LESSON 4: RESEARCH DESIGNS

PRE-TEST:
Direction: Answer the question comprehensively and concisely.
1. What is research design?
2. What is the purpose of research design?
Learning Activities:
The learner shall be able to:
1. Understand a general definition of research design.
2. Identify the overall process of designing a research study from its inception to its report.
3. Identify a research problem stated in a study.
4. Distinguish a purpose statement, a research question or hypothesis, and a research
objective.
5. Distinguish appropriate research designs and methodologies to apply to a specific
research project.

Research design definition

Research design is the framework of research methods and techniques chosen by a
researcher. The design allows researchers to hone in on research methods that are suitable for
the subject matter and set up their studies up for success.
The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to integrate the
different components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will
effectively address the research problem; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection,
measurement, and analysis of data. Note that your research problem determines the type of
design you can use, not the other way around!
Research design is a plan to answer your research question.  A research method is a strategy
used to implement that plan.  Research design and methods are different but closely related, because
good research design ensures that the data you obtain will help you answer your research question
more effectively.
The function of a research design is to ensure that the evidence obtained enables you to
effectively address the research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social sciences
research, obtaining evidence relevant to the research problem generally entails specifying the
type of evidence needed to test a theory, to evaluate a program, or to accurately describe a
phenomenon. However, researchers can often begin their investigations far too early, before
they have thought critically about what information is required to answer the study's research
questions. Without attending to these design issues beforehand, the conclusions drawn risk
being weak and unconvincing and, consequently, will fail to adequate address the overall
research problem.
  Given this, the length and complexity of research designs can vary considerably, but any
sound design will do the following things:
1. Identify the research problem clearly and justify its selection,
2. Review previously published literature associated with the problem area,
3. Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the problem
selected,
4. Effectively describe the data which will be necessary for an adequate test of the
hypotheses and explain how such data will be obtained, and
5. Describe the methods of analysis which will be applied to the data in determining
whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.
What is a good research design?
A good research design is characterized by its flexibility, efficiency, appropriateness
etcetera. A research design is one that has little to no error.
Having a clear objective for research is a reflection of how explicit the research question is.
Depending on the research problem, you have to combine a number of design approaches to end
up with the required outcome.
Contents of Research Design:
The most common aspects involved in research design include at least followings:
1. Statement of research objectives, i.e., why the research project is to be conducted
 2. Type of data needed
3. Definition of population and sampling procedures to be followed
4. Time, costs, and responsibility specification
5. Methods, ways, and procedures used for collection of data
6. Data analysis – tools or methods used to analyze data
7. Probable output or research outcomes and possible actions to be taken based on
those outcomes.
How to develop a research design?
1. Classify the intended outcome of what needs to be understood
2. Developing the research question
3. What needs to be measured
4. Select the population for the experiment
5. Identify the ideal data collection method
6. Construct Interrelated characteristics
7. Use correct analysis tools
8. Choose a channel for disseminating your findings
For students who are interested in reading about how to write a good research proposal to
apply for the scholarship, must have a clear objective to persuade the admission committee.  A
research proposal is also required to contain a well-written study plan for submission.
Types of Research Design
A. Action Research Design
Definition and Purpose
The essentials of action research design follow a characteristic cycle whereby initially
an exploratory stance is adopted, where an understanding of a problem is developed and
plans are made for some form of interventionary strategy. Then the intervention is carried
out (the action in Action Research) during which time, pertinent observations are collected
in various forms. The new interventional strategies are carried out, and the cyclic process
repeats, continuing until a sufficient understanding of (or implement able solution for) the
problem is achieved. The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster
deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with conceptualizing and particularizing
the problem and moving through several interventions and evaluations.
B. Case Study Design
Definition and Purpose
A case study is an in-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a
sweeping statistical survey. It is often used to narrow down a very broad field of research
into one or a few easily researchable examples. The case study research design is also useful
for testing whether a specific theory and model actually applies to phenomena in the real
world. It is a useful design when not much is known about a phenomenon.
C. Causal Study Design
Definition and Purpose
Causality studies may be thought of as understanding a phenomenon in terms of
conditional statements in the form, “If X, then Y.” This type of research is used to
measure what impact a specific change will have on existing norms and assumptions.
Most social scientists seek causal explanations that reflect tests of hypotheses. Causal
effect (nomothetic perspective) occurs when variation in one phenomenon, an
independent variable, leads to or results, on average, in variation in another
phenomenon, the dependent variable.
Conditions necessary for determining causality:
 Empirical association--a valid conclusion is based on finding an association between the
independent variable and the dependent variable.
 Appropriate time order--to conclude that causation was involved, one must see that
cases were exposed to variation in the independent variable before variation in the
dependent variable.
 Nonspuriousness--a relationship between two variables that is not due to variation in a
third variable.
D. Cohort Design
Definition and Purpose
Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the applied social sciences,
a cohort study generally refers to a study conducted over a period of time involving
members of a population which the subject or representative member comes from, and
who are united by some commonality or similarity. Using a quantitative framework, a
cohort study makes note of statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united
by same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research problem being
investigated, rather than studying statistical occurrence within the general population.
Using a qualitative framework, cohort studies generally gather data using methods of
observation.
A cohort study is a type of longitudinal research that samples a cohort (a group
of people with a shared characteristic) while doing a cross-section at specific time
intervals. It is a type of panel study where the individuals in the panel share a common
characteristic.
Cohorts can be either "open" or "closed."
 Open Cohort Studies [dynamic populations, such as the population of Los Angeles]
involve a population that is defined just by the state of being a part of the study in
question (and being monitored for the outcome). Date of entry and exit from the study
is individually defined, therefore, the size of the study population is not constant. In
open cohort studies, researchers can only calculate rate-based data, such as, incidence
rates and variants thereof.
 Closed Cohort Studies [static populations, such as patients entered into a clinical trial]
involve participants who enter into the study at one defining point in time and where it
is presumed that no new participants can enter the cohort. Given this, the number of
study participants remains constant (or can only decrease).
E. Cross-Sectional Design
Definition and Purpose
Cross-sectional research designs have three distinctive features: no time
dimension, a reliance on existing differences rather than change following intervention;
and, groups are selected based on existing differences rather than random allocation.
The cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or from among a
variety of people, subjects, or phenomena rather than change. As such, researchers
using this design can only employ a relative passive approach to making causal
inferences based on findings.
F. Descriptive Design
Definition and Purpose
Descriptive research designs help provide answers to the questions of who,
