Applied Environmental Science and Engineering

for a Sustainable Future

Nevelina Pachova
Perlie Velasco
Antonina Torrens
Veeriah Jegatheesan   Editors

Regional
Perspectives
of Nature-based
Solutions for Water:
Benefits and
Challenges
Applied Environmental Science and Engineering
for a Sustainable Future

Series Editors
Jega V. Jegatheesan, School of Engineering, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC,
Australia
Li Shu, LJS Environment, Melbourne, Australia
Piet N. L. Lens, UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Delft, The
Netherlands
Chart Chiemchaisri, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a Sustainable Future (AESE)
series covers a variety of environmental issues and how they could be solved through
innovations in science and engineering. Our societies thrive on the advancements in
science and technology which pave the way for better standard of living. The adverse
effect of such improvements is the deterioration of the environment. Thus, better
catchment management in order to sustainably manage all types of resources
(including water, minerals and others) is of paramount importance. Water and
wastewater treatment and reuse, solid and hazardous waste management, industrial
waste minimisation, soil restoration and agriculture as well as a myriad of other
topics need better understanding and application. This book series aims at fulfilling
such a task in coming years.
Nevelina Pachova • Perlie Velasco •
Antonina Torrens • Veeriah Jegatheesan
Editors

Regional Perspectives
of Nature-based Solutions
for Water: Benefits
and Challenges
Editors
Nevelina Pachova Perlie Velasco
RMIT Europe Department of Civil Engineering, College of
Barcelona, Spain Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology
University of the Philippines Los Baños
Laguna, Philippines

Antonina Torrens Veeriah Jegatheesan

Department of Biology, Healthcare and School of Engineering and Water: Effective
Environment, Faculty of Pharmacy and Technologies and Tools (WETT) Research
Food Sciences Centre
University of Barcelona RMIT University
Barcelona, Spain Melbourne, VIC, Australia

ISSN 2570-2165 ISSN 2570-2173 (electronic)

Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a Sustainable Future
ISBN 978-3-031-18411-6 ISBN 978-3-031-18412-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland
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This book is dedicated to the late Professor
John Argue (1933–2022), Order of Australia,
who pioneered the development and
establishment of Water Sensitive Urban
Design (WSUD) in Australia. John was a
passionate and dedicated researcher, mentor
and educator, based at the University of South
Australia. He developed ground-breaking
concepts and practices in urban stormwater
management, resulting in the redefining of
stormwater from being a civil engineering
problem that needed to be managed and
controlled, to being a valuable water resource
of significant benefit to communities. John
authored seminal professional practice
manuals for civil engineers on stormwater
management and WSUD. He also toured
Australia extensively presenting WSUD
concepts and practices through lectures,
workshops, and seminars, and continued this
through his retirement years. For his major
contributions to stormwater management and
to the development of stormwater as a
valuable resource, John was awarded the
“Order of Australia” in 2013. In the same
year, he was inducted into Engineers
Australia’s Water Engineering “Hall of
Fame” becoming the first South Australian to
receive this recognition. In 2016, Professor
John Argue was inducted into the “Hall of
Fame” of Stormwater Australia and became
an Honorary Fellow of Engineers Australia,
which is their highest award.
Preface

Nature-based solutions (NbS) are solutions inspired or supported by nature,

including ecosystem conservation and restoration measures, as well as the creation
or enhancement of natural processes in man-made ecosystems, such as cities.
Examples of NbS interventions for water in urban areas include constructed wet-
lands, floating wetlands, maturation ponds, bioswales, green spaces, and buildings,
among others. NbS vary in their location, attributes, functions, and scales and
therefore in the environmental, social, and economic values that they generate.
Recent interest in NbS all over the world has emphasised their importance for
water management. For instance, the 2018 UN water development report explored
the role of NbS for water management in detail. A recent technical report by the
European Union (EU) also reviewed the results from EU-funded NbS projects with
respect to water quality. Similar reports have been produced by the International
Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), the United Nations Development
Programme (UNDP), the International Water Association (IWA), or the Asian
Development Bank (ADB). Evidence of the effectiveness of NbS solutions, how-
ever, particularly those implemented in urban contexts, has been dominated by
experiences from the Global North. Furthermore, NbS are often documented as
technical solutions disconnected from the actors that drive them and the context in
which they are implemented, thus limiting the understanding of their embeddedness
and how they can be replicated or scaled.
This book aims to address the aforementioned gap partially by exploring various
aspects of NbS for water in a systematic way. It begins with an introductory chapter
with descriptions on subsequent chapters and their importance. Next chapter pro-
vides an updated overview of NbS with a European perspective and discusses about
how the implementation of NbS improves living conditions. Next, the book looks at
a specific NbS, constructed floating wetlands (CFW), for the treatment of surface
waters and industrial wastewaters. It provides an overview of the current scientific
and engineering knowledge on CFW which will be essential for the replication of
CFWs. The updated definition of NbS by EU emphasises that NbS must benefit
biodiversity and support the delivery of a range of ecosystem services and thus, next,

vii
viii Preface

the book discusses about the contributions of NbS to biodiversity net gain (BNG) in
urban areas using the experiences of NbS that are implemented for water manage-
ment in England. Development of BNG and habitat suitability indices (HabSI)
scores for nature-based water management solutions implemented has been
discussed for three key biodiversity groups active at different spatial scales. This
will allow NbS to be located strategically.
Five country-wide studies have been presented next. The first study reviews the
applications of NbS in urban water management in Singapore, Thailand, and Viet-
nam. Policies that highlight the identification of investors, educational campaigns,
and sustainable joint partnerships are identified as key for the implementation of
NbS in the case of Singapore; barriers found to exist in political, governance, social,
and technological aspects for implementing NbS in Thailand and Vietnam. Next
study provides an overview of wastewater treatment in Vietnam and the application
of maturation ponds and floating wetlands as NbS to treat wastewater. The study
aims to provide suggestions for future upgrades to such NbS as well as to the policy
makers with recommendations for scaling up those NbS. The following study over-
views the wastewater treatment in the Philippines and discusses about the utilisation
of NbS in combination with grey solutions to treat domestic wastewater effectively.
Next study discusses the application of floating wetlands to treat pollutants in two
lakes of Sri Lanka. It discusses about assessment criteria to evaluate the performance
of such NbS. The last study investigates the role of information and communication
technology (ICT) in following global standard for NbS. The study considers
Bangladesh and proposes an ICT framework to facilitate the implementation of
NbS in Bangladesh.
How did this book proposal come about? Engagement of the editors of this book
in the Horizon-2020 projects and proposals made aware that there is a wealth of
information to exist in the literature some of which have been produced by numerous
Horizon-2020 projects. An earnest desire to learn from a few of those project leaders
led to a Global webinar on “Nature-base solutions for water in cities” in July 2021
that was organised by the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology (RMIT)
University—Europe. A call for chapters was made during the webinar to draft this
book. Additionally, the editors of this book along with their international partners
were awarded a grant by the Asia Pacific Network (APN) for Global Change
Research in October 2021 to conduct a project on developing an “Integrated
assessment of existing practices and development of pathways for the effective
integration of nature-based water treatment in urban areas in Sri Lanka, the Philip-
pines and Vietnam”. They were the catalyst to this book project.
We hope that this book provides a valuable compilation of theory and practice of
some NbS for water treatment as well as case studies discussing the applications of
those NbS. The information in the book will help to understand the status of NbS for
water management in different parts of the world, their effectiveness and impacts as
well as barriers that are to be overcome in order to replicate those NbS in a
sustainable manner. We have made an effort to bring the above into one place to
Preface ix

serve policy makers, practitioners, researchers, graduate students, and businesses in

implementing NbS in an efficient and appropriate manner.

Barcelona, Spain Nevelina Pachova

Laguna, Philippines Perlie Velasco
Barcelona, Spain Antonina Torrens
Melbourne, VIC, Australia Veeriah Jegatheesan
Contents

1 Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water Management: Challenges

and Opportunities in the Context of Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Nevelina Pachova, Perlie Velasco, Antonina Torrens,
and Veeriah Jegatheesan
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions
and Suitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
Raúl Sánchez, Esther San José, José Fermoso, Silvia Gómez,
and María González
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface
Waters and Industrial Wastewaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Jennifer Ayres, John Awad, Christopher Walker, Declan Page,
John van Leeuwen, and Simon Beecham
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England:
Contribution to Biodiversity Net Gain in Urban Areas . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Doug Warner
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water
Management in Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam: A Review . . . . . 101
Nguyen Sy Linh, Fahad Ahmed, and Ho Huu Loc
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration
Using Nature-Based Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Bao-Trong Dang, Ngo Thuy Diem Trang, Vo Thi Phuong Thao,
Nguyen Thi Ngoc Dieu, Thi-Kim-Quyen Vo, Ngoc-Kim-Qui Nguyen,
Cong-Sac Tran, Phuoc-Dan Nguyen, Veeriah Jegatheesan,
and Xuan-Thanh Bui

xi
xii Contents

7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment

in the Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Perlie Velasco, Ma. Catriona Devanadera, Michaela Dalisay,
Cloie Mueca, Darry Shel Estorba, and Amy Lecciones
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution
for Water Reclamation of Urban Lakes in Sri Lanka
and Development of an Appropriate Assessment Criterion . . . . . . . . 203
S. K. Weragoda, K. B. S. N. Jinadasa, M. Makehelwala,
T. I. P. Wimalaweera, and M. I. M. Mowjood
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
in Following Global Standard for NbS: The Bangladesh
Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Md Khalid Hossain
Editors and Contributors

About the Editors

Nevelina Pachova is a Research Fellow at RMIT

Europe, the European hub of Australian University
RMIT, where she conducts research and supports the
development and implementation of research and inno-
vation projects in the field of urban development and
sustainability transitions with a focus on the integration
of nature-based solutions in urban development and
planning, network governance, and social inclusion.
Prior to joining RMIT, Nevelina worked in the field of
natural resources management and poverty reduction at
different agencies of the United Nations University in
Tokyo and Bonn.

Perlie Velasco is an Assistant Professor at the Depart-

ment of Civil Engineering, University of the
Philippines—Los Baños (DCE, UPLB). She is the lead
faculty in Environmental Engineering at the department
with research projects in constructed wetlands and inte-
grated solid waste management. She got her undergrad-
uate degree in Civil Engineering at UPLB (2005),
Master’s degree in Water Resources Engineering at the
Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium (2010), and
Ph.D. degree in Environmental Engineering at the
Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia
(2022). Her research works focus on membrane-based
recovery of dissolved methane from wastewater effluent
and constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment.

xiii
xiv Editors and Contributors

Antonina Torrens is an adjunct professor at the

Department of Biology, Healthcare and Environment,
Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences of the Univer-
sity of Barcelona (UB). She is a coordinator of WASH
(Water Hygiene and Sanitation) and Nature-Based Solu-
tions (NbS) for sustainable development programmes at
the Solidarity Foundation of the University of Barcelona
(FSUB). She has a Ph.D. in Environmental Science and
Technology for the UB. Her main research expertise is
in the field of NbS for sustainable water management,
water quality, and water reuse. She has been involved in
numerous European research projects on water
resources and international cooperation projects related
to WASH and NbS for sustainable water management in
Asia, Africa, and South America.

Veeriah Jegatheesan (Jega), is a Professor of Environ-

mental Engineering and the Director of Water: Effective
Technologies and Tools (WETT) Research Centre at
RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia. Jega is the
founder and Chairman of the international conference
series on Challenges in Environmental Science & Engi-
neering (CESE) held annually since 2008. Jega has
conducted extensive research on the application of
membrane bioreactors, sugarcane juice clarification,
seawater desalination, and the treatment of mine tailing
ponds. He has over 450 publications including more
than 170 peer-reviewed journal articles and five edited
books. Jega is also the managing guest editor of 40 spe-
cial issues in peer-reviewed journals. In 2019,
Stormwater Industry Association (Australia) has
appointed him as one of the Governance Panel members
for the Australian Stormwater Quality Improvement
Device Evaluation Protocol (SQIDEP). Jega is the
Editor-in-Chief of a book series entitled Applied Envi-
ronmental Science and Engineering (AESE) for a Sus-
tainable Future published by Springer and has been
instrumental in publishing 12 books since 2015. Jega
has been appointed as the Editor-in-Chief of Environ-
mental Quality Management Journal (Wiley Publisher)
from January 2020.
Editors and Contributors xv

Contributors

Fahad Ahmed Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology

(AIT), Khlong Nueng, Thailand
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
John Awad University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering and
Mathematics (STEM), Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
CSIRO Land and Water, Urrbrae, SA, Australia
Jennifer Ayres University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering
and Mathematics (STEM), Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
Simon Beecham University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering
and Mathematics (STEM), Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
Xuan Thanh Bui Key Laboratory of Advanced Waste Treatment Technology, Ho
Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Michaela Dalisay Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and
Agro-Industrial Technology, University of the Philippines – Los Baños, Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines
Bao-Trong Dang Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University
of Technology (HCMUT), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Ma. Catriona Devanadera Department of Community and Environmental
Resource Planning, College of Human College, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
University of the Philippines – Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
Nguyen Thi Ngoc Dieu Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Envi-
ronment and Natural Resources, Can Tho University (CTU), Can Tho City, Vietnam
Darry Shel Estorba Society for the Conservation of Philippines Wetlands, Inc.,
Pasig City, Philippines
José Fermoso CARTIF Foundation, Spain, Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo,
Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
Silvia Gómez CARTIF Foundation, Spain, Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo,
Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
María González CARTIF Foundation, Spain, Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo,
Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
Md Khalid Hossain Faculty of Information Technology, Department of Human
Centred Computing, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
xvi Editors and Contributors

Veeriah Jegatheesan School of Engineering and Water: Effective Technologies

and Tools (WETT) Research Centre, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Kristhombu Baduge Shameen Nishantha Jinadasa Faculty of Engineering, Uni-
versity of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Amy Lecciones Society for the Conservation of Philippines Wetlands, Inc., Pasig
City, Philippines
Nguyen Sy Linh Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Envi-
ronment (ISPONRE), Hanoi, Vietnam
Ho Huu Loc Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology
(AIT), Khlong Nueng, Thailand
Madhubhashini Makehelwala National Water Supply and Drainage Board,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Joint Research and Demonstration Centre, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Mohamed Ismail Mohammed Mowjood Faculty of Agriculture, University of
Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Cloie Mueca Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-
Industrial Technology, University of the Philippines – Los Baños, Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines
Ngoc-Kim-Qui Nguyen Key Laboratory of Advanced Waste Treatment Technol-
ogy, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Phuoc Dan Nguyen Faculty of Civil Engineering, Asian Center for Water
Research (CARE), Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho
Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Nevelina Pachova RMIT Europe, Barcelona, Spain
Declan Page CSIRO Land and Water, Urrbrae, SA, Australia
Esther San José CARTIF Foundation, Spain, Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo,
Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
Raúl Sánchez CARTIF Foundation, Spain, Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo,
Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
Vo Thi Phuong Thao Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Envi-
ronment and Natural Resources, Can Tho University (CTU), Can Tho City, Vietnam
Antonina Torrens Department of Biology, Healthcare and Environment, Faculty
of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Editors and Contributors xvii

Nature Based Solutions for Sustainable Development Program, Solidarity Founda-

tion University Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Cong-Sac Tran Key Laboratory of Advanced Waste Treatment Technology, Ho
Chi Minh City University of Technology HCMUT, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Ngo Thuy Diem Trang Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Envi-
ronment and Natural Resources, Can Tho University (CTU), Can Tho City, Vietnam
John van Leeuwen University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineer-
ing and Mathematics (STEM), Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA,
Australia
Perlie Velasco Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-
Industrial Technology, University of the Philippines – Los Baños, Los Baños,
Laguna, Philippines
Thi-Kim-Quyen Vo Faculty of Biology and Environment – Natural Resources and
Climate Change, Ho Chi Minh City University of Food Industry (HUFI), Ho Chi
Minh City, Vietnam
Christopher Walker University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engi-
neering and Mathematics (STEM), Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
Covey Associates Pty Ltd, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
Doug Warner Agriculture and Environment Research Unit (AERU), School of
Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Hertfordshire, UK
Sujithra Kaushaliya Weragoda National Water Supply and Drainage Board,
Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Joint Research and Demonstration Centre, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Thalawatthalage Ishanka Prabhath Wimalaweera National Water Supply and
Drainage Board, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Joint Research and Demonstration Centre, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
List of Abbreviations

ABC Active, Beautiful, and Clean

ABR Anaerobic baffled reactor
ADB Asian Development Bank
AFI Artificial floating island
AOA Ammonia-oxidising archaea
AOB Ammonia-oxidising bacteria
APN Asia Pacific Network
ARCOWA ARC Of WAter
BDP2100 Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100
BNG Biodiversity Net Gain
BNS Basic Needs Services
BOD5 Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BORDA Bremen Overseas Research Development Association
BS British Standard
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
Cd Cadmium
CFW Constructed Floating Wetlands
COD Chemical Oxygen Demand
CPM City Performance Monitor
Cr Chromium
CSO Combined sewer overflow
CSS Combined sewage system
Cu Copper
CW Constructed wetland
DENR Department of Environment and Natural Resources
DEWATS Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems
DO Dissolved Oxygen
DOC Dissolved Organic Carbon
DOH Department of Health
DPWH Department of Public Works and Highways
EC European Commission
xix
xx List of Abbreviations

eco-DRR Ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction

EMB Environmental Management Bureau
ES Ecosystem Services
EU European Union
EWS Early warning system
FBA Forced Bed Aeration
FTW Floating treatment wetland
FWSCW Free water surface flow constructed wetland
GIS Geographic information system
HabSI Habitat suitability indices
HCMC Ho Chi Minh City
HCW Hybrid constructed wetland
HDB Housing and Development Board
HDPE High-density polyethylene
HFCW Horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands
HL Hydraulic load
HLR Hydraulic loading rate
HM Harmonisation Middleware
HRT Hydraulic retention time
HUC Highly urbanised city
HUSB Hydrolytic up-flow sludge bed
ICT Information and Communication Technology
IoT Internet of Things
ISA Integrated Sanitation Approach
IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWA International Water Association
KPI Key Performance Indicator
LGU Local Government Unit
LID Low Impact Development
LLDA Laguna Lake Development Authority
LSSP Local Sustainable Sanitation Plan
LWUA Local Water Utilities Administration
MAR Managed Aquifer Recharge
Mn Manganese
MP Maturation pond
MWCI Manila Water Company, Inc.
MWSI Maynilad Water Services, Inc.
MWSS Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System
NAP National Academies Press
NbS Nature-based Solutions
NbS-WT Nature-based Solutions for Wastewater Treatment
NBWMS Nature-Based Water Management Solutions
NCCAP National Climate Change Adaptation Plan
NCR National Capital Region
List of Abbreviations xxi

NEDA National Economic and Development Authority

NERC Natural Environment and Rural Communities
Ni Nickel
NSSP National Sewerage and Sanitation Program
NTU Nanyang Technological University
NWRB National Water Resources Board
NWSDB National Water Supply and Drainage Board
ODA Official development assistance
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
OLR Organic loading rate
ONIA Open Nature Innovation Arena
Org-N Organic Nitrogen
PAH Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
PBDE Polybrominated diphenyl ether
PCAMRD Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and
Development
PCB Polychlorinated biphenyl
PDP Philippine Development Plan
PE Person equivalent
PFAS Per-and polyfluoroalkyl substances
PFOA Perfluorooctanoic acid
PFOS Perfluorooctane sulfonic acid
PPCP Pharmaceuticals and personal care products
PSA Philippines Statistics Authority
PUB Public Utilities Board
PVC Polyvinyl Chloride
RMIT Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology
RO Reverse osmosis
RTD Residence time distribution
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SSDP Sustainable Sanitation Development Partnership
SSFCW Subsurface flow constructed wetlands
SSS Separate sewerage system
SuD Sustainable Urban Drainage
SUDS Sustainable Urban Drainage System
TF Translocation factors
TKN Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
TN Total Nitrogen
TOC Total Organic Carbon
TP Total phosphorous
TRM Tidal River Management
UASB Up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket
UNDESA United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
xxii List of Abbreviations

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
UVA254 UV Absorbance @ 254 nm
VFCW Vertical flow constructed wetlands
WCC World Conservation Congress
WHO World Health Organization
WSP Waste stabilisation pond
WSUD Water Sensitive Urban Designs
WUC Water Urban Challenges
WWTP Wastewater treatment plant
Zn Zinc
Chapter 1
Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water
Management: Challenges
and Opportunities in the Context of Asia

Nevelina Pachova, Perlie Velasco, Antonina Torrens,

and Veeriah Jegatheesan

Abstract Nature-based solutions (NbS) are increasingly recognized as important

tools for moving towards a more holistic approach to using and managing water.
Integrating NbS in existing water management practices, however, is an ongoing
process. The book provides a state-of-the-art overview of technologies and
approaches for integrating NbS in water management based on experiences from
across the world and a diverse range of in-depth case studies of NbS applications to
urban water management in Asia. This chapter introduces and brings together the
different contributions to the book, highlighting emerging challenges and opportu-
nities for harnessing the potential of NbS in the region. Emerging experiences
considered in the book suggest the need for better integration of different technol-
ogies and approaches, given the diversity of urban water challenges and the com-
plementary benefits of different NbS. Closely related to this is also the need for
integrated approaches to monitoring and assessing the impacts of existing practices
as a basis for enhancing their technical performance, sustainability and co-benefits.
Recent methodological advances in the design, implementation and assessment of
NbS from Europe and outside could also inform the development of more effective
approaches to stakeholder engagement, biodiversity generation, financing and learn-
ing from NbS.

N. Pachova (*)
RMIT Europe, Barcelona, Spain
e-mail: nevelina.pachova@rmit.edu.au
P. Velasco
Department of Civil Engineering, College of Engineering and Agro-Industrial Technology,
University of the Philippines – Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
A. Torrens
Department of Biology, Healthcare and Environment, Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences,
University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
V. Jegatheesan
School of Engineering and Water: Effective Technologies and Tools (WETT) Research Centre,
RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_1
2 N. Pachova et al.

Keywords Nature-based solutions · Water management · Cities · Asia

Water is essential for life (WWAP 2003) and human existence has been an ongoing
journey of learning how to use and manage it wisely. Marked by a growing
understanding that water is a shared and finite resource, at a given time and place,
the past decades have brought about important advances in working together with
both people and nature in ensuring access to water for all.
Driven by the goal of providing equitable development opportunities for people
across the world embedded in the Millennium Development Goals, the United
Nations (UN) Decade for Action “Water for Life” (2005–2015) gave significant
impetus to initiatives and investments that brought about important improvements in
access to safe drinking water and sanitation, recognized the importance of a human-
rights based approach to both and advanced the adoption of integrated approaches to
water management (UN 2010; UNCSD 2012; UNEP 2012; UNW-DPC 2015).
Despite notable achievements, however, billions of people remained without access
to safe water and sanitation at the end of the UN-water decade (UNW-DPC 2015).
Furthermore, although the value provided by water-related ecosystems had begun to
be recognized, water for the environment was seen as one of a range of different
water needs to be met and ca. 50% of the countries worldwide ranked it as an issue of
medium to low priority in 2012 (UNEP 2012).
The UN Agenda 2030 for transforming our world agreed upon by international
leaders in 2015 has attempted to bring about a shift in the dominant human-centred
perspectives on development by giving environmental concerns, including with
respect to water, a prominent place in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
(UN 2015). Unlike earlier formulations of the challenge of access to clean water and
sanitation, for example, SDG six, which focuses on it, highlights ecosystem degra-
dation as an integral part of the problem and calls for reducing pollution and
protecting and restoring water-related ecosystems as essential aspects of the solution
(UN 2015). In 2016, the UN General Assembly also agreed upon a new Decade for
Action on “Water for Sustainable Development” (2018–2028) with the aim to
energize implementation of existing projects and programmes and mobilize water-
related action to contribute to sustainable development and achievement of the SDGs
(UN 2016).
In line with the above, the concept of nature-based solutions (NbS), i.e. solutions
inspired or supported by nature, has emerged and gained significant traction in
Europe and outside over the past decade (EC 2015). Defined by IUCN as “actions
to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that
address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing
human well-being and biodiversity benefits” (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016), NbS
are increasingly seen as an important tool for shifting towards a more holistic
approach to water management and one that could contribute to other aspects of
the sustainable development goals, such as food security, reduced disaster risk in
urban settlements and decent work (UN-Water 2018).
1 Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water Management: Challenges. . . 3

The 2018 UN Water Report, which reviewed the state-of-the-art of knowledge

and applications of NbS, however, notes that NbS are not a panacea and although the
concept of NbS is increasingly included in Integrated Water Resources Management
(IWRM) principles and discourses, in practice this is not often the case. In this
regard, testing NbS in different hydrological, environmental, socio-economic and
management conditions, advancing understanding of their potential and limitations
and sharing knowledge were noted as essential for enhancing capacities for their
implementation and upscaling (UN-Water 2018).
This collection of studies aims to contribute to addressing this gap with a focus on
Asia, one of the most rapidly growing regions worldwide and one where the role of
NbS for water has received only limited and piecemeal attention to date. Unlike
recent reviews of the potential of NbS for water in Europe (EC 2020; Oral et al.
2020), Latin America and the Caribbean (Ozment et al. 2021) and Africa (Acreman
et al. 2021), NbS for water in Asia have been discussed with respect to specific
technologies (Liu et al. 2009) or approaches (Morita 2021), societal challenges (GEF
2020; Furmage 2022) or countries (Liu et al. 2009; ADB 2019; GEF 2020).
This book attempts to provide a more integrated perspective of the potential,
limitations and opportunities for advancing the uptake and upscaling of NbS for
water in Asia by bringing together a series of case studies from cities across the
region. With more than half of the population in Asia living in cities and rapidly
growing urbanization (UNDESA 2018), the book takes a special look at NbS for
water in urban contexts with the aim of bringing a forward look into opportunities for
the future that draw upon traditional nature-based water treatment systems and
solution from Asia but go beyond by complementing them with knowledge and
experiences from NbS employed in urban contexts in Europe, Australia and outside.
With this in mind, the region-specific case studies are preceded by several method-
ological chapters that review the range of technologies and approaches that the
concept of NbS for water entail, suggest possible frameworks for selecting appro-
priate NbS, and highlight challenges and opportunities with the implementation of
some of the most prominent types of nature-based solutions for water of relevance to
cities in Asia.
The book opens with a typology of NbS developed in the framework of an
EU-funded project on urban greening that Sánchez et al. (2022) employ to discuss
and demonstrate how different types of NbS can be selected, implemented and
assessed with view of a range of urban water challenges across different scales.
The authors argue for a consideration of the physical, biotic, social and economic
context of the location, as a basis for determining the suitability of a given NbS and
suggest that impacts can be captured with a focus on the ecosystem services that are
likely to be impacted under different scenarios. They also demonstrate the capacity
of floating gardens and urban forest catchments, two types of NbS developed and
tested in selected cities in Europe, to contribute to addressing context-specific urban
water challenges through the generation of a range of valuable ecosystem services.
Chapter 3 provides detailed overview of one of the prominent types of NbS for
water treatment with relevance to the context in Asia, namely constructed floating
wetlands. In the chapter, Ayres et al. (2022) review the latest evidence on the
4 N. Pachova et al.

effectiveness of constructed floating wetlands (CFW) for the treatment of surface

waters and industrial wastewaters. The study highlights critical attributes that need to
be taken into account in the design of CFW, including structural design and
buoyancy, plant selection, plant anchoring and harvesting, and how they affect
water treatment effectiveness as reflected in different rates of removal of nutrients,
heavy metals and organic compounds. The authors also discuss the effect of hydro-
dynamics on pollutant removal and suggest possibilities for improving the design of
CFW installations with view of enhancing performance and other possible benefits
and draw attention to measures for validating treatment effectiveness and setting up
an operational monitoring system. The authors argue that a mass balance approach
could take operational monitoring a step further and enable an evaluation of the
significance of the CFW treatment. They also note the absence of published eco-
nomic information for CFWs and suggest that an accepted validation framework
coupled with hydraulic modelling, as well as research into the costs and benefits of
CFWs, are required for improved confidence and greater adoption of full-scale
CFWs technologies.
In Chap. 4, Warner (2022) goes beyond the water quality and quantity impacts of
NbS. The author argues that if appropriately designed and located, NbS employed to
address urban water challenges, could make significant contributions to enhancing
urban biodiversity as well. After a review of NbS types used for urban water
management in the UK and outside, such as bus-shelters, green roofs and walls,
wetland creation, bioswales and street trees, he proposes two measures for assessing
and enhancing the biodiversity benefits of NbS, namely Biodiversity Net Gain
(BNG), a measure designed to capture changes in individual habitat types based
on a consideration of their relative distinctiveness and quality, and habitat suitability
indices (HabSI), an index that predicts the likelihood of important species being
present in a given habitat. To demonstrate their use, Warner employs them to assess
NbS BNG and habitat suitability for three key biodiversity groups active at different
spatial scales in the UK, namely, pollinators, amphibians and bats and discusses the
implications of the choice, structure and location of the examined interventions.
In Chap. 5 Linh et al. (2022) present and discuss several examples of NbS
employed for urban water management in Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam.
Those include the Active, Beautiful and Clean (ABC) Waters Programme in Singa-
pore, a number of urban parks employed for storm water management in Thailand,
and several NbS projects for urban water management in a planning stage in Ho Chi
Minh City and the ancient capital of Hue in Vietnam. While drawing upon examples
from different contexts and at different stages of implementation, the chapter draws
attention to the important role played by government agencies and large institutional
actors in the establishment of NbS for urban water management in the three
countries. Reflecting on the benefits but also limitations of such large-scale infra-
structural interventions, the chapter suggests the need for a better integration across
stakeholders, sectors and scales as the way forward in the design and implementation
of more multi-functional, resilient and sustainable NbS for cities in the region.
In Chap. 6, Dang et al. (2022) take a closer look at two types of NbS employed for
urban water management and wastewater treatment across cities in Vietnam.
1 Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water Management: Challenges. . . 5

