i!)
|
$ there w no god but God (where ili is
J

virtually nominative though grammatically accusative, see 439).*

The same holds with propositions implying a negative, which

are usually interrogative a negative interrogative};

(<Jjfj&} j*^v*~4

thus <dJl f who forgives

^J God
'

cplJLks) <wrf sin except f

j J&>
The general term may be a preposition with its dependent, as

&\
JJ
--* ^ el?^^ ^ wo mischance has befallen except etc.

? being equivalent to <CL*^*, and the thing ezcepted

follows the general rule in respect of case. When the general

term is not expressed, we must give to the thing excepted

that case in which the general term should be; thus UJ t

^k^
' 5] we have nothing to do but to unload whence /> i8
* c-c . Sr*
\ tJ &
I t
i
*^ f f ^
'
^ they do not say (anything)
eliminated, JUr 3^ ^JJ! JLC (^^^
concerning God except the truth.

NOTE. Beside nouns, other expressions may follow the ex-

ceptive particle such as (i)

an adverb, (ii) prepositional phrase,

(iii) hal, or (iv) clause known as mac,dariyah. Thus (i)

* In these two
examples the words following the particle of exception stami in

the category of

rem. ft 2 *.
JjLTf ^^ . ". ,!T
j Ju see Wright's Grammar u J139
 226

'

J M<?r zs wo r0 in the garden except here ; (\\)

5 flpe0pj y 6r0<fs permission ; (iii)

^ J
1

scantily, see 444 <? rem. / Note ;

and (iv)
Jl &V lj
etc., see 448 c.

587. We have treated conditional and hypothetical sentences in

404 to 406, 413 and 417 : there must now be explained that

the apodosis of a conditional sentence commences with u-5 (see

366 i) when the conditional particle (^1 , Ijl, or other) of

the protasis cannot exercise any influence upon the apodosis, or

is not required to do so.

(a) This happens when the apodosis is a nominal sentence ;

thus T-k Ll^J

szyw ^AoM Iringest us, we do not believe in tJiee ;

j-5 ^+
1^**

^^i-fi^j
]

^ <J;j3lJ (..j
^.ftj whosoever is made to guard against
his own covetousness, those are the prosperous.

(c) If the apodosis be a verbal sentence expressing command,

prohibition, or desire; thus l^,;

LL/IJ JjLj <*^&>- LJ:^..V?
>j

if thou hast brought a sign, produce it.

(d) If the apodosis be a verbal sentence preceded by <Jw,

vJji, bJ, U, ^, or
J^J ;
thus
J\y uJ)^J X&. J*<&\
y\
if it stand firm in its place, hereafter thou shalt see Me.

HEM. There are cases when the use of u-J is optional.

 227

588. The hypothetical particle ^5 implies that what is supposed

is, as a matter of fact, not true or at any rate is improbable

(see 404 a), whereas simply indicates a condition.

>j

590. The affirmative particle J (see 361 c) may be prefixed

to the apodosis of a hypothetical sentence, thus uJsJ"J *li *J

~
s

S%.1j SLJl i>lTf JjL^

5
if thy Lord had willed, Ue would have

made (all) mankind one people.

[Here follow 191 to 253 treating learnedly of Prosody, essential

to the enjoyment of Arabic literature but not required for
Elementary Arabic : Pint reading book, whose grammatical
analysis could hardly have come into existence without help
of the three excellent indexes with which Professor Wright
brought his Grammar to a close.]
 CONTENTS

PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY

BCTION
The consonants ...... . . .* 1

The vowels and diphthongs ... . . . r . 4

Other orthographic signs

Sukun rest . .... .. ... .. 9

Tashdld strengthening . . . . 11

...
.

Hamzah compression . . 16

Wa9lah union .... . . . . 18

Maddah extension . . . . . 22

The syllable ....... . . . . 24

The accent . . . . . . . . . . . 28

The numerals ... . . . . . . 32

PART II. ETYMOLOGY OR THE PARTS OF SPEECH

Triliteral verbs

The
......
or ground form
33
36
first

The second form

The third form
..... . . .

40
43

...
.