what, when, where, and how associated with a particular research problem; a
descriptive study cannot conclusively ascertain answers to why. Descriptive research is
used to obtain information concerning the current status of the phenomena and to
describe "what exists" with respect to variables or conditions in a situation.
This is a theory-based design, where the researcher is primarily interested in
describing the topic that is the subject of the research. It is applied to case studies,
naturalistic observations, surveys, and so on.
This method includes data collection, analysis, and presentation. It lets the
researcher clearly present the problem statement in order to allow others to better
understand the need for this kind of research. Without a clear problem statement,
you’re not doing descriptive but exploratory research.
G. Experimental Design
Definition and Purpose
A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to maintain control
over all factors that may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher
attempts to determine or predict what may occur. Experimental Research is often used
where there is time priority in a causal relationship (cause precedes effect), there is
 consistency in a causal relationship (a cause will always lead to the same effect), and the
magnitude of the correlation is great. The classic experimental design specifies an
experimental group and a control group. The independent variable is administered to
the experimental group and not to the control group, and both groups are measured on
the same dependent variable. Subsequent experimental designs have used more groups
and more measurements over longer periods. True experiments must have control,
randomization, and manipulation.
Whether it is a field experiment, a controlled experiment, or a quasi-experiment,
this is one of the research designs types that establishes a relation between the cause
and effect of a particular happening.
Here, the researcher observes the influence of an independent variable on the
dependent one. For instance, you can observe the impact of the price (an independent
variable) on customer satisfaction (a dependent variable).
Usually, this type of research design contributes to solving a particular problem
by manipulating the independent variables to observe the change they have on the
dependent one. For example, you can experiment with changing the price and observe
the effect it has on customer satisfaction.
H. Exploratory Design
Definition and Purpose
An exploratory design is conducted about a research problem when there are
few or no earlier studies to refer to. The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for
later investigation or undertaken when problems are in a preliminary stage of
investigation.
This design is followed to discover ideas and insights to generate possible
explanations. It helps in exploring the problem or situation. It is, particularly,
emphasized to break a broad vague problem statement into smaller pieces or sub-
problem statements that help forming specific hypothesis.
The hypothesis is a conjectural (imaginary, speculative, or abstract) statement
about the relationship between two or more variables. Naturally, in initial state of the
 study, we lack sufficient understanding about problem to formulate a specific
hypothesis. Similarly, we have several competitive explanations of marketing
phenomenon. Exploratory research design is used to establish priorities among those
competitive explanations.
The exploratory research design is used to increase familiarity of the analyst with
problem under investigation. This is particularly true when researcher is new in area, or
when problem is of different type.
This design is followed to realize following purposes:
1. Clarifying concepts and defining problem
2. Formulating problem for more precise investigation
3. Increasing researcher’s familiarity with problem
4. Developing hypotheses
5. Establishing priorities for further investigation
Exploratory research design is characterized by flexibility to gain insights and
develop hypotheses. It does not follow a planned questionnaire or sampling. It is based
on literature survey, experimental survey, and analysis of selected cases. Unstructured
interviews are used to offer respondents a great deal of freedom. No research project is
purely and solely based on this design. It is used as complementary to descriptive design
and causal design.
The goals of exploratory research are intended to produce the following possible insights:
 Familiarity with basic details, settings and concerns.
 Well-grounded picture of the situation being developed.
 Generation of new ideas and assumption, development of tentative theories or
hypotheses.
 Determination about whether a study is feasible in the future.
 Issues get refined for more systematic investigation and formulation of new research
questions.
 Direction for future research and techniques get developed.
I. Historical Design
Definition and Purpose
The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and synthesize
evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses
secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary evidence, such as, logs, diaries,
official records, reports, archives, and non-textual information [maps, pictures, audio
and visual recordings]. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and
valid.
J. Longitudinal Design
Definition and Purpose
A longitudinal study follows the same sample over time and makes repeated
observations. With longitudinal surveys, for example, the same group of people is
interviewed at regular intervals, enabling researchers to track changes over time and to
relate them to variables that might explain why the changes occur. Longitudinal
research designs describe patterns of change and help establish the direction and
magnitude of causal relationships. Measurements are taken on each variable over two
or more distinct time periods. This allows the researcher to measure change in variables
over time. It is a type of observational study and is sometimes referred to as a panel
study.
A longitudinal study is a research design that involves repeated observations of
the same variables over short or long periods of time. It is often a type of observational
study, although they can also be structured as longitudinal randomized experiments.
K. Observational Design
Definition and Purpose
This type of research design draws a conclusion by comparing subjects against a
control group, in cases where the researcher has no control over the experiment. There
are two general types of observational designs. In direct observations, people know that
you are watching them. Unobtrusive measures involve any method for studying
behavior where individuals do not know they are being observed. An observational
 study allows a useful insight into a phenomenon and avoids the ethical and practical
difficulties of setting up a large and cumbersome research project.
L. Philosophical Design
Definition and Purpose
Understood more as
a broad approach to examining a research problem than a methodological
design, philosophical analysis and argumentation is intended to challenge deeply
embedded, often intractable, assumptions underpinning an area of study. This approach
uses the tools of argumentation derived from philosophical traditions, concepts,
models, and theories to critically explore and challenge, for example, the relevance of
logic and evidence in academic debates, to analyze arguments about fundamental
issues, or to discuss the root of existing discourse about a research problem.
These overarching tools of analysis can be framed in three ways:
 Ontology -- the study that describes the nature of reality; for example, what is real and
what is not, what is fundamental and what is derivative?
 Epistemology -- the study that explores the nature of knowledge; for example, on what
does knowledge and understanding depend upon and how can we be certain of what
we know?
 Axiology -- the study of values; for example, what values does an individual or group
hold and why? How are values related to interest, desire, will, experience, and means-
to-end? And, what is the difference between a matter of fact and a matter of value?
L. Sequential Design
Definition and Purpose
Sequential research is that which is carried out in a deliberate, staged approach
[i.e. serially] where one stage will be completed, followed by another, then another, and
so on, with the aim that each stage will build upon the previous one until enough data is
gathered over an interval of time to test your hypothesis. The sample size is not
predetermined. After each sample is analyzed, the researcher can accept the null
hypothesis, accept the alternative hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects and
 conduct the study once again. This means the researcher can obtain a limitless number
of subjects before finally making a decision whether to accept the null or alternative
hypothesis. Using a quantitative framework, a sequential study generally utilizes
sampling techniques to gather data and applying statistical methods to analyze the
data. Using a qualitative framework, sequential studies generally utilize samples of
individuals or groups of individuals [cohorts] and use qualitative methods, such as
interviews or observations, to gather information from each sample.
Elements of the research design
The essential elements of the research design are:

1. Accurate purpose statement

2. Techniques to be implemented for collecting and analyzing research
3. The method applied for analyzing collected details
4. Type of research methodology
5. Probable objections for research
6. Settings for the research study
7. Timeline
8. Measurement of analysis
Essential characteristics of good research design
Any type of research design is valid only if its results are reliable. Nevertheless, a lot of
companies nowadays make vital decisions based on unreliable research. In many cases, this is
because they fail to account for various types of bias in research.
To get accurate data from your research, you need to do everything in your power to protect
your research results against bias and achieve utmost neutrality. Also, the outcome of your
research should be applicable to an entire population and not just a limited sample. To ensure
that’s the case, make sure you got your sampling right and take into account the
potential margin of error just to be on the safe side.
Proper research design sets your study up for success. Successful research studies
provide insights that are accurate and unbiased. You’ll need to create a survey that meets all of
the main characteristics of a design. There are four key characteristics of research design:
  Neutrality: When you set up your study, you may have to make assumptions about the
data you expect to collect. The results projected in the research design should be free
from bias and neutral. Understand opinions about the final evaluated scores and
conclusions from multiple individuals and consider those who agree with the derived
results.
 Reliability: With regularly conducted research, the researcher involved expects similar
results every time. Your design should indicate how to form research questions to
ensure the standard of results. You’ll only be able to reach the expected results if your
design is reliable.
 Validity: There are multiple measuring tools available. However, the only correct
measuring tools are those which help a researcher in gauging results according to the
objective of the research. The questionnaire developed from this design will then be
valid.
 Generalization: The outcome of your design should apply to a population and not just a
restricted sample. A generalized design implies that your survey can be conducted on
any part of a population with similar accuracy.
The above factors affect the way respondents answer the research questions and so all the
above characteristics should be balanced in a good design.
POST-TEST:
Answer the following items briefly:
1. Explain briefly the types and purpose of a research design.
2. What the essential characteristics of good research design?
3. What are the goals of exploratory research?
4. What is the difference between open & closed cohort studies?
5. How to develop a research design?
6. What are contents of research design?