Specifically, they examine existing applications of waste stabilization ponds (WSPs)

employed in centralized wastewater treatment systems in the country, and floating
treatment wetlands (FTWs), which are increasingly used as a form of decentralized
treatment of water in the urban canals across Vietnam. The authors discuss the pros
and cons of the two different types of NbS, their performance, as well as challenges
and opportunities for enhancing it. They note that, while WSPs, such as maturation
ponds, have been primarily employed for wastewater treatment, they could provide a
number of other benefits, such as urban green space, biodiversity, flood control,
urban heat control, and fish farming opportunities, if appropriately designed. A
review of FTWs pilot and demo sites across the country also finds that FWTs can
provide a range of complementary benefits, such as improved aesthetic value, job
opportunities and possibilities for awareness raising and stakeholder engagement in
environmental conservation work. The authors suggest that a combination of the two
types of NbS can optimize their value for wastewater treatment in cities in Vietnam
but note that better monitoring and appropriate field tests and simulation studies are
needed for gaining a deeper understanding of and quantifying the expected multi-
functional impacts of both.
In Chap. 7, Velasco et al. (2022) review existing nature-based solutions for
domestic wastewater treatment in the Philippines. They note the growing pressures
for improved wastewater treatment in the country and the limited centralized funding
for this. In this context they consider the potential of NbS as low-cost decentralized
water treatment solutions and discuss in more detail existing applications of
Decentralized Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) and constructed wetlands
in the country. Existing evidence of the effectiveness of those measures, however, is
limited and the authors suggest a possible framework for assessing their effective-
ness as a basis for demonstrating the value of NbS.
In Chap. 8, Weragoda et al. (2022) touch upon the long history of NbS in Sri
Lanka that comprises both traditional and more modern hybrid applications. With
respect to urban contexts, they note the relevance and potential of floating wetlands
(FW) more concretely and examine the effectiveness of FWs established over the
recent years in two of the major urban lakes in the country. The effectiveness of
floating wetlands is discussed with reference to a range of different aspects, includ-
ing technical design and operation, social and economic impacts, enabling environ-
ment and embeddedness in the local policy and governance system. While
recognizing the importance of an integrated approach to assessing the impacts of
the examined interventions, however, the authors note that existing data, particularly
on the economic, social and governance aspects and impacts of the interventions are
limited and suggest that those gaps need to be taken into account in the design of
future monitoring systems since a deeper understanding of the multi-functional
benefits of existing NbS would be beneficial for the maintenance, upscaling and
replication of nature-based solutions throughout the country.
In the final chapter, Hossain (2002) explores the role of Information and Com-
munication Technology (ICT) in following the Global Standard for NbS from a
Bangladesh perspective. Based on a review of both NbS research in Bangladesh and
international examples of ICT applications for NbS, the author argues that ICT can
6 N. Pachova et al.

play a facilitating role in promoting NbS in the country. Biodiversity net-gain

assessments based on an analysis of meta data, ICT-based information sharing and
stakeholder engagement in NbS planning and evaluations, infrastructure for the
establishment and coordination of large-scale networks of partners for scaling up
interventions, and monitoring and assessments based on geospatial technologies,
time-series data collection from remote places through wireless networks, as well as
the compilation and analysis of environmental databases, and multi-criteria analysis
through relevant software are given as examples of promising ICT applications to
NbS in the context of Bangladesh. The author notes, however, that currently the role
of ICT for promoting and facilitating NbS interventions has been insufficiently
considered in the country and that realizing its potential requires targeted attention
and integration in the Bangladesh vision for a digital and innovative economy.
The chapters featured in this volume are not a comprehensive overview of NbS
applications for water across cities in Asia. They do suggest, however, that countries
in the region, particularly developing ones, are beginning to consider and explore the
potential of nature-based solutions, so a review of shared challenges and opportuni-
ties for advancing the process is both necessary and timely. A general overview of
the different chapters suggests that water quality (Dang et al. 2022; Weragoda et al.
2022) and flood control and stormwater management (Linh et al. 2022; Hossain
2002) are among the major urban water challenges, for which cities in the region are
turning to nature-based solutions. Large-scale, government-led and most often
externally financed interventions seem to dominate the current NbS landscape across
cities in the region, particularly when it comes to dealing with flood control and
stormwater management (Linh et al. 2022) and hybrid NbS solutions linked to
traditional centralized wastewater treatment (Dang et al. 2022). Water quality chal-
lenges seem to be more open to small-scale, often university or local government,
donor and/or NGO-led trials (Dang et al. 2022; Velasco et al. 2022; Weragoda et al.
2022).
Assessments of the impacts of the different NbS examined in the volume suggest
that while large-scale centralized NbS initiatives have the potential to contribute to
meeting targeted water quality standards and water management objectives, small-
scale NbS are arguably more effective in generating opportunities for awareness
raising and stakeholder engagement in environmental conservation (Linh et al. 2022;
Dang et al. 2022), which are essential for exploring, developing and sustaining the
potential multi-functional uses of NbS interventions and shifting towards a more
sustainable urban water management approach across cities in the region more
broadly. Exploring possibilities for combining large- and small-scale NbS through
integrated planning at specific locations and/or as a system for sequential water
treatment are suggested as optimal solutions and promising directions for future NbS
applications in cities across the region (Linh et al. 2022; Dang et al. 2022).
Existing frameworks and approaches for selecting appropriate NbS interventions
with view of the critical urban water challenges and taking into account the local
physical, biotic, socio-economic and policy context, which is essential for ensuring
effective and sustainable implementation (Sánchez et al. 2022) could be adapted and
employed to support the design of such integrated NbS interventions. Essential in
1 Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water Management: Challenges. . . 7

this respect would be also a more targeted consideration of how NbS initiated to
address water management challenges could be selected and/or designed to simul-
taneously contribute to creating habitats for enhancing biodiversity and preserving or
bringing locally important species back into cities. The Biodiversity Net Gain
(BNG) and habitat suitability indices (HabSI) discussed by Warner (2022) could
be helpful tools in this respect.
Developing appropriate operational monitoring but also integrated monitoring
systems that reflect the diverse range of ecosystem services that are likely to be
impacted by NbS projects and interventions, as well as the overall impact of a given
intervention on a broader ecosystem, or a particular aspect of it, would also be
essential for ensuring adaptive management improvements in the course of imple-
mentation, while building confidence and support for further interventions (Ayres
et al. 2022; Sánchez et al. 2022; Warner 2022). Impact assessments of existing NbS
in the examined cases are currently based on piecemeal, short-term, often water
quality related monitoring data. Developing and implementing integrated monitor-
ing systems that capture the wider ecological and socio-economic impacts of such
interventions is thus a notable shared concern among a number of the contributors to
this book (Dang et al. 2022; Velasco et al. 2022; Weragoda et al. 2022). The
comprehensive standards and guidelines for monitoring the impacts of NbS devel-
oped by IUCN (2020) and the EU (2021), among other key institutional drivers of
the concept, offer a promising starting point in this respect but one that requires
appropriate topic and context-specific adaptations (Jegatheesan et al. 2022).
Finally, alongside with improving existing approaches to the design, implemen-
tation and monitoring of NbS interventions through more integrated and participa-
tory approaches, taking existing experiences with NbS across the region a step
further, would benefit from the development of robust economic assessments,
financial models and market development pathways for established NbS technolo-
gies with demonstrated market-potential, such as floating wetlands (Ayres et al.
2022) but also from the exploration of innovative financial models and risk pooling
and sharing approaches for enabling experimentation and testing of less established
ones. The multi-faceted opportunities offered by ICTs with respect to innovative
financing but also stakeholder engagement, monitoring, learning and exchange
across individual stakeholders but also transnational communities of practice,
could also be better explored to contribute to promoting NbS in the context of
developing countries in Asia (Hossain 2002).
Those, however, are only our interpretations of the wealth of knowledge and
insights shared by the individual contributors to our volume. We hope the diverse
contributions we have put together will spark new insights and connections, includ-
ing ones we have not noted or seen, so we invite you to take a closer look and explore
them in more detail on your own or together with others that you think may be
interested in them.
8 N. Pachova et al.

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10 N. Pachova et al.

Nevelina Pachova, Research Fellow at RMIT Europe, the European hub of Australian University
RMIT. She conducts research and supports the development and implementation of research and
innovation projects in the field of urban development and sustainability transitions with a focus on
the integration of nature-based solutions in urban development and planning, network governance
and social inclusion. Prior to joining RMIT, Nevelina worked in the field of natural resources
management and poverty reduction at different agencies of the United Nations University in Tokyo
and Bonn.

Perlie Velasco, Assistant Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, University of the
Philippines—Los Baños (DCE, UPLB). She is the lead faculty in Environmental Engineering at the
department with research projects in constructed wetlands and integrated solid waste management.
She got her undergraduate degree in Civil Engineering at UPLB (2005), Master’s degree in Water
Resources Engineering at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium (2010), and PhD Degree in
Environmental Engineering at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia (2022). Her
research works focus on membrane-based recovery of dissolved methane from wastewater effluent
and constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment.

Antonina Torrens, Adjunct Professor at Biology, Healthcare and Environment department,

Faculty of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, University of Barcelona (UB) and the coordinator of
Water Hygiene and Sanitation (WASH) and Nature Based Solutions (NbS) for sustainable devel-
opment programs at the Solidarity Foundation, UB. She has a PhD in Environmental Science and
Technology at UB. Her main research expertise is in the field of NbS for sustainable water
management, water quality, and water reuse. She’s involved in numerous European research
projects on water resources and international cooperation projects related to WASH and NbS for
sustainable water management in Asia, Africa, and South America.

Veeriah Jegatheesan (Jega), Professor of Environmental Engineering at RMIT University, Mel-

bourne, Australia. Jega is co-founder and Chairman of the international conference series on
Challenges in Environmental Science and Engineering (CESE) held annually since 2008. Jega
has conducted extensive research on the application of membrane bioreactors, sugar cane juice
clarification and seawater desalination. He has over 450 publications including more than 170 peer-
reviewed journal articles and five edited books. In 2019, Stormwater Industry Association
(Australia) has appointed him as one of the Governance Panel members for the Australian
Stormwater Quality Improvement Device Evaluation Protocol (SQIDEP).
Chapter 2
Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water,
Their Functions and Suitability

Raúl Sánchez , Esther San José , José Fermoso , Silvia Gómez ,

and María González

Abstract Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are presented as a real alternative to cli-

mate emergencies, which require more research to provide sustainable solutions at
different scales. This will spread NBS knowledge worldwide and their impacts at the
urban scale, mainly on water management and risks derived from climate change
(floods, runoff water, drought) and Ecosystem Services (ES) affected. Water-related
NbS (water NbS) have the ability to regulate water flows more cost-effectively than
the traditional grey solutions.
This chapter provides an updated overview of the NbS paying special emphasis
on a European scope through the existing NbS catalogues, their implementation
scale and associated climate change challenges. The evaluation of ES provides a
view of how the implementation of water NbS improves living conditions.
The chapter includes: (1) identification, description and classification of water
NbS to facing specific challenges at different scales; (2) identification of main ES
impacted and improved by water NbS; (3) evaluation of the functionality and
suitability of Water NbS from the perspective of specific climatic, governance,
social, economic and knowledge and capacity factors that constrain or enable their
implementation; (4) analysis of several European case studies to highlight the
capacity of water NbS to cope with challenges related to water.

Keywords Water nature-based solutions · Urban challenges · Ecosystem services ·

NbS impact assessment · KPIs

R. Sánchez (*) · E. S. José · J. Fermoso · S. Gómez · M. González

CARTIF Foundation, Spain, Parque Tecnológico de Boecillo, Boecillo (Valladolid), Spain
e-mail: rausan@cartif.es; estsan@cartif.es; josdom@cartif.es; silgom@cartif.es;
marort@cartif.es

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 11

N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_2
12 R. Sánchez et al.

2.1 Introduction

It is well known the capability of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) to generate different

impacts at urban and peri-urban scale, such as the ability to regulate water or store
carbon, comparable to traditional, grey infrastructures in a more cost-efficient way.
Specifically, water management and the impacts of exceptional water episodes
(flood and drought) are one of the most important challenges that our cities suffer
due to climate change and their impacts on water ecosystem services.
Understanding NbS for water as a type of NbS specifically focused on addressing
water-related climate risks or hazards (Gómez et al. 2020), there are several water
NbS implemented in cities (Sánchez Francés et al. 2022) (i.e. rain gardens, river
stream restoration, sustainable urban drainage systems—SUDs, floating gardens),
temporary flooding areas that can contribute to provide relevant urban ecosystem
services such as microclimatic regulation (reduction in heat island phenomenon and
temperature increase due to climate change) (Schwarz et al. 2011), general health
improvements (Mitchell and Popham 2008; Van den Bosch and Ode Sang 2017),
flood risk reduction (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016), quality of life improvement (Van
den Bosch and Ode Sang 2017) and finally improving and preserving biodiversity.
Vegetation and water are the perfect tandem to deliver positive effects on air
quality by eliminating pollution, altering the urban microclimate and buffering
temperatures and improving humidity condition (evapotranspiration processes).
These services are generated by a very diverse group of water NbS (URBAN
GreenUP project catalogue, NATURE4CITIES project catalogue, URBINAT pro-
ject catalogue).
This chapter pays special attention on water challenges, the ecosystem services
affected by these challenges and how NbS are able to address them, delivering a
series of other services that are commonly defined as social, economic and environ-
mental co-benefits. The main purpose of the chapter is to deliver a wide view of
water NbS and their benefits and challenges they can address.
Starting from the results achieved through the identification and definition of the
existing water NbS frameworks assessment, the chapter will identify a set of water
NbS interventions, Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) related to these water NbS
and a relevant group of case studies as a way to demonstrate the feasibility of water
NbS implementation and to make the understanding of the use and implementation
of water easier for the wider audience. This chapter contains very representative case
studies of water NbS implemented in European cities.
Second part of this chapter offers an introduction of the main water urban
challenges and the NbS that could address them, establishing, in addition, a catego-
rization of NbS and their scale.
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 13

2.2 Identification of Water Urban Challenges (Water UC)

and Existing NbS to Address Them

As first step to understand the benefits of water NbS, it is necessary to identify the
main water urban challenges (Babí Almenar et al. 2021) such as contamination of
water sources, lack of potable water supply, sanitation, solid waste management,
floods, environmental impact and diseases, etc. (Dolman and Ogunyoye 2018) and
the correlation with the ecosystem services affected.
In this chapter, we have searched in the work done by several research projects
and case studies and have included them (URBAN GreenUP project catalogue,
Nature4Cities project catalogue, URBINAT project catalogue, etc.) in order to
mention a categorization of the different typologies of water NbS (Sánchez Francés
et al. 2022) that specifically solve the challenges identified. In this sense, we have
identified the main urban water challenges and the kind of water NbS to address
them as shown in Table 2.1. In the same way, the specific water NbS mentioned in
Table 2.1 can address a wide list of ecosystem services that are impacted by water
challenges in our cities.
It is well known the comprehensive value and the multifunctions of NbS and their
capability to address different challenges (environmental, social and economic).
However, to be able to identify the specific ecosystem services affected by water
urban challenges and what water NbS could be involved in the processes of their
improvement, it is necessary to align water NbS categories and types with several
existing water NbS and their scale in order to select the ecosystem services
(Table 2.1). The use of this analysis will be bidirectional, allowing to manage the
ecosystem services to understand the challenges to be addressed by NbS, but also to
know the specific NbS that cities can implement to improve their ecosystem services.

2.3 Overview of Water NbS

The population living in urban areas around the globe is estimated at around 3.6
billion and it will increase by approximately 2.6 billion by 2050. This whole
population will demand water and this implies the need to improve the water cycle
infrastructure that provides environmental quality, social justice and sustainable
development.
Water NbS are not just an alternative solution to mitigate the effects of climate
change in specific areas; they are also a tool to keep the good status of water bodies,
including surface water and groundwater; or to the good environmental status of
marine waters.
The identification of NbS is a critical issue that needs to be adjusted to the urban
scale and to enhance or at least maintain ecosystem services. The choice of the right
NbS involves a preliminary study that entails a significant amount of research and
analysis.
Table 2.1 Main urban water challenges and their direct relation to the type of water NbS, the existing NbS included into each type of water NbS and the ecosystem
14

services affected by the urban challenge

Specific water NbS
Water urban Scale: Regional Scale (R); Metropolitan (M); Urban (U);
challenges Type of water NbS Street (S); Building (B) Ecosystem services
Urban challenges Water NbS for – SUDs (U, S, M) – Food supply – Recreation
related to impacts addressing and – Green pavements green parking pavements (U) – Fresh water supply – Appreciation
and risks provoked buffering climate – Cycle-pedestrian green pavement (U) – Wood, pulp, other – Spirituality
by climate change risks and impacts – Floating gardens (S) – Urban temperature – Cognitive development
and extreme cli- – Wetlands (R, M, U, S) Climate regulation – Aesthetic experience as well as
mate episodes – Water purification their role in supporting knowledge
– Pollination systems, social relations and aes-
– Erosion control thetic values
– Human diseases – Maintenance of genetic diversity
– Barriers effect of – Biomass production
vegetation – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Tourism – Provisioning of habitat for species
– Maintenance of genetic pools and
evolutionary processes
Urban challenges Water NbS for – SUDs (U, S, M) – Fresh water supply – Appreciation
related to manag- addressing water – Grassed swales and water retention ponds (U, S, M) – Wood, pulp, other – Cognitive development
ing urban water in quality and – Rain gardens (U, S, M) – Food and fibre – Aesthetic experience as well as
order to improve its management – Urban catchment forestry (U, S, M) – Water purification their role in supporting knowledge
quality, avoid pol- – Hard drainage-flood prevention Unearth water courses – Erosion control systems, social relations and aes-
luted drinking (R, U, M) – Human diseases thetic values
water, and generate – Channel renaturing (U) – Nutrient regulation – Maintenance of genetic diversity
new ways to reuse – Floodable park (R, M, U) – Barriers effect of – Biomass production
it – Green filter area (U) vegetation – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Natural wastewater treatment (U) – Recreation – Provisioning of habitat for species
– Hard drainage pavements (S, U) – Maintenance of genetic pools and
– Green pavements green parking pavements (U) evolutionary processes
– Electro wetland (U)
R. Sánchez et al.

– Urban garden bio-filter (S, U)

 2
– Green waterfront (M, U, S)
– Integrated and ecological management: spatial aspects
(R, M, U, S)
– Wetlands (R, M, U, S)
– Floodplains (R, M, U, S)
– Vegetation engineering system for riverbanks erosion
control (R, M, U, S)
– De-sealed area (and associated systems, e.g. Permeable
paving) (R, M, U, S)
– Swale (R, M, U, S)
– Constructed wetland for water treatment (R, M, U, S)
– Reopened stream (R, M, U, S)
– Urban clean water solution (U, S, B)
– Watercourse restoration (M, U, S, B)
– Rainwater management/Recirculation in residential
Areas (U, S, B)
– Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B)
Urban challenges Water NbS for – Hydroponic green façade (B) – Medicines – Spirituality
related to urban air addressing air qual- – Floating gardens (S) – Genetic resources – Cognitive development
quality ity in cities – Green filter area (S) – Pollination – Aesthetic experience as well as
– Wetlands (R, M, U, S) – Human diseases their role in supporting knowledge
– Public urban green space (place, square, etc.) (M, U, S) – Barriers effect of systems, social relations and aes-
– Green waterfront (M, U, S) vegetation thetic values
– Integrated and ecological management: spatial aspects – Tourism – Maintenance of genetic diversity
(R, M, U, S) – Recreation – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B) – Appreciation – Provisioning of habitat for species
– Maintenance of genetic pools and
Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability

evolutionary processes
Urban challenges Water NbS for – Wetlands (R, M, U, S) – Food supply – Tourism
related to urban addressing urban – Hydroponic green façade (B) – Wood, pulp, other – Recreation
biodiversity loss biodiversity loss – Floating gardens (S) – Medicines – Appreciation
– Electro wetland (U) – Genetic resources – Spirituality
– Green filter area (S) – Food and fibre – Aesthetic experience as well as
15

(continued)
Table 2.1 (continued)
16

Specific water NbS

Water urban Scale: Regional Scale (R); Metropolitan (M); Urban (U);
challenges Type of water NbS Street (S); Building (B) Ecosystem services
– Urban garden bio-filter (S, U) – Pollination their role in supporting knowledge
– Integrated and ecological management: spatial aspects – Human diseases systems, social relations and aes-
(R, M, U, S) thetic values
– Nutrient regulation
– Create and preserve habitats and shelters for biodiversity – Barriers effect of– Maintenance of genetic diversity
(R, M, U, S) vegetation – Provisioning of habitat for species
– Ensure continuity with ecological network (M, U, S) – Maintenance of genetic pools and
evolutionary processes
Urban challenges Water NBS focused – Enhanced nutrient managing and releasing soil (S) – Food supply – Waste treatment and assimilation
related to soil qual- on improving soil – Smart soil production in climate-smart urban farming – Fresh water supply – Tourism
ity and managing quality and manag- precinct (S, U) – Wood, pulp, other – Recreation
its use as way to ing its use as way to – Smart soil as substrate (U) – Food and fibre – Aesthetic experience as well as
provide services provide services – Large urban public park (M, U, S) – Water purification their role in supporting knowledge
related to food related to food – Wood (U, S, B) – Pollination systems, social relations and aes-
provision. provision. – Lawn (U, S, B) – Erosion control thetic values
– Integrated and ecological management: time and fre- – Nutrient regulation – Biomass production
quency aspects Sustainable use of fertilisers (R, M, U, S) – Barriers effect of – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Urban green space with specific uses (school play- vegetation – Provisioning of habitat for species
grounds, campgrounds, sport field, etc.) (M, U, S) – Maintenance of genetic pools and
– Vegetation engineering system for riverbanks erosion evolutionary processes
control (R, M, U, S)
– De-sealed area (and associated systems, ex. Permeable
paving) (R, M, U, S)
– Structural soil (R, M, U, S)
– Soil improvement (R, M, U, S)
– Soil and slope revegetation (R, M, U, S)
– Strong slope revegetation (R, M, U, S)
– Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B)
– Wetlands (R, M, U, S)
R. Sánchez et al.
 2

Urban challenges Water NbS focused – Rain gardens (U, S) – Food supply – Nutrient regulation
related to resources on the sustainable – Urban catchment forestry (U, S, M) – Fresh water supply – Waste treatment and assimilation
efficiency use of the resources – Hard drainage-flood prevention Unearth water courses – Wood, pulp, other – Tourism
mainly as part of (R, U, M) – Medicines – Recreation
the provisioning – Floodable park (R, M, U) – Genetic resources – Cognitive development
and cultural ser- – Green filter area (U) – Food and fibre – Biomass production
vices. These NbS – Natural wastewater treatment (U) – Urban Tempera- – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
also contribute to – Hydroponic green façade (B) ture – Provisioning of habitat for species
support habitat – Electro wetland (U) – Climate regulation – Maintenance of genetic pools and
services. – Integrated and ecological management: spatial aspects – Water purification evolutionary processes
(R, M, U, S)
– Ensure continuity with ecological network (M, U, S)
– Urban clean water solution (U, S, B)
– Food production (M, U, S, B)
– Adaptive reuse of Urban network space (M, U, S, B)
– Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B)
– Wetlands (R, M, U, S)
Urban challenges Water NbS focused – Hard drainage-flood prevention Unearth water courses – Food supply – Waste treatment and assimilation
related to sustain- on the promotion of (R, U, M) – Fresh water supply – Tourism
able energy a sustainable use of – Floodable park (R, M, U) – Wood, pulp, other – Recreation
consumption energy considering – Wetlands (R, M, U, S) – Medicines – Appreciation
the green mobility – Green filter area (U) – Food and fibre – Spirituality
and the green – Natural wastewater treatment (U) – Urban Tempera- – Maintenance of genetic diversity
spaces as solutions – Hard drainage pavements (S, U) ture Climate regula- – Biomass production
to save money and – Hydroponic green façade (B) tion – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
improve the living – Electro wetland (U) – Water purification – Provisioning of habitat for species
Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability

conditions in cities. – Urban garden bio-filter (S, U) – Human diseases – Maintenance of genetic pools and
– Integrated and ecological management: spatial aspects – Nutrient regulation evolutionary processes
(R, M, U, S) – Barriers effect of
– Rainwater management and recirculation in residential vegetation
areas (M, U, S, B)
(continued)
17
Table 2.1 (continued)
Specific water NbS
18

Water urban Scale: Regional Scale (R); Metropolitan (M); Urban (U);
challenges Type of water NbS Street (S); Building (B) Ecosystem services
Urban challenges Water NbS focused – Integrated and ecological management: spatial aspects – Food supply – Barriers effect of vegetation
related to urbanisa- on breaking the (R, M, U, S) – Fresh water supply – Waste treatment and assimilation
tion sprawling uncontrolled – Ensure continuity with ecological network (M, U, S) – Wood, pulp, other – Tourism
expansion of cities – Floodplains (R, M, U, S) – Medicines – Recreation
through green plan- – Urban clean water solution (U, S, B) – Genetic resources – Appreciation
ning development – Rainwater management and recirculation in residential – Food and fibre – Spirituality
and establishing areas (M, U, S, B) – Urban Tempera- – Aesthetic experience as well as
real green limits. – Rainwater management/Recirculation in residential ture Climate regula- their role in supporting knowledge
Areas (U, S, B) tion systems, social relations and aes-
– Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B) – Water purification thetic values
– Wetlands (R, M, U, S) – Pollination – Maintenance of genetic diversity
– Erosion control – Biomass production
– Human diseases – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Nutrient regulation– Provisioning of habitat for species
– Maintenance of genetic pools and
evolutionary processes
Urban challenges Water NbS focused – Green pavements green parking pavements (U) – Food supply – Waste treatment and assimilation
related to public on improving the – Cycle-pedestrian green pavement (U) – Fresh water supply – Tourism
health and well- liveability of cities – Floating gardens (S) – Wood, pulp, other – Recreation
being – Urban clean water solution (U, S, B) – Medicines – Appreciation
– Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B) – Genetic resources – Spirituality
– Food and fibre – Cognitive development
– Urban Tempera- – Aesthetic experience as well as
ture their role in supporting knowledge
– Climate regulation systems, social relations and aes-
– Water purification thetic values
– Human diseases – Maintenance of genetic diversity
– Nutrient regulation – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Provisioning of habitat for species
R. Sánchez et al.

– Maintenance of genetic pools and

evolutionary processes
 2

Urban challenges Water NbS focused – Wildlife park/Urban park/Urban wetlands (M, U, S, B) – Food supply – Recreation
related to environ- on avoiding the – Fresh water supply – Appreciation
mental justice and inequality in cities, – Medicines – Spirituality
social cohesion promoting commu- – Food and fibre – Cognitive development
nity and participa- – Water purification – Aesthetic experience as well as
tory processes as a – Human diseases their role in supporting knowledge
way to generate a – Waste treatment systems, social relations and aes-
green social cohe- and assimilation thetic values
sion and justice – Tourism – Nutrient cycling, water cycling
– Provisioning of habitat for species
– Maintenance of genetic pools and
evolutionary processes
Elaborated from Book Nature-Based Solutions for More Sustainable Cities—A Framework Approach for Planning and Evaluation (Sánchez Francés et al. 2022)
Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability
19
20 R. Sánchez et al.