The'fourth form .
46
230 CONTENTS.
SECTION

The fifth form 47

The sixth form 50

The seventh form 52

....
The eighth form 55

61
The tenth form
Quadriliteral verbs

The
....
........ . 67

73
voices

The states (tenses) of the verb 77

The moods 79

Strong verbs ........

The numbers, persons and genders

...
Nominative personal pronouns
. . 81

83

89

States and moods (active) . . . . 90

The passive voice . . . . . 100

The derived forms 102

Doubled verbs 120

Weak verbs 126

Hamzated 130

Containing j or ^j . . . . 141

Doubly weak 171

182
J43, j^and^
Accusative pronominal suffixes . . . . . 1 85

The noun, substantive and adjective . . . . 190

Nomina verbi, abstract and concrete . . 195

 CONTENTS. 231
UCTION
Time and place . . . . . . 221

Instrument 228

Agentis et patientis (ground form) 229

...
. .

Other adjectives Do. 232

The elative ... . . . 234

Agentis et patientis (derived forms) . . 236

Individuality
The relative adjective
......
Adjectives from doubled and weak verbs

. . .
.

.
237
246
249

The gender of nouns . . . . . . . 289

The numbers of nouns . *. . .. . 298

Collectives . . . .' . * . . 306

Declension of triptotes and diptotes . . . . 308

Dependent pronominal suffixes . . . . . 317

The numbers, cardinal and ordinal . . . . 318

Demonstrative pronouns . . . . . . 340

The article J! . . '. . . . 345

Conjunctive and interrogative pronouns .' . . 3 16

Indefinite pronouns . . . . . . 353*

*
The particles . . . . , . . . 351

Prepositions . . . .' . 355

Adverbs . . . . . . . .'ir.n

Conjunctions

Interjections

of the verbs
......
.

....
. . . . 365

368

369
Paradigms
232 CONTENTS.

PART III. SYNTAX

SECTION

The Perfect State 401

The Pluperfect 403
After etc . 405
\4\,Z>\
The Imperfect State

Indicative . . . . . . . 408

Subjunctive . . . . . . 411
Jussive . . . . . . . 412

Energetic 414

The Moods

Subjunctive . . . . . . 415
Indicative . . . . . . . 416
Jussive 417

Energetic 419

Imperative . . . . . . . 420

Government by the verb 421

The objective complement . . . . 423

The absolute object 426
The use of J 429
Elimination of the verb . . . . 435
The accusative after ^\ etc. . . . 436
The vocative 438
The accusative after il . . . . 439
The adverbial complement . . . . 440
The verb ^l complete and incomplete . . 441
The sisters of kana . . . . . 442
The adverbial accusative 443
CONTENTS. 233
234 CONTENTS.
SECTION
"
The verb

The pronoun
to be

expressed ......
in nominal sentences is not

of separation . . . .
522
524

The indefinite inchoative . . . . 527

The pronoun of corroboration . . . 530

Use of )l in a nominal sentence . . . 531

Impersonal expressions, nomina patientis, and

neuter plurals . . . . . 533

Complements of the subject and predicate . . . 534

Appositives ......
Reflexive pronominal suffixes . . . 535

536

537

without reflexive meaning, and other

Apposition of verbs .....

classes of appositives ( J juJl etc.) . . 539

540

In verbal sentences
......
Concord in gender and number between the parts of
a sentence 541
542
In nominal sentences . . . . . 552

Interrogative sentences
Relative sentences
......
Negative and prohibitive sentences . . . . 553
564

572
... ...
Copulative sentences

JlsTfyj ....... 576

583

Adversative, restrictive and exceptive sentences . . 584

Conditional and hypothetical sentences . . . . 587
 CONCLUSION.