2.3.1 Impact Scenarios of Water NbS in Relation

to Ecosystem Services Provided

When establishing any type of NbS within the urban landscape, aspects such as
available space, land ownership and use, land protection, social context of the
environment, etc. must be considered (Ronchi et al. 2020; Sarabi et al. 2022).
Moreover, NbS needs to be selected based on the evidence that they can have an
impact on the identified challenge or challenges. For instance, if a flood risk has been
identified, a specific floodable park intervention may be selected as one of the
potentially beneficial NbS and the expected impact of the intervention will counter
the challenge for which it has been selected.
Evidently, in the case of water NbS, the geographical component acquires even
greater weight due to its intrinsic characteristics and the range of ecosystem services
provided (Sarabi et al. 2022). To continue the previous example, when establishing a
floodable park, the study of the current and future scenarios of the territory con-
straints are essential for its correct identification and location, as well as for estimat-
ing the ecosystem services provided.
This launches a process of data collection on a wide variety of aspects that will
allow us to make an approximation to the geographic “digital twin” of the city. This
will help to estimate the impact derived from the ecosystem services after the
implementation of water NbS through the metrics of defined indicators (KPIs) facing
different future scenarios, including projections related to climate change, demo-
graphic evolution, changes in land use, etc.
The model of the city at urban scale may cover these four main groups (based on
URBAN GreenUP’s project Deliverable 1.6. Guidelines to city zoning) as follows:
• Physical context. Terrain data provided by digital elevation models set the basis
of the geographical information of a given city or area. Thus, surface water-
courses and their watershed, land morphology and soil composition allow to
estimate runoff and therefore to identify the areas of the city with the greatest
potential risk of flooding (Leal et al. 2020).
Other physical data such as areas exposed to sunlight can be identified as areas
more likely to suffer high temperatures (Matsuo and Tanaka 2019); the presence
of valleys would contribute to increase the effects of air pollution due to phe-
nomena such as thermal inversion (Henao et al. 2020).
The assessment of ecosystem services promoted by water NbS will be deter-
mined strongly by future projections of rainfall and temperature regimes due to
climate change.
• Biotic context: A general vision of the distribution of natural areas not only within
the city (Jalkanen et al. 2020), but also in its surrounding area, will provide a
global vision of which are the itineraries that contribute to ecological connectivity
inside and outside the city. Geographic information with potential natural habitats
and distribution of native flora and fauna species in a given region will help in the
construction of a solid wildlife corridors network.
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 21

NbS that involve a significant improvement in the availability of aquatic

habitats should have a positive impact on the ecological connectivity of habitats
and therefore pre-planning of their locations should consider pre-existing
habitats.
• Social context: The social statistics under geographical context allows
establishing criteria of suitability in the location of the green infrastructures.
Criteria such as proximity to green areas, rate of green areas per area or accessi-
bility will contribute to build a green network across the city.
The study of the land use and how the different categories are distributed
within the city will contribute to identify areas with potential risks, noise affec-
tions and disconnections with the green infrastructure network in order to max-
imise impact of ecosystem services in relation with the social network.
Water NbS contributes to improving the physical and mental health of citizens.
The effect can be maximised through a proper study of population dynamics,
considering demographic evolution and age composition to identify opportunities
for improving the quality of life of people in the surrounding area.
• Economic context: Economic context (commercial activity, property prices) will
contribute to identify opportunity areas, as it is well known the relation between
the presence of green areas and their power to attract new business and increase
the value of properties.
The geographical representation of all these aspects will give a clear picture of
the ecosystem services provided by the identified NbS, allowing effective quan-
tification of the intrinsic services and externalities provided.

2.3.2 Establishment of NbS Categories

The main classification of the NbS is made using the list of challenges in the
“Handbook Evaluating the Impact of Nature-based Solutions: A Handbook for
Practitioners” which is based on the classification made by the EKLIPSE framework.
It is divided into 12 categories of societal challenges based on UN Sustainable
Development Goals that NbS can address and they are (1) Climate Resilience,
(2) Water Management, (3) Natural and Climate Hazards, (4) Green Space Manage-
ment, (5) Biodiversity Enhancement, (6) Air Quality, (7) Place Regeneration
(8) Knowledge and Social Capacity Building for Sustainable Urban Transformation,
(9) Participatory Planning and Governance, (10) Social Justice and Social Cohesion,
(11) Health and Wellbeing, and (12) New Economic Opportunities and Green Jobs.
For each of them, a list of KPIs is defined in order to evaluate the performance and
impact of NbS. These indicators allow the assessment of the NbS both qualitatively
and quantitatively which serves to assess the proper progress of the solutions. These
KPI can be found in the Handbook mentioned above.
In the case of water management, the explanation of this category: “Nature-based
solutions provide an excellent opportunity to address a diversity of issues associated
with anthropogenic impacts on the water cycle. These include poor water quality,
22 R. Sánchez et al.

Table 2.2 Main classification of water management solutions

Solutions
Category Subcategory Examples
Water management Flooding Pollinator’s modules
SUDs
Water scarcity Green resting areas
Hard drainage pavements
Water quality Natural wastewater treatment
Green filter area
Circular economy Green resting areas
Natural wastewater treatment
Source: URBAN GreenUP project

water availability for extraction, groundwater and surface water levels, recharging of
aquifers, storm water management, water treatment, wetland habitat management,
soil water management, and ecological quality”.
Table 2.2 shows the main classification of the water management solutions
defined in the URBAN GreenUP project.

2.3.3 Prioritisation of NbS Typologies for Water Urban

Challenges

Urban areas are continuously growing and this implies the intensification of water
urban challenges (Water UC). Water UC must be addressed for the protection and
conservation of all water bodies, as well as enhance water use efficiency, human
health, social inclusiveness and equality, among others. Otherwise, the capacity of
urban areas to cope with and adapt to climate change in different aspects will be
limited.
Urban areas are hybrid systems (Albertí et al. 2017) where both natural and
artificial components, as well as social and ecological processes, are diffused and
interconnected.
The prioritisation of Water NbS typologies regarding Water UC (Babí Almenar
et al. 2021) may be affected by different considerations as biophysical (e.g. lack of
areas where water can be collected properly), technological (e.g. insufficient tech-
nological development); human social (e.g. barriers to adaptation to new situations
due to social structure) or financial. This means that sometimes the most appropriate
indicator cannot be applied and we will have to select another one or others.
Likewise, during the NbS co-creation process it is necessary to review the planned
NbS, indicators in order to help us to identify more benefits and improve NbS
design, but always facing the challenge addressed and the NbS applied in response.
NbS are always associated with a process of co-creation, co-implementation and
co-management. For this reason, it is very important to measure the impact of the
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 23

NbS through indicators that will give us both a qualitative and quantitative assess-
ment that will help us to evaluate each NbS.
The European Commission has published the handbook “Evaluating the impact
of nature-based solutions: A handbook for practitioners” and its Appendix “Evalu-
ating the impact of nature-based solutions: appendix of methods” in which several
indicators can be found for each of the urban challenges with their associated
methodologies, for instance, the following are recommended for water management:
Surface runoff in relation to precipitation quantity (mm/%), Water quality: general
urban, TSS content (mg/L), Nitrogen and Phosphorus concentration or load (%),
Metal concentration or load (%), total faecal coliform bacteria content of NbS
effluents (No.) and in addition, there is a list of additional indicators, that should
be selected and adapted to the specific context.
This will help us to prioritise the selection of pre-NbS and decide which NbS will
be implemented in order to address the challenges ahead in the most effective way
under the constraints imposed.

2.4 Water NbS Case Studies

Nature-based solutions focused on the challenge related to water management,

including treatment, have been used for a long time, although they were not
named as such until the last decade. Floodable parks, wetlands or green filter areas
were implemented during the past decades especially in rural areas and lately in
urban areas.
In this section, two case studies have been included. Floating Gardens are a very
innovative solution which are very useful for urban coastal areas with a lack of green
spaces. On the other hand, the Urban Catchment Forestry is a practical application of
the concept of the Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems for the retrofitting of city
landscapes with high urbanisation level.

2.4.1 Floating Gardens Case Study

This water NbS was promoted by the Liverpool City Council in the framework of the
H2020 European Project URBAN GreenUP (Grant Agreement No 730426). This
Project aimed to assess innovative renaturing ways for urban environments paying
attention to the ecological connectivity (Figs. 2.1, 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6).
One important aspect for this NbS was to create a new green space that became a
natural habitat with self-maintenance capability in order to let the nature conquer the
urban spaces. In this way, this NbS accomplishes with the criteria of having
low-maintenance requirements.
24 R. Sánchez et al.

Fig. 2.1 Towing the island

to site, June 2020. URBAN
GreenUP project. ©Juliet
Staples

Description
Floating gardens are self-contained ecological units, which can provide habitats for
various aquatic and terrestrial species. They can also act as connective features
linking habitats across urban boundaries. They provide an additional set of green
spaces that can utilise otherwise redundant spaces. They can provide recreational,
sociocultural and ecological benefits in terms of environmental education, the
provision of spaces for interaction and additional water/terrestrial habitats in high-
density urban areas.
Location
Latitude: 53.39633, Longitude: -2.98752
One floating island garden is installed in a corner of Wapping Dock in Liverpool.
This floating island introduces greenspace on the blue space and provides additional
habitat and diversity to the dock space.
The preferred location for the floating island habitats are places where water is
relatively shallow and the location is largely protected from prevailing winds.
Locations close to the bank also offer benefits of being able to securely anchor the
island, provide easy and practical opportunities for any irrigation/maintenance and
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 25

Fig. 2.2 Installing the island, June 2020 URBAN GreenUP project. ©Juliet Staples

make biodiversity monitoring easier to perform. Tucked into a corner the island will
also not impede water traffic through the central part of the dock.
Scale of intervention
The total surface area of the floating island(s) is around 63 m2.
The island is designed to mimic the estuarine environment and comprises of an
aboveground visible layer, an interstitial water-air layer and an underground layer
with a reef made of caged empty oyster shells. At the surface, plants are rooted into
lightweight expanded clay aggregate or planted in shallow water collection trays or
built-up areas of contained soil.
Ten plant species were initially installed and an additional 13 plant species have
been added through subsequent phases of supplementary planting. A year after
installation, seven of the 23 introduced species were not detected and are thought
to have not survived. However, 35 species in total were recorded on the island with
several of the “new” species establishing from the shoreline and others being very
effective at colonising new habitat with winged or highly dispersible seeds.
The island is constructed from natural and recycled materials and its biodiversity
is significant, with a greater number of species found on this island than many others,
in part due to the wide spectrum of habitat zones, from halophyte to emergent. The
island has attracted worldwide attention and interest and future investigation work is
planned on submerged modules for eels.
26 R. Sánchez et al.

Fig. 2.3 Island anchored in situ, June 2020 URBAN GreenUP project. ©Juliet Staples

Fig. 2.4 Establishment visit to the island, URBAN GreenUP project. ©Biomatrix
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 27

Fig. 2.5 Underwater colonisation of the island after 3 months, September 2020. ©Biomatrix

Fig. 2.6 Monitoring and assessing the Island, June 2021. ©Juliet Staples
28 R. Sánchez et al.

Ecosystem services provided (according to Sect. 2.2 content):

Food supply (for insects/ Tourism

birds/fish) Recreation (attraction for open water swimmers and water sports
Wood, pulp, other users)
Medicines Appreciation
Genetic resources Spirituality
Food and fibre Aesthetic experience as well as their role in supporting knowledge
Pollination systems, social relations and aesthetic values
Human diseases Maintenance of genetic diversity
Nutrient regulation Provisioning of habitat for species
Barriers effect of Maintenance of genetic pools and evolutionary processes
vegetation

Impacts and indicators

This intervention has been assessed using indicators related with water management,
biodiversity and urban regeneration described in Evaluating the Impact of Nature-
based Solutions: A Handbook for Practitioners.
The main impact of the floating island is to increase biodiversity in the water
ecosystem where it is installed and to attract attention and raise awareness of both the
role of nature-based solutions and the wider climate change agenda.
This island also marks the start or finish of a local green corridor route. Oppor-
tunities exist for associated vegetation to help filter pollutants and provide habitats
for water-based biodiversity while additionally acting as a food source for aquatic
and bird species. High quality floating gardens can be associated with property uplift
in urban areas and can also promote increased tourism and spend when they are
located in sites with high footfall and an attractive amenity offer.

2.4.2 Urban Catchment Forestry Case Study

This water NbS was promoted by the Liverpool City Council in the framework of the
H2020 European Project URBAN GreenUP (Grant Agreement No 730426). This
Project aimed to assess innovative renaturing ways for urban environments paying
attention to the ecological connectivity (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8).
The important issue for this NbS was to assess an alternative way to retrofit urban
spaces with hard surfaces using a tree cover solution which improves water man-
agement while providing nature to urban environments.
Description
Urban catchment forestry comprises of engineered solutions to retrofit sustainable
tree cover in city landscapes. Incorporating best practice in nutrient releasing soil
technologies, urban drainage techniques and an ecological approach to species
selection for location.
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 29

Fig. 2.7 Central run of

eight monitored SuD trees.
Summer 2021. ©Juliet
Staples

This water NbS has less maintenance operations compared to other tree cover
systems for hard urban surfaces and reduces the maintenance operations in the urban
pipelines.
Location
The Urban Catchment Forestry intervention was installed along the Strand, one of
the main routes through Liverpool, on the southern boundary of the BID area.
Between Latitude 53.40642, Longitude -2.99507 and Latitude 53.40476, Lon-
gitude -2.99326/ https://goo.gl/maps/r8KYdoXv1jNqrCJ8A
Scale of intervention
Twenty sustainable urban drainage (SuD) trees were installed along the central
reservation of a main city centre carriageway. The trees planted were Dawn Red-
wood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) which are able to both tolerate the exposed
city location and thrive in damp soils. The 20 trees were planted in 3 separate runs
and each run of trees effectively manages its own surface water catchment area.
The first 6 trees (outside the Liver Building) form a run of 50 m and service a
catchment area of 341 m2. Each tree has 12 silva cells (open framework cubes), each
with an available soil volume of 9.54 m3 soil.
30 R. Sánchez et al.

Fig. 2.8 Central run of eight monitored SuD trees. Summer 2021. ©Juliet Staples

The middle 8 trees (outside The Cunard Building) form a run of 64.6 m and
service a catchment area of 224 m2. Each tree has 26 silva cells and an available soil
volume of 20.76 m3.
The last 6 trees (outside St Georges Dock Gate) form a run of 60.3 m and service a
catchment area of 200 m2. Each tree has 30 silva cells and an available soil volume of
23.85 m3.
Collectively these SuD trees run for 174.9 m and service a total catchment area of
765 m2, predominantly from the adjoining carriageways (the original planned
catchment areas were slightly higher but the final catchment areas for all three
systems had to be reduced due to on site issues with the highway vertical alignment
and existing infrastructure).
Monitoring equipment was installed upstream and downstream on the middle run
of 8 trees to enable water volume and water quality sampling. The tree SuDs scheme
was complemented by the planting of a further 130 street trees and the installation of
pedestrian and cycleway routes.
A further 7 SuD trees (Ulmus Lobel) were also to be located within the cycle track
segregation island outside of the Royal Liver Building. However, these were omitted
at construction stage due to clashes with existing services.
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 31

Ecosystem services provided (according to Sect. 2.2 content):

Fresh water supply Appreciation

Wood, pulp, other Cognitive development
Food and fibre Aesthetic experience as well as their role in supporting knowledge sys-
Water purification tems, social relations and aesthetic values
Erosion control Maintenance genetic diversity
Human diseases Biomass production
Nutrient regulation Nutrient cycling, water cycling
Barriers effect of Provisioning of habitat for species
vegetation Maintenance of genetic pools and evolutionary processes
Recreation

Impacts and indicators

Impact assessment for this NBS was focused on the reduction of the flood risk and
improvements in water quality locally. Additionally, also important categories to
study are the biodiversity promotion and the ecological connectivity capacities and
the regeneration capacity of urban spaces.
The SuD trees are planted in linked silva cells within a large soil-filled trench that
runs along the length of the central reservation.
During periods of heavy rain or wet weather, excess surface water runoff from the
carriageway is channelled into the start of each run or series of trees. The water flows
through the soil-filled trench and silva cells and is taken up and transpired by the
trees and absorbed and retained by the soil. This has the benefit of slowing the flow
of the water and delaying its passage to drain.
During this process, the soil also filters out a number of impurities that have been
washed off from the road surface. Over time many of these impurities are broken and
degraded through natural biological processes in the soil.
The final results are that water that exits from the run of tree SuDs is both delayed
and decreased in volume and therefore more likely to find space to enter the drainage
system. In addition, the water exiting the system is of a much improved quality for
final discharge to the drain.
The SuD trees are therefore able to help reduce the likelihood of surface water
flooding as they can reduce the urban flood water flows during storm periods and
partially absorb peak flows that can occur in the city centre. The use of the silva cell
structures also ensures the trees have sufficient soil to thrive and the top of the silva
cell is able to withstand vehicle weights and thereby avoid the crushing of surface
root systems from vehicles that may bump the kerbs or access the sites.

2.5 Conclusions

NbS are a real alternative to make cities more resilient to climate emergencies in a
sustainable and durable way due to NbS balancing the natural and man-made/
artificial systems that compose urban areas.
32 R. Sánchez et al.

This chapter reflects the need to increase knowledge within the NBS framework
and specifically regarding water NbS in an urban context. Due to this, it emphasises
the importance of taking into account parameters such as city challenges, ecosystem
services and the scale of NbS implemented.
As we saw in previous sections, it is well known the direct relation among urban
challenges and their impacts on ecosystem services, as well as the capability of Nbs
to solve or mitigate the effects of these impacts.
Nowadays, the importance of NbS has been reflected in the different case studies
across the world. We have identified the existing water NbS at European level, from
several sources (NbS catalogues) delivering a collection of solutions that offers a
wide summary of peculiarities, useful to be adapted to each specific challenge in
cities. This chapter also delivers a correlation among types of water NbS and the
specific ecosystem services affected by the impacts of urban challenges.
Through the review of NbS catalogues and other reports, we have also been able
to provide a view of NbS implementation scale, and how this scale is directly related
to the city challenge. Considering the city’s zoning, we have identified four main
contexts: (1) Physical context, (2) Biotic context, (3) Social context, (4) Economic
context; that provide a clear view of the ecosystem services provided by the
identified NbS. This will allow an effective quantification of services and external-
ities provided.
The chapter also provides us with a simple classification as an example of water
NbS related to water management. This example can be applied to develop a
classification for any NbS or water NbS derived from EKLIPSE framework or
Handbook for Practitioners among other sources that aim to spread the NbS knowl-
edge through local authorities and people.
This work had also wanted to show the need to link water NbS and their
monitoring as an effective way to develop a qualitative and quantitative evaluation
of NbS performance and functionality.
In addition, a selection of European case studies considering several criteria such
as water challenges to be addressed or water city needs gives us a global idea of the
current situation of the NBS implementation, taking mainly into account the scale of
the intervention and the ecosystem services provided.
The evaluation of functions of NbS, as well as their suitability, are essential to be
able to select the proper NbS in each case, from technical, social, environmental and
economic points of view.

Acknowledgments This research was part of the URBAN GreenUP project, which received
funding from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Programme under
Grant Agreement No 730426.
2 Types of Nature-Based Solutions for Water, Their Functions and Suitability 33

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scs.2019.01.004
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Sánchez Francés R, Gómez Valle S, García Rueda N, Lucchitta B, Croci E (2022) Nature-based
solutions for more sustainable cities - a framework approach for planning and
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34 R. Sánchez et al.

Raúl Sánchez, Technical Forest Engineer (2003), Master’s degree in Research in Agroforestry
Development Engineering (2010) and Master of Advanced Studies, Department of Economics,
Sociology and Politics (2010), by University of Valladolid. From 2005 he works in CARTIF
Foundation. He is Head of Natural Resources and Climate Area and works specifically in the
Nature Based solutions (NbS) sector as Coordinator of URBAN GreenUP project. He works as
urban greening specialist to apply this expertise in the development of Re-naturing and Green
Infrastructure urban plans.

Esther San José, Forestry Engineer (2009) and Master’s Degree in Environmental Management
(2012) by the University of Valladolid. Trainer and developer of on-line multiplatform GIS courses
for Land Use and Environmental Management. From 2018, She is scientific researcher at CARTIF
Foundation. She is currently involved in R & D projects related to NbS and ES (URBAN GreenUP,
NetZeroCities) and Advanced Forest Management (DRYADS, FirePoctep). Her competences are
focused in remote sensing for land use and environmental management.

Jose Fermoso, Chemical Engineer by University of Salamanca (2000) and a degree in Automa-
tization and Process control by University of Valladolid (2002). From 2000, he is scientific
researcher at CARTIF Foundation. He is currently working in Air Quality improving in urban
environments by the application of different NBS to filter and metabolize air pollutants such as
NOX and PM. He also works in water treatment by researching in different technologies using solar
and natural solutions.

Silvia Gómez, Graduated in Environmental Sciences from UNED (2019), Higher Degree Training
Cycle in Environmental Health (2005), Higher Degree Training Cycle in Analysis and Control
(2007). She has worked at CARTIF since 2008 in the Agri-Food and Processes Division. He is
currently part of the work team of various national and international projects related to the recovery
of waste, the preparation of substrates and bio-fertilizers; and how to improve the environment with
NBS (URBAN GreenUP, NBS-Lab projects, etc.). She has wide experience in micro and nano-
encapsulation of bioactive compounds and bacteria for the development of smart soils.

María González, Agricultural Engineer from University of Valladolid (2011). From 2017, She is
scientific researcher at CARTIF Foundation. Expert in urban farming, developing her professional
experience in international cooperative project in El Salvador and in the Valladolid City Council’s
Urban Orchads (Spain). She also has to work as a researcher in the agrifood industry. She is
currently involved in R & D projects related to NbS and ES (URBAN GreenUP, NetZeroCities) and
others like FIREPOCTEP.
Chapter 3
Constructed Floating Wetlands
for the Treatment of Surface Waters
and Industrial Wastewaters

Jennifer Ayres, John Awad, Christopher Walker, Declan Page,

John van Leeuwen, and Simon Beecham

Abstract Constructed floating wetlands (CFW) are a water treatment

phytotechnology that has seen a sharp increase in uptake since the turn of the
century. CFWs mimic the appearance of natural floating islands but are enhanced
with the advantages of a wetland system’s biological and biogeochemical processes.
Unlike a conventional constructed wetland, a CFW uses a floating structure onto
which the vegetation is planted. The vegetation is not rooted in the soil, which allows
the roots to grow freely into the water column. The roots provide an extensive
surface area for microbial biofilm growth. These biofilms play a key role in the

J. Ayres · S. Beecham
University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM),
Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
e-mail: jennifer.ayres@mymail.unisa.edu.au; Simon.Beecham@unisa.edu.au
J. Awad (*)
University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM),
Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
CSIRO Land and Water, Urrbrae, SA, Australia
e-mail: john.awad@unisa.edu.au
C. Walker
University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM),
Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
Covey Associates Pty Ltd, Maroochydore, QLD, Australia
e-mail: chris.walker@unisa.edu.au
D. Page
CSIRO Land and Water, Urrbrae, SA, Australia
e-mail: declan.page@csiro.au
J. van Leeuwen
University of South Australia, Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM),
Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
Future Industries Institute, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes, SA, Australia
e-mail: john.vanleeuwen@unisa.edu.au

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 35

N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_3
36 J. Ayres et al.

transformation of nutrients into biologically available forms via nitrification or

conversion of nitrate into nitrogen gas via denitrification. The flexibility associated
with using CFWs enables them to be tailored to various uses (nutrient removal,
heavy metals removal and reduction of organic compounds), subject to structure,
plant species selection and pollutant removal needs. As CFWs can function in
systems with fluctuating water levels, they serve as a versatile and adaptive treatment
technology. This chapter will provide an overview of the current scientific and
engineering knowledge on CFW technology and will outline areas recommended
for further research and development.

Keywords Constructed floating wetland · Floating treatment wetland · Artificial

floating island · Phytotechnology · Nutrient removal · Sedimentation · Biofilms

3.1 Introduction

A Constructed Floating Wetland (CFW) is a technological development in water

treatment that has seen an increase in interest for application. The hydroponic
technology is ideal for water bodies with fluctuating depths as they move up and
down with varying water levels. The CFW is intended to improve the overall
pollutant removal rates. CFWs were first reported by Revitt et al. (1997) who
investigated CFWs for the treatment of urban stormwater runoff at Heathrow Airport
in London, UK. Since then, CFWs have been deployed worldwide in various aquatic
environments, for example to:
(i) treat wastewater discharges (Ijaz et al. 2015)
(ii) remediate PFAS-impacted surface waters (Awad et al. 2022)
(iii) remove excess nutrients from agricultural runoff (Pavlidis et al. 2022)
(iv) improve the quality of mine tailings water (Smith and Kalin 2000)
(v) reduce algal blooms (Song et al. 2009)
Of the >120 articles reviewed by Ayres (2020), the United States of America and
the People’s Republic of China have been prominent in research conducted on
CFWs with 27 and 24 research projects, respectively, with Pakistan hosting 12 stud-
ies, and New Zealand 9 (Fig. 3.1).
In many instances, the only alternative treatment technology to CFWs has been a
constructed wetland (CW), a rooted vegetation system bedded in static soil media. In
contrast to CWs, CFWs are specifically designed to accommodate flowrate and
water level variations. This is achieved through buoyancy, which allows the systems
to rise and fall to compensate for any changes in water level. Consequently though,
their treatment performance is highly dependent on the hydrodynamic conditions of
the water body and climate conditions. Since the dominant pollutant removal
mechanisms in CFWs include plant uptake and trapping by roots and biofilms, the
overall treatment is subject to the variances of flow exposed to the root zone.
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 37

Fig. 3.1 Number of publications per country (Ayres 2020)

3.2 Overview of Constructed Floating Wetlands

3.2.1 Design Attributes

CFWs are a relatively novel nature-based water treatment technology that has seen a
sharp increase in adoption during the last 20 years (Colares et al. 2020). CFWs,
which are also called floating treatment wetlands (FTW) or artificial floating islands
(AFI), encompass the principles of naturally formed floating islands (Yeh et al.
2015) in that they are buoyant, and the plants derive sustenance largely from the
water column, rather than from soils. While the formation of natural floating islands
is a common natural phenomenon, treatment associated with such systems is gener-
ally ancillary. In contrast, CFWs are specifically designed to mimic the biological
and biogeochemical processes that occur in a traditional constructed wetland (Shahid
et al. 2018). Similar to constructed wetlands, CFWs are a nature-based solution in
which the treatment system is designed to mimic the functions of a natural ecosystem
(Rigotti et al. 2020). As Fig. 3.2 shows, unlike a conventional CW, a CFW uses a
floating structure to support planting of the vegetation, allowing the roots to grow
freely into the water body, deriving nutrients from the water in which it is floating
(Zhang et al. 2014).
38 J. Ayres et al.

Fig. 3.2 Schematic diagram of a constructed floating wetland (Ayres 2020)

CFWs provide water treatment functions commonly found in both pond and
conventional CW systems (Van de Moortel et al. 2010). Unlike CW systems, the
vegetation is grown hydroponically, with the plants mainly obtaining nutrients from
the water column (Chong-Bang Zhang et al. 2014). The design of the CFW system is
critical because even though these systems are used to replicate the pollutant removal
processes of natural floating islands and marshes (Schwammberger et al. 2019), they
also have the advantage of being able to be tailored to suit the particular pollutant and
water type to be remediated (Tara et al. 2018). Mesocosm studies have reported on
the success of specific plants on CFWs to remediate textile water and papermill
wastewater (Tara et al. 2018; Ayres et al. 2019) with the premise to achieve
larger-scale trials. Essential factors for a CFW are structural design, aesthetics,
plant species selection, placement, % vegetation coverage, longevity/durability,
and maintainability (Bi et al. 2019).
Commercial CFW systems generally cost between USD$250 and $450 per m2;
however, costs are influenced by a number of factors. The location of the CFW
installation can significantly influence the cost. For example, a CFW installation
within a stream or a water body that is subject to event-based flows may have
significant anchoring requirements that can increase the overall cost. The overall cost
of a CFW system should be weighed against the advantages such systems provide
compared to other treatment systems (e.g. CWs). For example, a CFW can be
retrofitted into an existing waterbody without impacting flood storage capacity.
The need for further earthworks and drainage design can be less complex.
MacDonald et al. (2016) compared the costs associated with a CW against a CFW
in an urban development in Queensland, Australia. The design for the CW required
significant flow bypass infrastructure that was eliminated with the ultimate use of a
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 39

CFW, saving an estimated USD$1.3 million in civil drainage infrastructure costs

(MacDonald et al. 2016).

3.2.2 Structural Design and Buoyancy

The structure of a CFW can consist of a range of materials such as plastic, wood,
fibreglass, metal or inorganic matting. The design of the CFW support structure is
critical, as this supports the plants that are central to the treatment functions of a
CFW. The structure must be strong enough to support significant plant biomass and
also be resilient to environmental conditions such as wind, waves and flow (Colares
et al. 2020). Several materials have been developed for CFW structures, such as
foam mats and PVC piping to form CFW frames (Urakawa et al. 2017; Yajun et al.
2019). Commercial CFWs are also available; for example, in Australia, SPEL
Environmental supplies Biohaven® modules (PET matrix) while Clarity Aquatic
(LDPE frame) and Harris Environmental (hollow plastic pipe and coir matting) have
their own proprietary designs. Similarly, in the USA, Beemat® and Biohaven®
systems have been used extensively (Lynch et al. 2015).
The provision of sufficient buoyancy is a significant design factor for CFWs.
Natural floating islands rely on the root matrix, where buoyancy is achieved through
the entrapment of gasses produced by anaerobic metabolisms and the existence of air
gaps in the root system (De Stefani et al. 2011). CFW structures achieve buoyancy
through various means, including foam injection, the inclusion of a buoyant sub-
strate (such as pumice) or the use of hollow, sealed components (Lucke et al. 2019;
Karstens et al. 2021). One advantage of this buoyancy is in stormwater treatment
ponds, as the CFW can move with fluctuating flow levels and water depths (Tharp
et al. 2019).

3.2.3 Plant Selection

Plant species selection is a critical component of CFW design and a key attribute of
treatment performance (Colares et al. 2020). Wang and Sample (2014) outlined a
basis for plant selection as follows:
(i) Use native, non-invasive species.
(ii) Use perennial species.
(iii) Use terrestrial species (rather than submerged or free-floating macrophytes).
(iv) Use wetland plants or species that thrive in a hydroponic system.
(v) Use plants with aerenchyma for greater oxygen diffusion to roots and rhizomes.
Colares et al. (2020) found the plants most used in CFW studies are Canna,
Carex, Cyperus, Juncus and Typha. Similarly, of the >120 articles reviewed by
Ayres (2020), the plant species most planted and having the greatest number of
40 J. Ayres et al.

studies were Juncus effusus (n = 26), Phragmites australis (n = 20), Pontederia

cordata (n = 13) and Typha domingensis (n = 10). Colares et al. (2020) found, from
a review of various studies, plant tissue nitrogen uptake rates in the range of 0.51 to
51.8 g/m2 and phosphorus uptake rates ranging from 0.062 to 28.3 g/m2. In these
same studies, biomass dry weight ranged from 7.8 to 3600 g/m2 (Colares et al.
2020).
In Australia, Carex appressa is most commonly used (Schwammberger et al.
2019). Additionally, Huth et al. (2021) utilised Baumea articulata and Phragmites
australis in a field-scale system deployed on a waste stabilisation pond. Huth et al.
(2021) found plant shoot nutrient uptake rates for B. articulata to be significantly
higher than previously observed, with uptake for nitrogen (104 g/m2) and phospho-
rous (12.9 g/m2). In their study, Huth et al. (2021) observed substantial biomass
growth of approximately 5800 g/m2 over 375 days. While nutrient availability in the
water column will play a role in uptake, Huth et al. (2021) demonstrated that the
ability to accumulate biomass is also a key factor in species selection.