IN the year 1885 I consulted Professor W. Robertson Smith

about the possibility of there being written an
elementary
Grammar of Arabic capable of serving as introduction to
Wright's masterly, but to beginners somewhat perplexing,
book * to which enquiry he made reply, " There are two
;

difficulties to know what to put in, and to know what to

:

leave out." Ten years later I determined to make the

" "
attempt, putting in all required by the grammatical
analysis (then as now in manuscript) of my First reading
" "
book and, so far as could be, leaving out everything else ;

for I supposed that a rule would only be needed, if the

Reading book's Arabic text afford an example in illustration ;

and I hoped by retaining Wright's section numbers that

my abridgement might become a table of contents to his

Grammar. I had supplied lists of omissions to Professors

W. R. Smith and de Goeje with a view to their being

remedied in the forthcoming 3rd edition $nd such ;

* A Grammar of the Arabic

Language translated from the German of Caspari
and edited with numerous additions and corrections by W. Wright, LL.D., late
Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambridge. Third edition reread by
W. Eobertson Smith, late Professor of Arabic in the University of Cambri.L-. .

and M. J. de Goeje, Professor of Arabic in the University of Leyden. Caiuln

at the University Press, 1896.
236 CONCLUSION.

omissions as I subsequently discovered have been placed in

this book under the heading of " Note," so that my trivial

additions stand markedly apart from (my abridgement of)

the scholarly text.

Reference is made now and again to Elementary Arabic :

First reading book, shortly to appear, whose prototype (pub-

lished in 1888) is out of print : meanwhile my references
are valid to Elementary Arabic : Text and glossary (to be
obtained of Messrs. S. Low, Marston & Co), for the Arabic
text of both reading books is identical. All its words

appear singly in this book's first 138 pages, and all recur

later in phrases to illustrate syntax : its length I believe

equivalent to one column of The Times newspaper in smallest

type, and it may be said to supply almost without exception

my Grammar's examples.
From a biographical sketch of Mr. S. de Sacy written in

October 1895 by Professor Hartwig Derenbourg, Titulaire

de la chaire de Silvestre de Sacy a 1'Ecole speciale des

langues orientales vivantes, I borrow the following :

La grammaire arabe de Caspari, le livre de classe qui, depuis

1848, n'a pas cesse d'etre mis entre les mains des eleves dans des
redactions latine (1848), allemande (1859, 1866, 1876 et 1887),

anglaise (1862 et 1874) et fra^aise (1880), tient le milieu entre

les tendances des deux rivaux. Elle s'appuie, dit M. Fleischer,
sur Sacy et E \vald, et cherche seulement, avec quelques rectifica-

tions et additions que j'ai fournies, a reunir les qualites de Fun et

 CONCLUSION. 237

de Pautre La grammaire dc 1'ancien arabc no progressem

vraiment d'une maniere sensible que le jour ou, d'un cote*, on

comparera et appreciera avec une balance de precision les philo-
logues orientaux repartis dans les diverses e*coles, et ou, d'autn;
part, 1'on soumettra les materiaux accumule*s dans leurs plus
excellents traite*s a une enquete approfondie dirigee dans le sens

de notre linguistique."
Dans cette derniere direction, c'est a peine si nous avons depassl

la premiere etape, franchie d'un seul bond par le jeune Ewald,

alors presque a ses debuts. L'edition anglaise de Caspari, par
M. "William Wright, ouvre seule quelques echappees sur 1'horizon

encore incertain de la philologie semitique comparee. La Gram-

maire de la langue arabe qui, dans ses diverses transformations,
continue a porter le nom de Caspari, se recommande et a reussi
surtout a cause de son ordonnance harmonieuse :
point de de*roga-
tions au plan general, chaque regie a sa place, pas do redites, poa

de doubles emplois, une sobriete* dans les tours de phrase n'excluant

pas la clarte, une clart^ obtenue sans redondances oiseuses et sans

vaines amplifications. C'est un peu terre a terre, et cela manque
d'essor ;
mais si 1'imagination n'y trouve pas son compte, la raison
est pleinement satisfaite par ce Lhomond de la langue arabe.

Charles Frai^ois Lhomond died in 1794 at the age of 67,

having been maltreated by Parisian revolutionists, perhaps

because of his writing in defence of Catholic faith as under-

stood by him. His chief claim to posthumous fame lies in

his devotion to the work of compiling elementary books nn<l

it is in this respect that his name may be conferred on those

238 CONCLUSION.

who do likewise. My readers will thank me for putting

before them Professor Derenbourg's eloquent appreciation

of the Grammar still called by Caspari's name, to the

praise of which I heartily subscribe. Wright has, how-

ever, carried matters further, for the glimpses of Semitic

philology mentioned above, together with much more, have

been published by Robertson Smith in Wright's Comparative
Grammar and since 1895 Professor de Goeje has bestowed
;

upon the world of Semitic letters a boon, for which we

cannot be too thankful, by devoting his valuable time and
known scholarship to the work of enabling Cambridge
University Press to issue a 3rd edition of Wright's Arabic
Grammar : which I have abridged.
it is this

Much thanks are due from me to kind helpers more

numerous than can be mentioned, but I must especially

single out the Rev. Gr. W. Thatcher of Mansfield College,

Oxford, without whose efficient assistance I might well have

found it impossible to thread the mazes of Arabic syntax.

TAJ MAHALL.

Shortly before passing from among us to well-earned

rest Sir M. Monier- Williams urged me to put on permanent

record at full length an account of the inscriptions kindly

printed for me by the Pioneer of Allahabad in December

1891. The building well known to Europeans as Taj is best

 INCLUSION. 239

called Mumtaz Mahall, being the resting place of a lady so

named : in the Fitzwilliam Museum at Cambridge may be
seen an excellent model, whereon the larger script is
plainly

legible. As chapters of the Goran are not always known to

Moslems by number, I give in every case the Arabic name.

Driving up to the great gateway of red sandstone visitors find

facing them Chapter Ixxxix of the Goran, entitled
yc~1, beginning
at bottom of the right hand side, continuing all over the arch, and

finishing with the last verse, which invites entry into (the garden

or) Paradise. Inside the gateway we have at right Ch. xciii

at top Ch. xciv and on the Ch. xcv

^^s^l, ^^U ^\
t
left
(^^.
Approaching the main building one sees upon each of the four
principal facades a most noble specimen of that grand script to
which the Arabic language and character lends itself at great
advantage. Ch. xxxvi, entitled from its introductory
All this is
"
letters /^j and sometimes called the heart of the Coran," which

to Moslem ears is of funereal sound, much as to us Anglicans is

1 Cor. xv from its forming part of the burial service. Each of

what I have called the four principal fasades is deeply recessed,

and in smaller script will be found the following : round the

entrance door Ch. Ixxxi on western side opposite the
j^A\
river side Ch. Ixxxiv
mosque Ch. Ixxxii .Ikii^, on the north or
and facing east Ch. xcviii 4J~J1 .

jlLuJ^H ,

Having entered the building we see running all around a bold

inscription consisting of Ch. Ixvii cl&^l which

, begins to right
of the door and in twenty-four verses compasses all eight sides,

three final words being squeezed in at the top as though nearly

The remaining six verses of Ch. Ixvii continue below
forgotten.
240 CONCLUSION.

its beginning and serve to decorate part only of an arch, at top of

which begins Ch. xlviii *uftt, whose twenty -nine verses extend
over five archways in all, i.e. four complete and two halves. At
top of the window looking west begins Ch. Ixxvi ^Lj^H ,
which
runs over one entire arch and finishes above the doorway. The
small remaining space is occupied by verses 54 and 55 of Ch. xxxix
It is said that a verse ornaments
followed by a colophon.
j*j\\ ,

the roof, but even through a good opera glass I could detect

nothing more than patterns.

Around the Bigam's cenotaph under the resonant dome we read
"
the usual formula God who is blessed and exalted has said," and
then verses 22 to 28 inclusive from Ch. Ixxxiii followed
.jJuiauftSt,

by verse 30 from Ch. xli c^Lai , concluding with the final words
of Ch. ii
yyi-JI
. At the cenotaph's north end we have verse 22 of

on the top are invocations and pious words,

Ch. lix
yuLsM, and
finishing with part of verse 7 and verse 8 from Ch. xl
^^^
Upon the crypt's central tomb are inscribed at the sides

ninety
- six invocations possessor of dominion, glorious,

praiseworthy, guide, and so forth which with bismi -llah,

etc., together make up the ninety-nine names of God. At the

tomb's northern end we find again Ch. lix, verse 22, and on the

top sentences which I am not able to identify. With its qiblah

westwards stands the mosque, and inside may be read Ch. xci

iwMtuiH, appended to which is the date 1109 after the hijrah

(Hejira), that year having begun on 20th of July 1697 A.D.

CAHLTON CLUB, PALL MALL, LONDON.

June, 1900.
 University of Toronto

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