3.2.4 Plant Anchoring and Harvesting

Another key design factor for CFWs is the mechanism used to anchor plant species
for growth. For example, the Beemat® system utilises biodegradable plastic aerator
pots to secure juvenile plants, which are then fitted into pre-cut holes (White 2021),
whereas the Biohaven® system, which is a four-layer PET fibre matrix, inserts
juvenile plants into holes pre-drilled into the matrix, which is then packed with
soil or mulch to ensure wave and wind action do not dislodge the plant
(Schwammberger et al. 2019). Alternatively, the Clarity Aquatic system uses remov-
able baskets filled with media (e.g. gravel, rock wool, scoria and biochar). Plants are
then placed into the media and are anchored with additional substrate around the
base or may be pinned in place (Huth et al. 2021).
While the CFW structure provides a resilient and buoyant structure to support
vegetation, the supporting structure should allow for the harvesting of plant biomass,
as plants directly acquire and sequester nutrients within their tissues (Colares et al.
2020). Huth et al. (2021) demonstrated significant sequestration of nitrogen and
phosphorus in the plant tissues; the CFW modules used (Clarity Aquatic) had
sufficient buoyancy to allow maintenance crews to traverse the system and harvest
plant shoots. Similarly, White (2021) demonstrated substantial nutrient removals in a
harvested CFW system. From 2016 to 2020, White (2021) recorded 1026 kg of
nitrogen and 262 kg of phosphorous removal through plant harvesting. The CFW
Beemat® system used in that study was first towed to the edge of the waterbody, and
then plants were subsequently harvested. While the frequency and suitability of
harvesting is subject to climate and plant species selection, it is an effective means of
permanently removing nutrient loads that could otherwise impair water quality
(Huth et al. 2021; White 2021). The design of a CFW system should consider
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 41

harvesting as a key component of maintenance and ensure it is able to be conducted

safely and efficiently.

3.3 Treatment Overview

Commonly reported benefits of CWs, CFWs and free-floating wetlands (FFW) are
for removals of nutrients (phosphorus and nitrogen-containing compounds),
suspended solids, biological oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen demand
(COD5) and heavy metals from stormwaters, industrial and domestic wastewaters.
Further to these potential benefits, a wide range of investigations have been
conducted on the capacities of CFW and FFW for removals of organic compounds
present in various waters and wastewaters. These include removals of pharmaceu-
tical and personal care product compounds (PPCP) and their metabolite compounds
(Hijosa-Valsero et al. 2011; Rühmland et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2018; de Oliveira et al.
2019; Bianchi et al. 2020; Hwang et al. 2021), endocrine disruptive and estrogenic
compounds (Hwang et al. 2021), medical imaging compounds (Rühmland et al.
2015), pesticides (Hwang et al. 2020b; Pavlidis et al. 2022) and fire-retardant
chemicals (Hwang et al. 2021; Awad et al. 2022).

3.3.1 Nutrient Removal

Eutrophication of water is recognised as a severe pollution problem (Dunqiu et al.

2012) and is a process initiated by exogenous nutrient enrichment (Smayda 2008).
CFWs can be deployed as a method of water quality treatment and ecosystem
management and be effective in high nutrient waters. The literature shows that
similar to CWs, CFWs could be used for removal of nitrogen and phosphorous
from numerous water types (Walker et al. 2017; Lopardo et al. 2019; Huth et al.
2021) with the reported total phosphorous (TP) removal being up to 98% and total
nitrogen (TN) removal rate of >90% (Pavlineri et al. 2017). However, the perfor-
mance is variable, as shown in Fig. 3.3. Different biological and physicochemical
processes are involved in the process of nutrient removal using CFWs (Keizer-Vlek
et al. 2014). The ability of CFWs to float and have vegetation roots hanging freely in
the water creates an extensive surface area for nutrient removal through
phytoremediation (Ijaz et al. 2016). Nutrient removal has been predominantly
based on nitrogen and phosphorus and their derivatives (Nahlik and Mitsch 2006;
Sun et al. 2009; White and Cousins 2013).
Vegetation selection is an important design factor because it determines the
vegetation’s suitability to adapt to the water and nutrient type, and it determines
the pollutant removal rates from the water source. The synergistic interactions
between plants, water and microorganisms are crucial to the success of CFWs, and
these continue to be investigated (Ijaz et al. 2016; Saleem et al. 2019). Saleem et al.
42 J. Ayres et al.

Fig. 3.3 Percentage removal of TN (a) and TP (b) by various wetland plant species (data sourced
from (Pavlineri et al. 2017; Rigotti et al. 2021; Henny et al. 2020; Ayres 2020; Yajun et al. 2019;
Zhang et al. 2018))

(2019) reported the benefits of this synergism and the need to understand the role of
plants and particularly their root systems to provide nutrient removal and a substrate
for bacterial microbial communities. This, in turn, assists bacteria to provide phyto-
hormones and nutrients for plant growth and aids in nutrient pollutant removal
(Rehman et al. 2018; Fahid et al. 2020). Most of the previous studies on CFWs
focus on aquatic plants (Pavlineri et al. 2017); however, some studies have reported
developing the use of terrestrial vegetation for CFWs, such as grasses and ornamen-
tal plants (Ayres et al. 2019; Barco and Borin 2020; Effendi et al. 2018). For
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 43

example, a laboratory-scale CFW trial conducted in a greenhouse on the feasibility

of CFWs planted with grasses (Buffalo and Couch) to reduce nutrients generated by
an Australian paper mill reported that the nutrient removal rates ranged from 8% to
94% for TN and 5%–90% for TP for the grasses in varying water sources (synthetic
papermill water, paper mill wastewater, domestic wastewater effluent and reverse
osmosis water) (Ayres et al. 2019; Ayres 2020). A 12-month study in Brazil using a
CFW planted with Typha domingensis for domestic sewage treatment observed a
41% reduction for total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) and 37% for TP (Benvenuti et al.
2018). In contrast, a review article conducted by Pavlineri et al. (2017) reported
studies showing TP removals as high as 98.5% in swine wastewater and TN
removals of up to 90.8% in river water.
Other factors that have a significant role in removing TN and TP by CFWs
include air-water ratio and temperature. Dunqiu et al. (2012) reported that when
the water temperature was >13 °C, a hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 2.5 days had
associated TP removal rates of 38.9% to 83.5% amongst 4 different test unit setups.
In contrast, longer HRTs were required for temperatures below 13 °C, with a 5-day
HRT being adequate, at 3 days removal rates ranging 15.4–57.7%. It was also noted
that nutrient removal rates improved with aeration, and a higher air-water ratio
corresponded to increased removal of both ammonia and TP and a decreased
removal rate of nitrate and nitrite. In a review conducted by Pavlineri et al. (2017),
TN concentration reduction was positively correlated with initial loading and HRT;
however, it negatively correlated with water depth and hydraulic loading rate (HLR).
TP concentration reduction was also found to be positively correlated with initial
loading and negatively with water depth and HLR.

3.3.2 Heavy Metals Removal

It has been reported that CFWs could also be used for heavy metal removal (Colares
et al. 2020). These include removal of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr),
manganese (Mn), nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn) (Afzal et al. 2019; Saleem et al. 2019;
Wang et al. 2014). The ability of heavy metals to accrue and translocate in the plant
structure is influenced by the plant types used, the growth rate of the plants, water
quality and environmental factors (Huang et al. 2017b). Various mechanisms such as
uptake by plants (Ladislas et al. 2013; Huang et al. 2017b), entrapment into the roots
biofilm (Borne et al. 2014) and plant-bacteria partnership (Shahid et al. 2020) have
been previously linked to heavy metal removal.
Results from pot experiments conducted by Ladislas et al. (2013) demonstrate the
capacities of Juncus effusus and Carex riparia exposed to metallic pollution (Cd,
200μg/L; Ni, 500μg/L; Zn, 2000μg/L) to accumulate these metals with removal
efficiencies of 56% and 82% for Cd, 86% and 60% for Ni and 72% and 81% for Zn,
respectively. However, no significant accumulation was observed for both Ni and Zn
by these plant species when exposed to lower initial metallic pollution concentration
(Cd, 10μg/L; Ni, 10μg/L; Zn, 40μg/L) while removal efficiencies of 68% and 38%
44 J. Ayres et al.

for Cd occurred (Ladislas et al. 2013). Huang et al. (2017b) also reported that
artificial floating wetland planted with Phragmites australis bioaccumulated (mainly
in the below water tissues) and translocated heavy metals (Cr, Cu, Pb and Zn) from a
surface water reservoir, China. In that study, seasonal variations were found to affect
the bioaccumulation and translocation factors (TF), with the highest occurring in
summer for Zn (0.011 and 2.89) and in autumn for Cu (0.054 and 6.45), respectively.
Tara et al. (2018) reported the success of bacterial augmentation for improving
the efficiency of Phragmites australis and Typha domingensis to remove heavy
metals (Fe, Cu, Ni, Pb and Cr: 87–99%), amongst other pollutants, from textile
wastewater. Shahid et al. (2020) also examined the influence of bacteria inoculation
on the efficiency of CFWs planted with four species (Brachia mutica, Typha
domingensis, Phragmites australis and Leptochloa fusca) to remove trace metals
(Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Cr) from spiked river water. The results suggested that
inoculation of bacteria significantly increased the plant biomass and enhanced the
uptake and accumulation of trace metals into the plant tissues. This is in contrast to
the results reported by Huang et al. (2017b), where trace metals were found to be
accumulated mainly in the roots instead of shoots.
In a large-scale study, Afzal et al. (2019) examined the effects of bacteria
inoculation (10 various hydrocarbon-degrading bacteria; Ochrobactrum
intermedium R2, Microbacterium oryzae R4, Pseudomonas aeruginosa R25,
P. aeruginosa R21 Acinetobacter sp. LCRH81, Klebsiella sp. LCRI-87,
Acinetobacter sp. BRSI56, P. aeruginosa BRRI54, Bacillus subtilis LORI66, and
Acinetobacter junii TYRH47) on the efficiency of CFWs planted with four species
(Phragmites australis, Typha domingensis, Leptochloa fusca and Brachiaria
mutica) to remediate oil-contaminated water. The results demonstrated the ability
of CFWs inoculated with these bacteria to reduce the overall heavy metals concen-
tration by 80%, with the highest removal was for Fe (99.9%) followed by Cu
(95.2%), Cr (95%), Cd (88.8%) and then Ni (84.9%), within 18 months.

3.3.3 Removal of Organic Compounds

Several studies have been undertaken to determine the potential of CFWs as a

discrete treatment for removal of PPCPs (Hwang et al. 2020a, 2021) and further,
in comparison with other established CW configurations (Hijosa-Valsero et al. 2011;
Reyes-Contreras et al. 2012). In these studies, a wide range of PPCP compounds
were investigated for removal by CFWs, including analgesics (acetaminophen,
ibuprofen); antibiotics (ampicillin, amoxicillin, clarithromycin, doxycycline, eryth-
romycin, lincomycin, sulfadimethoxine, sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim);
antiepileptic (carbamazepine); anti-inflammatory (ketoprofen, naproxen); skin treat-
ment compound (salicylic acid) and a steroid hormone (17β-estradiol), (Hwang et al.
2020a, 2021; Hijosa-Valsero et al. 2011; Reyes-Contreras et al. 2012). In these
investigations, various species of plants were trialled, such as Acorus gramineus,
Canna flaccida, Canna hybrida, Typha angustifolia and Phragmites australis
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 45

individually planted on a CFW (or simulated). High percentage removals (≥80%)

were reported for acetaminophen by A. gramineus and the two Canna species
(Hwang et al. 2020a, 2021), anti-inflammatory drugs using T. angustifolia (Reyes-
Contreras et al. 2012), fragrance compounds, galaxolide, methyl dihydrojasmonate
and tonalide by T. angustifolia (Reyes-Contreras et al. 2012), salicylic acid by
T. angustifolia and P. australis (Reyes-Contreras et al. 2012) and 17β-estradiol by
A. gramineus and C. hybrida (Hwang et al. 2021).
Removals of carbamazepine by CFWs varied highly (29–83%) depending on the
plant species trialled, with the lowest by C. flaccida to the highest by A. gramineus
and C. hybrida (Hwang et al. 2021). Reyes-Contreras et al. (2012) also reported
removals of carbamazepine by T. angustifolia and P. australis. Removals of antibi-
otics varied highly when using T. angustifolia and P. australis, from no removal
detected (erythromycin and lincomycin) to high percentage removals
(e.g. sulfamethoxazole, >96% by A. gramineus and C. hybrida and trimethoprim
>80% by T. angustifolia and P. australis) (Hijosa-Valsero et al. 2011; Hwang et al.
2021). Generally, removals of PPCPs were higher in warm summer conditions,
likely due to better supporting vegetation growth and microflora associated with
CFW structures and plant roots. The efficiency of the CFW will be influenced by the
periphytic biofilm associated with floating plants that can degrade these compounds.
These studies demonstrate that the efficiencies of removals of PPCP by CFWs
rely on several factors, including the susceptibility of the specific compound to the
processes provided by the CFW technology, the plant types incorporated, seasonal
conditions and water quality conditions.
Studies have been reported that investigated free-floating plants, including Lemna
minor and Eichhornia crassipes, for removal of pesticides for potential application
in CWs (Pavlidis et al. 2022; Dosnon-Olette et al. 2011; Tagun and Boxall 2018).
Similar studies have also been conducted where treatment efficiencies of wetlands
using free-floating plants were evaluated for removals of PPCPs in various water
types (Rühmland et al. 2015; Zhou et al. 2018; de Oliveira et al. 2019; Bianchi et al.
2020). However, studies investigating the potential application of CFWs with
vegetation planted on physical structures for pesticide removal appear to be lacking.
Recently, there has been considerable interest in the accumulation of per- and
polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) in plants to understand exposure pathways for
human and ecological receptors and their application for phytoremediation to
remove PFAS from impacted water. Various studies show that PFAS may accumu-
late in riparian wetland plants (Mudumbi et al. 2014), aquatic plants (Pi et al. 2017)
and edible crops (Ghisi et al. 2019). The ability to uptake, translocate and
bioaccumulate PFAS is influenced by plant species (Wang et al. 2020; Pi et al.
2017), carbon chain length (Zhang et al. 2020), initial concentration (Weilan Zhang
et al. 2019c; Awad et al. 2022) and exposure time (Zhang et al. 2019c; Pi et al. 2017).
However, bioaccumulation decreases with increasing carbon chain length
(Lesmeister et al. 2021).
Although a number of wetland species were reported to have the ability to remove
PFAS from surface waters (Pi et al. 2017; Zhang et al. 2019a; c, 2021), comparison
of PFAS removal efficacy is difficult because of their varying experimental
46 J. Ayres et al.

conditions. In addition, to date, only a small number of studies have been conducted
to assess the possible application of these plants in CFWs as a passive remediation
strategy (Zhang et al. 2019c). A recent study (Awad et al. 2022) showed that three
wetland species (Phragmites australis, Baumea articulata and Juncus kraussii) were
able to bioaccumulate and translocate two PFAS substances, namely
perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), used in
fire-fighting foams that are sometimes present in stormwater. The results indicated
that increasing PFOA and PFOS uptake was associated with increasing concentra-
tion and exposure time for all plant species, although TF values differed between
compounds and plants. The three plant species accumulated PFOA in the roots at
significantly lower concentrations than PFOS, while PFOA accumulated in the
shoots at a higher concentration than PFOS. TF values for PFOA were significantly
higher compared to PFOS. The TF values suggested limited upward translocation of
PFOS occurred. For CFWs, this is not a limitation as plant roots can be harvested,
and plants can be replaced regularly, providing for continuous removal of PFOS.
Configurations of CWs might be designed optimally with knowledge of target
compound susceptibilities to the various biodegradation/removal processes. For
example, for waters with target compounds that are susceptible to photolysis, the
likely suitable system would include an open pond where solar irradiation is
unhindered at the surface water. In contrast, subsurface flow treatment would likely
be most suitable for target compounds susceptible to anaerobic microbial biodegra-
dation processes, especially during warm-hot temperature conditions (Rühmland
et al. 2015). With significant surface water coverage by floating plants (with or
without artificial floating devices), the air/oxygen exchange at the water surface
might be lowered, influencing the aerobic and anaerobic conditions within the water
and sediment phases.
In practice, water quality improvement commonly involves the removal and/or
reduction in levels of a wide range of pollutants, and so the adoption of a system
design needs to consider the provision of the various degradation and adsorption
processes through sequential incorporation of CFW design options to optimise
overall performance (Table 3.1).

3.3.4 Effect of Hydrodynamics on Pollutant Removal

The residence time of a water parcel is the total time that the parcel has spent inside a
control volume such as a lake or retention pond. The residence time of a set of
parcels can be estimated in terms of the frequency distribution of the residence time
in the set, known as residence time distribution (RTD), or its average, known as
mean residence time. Xavier et al. (2018) describe in detail how RTDs are often
estimated using a conventional tracer experiment, whereby a non-reactive tracer is
introduced into the system inlet, usually as a single slug, and the water concentration
at the outlet, Ce, is monitored with respect to time, t. According to Werner and
Kadlec (1996), the RTD (Eq. 3.1) is then:
 3

Table 3.1 Removal efficiency, TF and uptake rate of PFOS and PFOA by wetland species
Initial
Removal concentration (μg/ Harvest
a
Family Species Media efficiency (%) L) Matrix type Scale (d) TF μg/g plant References
Acanthaceae Hygrophila CW- PFOA: 1.3 PFOA: 5000 Synthetic Pilot-scale 15 N/A PFOA: 11.6 Chen et al.
pogonocalyx So (plant); 64 (sys- PFOS: 5000 wastewater PFOS: 46 (2012)
Hayata tem)
PFOS: 5.1
(plant);
80 (system)
Alismataceae Alisma H PFOA: 0.6 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 0.27 PFOA: 0.7(R); 0.3 Wang et al.
orientale PFOS: 2.5 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.14 (S); 0.02(L) (2020)
PFOS: 4(R); 0.8
(S); 0.1(L)
Echinodorus H N/A 20 each Tap water Microcosm 14 PFOA: PFOA: 0.8(S); 1 Pi et al.
horemanii 0.76PFOS: (R)PFOS: 1.1(S); 5 (2017)
0.22 (R)
Cannaceae Canna indica H PFOA: 3.3 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 0.08 PFOA: 3(R); 0.3 Wang et al.
PFOS: 28.4 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.01 (S); 0.1(L) (2020)
PFOS: 34(R); 0.3
(S); 0.1(L)
Convolvulaceae Ipomoea CW- PFOA: 1.0 PFOA: 5000PFOS: Synthetic Pilot-scale 15 N/A PFOA: 9.0 Chen et al.
aquatic Forsk So (plant); 68 (sys- 5000 wastewater PFOS: 38 (2012)
tem)
PFOS: 4.2
(plant);
82 (system)
Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . .

Cyperaceae Cyperus CW- By system: PFOS: 10,000 Simulated Pilot-scale 2 0.58 163 Qiao et al.
alternifolius So 93–98 domestic (2021)
By plant: 5–31 sewage
Cyperus H PFOA: 4.8 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 1.34 PFOA: 1(R); 1.5 Wang et al.
alternifolius PFOS: 14.3 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.2 (S); 0.9(L) (2020)
PFOS: 9(R); 2.1
(S); 0.8(L)
Cyperus H PFOA: 1.2 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 0.11 PFOA:1 (R); 0.2 Wang et al.
papyrus PFOS: 5.0 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.05 (S); 0.02(L) (2020)
47

PFOS: 7(R); 0.3

(S); 0.2(L)
(continued)
Table 3.1 (continued)
48

Initial
Removal concentration (μg/ Harvest
a
Family Species Media efficiency (%) L) Matrix type Scale (d) TF μg/g plant References
Eleocharis CW- PFOA: 0.6 PFOA: 5000 Synthetic Pilot-scale 15 N/A PFOA: 5.6 Chen et al.
dulcis So (plant); 58 (sys- PFOS: 5000 wastewater PFOS: 26 (2012)
tem)
PFOS: 3.0
(plant);
76 (system)
Juncaceae Juncus effusus H All compounds PFOA:250–2500 Hoagland Microcosm 21 PFOA: ~2 PFOA: ~5–35(S); Zhang et al.
<15 PFOS:4300–43,000 solution PFOS <0.4 <15(R) (2019c)
PFOS: <200(S);
<650(R)
Marantaceae Thalia dealbata H PFOA: 6.7 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 0.56 PFOA: 2(R); 1.5 Wang et al.
PFOS: 17.8 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.06 (S); 1.1(L) (2020)
PFOS: 13(R); 0.8
(S); 0.4(L)
Poaceae Arundo donax H PFOA: 5.5 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 0.62 PFOA:1.2(R); 0.9 Wang et al.
PFOS: 16.4 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.10 (S); 0.4(L) (2020)
PFOS: 7.5(R); 0.9
(S); 0.4(L)
Phragmites H PFOA: 2.3 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 0.25 PFOA:1.4(R); 0.5 Wang et al.
australis PFOS: 8.4 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.06 (S); 0.1(L) (2020)
PFOS: 9(R); 0.9
(S); 0.05(L)
Phragmites CW- By PFOS: 0.1 Aquaculture Microcosm HRTa:7 N/A N/A Gorito et al.
australis So system: PFOS: effluents (2018)
~100
Pontederiaceae Eichhornia CW- By system: PFOS: 10,000 Domestic Pilot-scale 2 0.04 1187 Qiao et al.
crassipes So 93–98 sewage (2021)
By plant: 5–31
Eichhornia H N/A 20 each Tap water Microcosm 14 PFOA: 0.58 PFOA: 0.5(S); 0.8 Pi et al.
crassipes PFOS: 0.09 (R) (2017)
PFOS: 0.6(S); 4(R)
J. Ayres et al.
 3

Pontederia H PFOA: 4.4 PFOA: 50 Hoagland Microcosm 28 PFOA: 1.1 PFOA:1.4(R); 2.2 Wang et al.
cordata PFOS: 7.7 PFOS: 50 solution PFOS: 0.28 (S); 0.2(L) (2020)
PFOS: 5.3(R); 2.1
(S); 0.5(L)
Typhaceae Typha latifolia H All compounds PFOA: 2000 Hoagland Microcosm 14 N/A PFOA:1–1.2(S); Zhang et al.
<1.5 PFOS: 2000 solution 1–1.5(R) (2020)
PFOS: 0.8–1.2(S);
2.35(R)
Onagraceae Ludwigia CW- PFOA: 0.9 PFOA: 5000 Synthetic Pilot-scale 15 N/A PFOA: 7.8 Chen et al.
(x) taiwanensis So (plant); 63 (sys- PFOS: 5000 wastewater PFOS: 40 (2012)
tem)
PFOS: 4.4
(plant);
76 (system)
Grass B diandrus H PFOA PFOA, PFOS: Hoagland Microcosm 20 PFOA: PFOA & PFOS:18 García-
& PFOS:10–20 500–1000 each solution 3.6–3.4 Valcárcel
PFOS:3.4–3.1 et al. (2014)
a
H: hydroponic; So: soil; CW: constructed wetland; A: aerated system; HRT: hydraulic retention time; R: root; S: shoot or stem; L: leaf
Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . .
49
50 J. Ayres et al.

Q C e ðt Þ
RTDðt Þ = Z 1 ð3:1Þ
Q Ce ðt Þ dt
0

where Q is the inflow or outflow rate, and if V is the system volume, then the nominal
residence time is tn = V/Q.
Despite these well-understood pollutant removal mechanisms, there has been a
wide range of pollutant removal rates reported for CFWs in the field. This is due to
reported differences in the RTD in the root zone. Numerical modelling is a useful
tool for assessing the flow through the root zone, which helps determine the design
configuration of a CFW to achieve optimal treatment performance. However,
numerical models still need to be calibrated against actual flow conditions, and
therefore consideration needs to be given to determining hydraulic criteria such as
RTD as well as permeability of the root zone. Recently, numerical modelling using
computational fluid dynamics has been emerging as a useful tool to investigate the
flow patterns and RTD through CFW root zones (Xavier et al. 2018).

3.3.5 Improving the Design of CFW Installations

In a recent review of CFW field studies, Lucke et al. (2019) found there was often a
limited detail of the experimental process, physical parameters of the water bodies,
and the CFWs that confounded comparisons. Minimal RTD and water depth data in
field studies made it difficult to understand the potential for short-circuiting around
and underneath the CFWs. They recommended that simple design criteria such as
using nominal hydraulic residence time (tn) or a percentage coverage design
approach may be less effective than improving design efficiency. In contrast, a
more complete description of the hydraulics is provided by an RTD, which reflects
the mixing that occurs within a device and it can indicate short-circuiting, preferen-
tial flow paths, recirculation and other flow phenomena (Sonnenwald et al. 2018).
Limiting short-circuiting of flows can be achieved by better positioning the CFWs
or with flow diversion devices such as baffle curtains. The latter approach usually
involves the installation of flexible, impermeable polyvinyl chloride or high-density
polypropylene baffle curtains, which are secured to the sides of the channel, the
CFWs and the pond bed. Whether using CFW positioning or baffle curtains, it is still
important to understand the hydrodynamics of the entire pond and CFW system. For
this reason, an approach that combines field monitoring with computational fluid
dynamics modelling is usually recommended (Lucke et al. 2019).
Solute mixing within vegetation is an important factor to understand when
evaluating the performance of CFWs, along with pollutant mobility. However,
assessing the influence of vegetation on hydro-environmental systems is a
non-trivial task (Sonnenwald et al. 2017). CFW plants usually have small leaves,
stems and plant roots located in water bodies that are much larger than a single plant.
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 51

This creates a multi-scale problem that is challenging to model. To overcome this

problem, Nepf (1999) suggested a technique that spatially averages the effects of the
vegetation, such as a bulk mixing characterisation. Computational fluid dynamics
modelling can be used to study hydrodynamics through CFW root zones and to
evaluate the impact of CFW configurations on pollutant removal rates within
individual root zones (Xavier et al. 2018). Lucke et al. (2019) concluded that an
integrated approach combining modelling with the installation of field site instru-
mentation could enhance data acquisition and, subsequently, the understanding of
the role of vegetation in CFWs.

3.4 Other Benefits

There are many reported benefits of CFWs that extend from water treatment for
removals of pollutants and water quality improvements. CFWs have also been
proposed based on enhancing aquatic biodiversity and the potential control of
cyanobacteria through nutrient limitation and predation (Castro-Castellon et al.
2016; Ware and Callaway 2019; Messer et al. 2022; Karstens et al. 2021). Reported
benefits of CFWs also include wave energy dissipation, landscape amenity enhance-
ment and increased socio-economic value (MacDonald et al. 2016; Karstens et al.
2021; Takavakoglou et al. 2021). According to Ware and Callaway (2019), the
benefits of biodiversity and ecological values are by the provision of habitats that
support biota, including amphibians, birds, fish and macro-invertebrates. These can
further reduce the risks of toxic cyanobacterial bloom formations through the uptake
and removals of nutrients, the enhancement of environmental aesthetic and amenity
values, preservation of real estate values and increased employment opportunities.
CFWs have been reported to provide free swimming organisms with habitats in
fresh and marine environments (Huang et al. 2017a). Using CFWs planted with
Phragmites australis with palm slices hung under the CFW structure and anchored
in a channel of the Yangtze Estuary, Huang et al. (2017a) found abundances of fish
and crustaceans (crabs and shrimps) changed significantly within months and were
about three times greater than in the control habitats. In a subsequent, similar study
using CFWs with the same planting and configuration, but positioned in an urban
river (Tuanwang River, Shanghai), Huang et al. (2020) found viscid eggs of
phytophilous fish attached to palm slices connected to the floating platforms. Eggs
were of Culter ilishaeformis, Cyprinus carpio, Cyprinus auratus, Cultrichthys
erythropterus, Rhodeus sinensis and Hemiculter leucisculus but were predominantly
of the two Cyprinus spp. These authors suggested that a CFW planted with
P. australis could be a valuable technology for creating spawning grounds for
phytophilous fish in urban rivers. Karstens et al. (2021) investigated the installation
of CFWs in coastal environments, focusing on the sustainability of the CFW design,
habitat function and nutrient removal. CFWs were planted with a range of macro-
phytes (Bolboschoenus maritimus, Carex acutiformis, Iris pseudacorus, Juncus
effusus, Lythrum salicaria, Schoenoplectus lacustris and Typha latifolia) and
52 J. Ayres et al.

positioned in a coastal environment (Darss-Zingst Bodden Chain on the Baltic Sea).

They found that the diverse root network of the CFW acted as a shelter for large
numbers of the juvenile eel, Anguilla anguilla. Observed habitat provision by an
integrated CFW (Echinodorus palaefolius) and fountain aeration system was
reported by Henny et al. (2020), for a range of biota, including fish. They reported
many small, endemic local fish (including Common Grass Carp, Tilapia and Black
Flower Horn) in and around the CFW areas less affected by wave actions. Other
fauna observed using the CFW as habitat included various arthropods (aquatic and
other insects, spiders and snails), small clams, shrimps and freshwater lobsters
attached to plant roots. Strosnider et al. (2017) also reported observation of diverse
fauna on and around CFWs, including amphibian (Rana areolata and Rana
sphenocephala), reptile (Trachemys scripta elegans), insects (Cupido comyntas,
Crioscolia flammicoma) and spiders (Cheiracanthium inclusum, Tetragnatha
laboriosa).
Similarly, a wide diversity of invertebrate species associated with CFWs, includ-
ing insects, snails, crustaceans and rotifers, have been reported (Castro-Castellon
et al. 2016; Prashant and Billore 2020). de Lima et al. (2022) discussed the potential
consequences of floating structures on biota proliferation and water quality. They
reported that colonisation of filter feeders on submerged surfaces leads to less turbid
and clean waters. The decomposition of dead organisms deposited from these
structures could increase oxygen demand and nutrient and carbon loads.
CFWs can support birdlife by providing food sources, environments for roosting
and sheltering. Bird species reportedly observed using CFWs include the grey heron,
Ardea cinerea (Karstens et al. 2021), Red-winged blackbird (Agelaius phoeniceus),
Mallard duck (Anas platyrhynchos) and Canada Goose (Branta canadensis)
(Strosnider et al. 2017). Nonetheless, unrestricted access of birds to CFWs can result
in their failure due to the destruction of vegetation planted, as Ayres (2020), and
commonly netting is applied to CFWs to address this risk. Castro-Castellon et al.
(2016) described a CFW (Phragmites australis, Phalaris arundinacea and Carex
acutiformis) installed at Farmoor II Reservoir, Oxfordshire, UK, designed for the
pre-treatment of inflow to a drinking water treatment plant. This CFW was found to
reduce chlorophyll-a, a surrogate measure of phytoplankton biomass (microalgae
and cyanobacteria), by up to 45% during the first 7 weeks of the study. Numerous
species of rotifers and crustaceans which graze on cyanobacteria were identified in
the CFW water column and plant beds. In another study focusing on microbiomes
associated with the root zone of CFW, alphaproteobacteria and cyanobacteria were
found to dominate, including Anabaena (Urakawa et al. 2017) and so, support the
growth of these microorganisms in the rhizosphere zone. They found that the relative
abundances of cyanobacteria at class level were statistically not different between
the CFW plant rhizosphere and water samples taken, but different at genus level.
Reducing nutrient concentrations in waterways is a common rationale for adopting
CFW technology. In turn, then to lower risks of eutrophication and formation of
toxic algal blooms (Messer et al. 2022).
Potential co-benefits of CFW systems have been commonly reported, including
socio-economic such as job creation and preservation of real estate values
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 53

(Takavakoglou et al. 2021), amenity, liveability and aesthetic values (Shen et al.
2021; Borne et al. 2015; MacDonald et al. 2016). Henny et al. (2020) described
CFWs as resembling floating gardens that make the lake landscape more attractive
and increase its amenity value. MacDonald et al. (2016) proposed that CFWs could
provide aesthetic value much sooner than conventional CW technology implemen-
tation as these could be established immediately. From a survey of 200 UK residents
on public perception of coastal habitat loss and habitat creation using CFWs, Ware
and Callaway (2019) reported that despite 91% of respondents supporting CFWs,
almost a third expressed concerns about CFW installations, such as the long-term
maintenance and degradation of the structure, and disturbance to native species.
Hence, in the design, planning and subsequent implementation of CFWs, both the
direct and indirect costs and benefits should be assessed and, where possible,
benchmarked against other feasible options. However, dependent upon the priority
of reasons for establishing CFWs, effective addressing of one or more key issues,
such as the broad range removals of organic pollutants, might warrant the application
of integrated CW systems, of which CFW provides for one or more processes
required. Such integrated CW systems might also further enhance some or all the
co-benefits detailed above.

3.5 Validation and Operational Monitoring

3.5.1 Treatment Validation and Use of Surrogate Parameters

System validation is important to have confidence in the target pollutant removals

provided by CFWs. Validation of a CFW would require demonstrating that it can
produce water of the required quality under a defined range of environmental and
operational conditions. This should be assessed in real time in order to demonstrate
the water quality goals are being met.
The process of treatment validation correlates the direct evidence of the CFW
process’ ability to remove pollutants with data from operational monitoring (for
example, through vegetation monitoring of biomass). The operational monitoring
parameters are used to demonstrate that the CFW is performing reliably and that any
events or conditions that could lead to failure are rapidly detected. Validation
consists of three steps: (1) pre-validation preparation, (2) validation monitoring
and (3) operational monitoring (Zhang et al. 2015b).
Where needed, surrogate identification starts in the pre-validation step when
potential surrogates for pollutants of interest are proposed, while in the validation
monitoring step, the proposed surrogates are tested and verified. The verified
surrogates are then used for assessing the performance of the CFW in the operational
monitoring step. An identified surrogate should be easily monitored and correlated to
the same mechanisms as the pollutant of interest. Most importantly, the surrogate’s
removal needs to be correlated to the change in target pollutant concentration
54 J. Ayres et al.

Table 3.2 Proposed framework for validation of CFWs (modified from Kefeng Zhang et al.
(2015b))
Aims and objectives
The CFW can produce water of
the required quality under a
defined set of parameters
Pre-validation Validation monitoring Operational monitoring
Identification of target Validation of hydraulics Monitoring of verified
parameters surrogates (or directly
monitoring target
parameters)
Specification of treatment Validation of treatment Identification of the need
targets performance for re-validation
Identification of potential Verifying relationships between
removal mechanisms and surrogates and target parameters
influential factors for operational conditions
Identification of surrogates for
operational monitoring
Establishment of operational
challenge conditions

(Drewes et al. 2008). A suitable surrogate should be removed similarly (ideal

surrogate) or less efficiently (conservative surrogate) than the target pollutants.
The use of surrogates to monitor organic chemical removals in CWs have been
previously reported by Kefeng Zhang et al. (2015a). They identified potential
surrogates for herbicide removal in stormwater biofilters which were assessed
using field challenge tests and matched laboratory column experiments. Of those
tested, ΔTP was the most promising surrogate for glyphosate removal, and
ΔUVA254 (UV absorbance at a wavelength of 254 nm) was a suitable surrogate
for triazines removal in stormwater biofilters.
From the review of the published reports, no broadly accepted guidelines for the
validation of CFWs appears to have been developed to date. The direct application of
frameworks developed for highly engineered systems, such as from drinking water
treatment to the application of CFWs, is difficult because in situ style challenge tests
are usually not possible. However, Kefeng Zhang et al. (2015b) proposed a valida-
tion framework that could be applicable to CFWs, consisting of three steps
(1) Pre-validation, (2) Validation monitoring and (3) Operational monitoring
(Table 3.2).
(1) Pre-validation of CFWs
Pre-validation relates to collecting all necessary information for the following two
stages: validation monitoring and operational monitoring. Kefeng Zhang et al.
(2015b) proposed a roadmap for validating biofilters that could be further modified
for CFWs (Table 3.3).
The road map includes the selection of priority pollutants, corresponding treat-
ment practices and water quality parameters. The CFW environmental and
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 55

Table 3.3 Roadmap for stage 1 pre-validation (modified from Kefeng Zhang et al. (2015b))
Steps Description
Identify target Target pollutants that are the sub-
pollutants ject of the validation study
Specify water quality The water quality treatment target
treatment target that the CFW must provide
Identification of poten- Successful validation of treatment
tial removal mecha- processes relies upon an under-
nisms and influential standing of the mechanisms
factors (including the most influential
factors)
Identification of surro- Continuous monitoring of a reli-
gates for operational able surrogate is important to
monitoring provide assurance the CFW is
under control
Establishment of opera- Operational conditions which set
tional challenge the boundaries for which the vali-
conditions dation is accepted
General method
Analysis of monitoring data
from reservoirs, stormwater or
wastewater for target parameters.
Statistical analysis of target
parameters (e.g. 95th percentiles)
Usually determined by end-use
or discharge permit or regulatory
agency
Literature review on the proper-
ties of the target pollutants,
treatment processes and influen-
tial factors (e.g. for incorporation
into a computational fluid
dynamic model)
Literature review on the potential
surrogates for the target pollut-
ants for the different processes
Analysis of local climate and
other data to determine the oper-
ational and challenge conditions

operational conditions must be determined (including flow rates, HRT, temperature,

vegetation type and support structure).
(2) Validation Monitoring
Validation monitoring is used to determine whether a CFW can remove pollutants to
reach the target water quality. Practical validation monitoring should be completed
before a CFW is installed to ensure that treated water quality meets its intended
targets. This is usually performed once and thoroughly for each CFW system
configuration. As this is an extensive initial activity, it is suggested that it be
delegated to appropriately skilled professionals to facilitate the process.
Once the CFW configuration has been validated, subsequent monitoring and
auditing of the system become a function of continual operational assessment.
However, should significant variations in factors impacting CFW treatment efficien-
cies occur (e.g. significant seasonal and temperature changes (affecting nutrient
uptake and flowrates affecting the HRT)), then further validation testing may be
needed. For example, Stormwater Australia (2018) provides a protocol to evaluate
the stormwater quality improvement devices under such variations, and this provides
a set of criteria for sampling equipment, sampling location and the number of
samples for collection and analyses. Similar criteria could be used for testing
stormwater treatment by CFWs.
To ensure that the CFW delivers the expected water quality, validation should be
performed or overseen in detail by an independent and appropriately qualified
56 J. Ayres et al.

professional, ideally independent of the designer (Stormwater Australia, 2018).

Independent assessment would provide assurance that all sampling and analysis of
the CFW are relevant and suitable.
Kefeng Zhang et al. (2016) proposed a validation modelling tool, which com-
prises a process-based model and model parameter estimation via simple in situ
tracer tests and specific laboratory batch tests for CWs. The modelling approach was
intended to replicate (and, if possible, replace) traditional in situ challenge tests used
for highly engineered systems. Kefeng Zhang et al. (2019b) concluded that the
proposed modelling method could be applicable for validation studies, and further
work recommended to reduce the uncertainties of the model: (i) investigation of all
pollutant removal processes such as biodegradation, adsorption and translocation to
provide site-specific degradation parameters; and (ii) upgrading of the model espe-
cially in degradation processes.
(3) Operational Monitoring
Operational monitoring involves routine monitoring of selected key water quality
parameters and/or factors of CFW performance to confirm that treatment is occurring
as designed. The monitoring of these should provide an advanced warning of any
deviation and decline in CFW performance, from which corrective actions can be
rapidly taken. Therefore, operational monitoring should be conducted and reported
as needed to maintain a low risk of treatment failure for the CFW.

3.5.2 Recommendations for Future Research

For a full treatment system, pollutant removal depends on:

(a) the uptake within individual plants (which is often determined at the laboratory
scale)
(b) the fraction of water in the system that passes through a root zone
(c) the RTD within those root zones
Understanding the hydraulics of the entire pond and CFW system is critical to
validate or improve the pollutant removal efficiency of CFWs (Lucke et al. 2019),
since the treatment performance depends on the fraction of flow that passes through
the root zone (Xavier et al. 2018). Further, the CFW might act as a ‘seeding’ source
of microflora and macro-invertebrates to the bulk water body that degrade and
sequester pollutants targeted for removal. Nonetheless, distributions of vegetation
that allow a significant degree of short-circuiting produce the lowest pollutant
removals (Liu et al. 2019; Sabokrouhiyeh et al. 2020) and this may be caused by
the overall lowering of the exposure to removal processes. Future challenges in the
development and enhancement of CFWs technology include identifying the optimal
size of individual treatment islands and the configuration of multiple islands that
yield the lowest short-circuiting.
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 57

Furthermore, CFW technologies can include removable plant baskets, which

enable the selection and application of various sorptive materials such as granular
activated carbon or biochar. Conceivably, combining plant uptake and sorbents may
provide a more effective approach for removing various pollutants, including
organic chemicals such as both short- and long-chain PFAS, overcoming any
limitations of each strategy if applied singularly. An improved remediation approach
might be achieved using CFWs that include interchangeable plant baskets, with
sorbents for enhanced overall pollutant removals as well as for providing a support
medium for plant establishment, growth and pollutant bioaccumulation Although the
application of sorbents to CFWs has received little attention, preliminary studies
have identified that Australian native plants (Phragmites australis and Baumea
articulata) can remove PFOS and PFOA from surface waters, while the inclusion
of granular activated carbon improved PFAS removal efficiency by approximately
10% without affecting PFAS bioaccumulation or TF (Awad et al. 2022). Further
investigation is needed to determine how these materials can improve the removal of
a wider range of such pollutants by a CFW system, especially from the perspective of
sorption capacity and plant compatibility.
As the plant roots grow through the CFW structure and into the water column, the
roots provide an extensive surface area for microbial biofilm growth (Lucke et al.
2019). This biofilm creates a habitat for bacterial communities and enhances the
sequestration of nutrients from the water through nitrification and denitrification, and
adsorption for the retention of phosphorous (Lucke et al. 2019). However, the role of
bacteria to aid in the remediation of various pollutants from contaminated waters is
still largely unknown. Further investigations are required to assess the potential of
inoculation of suitable bacterial consortia into the root system of CFWs that could
lead to improved phytoremediation of contaminated waters (Rehman et al. 2018;
Fahid et al. 2020).
Several pollutants, such as PFOS, could be accumulated in plant roots with
limited upward translocation of these pollutants to shoots (Awad et al. 2022). As
such, regular replanting and harvesting of the entire plant from a CFW system may
be required as this will provide a mechanism for the continuous removal of these
pollutants. Quantifying how operations, maintenance and plant harvesting affect
pollutant removal rates by CFW systems will facilitate the widespread adoption of
the technology. Future research is required to provide guidelines for operations and
monitoring in the form of best management practices.
CFWs can also improve landscape aesthetics, amenity use and real estate value,
thereby providing significant social benefits. To date, there appears to have been few
social studies on the perception and willingness of communities to accept the
installation of floating wetlands and any concerns on a proposed floating wetland
installation. A survey conducted in South Australia, Australia, showed strong public
support for the temporary or permanent installation of a CFW on an urban lake
(D. Webber, personal communication, Aug 2021). However, a large proportion of
the open-ended responses included concerns about the appearance of the CFW, the
possibility that the CFW might not be adequately maintained, and the location of the
CFW within the larger urban lake system. In another survey conducted by Ware and
58 J. Ayres et al.

Callaway (2019), concerns were raised about CFW installations, such as the degra-
dation of the plastic matrix, lack of long-term maintenance and disturbance of native
species.
CFW is an emerging technology that is one form of several natural based systems
(NbS) used for water treatment that include FTW or FFW, vertical flow constructed
wetlands (VFW), horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands (SSF) and horizon-
tal surface flow constructed wetlands (SFW). These are relatively well-established
technologies and as such, it could be expected that comparison be made between CFW
and these more established technologies to determine any specific advantages of CFW.
In simple terms, comparisons could be made based on the relative efficiencies of
removals of target pollutants or contaminants such as nutrients (nitrogen compounds
and phosphorus), suspended solids, synthetic organic compounds
(e.g. pharmaceuticals, pesticides, PFAS) and heavy metals. However, the efficiency
of any one system is dependent upon a range of factors including plant type(s) used,
management of CW system (e.g. rate of plant growth harvesting) and water conditions
(temperature, flow rate, turbidity, aerobic, anoxic, anaerobic). Hence direct compari-
sons would be challenging. All these technologies have capacities for removals of the
pollutants and contaminants detailed above, but removals vary within and between the
various technologies. Despite apparent better reported performances of some over
other constructed wetland technologies, the potential for implementation of CFW and
CWs generally should consider performance capacity in context of logistic feasibility
of full-scale adoption and operations. For example, aerated stabilisation basins applied
for treatment of some industrial wastewaters such as of pulp and paper mills, having
steep sides constructed of rock material might be more readily amenable to incorpo-
ration of CFWs than redesigning and retrofitting as SFWs. Similarly, CFWs might be
more logistically feasible for lakes and other water bodies surrounded by high density
urbanisation, where opportunities for vegetation establishment along water edges are
limited. The choice of an NbS system should further consider potential synergistic
and/or enhanced treatment benefits, e.g. by incorporation of CFW onto an established
SFW to expand and improve overall treatment performances. Some studies have
reported findings from experimental NbS designs where more than one CW technol-
ogy/stage have been applied for overall improved performances (e.g. Peng et al. 2005;
Masi et al. 2013; Sochacki et al. 2018). The selection of one of more technology for a
NbS should consider the specific mechanisms (physical, chemical, biological) needed
for particular pollutant/contaminant attenuations and then the implementation of those
that best provide for such mechanisms, under the environmental and climate condi-
tions of the NbS location.

3.6 Conclusion

Constructed floating wetlands are passive systems that employ natural treatment
processes, namely biodegradation, bioaccumulation and adsorption for the removal
of a large number of pollutants. The treatment performances of a CFW depend
3 Constructed Floating Wetlands for the Treatment of Surface Waters. . . 59

highly on the hydrodynamic flow conditions around the plant root systems. One of
the most effective ways to understand these conditions is to estimate the residence
time distribution, indicating important performance-related processes such as solute
mixing, short-circuiting, recirculation and preferential flow paths. Both CFW posi-
tioning and installing baffle curtains can improve the overall treatment performance
but their effectiveness still depends on understanding the hydrodynamics of the
entire pond and CFW system. Consequently, a hybrid methodology that utilises both
field monitoring and determination of water hydrodynamics (using computational
fluid dynamics modelling) might often be the most suitable approach.
One of the challenges in evaluating CFWs is understanding the impact of the
technology in terms of treatment efficiencies and reaching defined and expected
performance targets. Assessments appear to be often based on quantitative determi-
nation of key elements and/or compounds (and derivative compounds) that have
accumulated in plant tissues and/or based on experimental configurations by which
removal rates from test waters are examined. To date, few studies have been
conducted to examine treatment efficiency from a mass balance approach where
the key elements and/or compounds are quantified at inputs to the water body being
treated, then quantified for the various water body phases (water, sediment, sludge)
and finally allowing untreated discharges from the water body, i.e. pollutants not
removed following the CFW treatment. This mass balance approach would allow
evaluation of the significance of the CFW treatment. For this, seasonal performance
variations would need to be considered for long-term overall performance assess-
ments. There is also a noted absence of published economic information for CFWs.
This may be attributed to various factors, including the site-specificity of costs for
CFW schemes and the difficulty in quantifying benefits that extend beyond water
treatment, such as environmental and social benefits. An accepted validation frame-
work coupled with hydraulic modelling, as well as research into the cost benefits of
CFWs, are required for improved confidence and greater adoption of full-scale
CFWs technologies.

Acknowledgements The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the
City of Salisbury, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation and the Univer-
sity of South Australia.

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66 J. Ayres et al.

Jennifer Ayres holds a PhD in Water Engineering from the University of South Australia.
Currently a process commissioning engineer in the water industry. Jennifer has over 25 years of
world-wide industrial water experience in both water and wastewater treatment technologies,
including but not limited to desalination, biosolids, filtration and separation techniques and odour
control. In the last eight years, Jennifer has worked and liaised within academia, with her research
interests being industrial wastewaters, wastewater quality and engineering education.

John Awad holds a PhD degree in Water Engineering from University of South Australia
(UniSA). Currently, he is a joint post-doctoral fellow at the UniSA and the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Australia. For the past 5 years, he has
been working on projects in the areas of water resource, water treatment, and water quality to
underpin development of sustainable, cost-effective solutions for industry. John has been leading
research in the area of floating wetlands to remove contaminants (nutrients and PFAS) from urban
water sources.

Christopher Walker is the Manager of the Water and Environment branch at Covey Associates
and an Adjunct Associate Professor at UniSA. He is also the Principal Scientist of Clarity Aquatic,
which provides floating wetland technology for a variety of uses. Chris has designed a range of
water treatment systems for numerous residential, commercial and industrial projects in Australia
and abroad. He has been involved in stormwater research for 17 years, working with numerous
research institutions. Chris is a world-expert in the use of floating wetlands for water treatment and
has developed several novel designs and applications of this technology.

Declan Page holds a PhD degree in Chemical Technology from University of South Australia and
a Master of Business Administration from Monash University. Currently, Dr. Page is the Principal
Research Scientist in the Water Security research program at the Commonwealth Scientific and
Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO). Dr Page is an international research leader in water
banking, water recycling and stormwater reuse via aquifers and water quality and treatment and
water quality risk management.

John van Leeuwen is an adjunct professor at the University of South Australia. He has about
12 years research experience in the water industry (South Australian Water Corporation) and
16 years as an academic. His research interests are in the areas of water and wastewater quality
processes, drinking water treatment optimization and modelling, domestic and industrial wastewa-
ter treatment and modelling, natural organic matter and its dynamics in water resources and
catchments and the fate of pollutants in the environment. He has collaborated extensively with
industries, government agencies and national and international universities.

Simon Beecham joined the University of South Australia (UniSA) in 2006 and was acting Deputy
Vice Chancellor: Research and Innovation from 2019 to 2020. From 2015 to 2018 Simon was
UniSA’s Pro Vice-Chancellor of the Division of Information Technology, Engineering and the
Environment. Before that, he was Head of the School of Natural and Built Environments
(2010–2014) and Director of UniSA’s Centre for Water Management and Reuse (2006–2010).
Simon is a Fellow of Engineers Australia as well as a Fellow of the Australian Institute of Company
Directors.
Chapter 4
Nature Based Solutions for Water
Management in England: Contribution
to Biodiversity Net Gain in Urban Areas

Doug Warner

Abstract Nature Based Water Management Solutions (NBWMS) adopted for water
management in the UK include ecological bus shelters, green roofs and walls,
wetland creation, bioswales and street trees. The impact on biodiversity depends
on structure, plant species and ecological connectivity. Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG)
seeks to improve the biodiversity value of a site that has undergone modification by
allocating scores to individual habitat types indicative of their relative distinctiveness
or rarity. The implementation of individual NBWMS when assessed using BNG
offers the opportunity to derive relative indicators of potential improvements to
biodiversity while simultaneously implementing water management. The develop-
ment of habitat suitability indices (HabSI) predicts the likelihood of important
species, for example pollinators, being present. Habitats or features created as part
of a NBWMS approach may contribute positively towards such HabSI but this
requires further evaluation. This chapter aims to develop BNG and HabSI scores
for NBWMS implemented in urban areas in England for three key biodiversity
groups active at different spatial scales: pollinators (Hymenoptera: bumblebees
and solitary bees), amphibians (great crested newt, Triturus cristatus) and bats
(Chiroptera species). Using these classifications, the value of NBWMS where
strategically located in terms of water management and biodiversity enhancement
are discussed and priorities identified.

Keywords Biodiversity net gain · Bioswale · Bumblebee · Ecological bus shelter ·

Green roof · Habitat suitability indices · Nature based water management solution ·
Pollinator · Rain garden · Solitary bee · Street tree

D. Warner (*)
Agriculture and Environment Research Unit (AERU), School of Life and Medical Sciences,
University of Hertfordshire, Hertfordshire, UK
e-mail: d.j.warner@herts.ac.uk

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 67

N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_4
68 D. Warner

4.1 Introduction

Climate change and increased occurrence of short but high intensity rainfall events have
increased the incidence of flooding in urban areas in the United Kingdom (UK). The
urban infrastructure depends on a network of ‘surface drains’ or storm sewers, drainage
pipes immediately below the ground surface that transport flood water directly into
watercourses as rapidly as possible (Woods Ballard et al. 2015). Such systems are now
obsolete and have deteriorated in condition. Further hindered by sedimentation, they do
not have the capacity to manage the volume of stormwater generated by these high
intensity rainfall events (Curtis and Cooper 2009; Fewkes 2012; Wheater and Evans
2009). Excess rainwater volumes during high intensity storms causes the volume of
stormwater to exceed the drainage pipe capacity resulting in its subsequent discharge
and accumulation on hard surfaces. These hard surfaces themselves have limited
drainage capacity. The rapid but localised effect of such events means they are difficult
to predict and mitigate further (Curtis and Cooper 2009).
Shortages of housing stock mean that urban areas will continue to expand for the
foreseeable future. Local authorities are required to identify the local ‘housing need’,
a target number of dwellings to be constructed within an area based on the ‘projected
average annual household growth over a 10 year period’ as stipulated in the revised
National Planning Policy Framework (Ministry of Housing, Communities and Local
Government 2019). This continually increasing expansion of urban development
and the associated coverage of natural surfaces by water impermeable surfaces, or
capping, render the risk of intra-urban floods becoming increasingly greater
(Battarbee et al. 2012). Run-off from hard surfaces such as roofs and pavements
combined with increased rainfall intensity are key drivers of this risk (Bowker et al.
2007; Environment Agency 2013a; Evans et al. 2004a, b; Wheater and Evans 2009;
Woods Ballard et al. 2015). Urban zones constructed within the UK post 2007 are
not permitted to increase the peak flow in any watercourse into which the stormwater
from that zone flows, i.e. the rate from the previous land use compared to the current
land use for the same event does not increase (Environment Agency 2013b).
Nature based solutions can play a significant role in the delivery of these
requirements. They may also be applied retrospectively, albeit subject to greater
constraints, to zones where the construction of urban areas occurred before 2007.
Nature based solutions seek to reverse the increase in overland flow and run-off
caused by the dominance of impermeable hard surfaces in urban environments,
drawing on the principles and function of naturally vegetated surfaces (Bowker
et al. 2007; Curtis and Cooper 2009; Mori et al. 2021; Ramírez-Agudelo et al.
2020; Seddon et al. 2020; Wheater and Evans 2009).

4.1.1 Nature Based Water Management Solutions

Alternative solutions for stormwater management in the UK, including Nature Based
Water Management Solutions (NBWMS), are now embedded within UK climate
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 69

change adaptation policy (Ares 2020). Nature based solutions are defined as ‘solu-
tions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-effective, simulta-
neously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and help build
resilience’ (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016; Faivre et al. 2017; Mori et al. 2021;
Ramírez-Agudelo et al. 2020; Seddon et al. 2019, 2020). As a concept, it draws
upon multiple ecosystem-based methods including ‘ecological engineering’, ‘eco-
system services’, ‘ecosystem-based adaptation/mitigation’, ‘green-blue infrastruc-
ture’, ‘natural capital’ and ‘nature-based interventions’ (Eggermont et al. 2015;
Nesshöver et al. 2017; Potschin et al. 2016). They are classified based on the amount
of management needed, from Type 1 (minimal management intervention) through to
Type 3 (high level of management intervention). Strategies include permeable
pavements, infiltration basins, green roofs on buildings, wetland creation (reten-
tion/detention ponds and water meadows), bioswales/drainage corridors, street trees
and rain gardens/bioretention systems (UK Government 2021; Woods Ballard et al.
2015). The value of riparian woodland as a flood management approach and other
ecosystem services is highlighted by Haase (2017) and Kroll et al. (2012). More
recent innovations include ecological bus shelters currently being piloted within
selected locations in England. An overview at three spatial scales (region/munici-
pality, street, building/garden) is provided in Table 4.1.
The primary function of the NBWMS listed in Table 4.1 is water management,
albeit practical at different spatial scales or with respect to efficiency. They align
with the principles of sustainable drainage system (SuDS), that is, to restore as
closely as possible within an urban environment natural ecosystem functioning,
rainfall capture and the slowing of flow via interception from vegetation, and a
decrease in flow through enhanced infiltration and evapotranspiration. Ideally the
rainfall is dealt with within a zone in close proximity to where it is intercepted on the
surface as source control, i.e. any subsequent flow distance is minimised. A greater
proliferation of surfaces to enhance infiltration (vegetation, porous paving or
soakaways underground) decreases surface run-off while increasing the length of
time between the extreme rainfall event and water discharge into the drainage
system. These surfaces mimic the pathways taken under natural conditions. At the
regional level the methods able to slow flow most rapidly are typically retention
ponds or riparian ‘floodplains’, areas designed to purposely flood during periods of
high flow (UK Government 2021; Woods Ballard et al. 2015). This slowing or
storage of surface run-off diminishes flow and reduces peak discharge. Multiple
options (Table 4.1) may be implemented in combination in order to mitigate flood
risk. From the perspective of biodiversity this offers the opportunity to enhance the
joining up or connectivity of habitats within what is essentially a fragmented urban
environment. This is covered in more detail in Sect. 4.4.6. Crucially each of these
components may be constructed differently both physically in construction and
using different plant species with variation in flowering time and vertical structure.
Retention ponds (Plate 4.1a, b) trap and hold stormwater run-off from hard
surfaces (typically main roads or motorways) permanently, the volume retained
being a function of the pond volume. Structure and management may differ consid-
erably, as illustrated by the retention pond in Plate 4.1 (a) compared to (b).
70 D. Warner

Table 4.1 Nature based solutions for stormwater management in the UK

Code Nature based solution Description
Region/municipality
RP Retention pond/water basin (permanent Artificial water body, captures and retains
inundation) water permanently
DB Detention/infiltration basin (periodic/ Attenuation of water flow, usually dry
temporary inundation) but flood during periods of high flow
SNW Semi-natural waterways—dredged, Artificial watercourses, dredged to main-
banks cleared annually tain flow
RGr-am Riparian grassland for amenity areas, Grassland adjacent to watercourses for
intensively managed (periodic/tempo- recreational purposes, frequent mowing,
rary inundation) controlled periodic flooding during high
water flow
RGr-wm Riparian grassland—wet meadows, Grassland adjacent to watercourses, lim-
extensively managed (periodic/tempo- ited management, controlled periodic
rary inundation) flooding during high water flow
RGr + WP Riparian grassland—wet wood pasture Grassland with low density water tolerant
(periodic/temporary inundation) tree species adjacent to watercourses,
limited management, controlled periodic
flooding during high water flow
Street
BpO Bumpout Artificial raised planted bed with deten-
tion area, adjacent to roads
BioS Bioswale/drainage corridor Artificial linear channel/depression,
gently sloping side, porous pipe running
below ground to remove water, surface
may be mulched or vegetated (various
types)
InTr Infiltration or storage trench Below ground temporary water storage or
soakaway
PP Permeable pavement Porous material or gaps between blocks
to permit drainage used instead of a hard
surface
STr-i Tree—individual in trench Drainage trench with a single tree
STr-line Trees—in line Drainage trench forming linear feature
with multiple trees
Building/plot
GR Green roof/wall/ecological bus shelter Artificially vegetated roof/wall area to
slow and reduce surface run-off, vegeta-
tion variable but typically stonecrop
(Sedum species)
RG Rain garden/bioretention system Vegetated depression, captures and
retains water temporarily, slows flow
GPo Garden ponds <25 m2 Artificial water body, captures and retains
water permanently, small size
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 71

Plate 4.1 Retention pond (a) no aquatic vegetation + amenity grassland (b) enhanced for biodi-
versity. Photo Doug Warner

In their most basic form (Plate 4.1a) retention ponds deliver flood peak attenua-
tion. With an increase in construction complexity (Plate 4.1b) sedimentation, adsorp-
tion, vegetative uptake, biofiltration and microbial decomposition may be potentially
utilised (Ellis et al. 2003). The retention pond in Plate 4.1b contains common reed
(Phragmites australis), documented to remove contaminants such as nitrogen,
phosphorous and heavy metals from water via incorporation into plant biomass
(Milke et al. 2020; Rezania et al. 2019). Aquatic phytoremediation properties are
also reported for the willow (Salix spp.) (Mirck et al. 2005; Licht and Isebrands.
2005) and alder trees (Alnus spp.) (Garg et al. 2018) also present in Plate 4.1b
growing at the edge. The hydraulic retention time is greater in retention pond 1
(b) relative to that of Plate 4.1a. The presence of vegetation and physical complexity
permits the enhanced removal of pollutants via surface and sub-surface flow across
plant leaf biomass and the multi-layered substrate (Ellis et al. 2003; Wilson et al.
2009). The associated enhancement of water quality is also critical for biodiversity
with an aquatic phase to its life-cycle, for example amphibians (Sect. 4.4.1).
Detention basins may be similar in structure but are designed to slow the flow of
stormwater rather than to retain or contain water for the majority of the year, only
periods during storm events (Woods Ballard et al. 2015). They consist of a depres-
sion within the ground where stormwater accumulates before infiltrating vertically
through the soil profile in a controlled manner. Simultaneously sediment and any soil
bound pollutant particles are deposited within the soil at the base (Woods Ballard
et al. 2015). The non-permanent water retention properties permit location adjacent
to areas of housing where they simultaneously function as amenity areas. Riparian
areas adjacent to waterbodies or drainage areas also function in the capacity as
temporary water storage where they intercept and slow the flow of water allowing for
its gradual release in a controlled manner. Riparian areas at the most fundamental
level consist of species poor amenity grassland adjacent to an area with the potential
to flood (Plate 4.2a) but alternatively may be managed as species rich water meadow
or wet woodland (Plate 4.2b). Evidently Plate 4.1a differs significantly from Plate
72 D. Warner

Plate 4.2 Riparian area (a) species poor amenity grassland, (b) wet woodland. Photo Doug Warner

Fig. 4.1 Schematic representation of a bioswale with species rich hedgerow, trees, tussocky
grasses and diverse flowering plant (pollinator) mix

4.1b and similarly, Plate 4.2a from Plate 4.2b with respect to physical habitat
structure and vegetation composition, despite performing comparable stormwater
management functions.
At the street level bioswales (Fig. 4.1) are linear features smaller in spatial extent
than a riparian woodland, consisting of a drainage trench filled with a bioretention
medium. The medium permits the percolation of stormwater down to an extraction
trench and pipe for subsequent removal to a retention pond or detention basin. The
trench may differ in its management, being either mulched or alternatively, planted
with vegetation. Where planted with vegetation this also may vary in both structure
and species composition, ranging from a herb layer of tussocky grasses and/or
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 73

flowering plants, a shrub layer consisting of hedgerow species (<5 m high in a line)
and/or with a tree layer (Fig. 4.1). Further, the medium may be wet (permanently
waterlogged, where water retention time is increased to remove pollutants) or dry
(above a free draining medium) although this will influence the nature of the species
composition within the channel. They are variable in form but as they are artificially
created, may also be constructed such that their value to biodiversity is maximised
(Sect. 4.3).
Street trees/infiltration trenches (Plate 4.3a and Fig. 4.2) offer the opportunity to
intercept rainfall initially in the tree canopy, moderating flow from low-intensity
storms (Kuehler et al. 2017) coupled with the extraction of water from the ground
and release via transpiration from the leaves, which also has a cooling effect. The
impact of street trees on surface hydrology is generally regarded as being low
although the impact over smaller spatial scales, at the local street level, is of value
(van Dijk and Keenan 2007). White et al. (2021) consider this approach to be of
low-moderate effectiveness at the local (street) scale, other authors as low when
considered as a component of the metropolitan/regional scale (Hardy et al. 2015;
Zölch et al. 2017). Street trees may have a permeable base (Plate 4.3b) and be
contained within infiltration trenches, functionally similar to a soakaway within
impermeable areas of pavement that enable stormwater to be stored temporarily
before infiltration into the soil and/or transfer to a detention area via sub-surface
drainage. Flower strips may be created between the base of each tree to form
additional lines of habitat (Plate 4.3c). Older trees, with cracks, and deadwood
(Plate 4.3d) offer opportunities to enhance biodiversity further, especially for bats
(Sect. 4.4.3). The red arrows highlight potential roost sites in the form of loose bark,
splits in the trunk and voids created by limb loss.
Rain gardens perform a similar function but are smaller in size and may be
implemented within land attached to individual properties (Woods Ballard et al.
2015). Structurally they consist of shallow vegetated depressions within the ground,
accruing surface run-off and permitting its slow release both via controlled infiltra-
tion through the soil and evapotranspiration from the vegetated surface. The type of
vegetation, typically herb layer species, is the critical factor in determining their
value to biodiversity. Water management dictates that flow is slowed and that
evapotranspiration is maximised by the vegetation present, the type of floral resource
provided by the vegetation is, with appropriate selection of species, of great potential
value to pollinators (Sect. 4.4.2).
Smaller scale options on buildings or in domestic gardens typically utilise limited
space but will reduce flow and are especially effective when multiple features
operate in combination. Green roofs (Fig. 4.3a) intercept rainfall on the surface of
vegetation and within the growing media for which Konig (1999) estimates up to
50% may be intercepted. The city of Leicester in central England has recently
become the first in the UK to establish a city-wide network of green roofs on the
top of bus shelters (Fig. 4.3b and Plate 4.4a, b), a concept originally piloted in the
Netherlands (SmartCitiesWorld 2021). The initiative aims to adapt 479 bus shelter
roofs into ecological or pollinator friendly ‘bee bus stops’ over the next 10 years.
This approach both slows the flow of rainwater onto the hard surface below the
74 D. Warner

Plate 4.3 Street trees in a line. (a) Cherry (Prunus species) with spring blossom, (b) with
permeable base surrounded by a porous hard surface, (c) oak (Quercus species) with flower strip,
(d) potential tree bat roost features (red arrows). Photo Doug Warner
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 75

Fig. 4.2 Schematic representation of a street treeline and drainage trench

Fig. 4.3 Schematic representation of (a) green roof with species diverse pollinator mixture and (b)
ecological bus shelter or ‘bee bus stop’ with single species Sedum (stonecrop) cover

shelter but also contributes to enhancing the biodiversity of central city areas where
green space is typically at a premium. The potential exists to install green roofs onto
the vehicles themselves, a scheme being piloted on buses in Singapore
(GreenUptheRoof 2022).
The selection of appropriate vegetation mixtures to enhance biodiversity while
representing an opportunity (Gedge et al. 2009) is constrained to a degree by the
nature of the roof environment itself. Small scale roof areas with shallow media
exposed to full sunlight will most likely utilise drought tolerant Sedum (stonecrop)
species (Plate 4.4a, b) rather than a more species diverse pollinator mixture less
tolerant of prolonged soil moisture deficit (Plate 4.4c). A green roof implemented on
a building has the potential to be larger in area and depth of growing media
compared to a smaller sized ecological bus shelter. A greater depth of growing
media offers additional flexibility with respect to the selection plant species grown.
76 D. Warner

Plate 4.4 A city oasis. Ecological bus shelter containing Sedum in the heart of the city of Leicester.
(a) Front view, (b) top view. Green wall (c) with northern aspect and shade adapted plant species.
Photo Doug Warner

Sedum is of value to bees although this value tends not be as great relative to a multi-
species mixture (Kirk and Howes 2012). Living or green walls are also an option on
buildings. The nature of the building aspect (north or south facing) provides an
opportunity to increase the diversity of the plant species used, either full sun or shade
(Plate 4.4c) adapted species.
A final component of the NBWMS armoury are porous pavements, whereby hard
surfaces are substituted with material such as gravel or porous asphalt, and perme-
able pavements where water permeable gaps exist between sections of impermeable
surface (block paving). Vegetation is not a constituent of this strategy and as such,
the biodiversity value or potential to adapt for biodiversity is limited.
In summary, each NBWMS may be managed differently or consist of subtle
differences in structure while performing the same stormwater management func-
tions. A key question is how do they differ with respect to their biodiversity value?
which biodiversity groups benefit the most? and how they can be created or managed
to maximise their benefit to biodiversity overall? The HabSI approach (Sect. 4.2) has
been utilised to identify which NBWMS and components of these NBWMS are of
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 77

greatest value to three key biodiversity groups (pollinators, amphibian and bats) and
how they may be managed appropriately. The value or uniqueness of the habitat
created has been determined with the BNG methodology.

4.1.2 Biodiversity Net Gain

In Europe, the ‘No Net Loss’ concept is applied to habitats not covered specifically
by nature conservation legislation within the European Union (EU) Birds and
Habitats Directives. The EU Biodiversity Strategy 2020, among its 6 targets and
20 actions to achieve this objective, includes action number 7 to ‘ensure no net loss
of biodiversity and ecosystem services’. The Biodiversity Net Gain (BNG) approach
takes this a stage further, representing a process applicable to new developments
required to demonstrate, through the standardised BNG framework, a minimum 10%
improvement to the biodiversity value of any location that has undergone modifica-
tion. Implemented within the Environment Act (2021) in England it is currently
subject to a 2-year transitional period with secondary legislation due to make its use
mandatory in 2023. The biodiversity metric, implemented as British Standard
(BS) 8683, is one of the first standardised BNG methodologies to be applied in
practice. It allocates scores of between 0 and 8 to individual habitat types indicative
of the relative distinctiveness and value of that habitat to biodiversity. Further
multiplication factors of the score (by a factor of 1, 2 or 3) account for habitat
quality. The metric provides an indication of the relative value of a given location to
biodiversity as a function of the types of habitat and their quality. Higher scoring
highly ‘distinct’ habitats (score = 8) include habitats not applicable to urban
NBWMS options, for example lowland dry acid grassland or upland hay meadows
(Natural England 2021). These habitats have not therefore been considered in this
analysis. The higher scoring habitats relevant to NBWMS include ponds
(non-priority habitat), woodland, species rich hedgerows and meadows (BNG
score = 6), flower rich sown pollinator mixtures, hedgerows and ditches (BNG
score = 4), single species treelines and amenity grassland (BNG score = 2) (Natural
England 2021). Non-native species score 0. A species rich hedgerow (BNG
score = 6) of high quality (multiplication factor = 3) will score 24 overall.
According to this method an increased number and area of higher scoring habitats
compared to the existing baseline habitat results in a net gain in biodiversity. Any
building development (for example a housing estate) needs to improve the BNG
score of the site by at least 10% through the creation of higher value habitats relative
to the baseline in addition to the built area. The implementation of individual
NBWMS when assessed from a BNG perspective offers the opportunity to derive
relative indicators of potential improvement to habitat distinctiveness and conserva-
tion importance while simultaneously implementing water management.
78 D. Warner

4.1.3 Biodiversity

The benefits of stormwater management NBWMS to given species or species groups

have to date focused mainly on amphibians. The value of SuDS to this species group
has been reported by authors such as Wilson et al. (2004), Parris (2006), Brand and
Snodgrass (2009), McCarthy and Lathrop (2011), Scher and Thiery (2005), Bray
(2001), Powell et al. (2001) and most recently by O’Brien (2014). The focus of most
of these studies is the great crested newt (Triturus cristatus), a European Protected
species under The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010 Schedule
2 and subject to legislation under the NERC Section 14 Act of the UK Wildlife and
Countryside Act (1981). Most existing literature evaluates the impact of detention
ponds on this species, rather than the broader landscape scale benefits that may be
provided by stormwater management NBWMS. Little is reported for the value of
NBWMS approaches to pollinators or bats, despite the importance of cities to
pollinators identified by Hall et al. (2017) and that all bat species are afforded
legal protection in the UK (The Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations
2010 Schedule 2). Bats operate over larger spatial scales and require multiple
habitats (Andrews, 2018). This includes suitable areas to forage, navigation or
‘commuting’ habitat, and roost sites. Roost sites consist of voids or cavities in
trees from nesting birds or damage and subsequent rotting, or crevices created by
lifting bark or splits (Plate 4.3d). In general, the older the tree the greater the potential
value as a roost site. Evaluating the importance of a habitat to bats considers
maternity and hibernation roosts (Kent Wildlife Trust 2015). The type and location
of roost sites vary depending on function, determined by the time of year and phase
in the life-cycle. For example, maternity roosts are used to raise young while
hibernation roosts are required to survive prolonged low temperatures when insect
activity ceases. The latter needs to be insulated from fluctuation in external air
temperatures and is therefore different in structure to roosts utilised when air
temperatures are warmer (Andrews, 2018). Bumblebees require floral resources for
a critical period between February and September in the UK (Goulson and Darvill
2004). Different flowering species or different combinations of flowering species
will vary in both their suitability and value to a given pollinator species (corolla
length, colour, nectar viscosity), and the duration of their flowering period when they
can supply this critical resource (Goulson and Darvill 2004; Kirk and Howes 2012).
The selection of appropriate plant species and management in association with a
particular NBWMS offers potential to enhance the NBWMS for biodiversity also.
This section evaluates three biodiversity groups with diverse habitat requirements
and activity at different spatial scales: pollinators (Hymenoptera: bumblebees and
solitary bees), amphibians (great crested newt, Triturus cristatus) and bats
(Chiroptera species). The NBWMS summarised in Table 4.1 may be constructed
or managed in different ways. Each NBWMS coupled with different management
scenarios for that NBWMS is evaluated individually and, where applicable,
develops BNG and habitat suitability index (HabSI) scores. The HabSI approach
is flexible and may be applied to any NBWMS or broader habitat type providing
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 79

there are details of the spatial dimensions, vegetation structure and plant species
provided. The approaches most valuable to habitat distinctiveness and biodiversity,
and their management are identified and discussed.

4.2 Methods

Key NBWMS used in the UK have been summarised in Table 4.1. For each
individual NBWMS multiple management scenarios including variation in feature
size, vegetation type, species composition and structure have been created. The
closest equivalent BNG habitat (Natural England 2021) has been allocated to each
NBWMS as a measure of habitat distinctiveness (Appendix Table 1). Each NBWMS
BNG score has been standardised onto a scale of 0 to 1.0 as a proportion of the
highest available BNG score and habitat condition multiplication factor (8 * 3 = 24).
The HabSI approach of Oldham et al. (2000) and ARG (2010) is used for
T. cristatus (dispersal habitat/corridors and forage habitat quality within 250 m of
a pond, pond size, macrophyte cover, permanence/frequency of drying out). All
building developments must account for their presence and take measures to mitigate
the impact of any works on their populations and ensure legal compliance with
legislation. The HabSI approach is a rapid assessment method whereby the key
features of a habitat critical for the survival of T. cristatus populations are allocated
semi-quantitative scores depending on their relative degree of importance. An
overall score of habitat suitability (0 to 1.0) that predicts the likelihood of
T. cristatus being present is then derived. Where scores of average or above 0.5
are calculated overall, further more detailed surveys are recommended to ascertain
the physical presence of individuals of this species. Such surveys include observa-
tional torchlight surveys of ponds at night, bottle traps placed in the pond substrate
checked every 24 h, and visual surveys of aquatic plants for eggs or netting. Habitats
or features created as part of a NBWMS approach may contribute positively towards
such HabSI but this requires further evaluation.
A HabSI been developed for four bat species documented to frequent urban areas
(Barlow et al. 2015): common pipistrelle (Pipistrellus pipistrellus), soprano pipis-
trelle (Pipistrellus pygmaeus), serotine (Eptesicus serotinus) and noctule (Nyctalus
noctula). Each NBWMS in Table 4.1 utilises the approach of Andrews (2018) to
include species preference for forage habitat, commuting habitat, maternity roost
sites and hibernation roost sites. The Daubenton’s bat (Myotis daubentonii) has been
included due to its utilisation of open water habitats during foraging (Langton et al.
2010). The HabSI allocates scores of 0 (no relationship), 0.5 (desirable) to 1.0
(critical). Critical maternity and hibernation roost habitat (score = 1.0) for bats
includes woodland or street trees/treelines (Andrews, 2018). Serotines tend to use
the latter while Daubenton’s bat does not utilise either habitat feature as hibernation
roosts (score = 0). Forage habitat includes water in combination with woodland for
Daubenton’s bat (score = 1.0), woodland and treelines preferentially for serotines
(score = 1.0) although they are also used by noctules and pipistrelles that will also
80 D. Warner

Plate 4.5 Spring flowering tree species of value to pollinators: (a) blackthorn (Prunus spinosa), (b)
cherry (Prunus species), (c) willow (Salix species). Photo Doug Warner

forage along hedgerows (desirable, score = 0.5). The soprano pipistrelle will forage
for mosquitoes (Family: Culicidae) near waterbodies including small ponds although
they are not critical (desirable, score = 0.5). Hedgerows and treelines are used as
commuting habitat by all species (score = 1.0) except noctules (score = 0).
The flower quality scoring system derived by Kirk and Howes (2012) for solitary
bees and bumblebees has been standardised on a scale of 0 (no value) to 1 (core
forage species), also accounting for the length of the flowering period as a proportion
of the total critical period. The value of a given NBWMS habitat or individual plant
species within that habitat (Table 4.1), for example blackthorn (Prunus spinosa) in
hedgerows, potential street trees (cherry, Prunus spp.), water tolerant riparian
species (willow, Salix spp.) (Plate 4.5a–c) or drought tolerant Sedum in green
roofs (Plate 4.4b) are each allocated an individual quality score between 0 and 1.0.
The open flowers, easily accessible anthers and prolific pollen produced from early
spring onwards when flower availability is limited make the species illustrated in
Plate 4.5 core pollinator forage species. Finally, Zulian et al. (2013) allocate indica-
tors of bumblebee nest site quality for selected habitat types. The habitats have been
mapped onto the equivalent NBWMS summarised previously in Table 4.1 and a
score (0 to 1.0) of bumblebee nest site suitability allocated.
Each NBWMS listed in Table 4.1 has been allocated an overall score for each
species group based on the presence or absence of water, the vegetation structure and
composition, and management. The standardisation of scores on a scale of 0 to 1.0
permits comparison of each biodiversity group and NBWMS feature. A score of 0.5
or above is classed as suitable/desirable, a score of 0.75–1.0 is excellent/critical. The
scores for each NBWMS and biodiversity species group are described in Sect. 4.3.
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 81

4.3 Habitat Suitability and Rarity Scores

The value of each NBWMS to biodiversity and specific species groups differs due to
its overall function and to plant species composition. The NBWMS habitats of
greatest benefit to bats (Fig. 4.4) include the provision of potential tree roost features
coupled with linear features that function as commuting habitat. Examples include
wet woodland riparian areas (RG + WP), street trees in lines (Tr-line), bioswales
with a treeline (BioS-t) or bioswales with a hedgerow and trees (BioS-ht). Other
NBWMS operating over smaller spatial scales, for example bioswales, can poten-
tially provide valuable roost and commuting habitat. Linear features may be formed
from hedgerows/hedgerows with trees/treelines in bioswales (Fig. 4.1) or lines of
trees in the street (Fig. 4.2). Linear features containing trees offer both roost sites and
commuting habitat for bat species such as the common pipistrelle but lack the
structural diversity of a bioswale. Individual trees score lower than treelines or
bioswales (Fig. 4.4).
The creation of riparian areas with wet wood pasture habitat (RGr + WP) provides
valuable forage habitat. The inclusion of willow (RGr + WPwl), a tree species
attractive to multiple insect species (Füssel et al. 2007; Jürgens et al. 2014) such
as moths (Lepidoptera), a key source of prey for the species of bat evaluated (Rydell
2006), combined with a four-month flowering period (Kirk and Howes 2012) that
improves forage quality and the overall score relative to other water tolerant tree
species such as alder. Although trees present individually (Tr-i) offer potential as
roost features, they are limited in their value as commuting habitat. Likewise,
hedgerows (BioS-h) provide commuting habitat but are limited as roost features.
Habitat where trees are absent may offer forage potential, for example the open water
of retention ponds (RP) for Daubenton’s bat especially where species diverse aquatic
vegetation is present to attract insects. Purposely sown pollinator mixtures within
rain gardens (RG-pol), green roofs (GR-pol) or planted roadside drainage areas
(BpO-pol) may also attract multiple insect species (Hicks et al. 2016) and potential
sources of prey, providing improved forage quality. Such habitats are also valuable
to bees (Fig. 4.5).
Bees benefit from species diverse vegetation present either within the feature
(RPsdv, RGr-wm) or as habitat combined with a NBWMS feature (BioS-h). Pur-
posely sown pollinator friendly species mixtures (pol) or extensively managed areas
(ext) with limited management interventions create species rich habitats such as
water meadow riparian grassland (RGr-wm) instead of amenity grassland (RGr-am).
Extensively managed species rich water meadow contains multiple flowering plant
species, highly valuable to pollinators (Hicks et al. 2016). At smaller spatial scales
drought tolerant plants (Sedum species), also valuable to bees (Kirk and Howes
2012), may be necessary for shallow soiled green roofs or ecological bus shelters
(GR-dt) that are typically exposed to sunlight and high evapotranspiration rates.
Where trees are a component of the NBWMS feature, cherry (ch) or water tolerant
willow (wl) is among the most valuable species to bumblebees and solitary bees as
are hedge species such as blackthorn (bl) (Jürgens et al. 2014; Kirk and Howes 2012)
82 D. Warner

Fig. 4.4 The relative value of stormwater NBWMS to individual bat species. RP: Retention
Pond, DB: Detention Basin, RGr: Riparian Grassland, WP: Wood Pasture, BpO: Bump
Out, BioS: Bio Swale, InTr: Infiltration Trench, PP: Porous Pavement, Tr-i: Tree-individual,
Tr-line: Tree-line, GR: Green Roof, RG: Rain Garden, GPo: Garden Pond 25: 25 m2, nv: no
vegetation, spv: species poor vegetation, sdv: species diverse vegetation, am: amenity, dr:
dredged, ext: extensive, wm: water meadow, al: alder, wl: willow, mu: mulched, tg: tussocky
grass, pol: pollinator, ht: hawthorn, bl: blackthorn, hz: hazel, hl: holly, fm: field maple, 5:
5 species, sb: silver birch, ch: cherry, rw: rowan, lm: lime, dt: drought tolerant, nn: non-native
species

and trees including willow (Kirk and Howes 2012). Bumblebees create nests in
dense vegetation in which the queen overwinters before forming a colony in the
spring (Goulson et al. 2010). Hedgerows (BioS-h) and tussocky grasses (BioS-tg)
within bioswales provide important nest sites for bumblebees (Goulson et al. 2010;
Zulian et al. 2013).
Figure 4.5 identifies how the type of vegetation associated with the same
NBWMS can be modified to enhance their value to both nectar and pollen sources
or nest site potential, while still maintaining their primary function of stormwater
management. A bioswale planted with a hedgerow and trees (BioS-h(bl)t(wl)) will
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 83

Fig. 4.5 Cumulative habitat suitability scores for pollinators, amphibians and bats. RP: Retention
Pond, DB: Detention Basin, RGr: Riparian Grassland, WP: Wood Pasture, BpO: Bump Out, BioS:
Bio Swale, InTr: Infiltration Trench, PP: Porous Pavement, Tr-i: Tree-individual, Tr-line: Tree-
line, GR: Green Roof; RG: Rain Garden, GPo: Garden Pond 25: 25 m2, nv: no vegetation, spv:
species poor vegetation, sdv: species diverse vegetation, am: amenity, dr: dredged, ext:
extensive, wm: water meadow, al: alder, wl: willow, mu: mulched, tg: tussocky grass, pol:
pollinator, ht: hawthorn, bl: blackthorn, hz: hazel, hl: holly, fm: field maple, 5: 5 species, sb: silver
birch, ch: cherry, rw: rowan, lm: lime, dt: drought tolerant, nn: non-native species

differ in the biodiversity species groups that will utilise it compared to a grass
dominated strip (BioS-tg). Due to differences in the timing and length of flowering,
and the flower structure, willow trees (Salix species) are of greater value to pollina-
tors compared to species such as hazel (Corylus avellana) (Kirk and Howes 2012).
The scenarios BioS-h(hz) and BioS-h(bl)t(wl) both function as bioswales with a
similar vertical structure, the difference in species composition potentially modifies
their value to biodiversity. As a general hierarchy in terms of value to pollinators,
habitats containing willow or sown pollinator mixtures > grass areas > mulched
bioswales.
84 D. Warner

Habitat provision for the amphibian T. cristatus requires catering for both a
terrestrial and aquatic phase. The value of an NBWMS to the aquatic phase is
determined principally by the size of the feature, the presence of species diverse
aquatic vegetation (also an indicator of water quality) and permanence (how fre-
quently it dries out) (Oldham et al. 2000; ARG 2010). Retention ponds greater than
400 m2 in size (RP > 400) combined with diverse species rich aquatic vegetation
(RP > 400sdv) have score highest for amphibians (Fig. 4.5). With respect to the
terrestrial phase, vegetation diverse in structure such as riparian periodically inun-
dated water meadows (RGr-wm) or wet wood pasture (RGr + WP), bioswales/
ditches with tussocky grass species (BioS-tg) or hedgerows (BioS-h) are important
both as foraging habitat and for the facilitation of dispersal. Structurally poor
habitats, such as amenity grassland riparian areas (RGr-am), bioswales managed as
amenity grassland (BioS-am), or mulched bioswales (BioS-mu) are of limited value.
The highest BNG scores (Appendix Table 1) are associated with those NBWMS
that contain water all year but also have high habitat quality, for example retention
ponds with species diverse vegetation (RPsdv), riparian periodically inundated areas
with water tolerant tree species that form wet woodland (RGr + WP), or species
diverse water meadows (RGr-wm). Species rich hedgerows (>5 or more woody
species) located within bioswales (BioS-h(5)) also score highly. Riparian grassland
with wet wood pasture dominated by willow (RGr + WPwl) provides quality habitat
for bats, bumblebees and solitary bees in addition to scoring highly with BNG
(Natural England 2021), although the BNG methodology makes no distinction
between tree species, only the number of species. Bioswales that contain hedgerows
and trees provide both high quality habitat for each species group evaluated but also
represent valuable commuting or dispersal features functioning as wildlife corridors.
Overall, the scenarios with a score > 0.5 (Fig. 4.6) are considered to be the NBWMS
and associated management to prioritise for the enhancement of biodiversity.

4.4 Discussion

A retention pond or mulched bioswale or amenity grass riparian area may be

installed in a purely functional capacity, as illustrated in Plates 4.1a and 4.2a. This
will achieve the desired objective of water management but is generally of limited
value to biodiversity. If the retention pond is planted with a structurally and species
diverse vegetation (Plate 4.1b) or the mulched bioswale replaced with a species rich
hedgerow containing trees (Fig. 4.1), preferably willow, the value of the NBWMS to
biodiversity may be enhanced considerably while maintaining its primary
stormwater management function. A combination of habitat types with multiple
layers, i.e. herb, shrub and tree layer, improves the habitat quality to a greater
number of the species groups evaluated. Each NBWMS is discussed in turn.
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 85

Fig. 4.6 Summary biodiversity net gain and habitat suitability scores for pollinators, amphibians
and bats. Grey shaded area: HabSI score < 0.5. RP: Retention Pond, DB: Detention Basin, RGr:
Riparian Grassland, WP: Wood Pasture, BpO: Bump Out, BioS: Bio Swale, InTr: Infiltration
Trench, PP: Porous Pavement, Tr-i: Tree-individual, Tr-line: Tree-line, GR: Green Roof; RG:
Rain Garden, GPo: Garden Pond 25: 25 m2, nv: no vegetation, spv: species poor vegetation, sdv:
species diverse vegetation, am: amenity, dr: dredged, ext: extensive, wm: water meadow, al:
alder, wl: willow, m: mulched, tg: tussocky grass, pol: pollinator, ht: hawthorn, bl:
blackthorn, hz: hazel, hl: holly, fm: field maple, 5: 5 species, sb: silver birch, ch: cherry, rw:
rowan, lm: lime, dt: drought tolerant, nn: non-native species

4.4.1 Amphibians

Of the species groups considered, the most extensive existing literature applicable to
water management relates to amphibians, T. cristatus in particular, due to it being
afforded legal protection in the UK and Europe as a whole. Most of this literature is,
however, focused primarily on the aquatic habitat created by retention ponds. The
structure of the surrounding habitat is also of critical importance but remains
somewhat neglected. Triturus cristatus are a species known to utilise multiple
habitat features within an area with a regular movement of individuals between
86 D. Warner

each of those features, i.e. they exist as a meta-population, a group of several

interconnected local populations (Oldham et al. 2000). Population isolation caused
by barriers between breeding ponds disrupting this meta-population causes a decline
in their genetic diversity and inbreeding depression (Hitchings and Beebee 1998). It
makes the population more vulnerable to localised extinction due to factors such as
disease. As such, they require multiple ponds suitable for completion of the aquatic
phase of the life-cycle (reproduction) within a given area and a means of dispersing
between those ponds easily. Linear habitat features, ditches or hedgerows, are
required for this purpose. The artificial channel of a bioswale may, at the very
basic level, only be mulched. In the context of T. cristatus dispersal, it is of limited
value. Where the bioswale is vegetated with tussocky grass or a hedgerow, suitable
dispersal habitat is provided (ARG 2010; Oldham et al. 2000). Further, the terrestrial
phase requires a diverse habitat, for example woodland or rough (extensive) grass-
land within which to forage (Oldham et al. 2000). Riparian areas managed as water
meadow or wet wood pasture as opposed to amenity grassland provide such habitat.
There is evidence to support the potential for retention ponds created as part of a
NBWMS to be of value to T. cristatus populations. Bray (1994) and Kinne (2004)
found that breeding populations became established in up to 75% of artificially
created ponds. Lewis (2012) identified no significant difference between the colo-
nisation of newly created relative to older ponds. According to ARG (2010), a pond
is optimal for T. cristatus if it is located within an area where the adjacent pond
density is 4 km-2, is close to a linear feature, a diverse foraging area, >400 m2, has
no fish (or dries infrequently, 1 year in 10), is devoid of waterfowl and has an
abundance of aquatic invertebrates and diversity of emergent macrophytes (aquatic
vegetation) with limited shading from trees. Variables within the control of NBWMS
pond creation are the size and permanence of the pond and the creation of suitable
forage habitat and linear features. Fish are predators of both the newts themselves
and of the aquatic macroinvertebrates that constitute much of the diet of T. cristatus
(Oldham et al. 2000). They tend not to be introduced into retention ponds which
elevates their suitability. Cooke (1997) observe that maintaining water depth and
preventing colonisation by fish were critical for sustaining T. cristatus populations,
especially for the survival of larvae. An integrated NBWMS flood mitigation
network offers great potential to enhance T. cristatus populations for example
through multiple retention ponds >400 m2 in surface area each connected by
vegetated bioswales with adjacent extensively managed riparian grassland or wood
pasture. A combination of these habitats provides a high HabSI overall. Culverts or
tunnels under main roads for the purpose of amphibian dispersal have reported high
rates of usage with significant potential to reduce amphibian mortality rates
(Lesbarrères et al. 2004; Puky and Vogel. 2003). If these can be integrated with
NBWMS flood management, the scope for permitting dispersal within a fragmented
urban landscape is considerable.
O’Brien (2014) reported that ponds created as part of a SuDS scheme in Scotland
were higher in quality relative to lowland ponds located on, for example, farmland.
Concentrations of nitrate (NO3-) and phosphate (P2O5) were lower in the ponds
evaluated; however, this may not be the case for all. Retention ponds capture and
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 87

retain water permanently which for a species with an aquatic phase to its life-cycle is
a critical component. Pollutants such as suspended solids, NO3- and P2O5 are
mitigated within the waterbody itself through being permitted to settle to the lower
layers or through accumulation within aquatic vegetation (Environment Agency
2012). The presence of aquatic vegetation is therefore essential both from the
perspective of improving water quality and enhancing the abundance of invertebrate
species at lower trophic levels, a key source of prey, and improving the overall
T. cristatus HabSI score. Aquatic phytoremediation properties are reported for
willow by Mirck et al. (2005) and Licht and Isebrands (2005) and for alder by
Garg et al. (2018). The presence of trees within or on the periphery of a retention
pond need to be placed carefully however since excessive shading reduces the HabSI
score (ARG 2010). Further, management such as the selected removal of reeds
and/or scrub to prevent succession to terrestrial habitat also requires consideration
(Lepik 2004). It is acknowledged that the accumulation and concentration of pollut-
ants in ponds adjacent to main roads may be high and water quality remains
unsuitable despite the presence of aquatic vegetation. Further, chloride (Cl-) from
road salt applied during the winter may also result in direct mortality to T. cristatus
(Duff et al. 2011). Retention ponds located adjacent to main roads therefore may not
be suitable for T. cristatus, irrespective of size and vegetation being present. Zac
et al. (2018) suggest the application of integrated buffer zones (IBZs), a combination
of a permanent retention waterbody coupled with a shallow inundated buffer area
containing vegetation through which water flow is intercepted prior to entry into the
retention area. Trees, for example alder or willow, located in the buffer area filter key
pollutants before water enters the retention pond. The authors report on the effec-
tiveness of NO3- and P2O5 removal, and the impact on the removal of Cl- is not
stated.
O’Brien (2014) also reports benefits from retention ponds to other amphibian
species, for example the common frog (Rana temporaria) supporting the observa-
tions of Jones and Fermor (2001), and to a lesser extent common toad (Bufo bufo)
and palmate newt (Lissotriton helveticus). Although garden ponds are noted to
benefit amphibians (Beebee 1979; Davies et al. 2009) many contain fish and will
be smaller in size, a mean of 6 m2 (O’Brien 2014) reducing the suitability to
T. cristatus (Oldham et al. 2000). Rana temporaria can utilise a range of NBWMS
features including smaller ponds and, due to rapid development of the aquatic phase,
is able to complete its life-cycle within temporary waterbodies. Seasonal retention
ponds and garden ponds therefore may benefit this species. The ponds observed to
contain B. bufo by O’brien (2014) were large in size >750 m2 and therefore would
be limited only to retention ponds larger in size. A note of caution is given by
O’brien (2014) who despite observing reproductive success also expressed concern
that some ponds may act as population sinks, that is habitats that are colonised by
adults but are of insufficient quality to allow reproductive success or completion of
the life-cycle by larvae. Comparable observations are noted for highly eutrophic
farm ponds by Zakaria (2017). Under such circumstances a net population decline
results over a given period of time. O’brien (2014) does not conclude that this is the
case for the SuDS ponds evaluated but it is imperative that NBWMS retention ponds
88 D. Warner

are managed optimally, not just to mitigate flooding but also for the benefit of
biodiversity, and for amphibians in particular who require both a terrestrial and
aquatic phase to their life-cycle. Retention ponds may vary in size, structure and
vegetation composition as illustrated in Plate 4.1. A steep sided hard surface
retention pond devoid of aquatic plants and species rich bankside vegetation (Plate
4.1a) contrasts with a pond that has gently sloping sides, variable water depth and
species rich vegetation present in both the water and the margins (Plate 4.1b).
Further, the presence of aquatic and marginal vegetation, for example Phragmites
australis, may function in a filtering capacity that in turn, improves water quality
(Milke et al. 2020; Rezania et al. 2019). Simple modifications to the design may
include replacing steeply sloping sides with areas where the inclines are gradual and
allow easy exit of the pond by adults upon completion of the aquatic phase of the
life-cycle. The placement of artificial deadwood ‘hibernacula’ in proximity to an
NBWMS feature to act as overwintering or aestivation sites is a simple but effective
strategy to enhance their value for multiple amphibian species (Latham and Knowles
2008; Lewis 2012; Neave and Moffat 2007).

4.4.2 Solitary Bees and Bumblebees (Hymenoptera)

Bumblebees require nectar as a source of rapidly metabolisable energy to power

flight (Goulson and Darvill 2004). The high protein content of pollen maintains the
fecundity (reproductive potential) of queens and nourishes the colony as a whole
(Goulson and Darvill 2004). Bumblebees may be sub-divided into long and short
tongued species, each utilising different plant species depending on the length of the
flower corolla (Goulson and Darvill 2004). This difference in feeding strategy
permits the coexistence of a greater number of species within a given habitat through
‘resource partitioning’ or the ‘complementarity’ effect. The supply of a continuous
source of nectar between early spring and autumn (multiple suitable flowering
species in temporal succession) is essential for the survival of many species within
this key pollinator group (Goulson and Darvill 2004). Different plant species are
more attractive to different pollinator species and flowers for different lengths of
time. As such, a limited number of flowering species within a habitat is inadequate
since the time when flowers are present represents a fraction of this overall period
and may only support a small number of pollinator species. Nature based solutions
that include diverse habitats with multiple plant species maximise the value of the
habitat for pollinators and help ensure that pollen and nectar are provided for the
entire critical forage period rather than just a few weeks.
The impact of NBWMS methods on pollinators focuses mainly on sown mixtures
for green roofs (Colla et al. 2009; Dusza et al. 2020; Ksiazek et al. 2012; Wu 2019).
Sedum used in green roofs offers benefit to bumblebees and solitary bees although its
value according to Kirk and Howes (2012) is not as high as a multi-species pollinator
mixture. An advantage of Sedum is its drought tolerance, making it a good option for
exposed surfaces where the substrate is shallow, evapotranspiration rates are high
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 89

and periodic drying of the soil is frequent. The value of NBWMS to pollinators is not
limited solely to this approach. The sowing of pollinator mixtures that include red
(Trifolium pratense) or white (Trifolium repens) clover or trefoil (Lotus
corniculatus) as a component of grassland or vegetated areas also benefit bees
(Kirk and Howes. 2012). Bioswales/drainage corridors may be mulched or planted
but a valuable opportunity exists to create semi-natural habitat that mimics features
present in rural locations such as hedgerows or hedgerows with trees. This increases
both the plant species diversity and hence the range of floral resource, but also
structural diversity and the value of the habitat as a bumblebee nest site (Goulson
et al. 2010; Zulian et al. 2013).
Species diverse riparian areas or retention ponds also provide valuable floral
resources. Aquatic plants, for example yellow flag iris (Iris pseudacorus), marsh
marigold (Caltha palustris) and water lilies (Nymphaeaceae spp.) can be planted
within retention ponds during the creation process and will enhance the value of the
pond as a forage source to bees (Kirk and Howes 2012). Tree species such as willow
are attractive to both bumblebees and solitary bees, while flowering for a period of
4 months during the spring (Kirk and Howes 2012), a critical time in the UK when
forage is limited (Goulson and Darvill 2004). Reddersen (2001) notes that it is only
the flowers of male willow plants that produce both pollen and nectar, the female
plants produce only nectar. They recommend that both genders be present where
purposely planted. The flowers of tree species such as hazel or alder are not reported
by Kirk and Howes (2012) to be of value to bumblebees or solitary bees. All three
tree species could be used in either a wet woodland or bioswale hedgerow scenario
but the inclusion of willow increases the habitat value to pollinators considerably.

4.4.3 Bats (Chiroptera)

Bats require the following key habitats: an area to forage, a means to navigate during
foraging (commuting habitat), a roost to raise young (maternity roost) and a roost in
which to hibernate (Andrews, 2018; Meyer et al. 2016). The physical properties of
roosts and hence the type of feature used differ depending on the time of year in
which they are occupied. The preferred forage and roost habitat of bats is also
species dependent (Andrews, 2018). Bats are largely dependent on structural diver-
sity, i.e. the presence of a linear feature shrub layer for commuting purposes in
combination with trees for roosting (Andrews, 2018). While individual trees may
serve as roost sites, trees in a line and hedgerows function as commuting habitat.
Trees in a line and hedgerows with trees present in, for example, bioswales serve as
both commuting habitat and roost sites. Although foraging will occur over open
grassland preference is given to movement along linear features that bisect such
habitats, or the woodland edge interface. The Daubenton’s bat prefers to forage over
open water with adjacent woodland benefitting from the presence of larger sized
water basins or ponds, for example retention ponds >400 m2. Due to greater forage
activity by bats during the summer, these water bodies need to be permanent
90 D. Warner

retention ponds rather than temporary water detention features, the latter of which
are more likely to be devoid of water during the summer months. Both Daubenton’s
and serotine bats forage in woodland (Andrews, 2018), wet woodland riparian areas
included, although such habitats will also be utilised by pipistrelles and noctules,
albeit the presence of such habitat not being critical. The addition of water tolerant
tree species to riparian grassland to create wet wood pasture benefits this species
group the most, providing forage habitat to woodland dwelling species in combina-
tion with maternity roosts and hibernation roosts.
Maternity roosts are utilised by female bats during the summer to raise young,
hibernation roosts during the winter to avoid low temperatures when insect activity
is limited (Meyer et al. 2016). Both roost types are identified as being a critical phase
in the bat life-cycle and are used as a means to assess the conservation value of a
given habitat (Kent Wildlife Trust, 2015). Where trees are used as roost sites, the tree
age is an important factor in determining its value and function (Andrews, 2018).
The presence of woodpecker holes (former nest sites of Picus viridis, Dendrocopos
major or Dendrocopos minor), tear outs (the crevice remaining after the loss of a
limb) and wounds (rot proceeding bark loss or physical damage) are reported as
being used as roost sites by multiple bat species and life-cycle phases in Salix
species. Roosts were noted in trees with a stem diameter at 1.5 m high of
19–54 cm, equating to trees of approximately 7–19 years of age (Lukaszkiewicz
and Kosmala 2008). Comparable activity is reported for alder with a diameter of
15 cm, also approximately 7 years in age. Although recently planted trees are
unlikely to be of value initially, street trees and trees in bioswales will offer potential
as roost sites within 10 years of establishment, a relatively short time frame. The tree
species itself is a further variable in determining the value of a given NBWMS to
bats. The flowers of willow are more attractive to many insects, the main source of
prey, compared to those of alder (Kirk and Howes 2012). The creation of wet wood
pasture dominated by willow would therefore be preferable to increase the attrac-
tiveness of NBWMS for bats. Likewise, including willow in species rich hedgerows
provides both a commuting habitat and potential roost sites.

4.4.4 Habitat Distinctness

The permanent water provided by retention ponds scores highly for BNG as does
woodland, species rich riparian grassland and species rich hedgerows. Ponds, wet
woodland and hedgerows are classed as UK Biodiversity Action Plan Priority
Habitat (JNCC 2019) under Section 41 of the Natural Environment and Rural
Communities (NERC) Act 2006 (England). A report by Biggs et al. (2014) identifies
the need to create new wildlife ponds in order to reverse the decline of aquatic plants
in the UK. The creation of a species diverse NBWMS retention pond is an oppor-
tunity to mitigate this decline. The BNG methodology also highlights that the
planting of non-native species should be avoided.
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 91

4.4.5 Prioritisation of NBWMS for Biodiversity

Enhancement and Water Management

The options of value to all three groups, species diverse linear features such as
bioswales with hedgerow and trees or structurally diverse riparian areas, are identi-
fied as the NBWMS of potentially highest value to biodiversity groups evaluated
(Table 4.2).
Modification to species composition, for example riparian grassland as wet wood
pasture dominated by alder as opposed to willow reduces the value to pollinators and
the overall ranking of the feature. Some features may be of value to a single
biodiversity group. Green roofs or ecological bus shelters planted with Sedum may
be of value only to pollinators but when viewed with respect to ecological connec-
tivity within the urban landscape, perform a potentially critical function in the
joining of existing greenspace with similar areas or other NBWMS features such
as street trees (Sect. 4.4.6).

4.4.6 Ecological Connectivity

The structure and creation of a linear feature or ‘wildlife corridor’ is of great value in
facilitating the dispersal of species and connecting habitat fragments within an urban
environment. This is critical for enhancing species that exist as meta-populations,
such as T. cristatus. Wet woodland where tree species such as willow grow is of
value to pollinators (Kirk and Howes 2012) but the enhanced vertical structure
becomes of value to secondary consumers such as insectivorous bats. The enhance-
ment of biodiversity by NBWMS as a component of their design criteria is
highlighted by Woods Ballard et al. (2015). Two of the objectives are to enhance
habitat connectivity and the creation of self-sustaining and resilient ecosystems. If
there are finite locations for the placement of NBWMS strategies, and assuming their
primary objective of flood mitigation is realised, the strategic placement should
ideally enable the connection of individual habitats. If habitat creation varies in
spatial extent, the associated forage zones created might be visualised as in the
hypothetical example in Fig. 4.7.
In the hypothetical example for pollinators above, a combination of features are
placed within the urban landscape in order to connect existing greenspace (red
zones) that may act as a potential ‘source’ habitat due to the length of time it has
been present. The additional features are to a degree constrained by where they can
be located. For example, the bioswale (blue zone) is located where stormwater
accumulates due to intense rainfall. The ecological bus shelters (yellow zone) retrofit
existing bus stop locations. The green roofs (green zone) are on private dwellings or
commercial units but offer some flexibility in their location subject to appropriate
structural properties and consent. Street trees (white zone) offer perhaps the greatest
flexibility in terms of their location. The structure and species composition is
potentially different for each feature. A combination of these different features in
92 D. Warner

Table 4.2 Priority options where o (<0.50), + (>0.50), ++ (>0.75), Db: value to Daubenton’s
bat; Comm: valuable commuting habitat, Sp: value to Soprano pipistrelles
Code Description BNG T. cristatus Bees Bats Total
BioS-h(5)t Bioswale + species rich hedge- ++ ++ ++ + ++
(wl) row (minimum 5 species) + trees
(willow)
BioS-h(bl)t Bioswale + hedgerow (black- + ++ ++ + ++
(wl) thorn) + trees (willow)
RGr + WPwl Riparian grassland - wet wood ++ ++ ++ + ++
pasture/periodically inundated,
willow dominated
RGr-wm Riparian grassland - wet ++ ++ ++ o +
meadows/periodically inundated
grassland, extensive
RP > 400sdv Retention pond/water basin ++ ++ ++ Db +
>450 m2 species diverse aquatic
vegetation
BioS-h(5) Bioswale + species rich hedge- ++ ++ ++ Comm +
row (5 species)
BioS-pol Bioswale + wildflower/pollinator + ++ ++ o +
mixture (vegetation component)
RP400sdv Retention pond/water basin ++ ++ ++ Db +
300–450 m2 species diverse
aquatic vegetation
BioS-h(hz)t Bioswale + hedgerow + ++ o + +
(sb) (hazel) + trees (silver birch)
RGr + WPal Riparian grassland - wet wood ++ ++ o + +
pasture/periodically inundated,
alder dominated
BioS-t(wl) Bioswale + treeline (willow) o + ++ + +
RP300sdv Retention pond/water basin ++ + ++ Db +
200–300 m2 species diverse
aquatic vegetation
GPo25sdv Ponds <25 m2 species diverse ++ + ++ Sp +
vegetation
STr-line(wl) Street trees - in line (willow) o + ++ + +
BioS-h(ht) Bioswale + hedgerow (single + ++ + Comm +
species dominant)
SNW-ext Semi-natural waterways - + + ++ Db +
dredged, extensively managed
BpO-pol Bumpout (raised planted + o ++ o o
bed) + wildflower/pollinator
mixture
GR-pol Green roofs + wildflower/polli- + o ++ o o
nator mixture
GR-dt Green roofs + drought tolerant o o + o o
species (Sedum spp.)
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 93

Fig. 4.7 Connecting the cityscape. London observed from the Shard building and the potential for
enhancing ecological connectivity (white dashed lines) for pollinators with the strategic spatial
location of NBWMS strategies. Circles represent core forage zones (red: existing greenspace; green:
green roof; blue: bioswale; white: street tree; yellow: ecological bus shelter). Photo Doug Warner

proximity sufficient that pollinators may move between them, creates a potentially
species and structurally diverse landscape within the urban environment.
There is also the opportunity to retrofit existing features. In Fig. 4.8, trees within a
car parking area are contained within a raised curb preventing natural drainage, with
a species poor amenity grass base. The trees were originally added for aesthetic
purposes rather than water management specifically but being cherry trees (Prunus
spp.), they have value to pollinating insects during the spring. The retrofitting of a
drainage access point in the kerb base permits greater stormwater dispersal from the
hard surface into the existing tree root zones as opposed to entry into the current
surface drainage system. Application of the HabSI approach allows the prioritisation
of existing features to maximise benefit not just to stormwater management but also
biodiversity. In this example, the HabSI also identifies that the addition of an
appropriate wildflower mixture to the zone at the base of the tree trunk will increase
the value to pollinators further, creating a ‘stepping-stone’ habitat over a large
expanse of hard surface. Artificial bat roost structures placed strategically within
the upper parts of the tree improve the HabSI for bats such as P. pipistrellus.
The Biodiversity Metric and HabSI approach are flexible and may be used to
evaluate any existing NBWMS, or its potential value if modified or retrofitted, if
details of plant species composition and habitat structure are available. There are also
opportunities to expand the method to apply to other species groups or adapt it to
NBWMS implemented outside the UK.
94 D. Warner

Fig. 4.8 Potential retrofitting of an existing street tree planter to benefit stormwater management
and biodiversity in a peri-urban car parking zone. Photo: Doug Warner

4.5 Conclusions

Shifting dependence from the centralised drainage systems in many UK cities that
are dated and lack the capacity to deal with the increasing volumes of stormwater to
NBWMS offer the opportunity to enhance the urban landscape for biodiversity also.
The structure, species composition and management of NBWMS may be modified
to perform both critical water management functions but also to benefit the key
species groups of bats, amphibians and pollinators. Structurally and species diverse
NBWMS features confer the greatest benefit individually. The contribution of other
features is heightened where they enhance ecological connectivity within the urban
environment which is feasible, even within heavily developed central urban areas,
through the implementation of novel approaches to water management.
4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 95

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4 Nature Based Solutions for Water Management in England: Contribution. . . 99

Doug Warner joined the University of Hertfordshire as a PhD student in 1998, studying natural
methods of pest control in oilseed crops. His main areas of interest are agricultural ecology,
greenhouse gas emissions and their mitigation, carbon sequestration, ecosystem services and
more recently, nature-based water management solutions in rural and urban environments. He
was a co-editor of the Springer monograph ‘Urban stormwater and flood management’ published
in 2019.
Chapter 5
Applications of Nature-Based Solutions
in Urban Water Management in Singapore,
Thailand and Vietnam: A Review

Nguyen Sy Linh, Fahad Ahmed, and Ho Huu Loc

Abstract The development in urban areas alters surface cover causing disruption in
the hydrological cycle. Impervious surfaces, compacted soils and vegetation
removal decrease the capacity of interception, evapotranspiration, infiltration and
storing rainwater. Consequently, the stormwater runoff volume, magnitude of runoff
peak and the risk of urban flooding increase. Stormwater runoff in urban areas also
carries various contaminants which are substantially overlooked by conventional
stormwater management practices. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) are more sustain-
ably designed to attenuate flood risks along with reduction of pollutants, enhanced
biodiversity and improved aesthetics. In this chapter, we will discuss success stories
of three Southeast ASEAN countries with contrasting contexts: Singapore, Thailand
and Vietnam. The Active, Beautiful, Clean (ABC) Waters Programme is a paradigm
shift in urban stormwater management in Singapore. Whereas, NbS projects have
been implemented successfully in Thailand, which include some state-of-the-art
urban parks. In Vietnam, the application of NbS for urban water management is
not formally announced but in Ho Chi Minh City and ancient capital city of Hue
some NbS initiatives are being promoted. This chapter will provide a review of NbS
applications and will also identify opportunities and challenges in application of NbS
for urban water management.

N. S. Linh
Institute of Strategy and Policy on Natural Resources and Environment (ISPONRE), Hanoi,
Vietnam
F. Ahmed
Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Khlong Nueng,
Thailand
Department of Civil Engineering, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
e-mail: hohuuloc@ait.asia
H. H. Loc (*)
Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Khlong Nueng,
Thailand
e-mail: fahad.ahmed@uos.edu.pk

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 101
N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_5
102 N. S. Linh et al.

Keywords Urban stormwater · Southeast Asia · Nature-based solutions · Urban

water management

5.1 Introduction

The world’s population is rising at such a rapid rate that by 2050, there will be a 68%
increase in urban population (UNDESA 2012). Unplanned and rapid urbanizations
have caused an increase in the impervious surfaces mostly in large urban areas which
has led to greater runoff volumes and rates. Furthermore, climate change is expected
to raise the severity and frequency of rainfall events, putting additional strain on
urban hydrology and increasing the dangers of flooding (Revi et al. 2014; Loc et al.
2017, 2020a).
The increased anthropogenic activities and change in land use and cover have
caused an increased level of different contaminants (from the point and non-point
sources) in the discharge which is flowing into surface water ways (rivers, drains,
canals) (Kabir et al. 2014). The quality of water is decreasing due to washout and
deposition of numerous contaminants and pollutants during storm events. The
stormwater transfers and accumulates an extensive range of pollutants in surface
water including heavy metals, nutrients, pathogens, organic debris and suspended
particles (Muerdter et al. 2018; Loc et al. 2015, 2017).
Through natural processes involving vegetation and soil, non-conventional or
alternative stormwater runoff management approaches have evolved with the goal of
improving runoff quality, promoting evapotranspiration and reducing surface runoff
amount (Dagenais et al. 2018). These approaches are currently passing under the
name of Nature-based Solutions (NbS). NbS is a term that refers to innovative
solutions for solving a range of societal and environmental challenges based on
natural processes and ecosystems.
These techniques have experienced wide-ranging acceptance around the globe
with various terminologies including Water-Sensitive Urban Designs (WSUD) in
Australia (Water by Design 2014), Sustainable Urban Drainage System (SUDS) in
the United Kingdom (CIRIA 2015), Low Impact Development (LID) and Best
Management Practice (BMP) in North America (Fletcher et al. 2015), Green and
Blue Infrastructure in European countries (Fletcher et al. 2015; European Commis-
sion 2019). In Asia NbS were adapted in some regions including sponge cities in
China (Ren et al. 2017) while ABC Waters Programme in Singapore (PUB 2018)
and MSMA in Malaysia (DID 2012).
Many regions in Asia are facing challenges including exhausted resources and old
infrastructure in the face of competing and increasing demands. Singapore, Thailand
and Vietnam are one of those countries where the climate change is a big challenge
including other aforementioned challenges. The climate change increases the prob-
ability of higher and more unpredictable precipitation which leads to severe to
extreme flooding and droughts. Moreover, as mentioned above urbanisation has
affected the quantity and quality of surface water which consequently has affected
the water supply for potable and non-potable purpose. To fill this grey infrastructure
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 103

gap, NbS must be adopted to alleviate issues related to urban water management as
by employing them additional benefits can be obtained like increased biodiversity
and other socio-economic benefits.
In this book chapter, applications of Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in three
countries including Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam will be presented. Different
NbS projects in Singapore for urban water management employed by Active,
Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme will be presented as Singapore
has efficiently adopted NbS which allows the citizens to get closer to water and green
spaces. For Thailand, some NbS projects initiated by Royal Thai Government will be
presented and the need for further utilisation of such projects will be discussed.
Furthermore, for Vietnam different NbS applications will be presented and some
gaps and bridges for employment of NbS for urban water management will be
discussed.

5.2 Case Studies

5.2.1 Case Study 1: Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water
Management in Singapore

5.2.1.1 Background

One of the most water stressed countries in the world was Singapore as reported by
Water Resources Institute in 2015. In the other words, water is a big security issue
for the nation and the government has been in struggle for the alleviation of this issue
by saving and collecting each single drop of water by converting whole country into
a water collecting basin. In the recent decade, Singapore has developed a drainage
network which consists of 17 reservoirs and in addition to that more than 8000 km of
drainage channels, rivers and canals. The water is stored in 17 reservoirs which are
used for drinking and other purposes and the runoff is obtained from two-third of the
country’s land (Irvine et al. 2014). It is expected that the amount of land which is
contributing to the reservoirs will be increased by the year 2060.
The main challenge is stormwater quality which is not protected easily mainly
because of catchment’s urban character. Therefore, for the government there is no
choice to make multi-functional areas or spaces by integrating stormwater treatment
works with the already built urban grey infrastructure because of the land scarcity.
To achieve the full potential of the water infrastructure the PUB (Public Utilities
Board) started Active, Beautiful, Clean Waters (ABC Waters) Programme in 2006
(Fig. 5.1).
The programme actually aims to improve the quality of water as well as the
quality of life of the citizens. The major objective of the ABC waters programme is
to integrate the environment and water bodies with the community in order to make
new community spaces and take people closer to water.
104 N. S. Linh et al.

Fig. 5.1 ABC Waters

concept (Adapted from
PUB, ABC Waters Design
Guidelines 4th Edition,
2018)

The ABC waters programme of Singapore (PUB, ABC Waters Design Guidelines
4th Edition, 2018) have many similarities with WSUDs (Water-Sensitive Urban
Designs) of the Australia also with SUDs (Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems)
from the UK and now most recently the China’s sponge cities concept. At the Global
water awards 2013, the PUB (Public Utilities Board) which initiated the ABC waters
programme earned the Utility Performance Initiative prize of the year due to its
obligation to improve the water services for the citizens of Singapore. Some of the
recent certified projects of ABC waters programme from 2019 to 2021 featuring
different NbS measures are shown in Fig. 5.2.

5.2.1.2 ABC Water Concept and Its Benefits

The ABC water concept allows the public and community to get closer to water and
develop new recreational areas to enjoy. It allows people to interact with each other
in green spaces and gives opportunity for many physical activities (e.g. physical
exercise). The concept enhances aesthetics and increases biodiversity of the land-
scape in addition to retarding the stormwater runoff. Many educational campaigns
have been launched in order to bring the citizens close to water so they value it, have
its ownership and help in the enhancement of sustainability (Irvine et al. 2015; Loc
et al. 2020b; Koh et al. 2022). The awareness in the people through educating the
people specially the young generation has been done by this programme by the
construction of some rain gardens in 13 schools in order to help in demonstration to
the young students that how soil and vegetation can help retard stormwater and can
improve its quality. The education about Nature-based Solutions (NbS) through the
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 105

Fig. 5.2 Certified projects of ABC waters programme from 2019 to 2021 (Source: Google earth
and PUB, Singapore)

rain garden programme has also been expanded to the university level (Chang et al.
2018; Loc et al. 2020b).
Technically, the ABC water concept has benefitted Singapore at big level.
Singapore has annual rainfall of approximately 2400 mm. In the past, to mitigate
urban flooding the network of rivers and concrete canals was used but owing to the
increase in urbanisation and climate change the capacity of these channels decreased
with time. One solution is to increase the capacity of these channels by widening and
expanding them but there are various locations where this is not possible because of
different site restrictions and constraints then NbS comes to the rescue. Hence, the
implementation of such measures which give additional benefits other than
stormwater management was essential. These measures can be integrated with the
existing water infrastructure like detention tanks or stormwater ponds and reduce
runoff peaks and volume. If they are implemented at basin scale, then the risk of
flooding can be reduced effectively at the development site and large basin area.
These techniques not only control runoff but the environment-friendly features
including rain gardens, bioretention systems and vegetation swales can improve
water quality and enhance biodiversity.

5.2.1.3 Some Applications of ABC Water Concept

In Singapore, there are numerous applications of NbS or precisely ABC water

concept, some notable applications are described below.
106 N. S. Linh et al.

Fig. 5.3 Bioretention Swales adjacent footpath (Taken from PUB, 2018)

Kallang River at Potong Pasir

The Kallang River originates from Lower Pierce Reservoir and ends at Marina
reservoir. The 10 km long river serves the basin area of approximately 6000 hectares.
The basin land use is residential, commercial and industrial. The project covers the
area from Potong Pasir Ave 1 to the St. Andrew’s Junior School. For the project
stakeholders and St. Andrew’s Junior School were consulted. In order to engage the
students and give them practical education and learning, an outdoor classroom
concept was developed where they can learn how the ABC water features such as
bioretention systems and rain gardens treat stormwater runoff effectively. Further-
more, it can also be used for different other purposes like for providing space to the
community.
The project includes rain gardens which collect stormwater and allow it to
infiltrate into the soil layers and then discharge it into Kallang River. In addition to
improving water quality of the area and adjacent roads and other community spaces,
the rain gardens provide enhanced biodiversity.
One more feature of this project is bioretention swales comprising of 230 m
length (Fig. 5.3). These swales improve stormwater quality by taking runoff from the
adjacent footpath and remove different pollutants and sediments and discharge
runoff into the rain garden.
NTU Pioneer and Crescent Halls
This project was developed in Nanyang Technological University (NTU) residential
blocks which integrate existing topography with lake and natural greenery. A natural
water body has been developed in the residential halls by conveying stormwater
from the catchment located upstream. The project includes wetlands, sedimentation
basin, bioretention systems and cleansing biotope. The water is cleansed by all these
measures and finally discharges into a pond improving the quality of 46% runoff of
the whole site. The project provides additional features including outdoor meeting
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 107

Fig. 5.4 Bioretention system in NTU Singapore (Taken from PUB 2018)

rooms, corridors and open terraces which offer community space to enjoy the clean
and beautiful waterscape.
The first component of the treatment train is sedimentation basin. The sedimen-
tation basin settles and eliminates sediments from the runoff and plays a vital role by
the protection of elements present downstream. Then comes the wetlands, which
utilise shallow and vegetated water bodies to eliminate many pollutants including
fine particles and some nutrients. The next treatment train component is bioretention
system or basins (Fig. 5.4). The bioretention basins filter the runoff by infiltrating it
through soil media and discharge it to the recreational pond. The last element of
treatment train is recreational pond where the residents can spend good time by
getting up closer to the water body. In order to provide more treatment for the runoff,
the water is recirculated from the pond to a cleansing biotope, and then the cleaned
water is returned to the recreational pond.
Rain Gardens in Schools
In order to promote ABC water concept for wider adaptation and to teach and
educate the young generation of Singapore, PUB has implemented NbS features in
the schools and has incorporated rain gardens and bioretention systems. After the
completion of the project, the features were handed over to the schools for the future
maintenance. A good practical learning and environment can be provided by ABC
waters concept to the young students of the institutions in addition to the other
abilities of NbS like stormwater runoff control and improvement in water quality.
These features improve and enhance the aesthetics, the environment and biodiversity
of schools educate students about water quality, ecosystem services and effects of
anthropogenic activities on nature.
Soak away rain gardens were adapted for some schools which are different from
traditional rain gardens having only one filter layer in soil media and there is no need
of subsoil drainage layer (Fig. 5.5). The construction is easy and is more cost
effective. The conventional rain gardens were adapted for some schools where
soak away gardens were not feasible to design and execute. An outdoor classroom
was adapted in many schools where the students can learn and understand the
process of rain gardens and bioretention systems that how they work.
108 N. S. Linh et al.

Fig. 5.5 A soak away rain garden in Pei Hwa Secondary School (Taken from PUB 2018)

5.2.1.4 Barriers, Bridges and Ways Forward

ABC Waters programme is not a legal directive yet and various institutional
approaches have given emphasis to adapt the NbS and Green infrastructure in
numerous policies and planning programmes of Singapore. The government has a
vision which benefits the community and in spite of a top-down tactic it has been
successful in order to incorporate the NbS concepts via the policies that have
accentuated the following roles:
– Identification of Investors.
– Educational Campaigns.
– Sustainable Joint Partnerships.
In the recent decade, with the shift towards innovation in order to drive economic
growth in Singapore (Tan and Phang 2005; Loc et al. 2020a) and with the robust
investment in research and development by different agencies including Public
Utilities Board (PUB), Housing and Development Board (HDB) and National
Parks Board (N-Parks), it is expected that NbS concepts will be a vital part of the
policies as the way forward.

5.2.2 Case Study 2: Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water

Management in Thailand
5.2.2.1 Background

When compared with other disasters, the floods (fluvial and pluvial) are the most
recurrent reason of destruction for the people and economies around the globe (EEA
2012, 2016). The traditional measures and techniques have concentrated solely on
grey infrastructure measures including canals, drains, pipes, dikes, tunnels, etc. Such
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 109

approaches are applied by using hard engineered materials, although it aids in the
reduction of ponding and flooding, it lacks sufficient water quality management,
preventing the application of stormwater for both non-potable and potable uses
(Spahr et al. 2020). Furthermore, it has been known that the grey infrastructure
has not been found efficient to attain sufficient flood protection, environment
sustainability and cost effectiveness (Brink et al. 2016).
The climate variability has affected Thailand (Liew et al. 2016; Ghozali et al.
2016; Loc et al. (2020a, b); Seekao and Pharino 2016). Seekao and Pharino (2016)
and Renald et al. (2016) found that floods are recurrent phenomenon in many areas
of Thailand mainly in Bangkok and the central plain areas. The continual flooding
has unfavourable effects on the livelihoods of the people, economy and the envi-
ronment, particularly on the agricultural sector. Owing to its geography Bangkok has
been continuously affected by floods (Pathak and Ahmad 2016). There are many
factors which are responsible for the city’s susceptibility to flooding including its
low-lying areas or terrain having elevation of only 1.50 m above MSL, heavy
seasonal rainfall, runoff from the northern areas and the soil subsidence.
The recurring flooding in Thailand’s major cities including the capital Bangkok is
due to the inefficient flood drainage systems and ineffective prevention techniques
and measures.
In August 2021, many cities in Thailand were hit by heavy rainfall causing severe
urban flooding. For example, in Pattaya city, water found on road surfaces ranged
from about 30 cm to over 1 m high causing traffic delays and multiple vehicles were
stuck in rising floodwaters (Fig. 5.6).
In Thailand, nature-based solutions are becoming more popular for urban water
management and in this case study different applications of NbS in Thailand will be
discussed including some successful projects.

5.2.2.2 Nature-Based Solutions Projects in Kingdom of Thailand

Many NbS developments have been completed in Thailand, including the Puey
Ungphakorn Centenary Hall and Park and the Chulalongkorn University Centenary
Park. The following is a brief explanation of the above-mentioned NbS projects and
their goals.

Fig. 5.6 Urban flooding in Thailand—August 2021 (Image source: The Pattaya News)
110 N. S. Linh et al.

Puey Ungphakorn Centenary Hall and Park

The Puey Ungphakorn Centenary Hall and Park is located in Thammasat University,
Pathum Thani Province of Thailand with an area of approximately 60,000 m2. The
park is designed to tackle issues like climate change and urbanisation. The main
concern of the project is to manage and alleviate the risk of food and water scarcity.
The park consists of a “Green Roof Urban Farm”, which is the largest of its kind in
Asia and the third largest in the world. The park’s motto is to contribute to society
and its residents in the form of clean air and reduced temperature inside the Puey
Ungphakorn Centenary Hall.
The building has a H-shaped floor plan which renders the elevation resembling a
big mountain with a huge green space of garden which covers the upper part of the
building. The lower area of the building accommodates another green area or space
which has a garden and a recreational area that is open for public containing four big
pools which not only function as a drainage basin of the area but also provide natural
water treatment for the collected and drained rainwater before releasing it to the
stormwater drainage system.
The grown plants on the green roof are edible as this approach corresponds to the
Thammasat University’s purpose to manage its own food source.
Chulalongkorn University Centenary Park
This NbS project is located in the heart of Bangkok with an area of about 44,800 m2
(Fig. 5.7). The main concept of this project is to reduce risks of urban floods in
surrounding areas. The design capacity of the park is approximately a million gallons
of water. The components of this NbS project include a water retention pond, a
constructed wetland, green roof, and water retention lawn and rain garden. The parks
provide to the society in the form of urban flood mitigation, air pollution control and
other services to the people like relaxing and exercise in its leisure area.
Some implemented NbS projects in Central Thailand are shown in Fig. 5.8.

Fig. 5.7 Puey Ungphakorn Centenary Hall and Park (left) and Chulalongkorn University Cente-
nary Park (right) (Source: Taken from Thailand NOW)
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 111

Fig. 5.8 Some featured NbS projects in Central Thailand (Source: Google Earth)

5.2.2.3 Some Notable Applications of NbS in Thailand

Many researchers have found NbS a good alternative for urban flood management
and in addition to that they documented that NbS can provide additional economic,
social and environmental benefits. Below are some notable applications of NbS in
Thailand.
Small- and Large-Scale Nature-Based Solutions
The study was carried out by Vojinovic et al. (2021) and assessed the effectiveness
of combination of small- and large-scale NbS and their hybrid combinations with
grey infrastructure. The study has been applied in the case of Ayutthaya in Thailand,
a region that is often subject to floods. This area is situated within the Chao Phraya
River basin. The average precipitation ranges between 1092 and 1600 mm annually.
It is considered as an island in view of the three surrounding rivers, namely Chao
Phraya River, Pasak River and Lop Buri River. The island has an area of 7 km2. The
drainage system within the island consists of pipes and canals and it is a combined
drainage system. The soil in this area is clayey soil and has very less permeability
(0.03–0.12 m/day). The small-scale NbS used in this study were Bioretention
system, Pervious pavements, Rain barrels, Green roofs Infiltration trenches, Vege-
tative swales and Network of Ponds. Whereas, the large-scale NbS included Ayut-
thaya Bypass Channel, Bang Ban Pond and Thung Ma Kham Yong Pond. Different
scenarios were focused on the study:
1. Combinations of small-scale NbS with grey infrastructure measures.
2. Combinations of large-scale NbS with grey infrastructure measures.
112 N. S. Linh et al.

3. Combinations of small- and large-scale NbS with local grey infrastructure

measures.
All three scenarios were evaluated using hydrodynamic modelling using Mike
Urban and it was found that the effectiveness of small-scale NbS (Scenario 1) is
somewhat limited with respect to the magnitude of rainfall events. It was revealed
that the effectiveness of small-scale NbS is reduced by 67% in terms of the runoff
volume reduction and by 81% in terms of the peak runoff reduction when comparing
the results between 2-year and 100-year return periods, respectively. Therefore, in
order to tackle extreme events it is necessary to combine small-scale NbS with large-
scale NbS or with grey infrastructure. For the scenario 2, with large-scale NbS it was
found that the construction of Ayutthaya Bypass channel and widening of two ponds
upstream would considerably reduce fluvial flooding in the Ayutthaya City Island
but for the mitigation of local pluvial flooding these measures should be combined
with small-scale NbS and grey infrastructures. Finally, scenario 3, which is the
combination of all kinds of measures, is likely to provide a level of flood protection
that is most desirable by stakeholders. The hybrid combination of different solutions
has a strong potential to alleviate flooding as well as it will provide other benefits like
biodiversity and socio-economic benefits as compared to any solution utilised alone.
Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Flood Reduction and Thermal Comfort
Enhancement
The study was carried out by Majidi et al. (2019) and provided a framework to
maximise the effectiveness of Nature-Based Solutions (NbS) for flood risk reduction
and thermal comfort enhancement. The study was performed for the Sukhumvit area,
located in central Bangkok which is a highly dense urban area of approximately
23 km2. Bangkok is among the 20 densely populated cities in Asia having popula-
tion of approximately ten million. It is facing many extreme climatic conditions,
which will also be intensified in the future as a result of climate change. The number
of annual rainy days have increased from 90 to 110 days in the last 30 years (Rehan
et al. 2017) and the average mean temperature in Bangkok has increased by 0.6 °C
between 1985 and 2014 (Sheikh 2016).
Flooding is a severe problem in Bangkok, which causes many problems including
economic and health related problems. Flooding has been intensified due to urban-
isation and in addition to that excessive local rainfalls and overtopping of embank-
ments due to a high water level in the Chao Phraya River are other causes. The
framework adapted in this study is discussed below.
Hazard Assessment
To assess the hazard for urban flooding the existing drainage system was modelled
using a hydrodynamic model considering numerous scenarios with specific empha-
sis on locations where the frequency of flooding is higher. For heat stress the
assessment was done to evaluate the effects from different urban land uses on heat
stress and human thermal comfort.
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 113

5.2.2.4 Selection of NbS Types and Their Suitable Sites

Four types of NbS measure were adapted in this study including green roofs,
pervious pavements, bioretention systems and rain gardens. The analysis of possible
locations and the maximum application of these measures were done using satellite
images and the geographic information system (GIS) data.

5.2.2.5 Evaluating the Effectiveness of NbS

To quantify the effectiveness of NbS for urban flood reduction, a flood hazard map
was produced by applying a 1D/2D modelling approach within Mike Urban soft-
ware. The model was run for different rainfall return periods and different cases of
NbS measures applications in the study area. In terms of the heat stress, the ENVI-
met (v4.1.3) model was used for assessing the effectiveness of measures in relation
to thermal comfort.

5.2.2.6 Outcome of the Study

The obtained results show that the combined implementation of different NbS types
is likely to have a good potential to make this area more resilient and sustainable to
cope with future challenges related to climate change and the high rate of
urbanisation.
The comparison between the performances of all four NbS measures is depicted
in the Tables 5.1 and 5.2 in terms of urban flood reduction and thermal comfort
enhancement, respectively. The scoring was based on modelling results. Two
scenarios were considered for urban flooding including 2 year and 20 years Rainfall
Return Periods while for thermal heat enhancement two scenarios including low-rise
buildings and high-rise buildings were considered.
Following interesting findings were obtained from the study:
1. Green roofs are likely to achieve better performance in the reduction of urban
flooding when compared to the other NbS types studied.
2. Green roofs are not effective in thermal comfort enhancement in sites with
compact, high-rise buildings.
3. Rain gardens with street trees as covering vegetation would have the best
performance for the open low-rise buildings.
4. A combined application of green roofs and rain gardens is recommended in
compact high-rise building areas.
The results were obtained from numerical modelling and simulation and no actual
monitoring was performed, therefore it is recommended that actual monitoring
should also be performed in order to validate the results. Moreover, this study
114 N. S. Linh et al.

Table 5.1 Comparative effectiveness scoring of the measures in urban flooding

Scoring for effectiveness of NbS measures
Effectiveness Pervious Green Bioretention Rain
aspect Scenarios Criteria pavement roof system garden
Reduction in urban 2 years Runoff 1 4 2 3
flooding volume
Peak 1 4 3 3
discharge
20 years Runoff 1 4 2 3
volume
Peak 1 4 2 3
discharge
Total comparative performance score 4 16 9 12

Table 5.2 Comparative effectiveness scoring of the measures on thermal comfort

Scoring for effectiveness of NbS Measures
Effectiveness Pervious Green Bioretention Rain
aspect Scenarios Criteria pavement roof system garden
Thermal comfort Low rise Air 3 2 1 4
enhancement temperature
Mean radiant 1 3 2 4
temperature
Predicted 1 2 3 4
mean vote
High rise Air 3 1 2 4
temperature
Mean radiant 1 2 3 4
temperature
Predicted 1 2 3 4
mean vote
Total comparative performance score 10 12 14 24

proved the effectiveness of different NbS types taken from a micro and macro scale
perspective.

5.2.2.7 Assessment of Nature-Based Solutions Benefits Using

a Framework

The study was performed by Watkin et al. (2019) and the study areas used are
located in the Rangsit area, in the eastern part of the Chao Phraya valley in central
Thailand. Rangsit is located between the Western Raphiphat and the Rangsit canals.
The study area consisted of two areas including area A which is in Pathum Thani
province while area B is Saraburi province. The NbS focused on this study are
furrows which are only present in area A.
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 115

Furrows represent a unique rural NbS that exists in the Rangsit area of Thailand
(Fig. 5.9). These are small canals in agriculture fields connected to the sub-canals
through locks with gates. Furrows were first built to store water for irrigation
purposes, but they can also provide several other benefits including flood protection
by controlling and channelling flows. The framework utilised in this study is
discussed below.
Involvement of Stakeholders
Stakeholders were involved in the development and testing of the framework and
farmers were interviewed to collect information about expenses, incomes, irrigation
use, floods, droughts, crops, key indicators and fertiliser use. Local municipality
personnel were separately interviewed to gather knowledge about water use, crop,
flood, drought, recreation, education, key indicators, area history and culture infor-
mation. The government experts provided information concerning total area irriga-
tion volume, groundwater usage and groundwater well level data for the case study
areas.
Selection of Benefit Categories
Rangsit stakeholders were interested in all three benefit categories (water, nature and
people) and they wanted to see how the benefits of flooding and drought resilience,
water storage, biodiversity of crops, water quality, farmer incomes and farm pro-
ductivity were performing in their respective communities.
Selection of Indicators
Different indicators were selected which were applicable to the case study areas and
important to the community. The relevant indicators were chosen while the irrele-
vant indicators were eliminated. The following indicators were selected in this study:

Fig. 5.9 A typical Rangsit furrow (Taken from Ditthabumrung 2018)

116 N. S. Linh et al.

1. Local flood mitigation 10. Infiltration

2. Downstream flood mitigation 11. Biodiversity
3. Historical flood mitigation 12. Soil quality
4. Water storage and reuse 13. Fertiliser reduction
5. Irrigation cost 14. Air quality
6. Resilience to drought 15. Cultural and spiritual
7. Connectivity 16. Education and research
8. Groundwater resources 17. Economic
9. Water quality 18. Agricultural

Evaluation of Indicators
The indicators mentioned above were analysed by various techniques including
hydrodynamic modelling, interviews, Google Earth, water quality tests and field
tests. The indicators with the best performance were water storage and reuse and
education and research. This is due to the extensive network of furrows in the area
and the widespread communication with other communities about the benefits of
furrows. The indicators with low performance were local flood mitigation, historical
flood mitigation and water quality. These indicators show that if improvements are
made, such as more frequent dredging of canals and furrows, their scores will likely
improve. Seven indicators were excluded and to get a more accurate value for
irrigation costs, resilience to drought and soil quality larger sample sizes were
required. The indicators of fertiliser use and air quality were relevant to the case
study but a different way to measure them was required. The cultural indicator was
not applicable in this agricultural setting.
Outcome of the Study
The outcome of this study reveals the extent of advantages of NbS, how each benefit
is performing, and where improvements can be made. Furthermore, a monitoring
programme may provide insights into how NbS and their benefits change over time.
The framework can be found valuable for:
1. Researchers who want to study the impacts from NbS on climate change.
2. Water managers and planners who wish to promote, upscale and implement NbS.
3. Decision makers who may want to allocate budget for NbS construction, expan-
sion, maintenance and monitoring.
4. Farmers who may want to improve, maintain and expand their NbS to optimise
the economic benefits.
5. All stakeholders who would like to understand the full benefits of NbS.

5.2.2.8 Barriers, Bridges and Ways Forward

There is an increasing trend in recognising the importance of NbS globally, whereas

in Thailand it is still emerging. NbS is a topic of interest for many researchers in
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 117

Thailand for flood control, water quality improvements and other socio-economic
benefits. However, grey infrastructure is still preferred over NbS and green infra-
structure in practice. The reason for the application of NbS at slow rate can be
attributed to different barriers including political, governance, social and technolog-
ical. The political barrier is due to least priority to NbS as these measures take long
time to produce benefits, whereas the politicians tend to prefer investments which
generate results in the immediate future. The cause of social barrier is negative
perception as NbS is relatively a new technique and people think about uncertain
results and therefore prefer conventional grey infrastructure. The technological or
technical barrier is due to lack of adequate technical guidelines, manuals or design
standards. As Thailand is situated in tropical region, there are no specific guidelines
for the implementation (design and execution) of NbS. The guidelines were adapted
from temperate regions by many countries in tropical regions which provided
unsatisfactory results. Another barrier is that there is a perception that the construc-
tion and maintenance of NbS projects is expensive as compared to conventional grey
infrastructure although NbS provides additional benefits.
More study is needed to evaluate the performance of NbS in Thailand and this can
be performed in academia as many researchers have already produced good research
and addressed benefits of NbS in different case studies in Thailand. There is a need to
produce a manual which includes guidelines for the design and construction of NbS
projects according to hydrometeorological conditions of Thailand. Awareness in
people and support from the government is essential for implementing NbS at large
scale for Thailand.

5.2.3 Case Study 3: Nature-Based Solutions for Urban Water

Management in Vietnam

5.2.3.1 Background

Vietnam is a developing country in which the urbanisation rate is expected to

continue to grow. In 1996 urban area land was only 0.14% of total land area but in
2017 the rate increased to 2.19% (World Bank 2020). Expansion of urban areas in
Vietnam besides bringing a better living condition for city dwellers also creates
challenges for urban water management due to lack of well-organised infrastructure,
particularly the drainage system. Nature-based Solutions (NbS) for urban develop-
ment in Vietnam is relatively new but expect to supplement the hard structures in
dense population areas.
Efforts have been made to introduce Nature-based Solution (NbS) for cities in
Vietnam mainly through the Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD). For example,
with assistance from Asian Development Bank (ADB) and other international
agencies, Vinh Yen, Hue, Ha Giang and Ho Chi Minh City expect to integrate
nature-based solutions through the rehabilitation of their ponds, parks and rivers,
thereby greatly increasing their sustainability and climate resilience. WSUD
118 N. S. Linh et al.

provides diverse measures including wetlands, vegetated swales, bioretention basins

or artificial lakes, rain gardens, green roofs, permeable pavements, infiltration wells
and cleansing biotopes (Asia Development Bank 2019). These can either comple-
ment or replace grey infrastructures depending on the specific purposes and localised
contexts. This section will report key information on the NbS projects that are being
introduced in Hue and Ho Chi Minh city, Vietnam.

5.2.4 Nature-Based Solution Projects in Hue and Ho Chi

Minh City

5.2.4.1 Nature-Based Solutions in Hue City

Sen Pond Design

Hue is an ancient city located in the Central of Vietnam, in order to keep the city
resilient to climate change, particularly the intensive rainfall which led to urban
flooding, ponds were considered as one of the best options to maintain the tourism
structures and reduce flooding rates. Under the Secondary Green Cities Develop-
ment Project supported by the Global Environmental Facility, Asia Development
Bank (ADB) in collaboration with Urban Climate Change Resilience Trust Fund,
UK Aid, SECO, the Rockefeller Foundation and Ramboll Studiodreiseitl proposed
Sen Pond design for Hue city (Fig. 5.11). The design consists of broad-walk and
raised walkways; water cascading down the wall; wetland with water circulation
system; platform and deck for social activities; multi-tier stepping edge closed to the
water and vegetated swale to convey and treat street runoff as indicated in Fig. 5.10.
This NbS structure expects to increase the water regulation capacity inside the Hue
city which maintains the ancient landscape with less hard construction works
required.
Lap River Design
Hue city is well-known for the rivers surrounding it, so the proposed NbS structures
will maintain the beauty of the natural landscape while also responding to climate
change challenges such as flooding and heat-waves.
In addition to the Send Pond design, the ABD’s project also proposed the other
NbS design for Lap River in Hue city. The design is based on the strategy of view
decks for public gathering while maintaining natural green edges and enforcing
slope locations. The design integrates 6 components of (1) broad-walk and raised
walkways; (2) natural edge with added ecological value; (3) gabion walls with
planting; (4) riprap with cutting; (5) vegetated swale to convey and treat street runoff
and (6) platform and deck for social activities as illustrated in Fig. 5.12.
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 119

Fig. 5.10 Schematic presentation of the WSUD design with Nature-based Solutions as the Sen
Pond in Hue city (Taken from ADB 2019)

Fig. 5.11 Photo of an actual Sen Pond in Hue city (Taken from ADB 2019)

5.2.4.2 Nature-Based Solutions in Ho Chi Minh City

Unlike Hue city, Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC) is a modern city with 8.99 million of
habitants by 2019, among these 7.1 million people are living in urbanised areas.
120 N. S. Linh et al.

Fig. 5.12 Schematic presentation of the WSUD design with Nature-based Solutions for Lap River
in Hue city (Taken from ADB 2019)

HCMC is considered as the most urbanised city in Vietnam (Loc et al. 2015, 2017;
Nguyen et al. 2019). Due to rapid urbanisation, HCMC encounters a number of
challenges in urban planning and management, particularly urban water manage-
ment. For example, Nguyen Huu Canh Street in HCMC is normally subsided after
heavy rains causing difficulties for people commuting to work. The VND 473 billion
(or $20.4 million) investment project for 3.2 km long was started in October 2019 to
elevate the surface of the street in some sections that are severely subsided while
other parts are kept at the same height to ensure the water drainage system works
well (HCMC Management Board for Traffic Works Construction and Investment
2021). However, hard structures are costly and cannot cope with increasing urban-
isation rate and impact of climate change, particularly intensive rainfall. Under the
proposed Chi Minh City Climate Resilient Urban Services Project by ADB, the two
NbS are expected to adopt in HCMC. Tham Luong-Ben Cat-Nuoc Len canal is
critically important for HCMC, particularly in reducing flood risks (Fig. 5.13).
Go Vap Cultural Design
Along the canal, Go Vap Cultural Park is an attractive and river-interactive park for
the community as well as a floodplain area which can help to lower local flood level
during the storms/heavy rain events. The NbS design for Go Vap Cultural Park
therefore aims to mitigate flood risks in the area. The park is designed to slope down
towards the water with a multi-level floodplain. The design creates a floodable extent
in case of heavy storm events which include mangrove species in areas which are
submerged under the water and soil bioengineering stabilisation in the higher areas
as indicated in Fig. 5.14.
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 121

Fig. 5.13 Overview of Tham Luong-Ben Cat-Nuoc Len canal areas in HCM which NbS designs
expect to deploy (Taken from ADB 2019)

Fig. 5.14 Schematic WSUD design with Nature-based Solutions for Go Vap Cultural Park in Ho
Chi Minh City (Taken from ADB 2019)

Tan Binh Riverside Design

The other NbS design for HCMC is Tan Binh Riverside which includes four stages
or phases to develop a full structure as indicated in Fig. 5.15. Phase 1 focuses on
122 N. S. Linh et al.

Fig. 5.15 Schematic WSUD design with nature-based solutions for Tan Binh Riverside in Ho Chi
Minh City (Source: ADB 2019)

upgrading the canal to take full capacity of water conveyance, and build an arterial
road above for better land optimization. Phase 2 is to define boundaries of dry,
dry/wet and wet as well as flood-proof development with ample water frontage.
Phase 3 is to rejuvenate the waterway and upgrade the riparian environment applying
the WSUD concept, and Phase 4 is expected to implement WSUD tools throughout
the site, with multiple connections to the waterfront.

5.2.4.3 Ways Forward

The four examples of NbS designs in Vietnam can provide some lessons learnt
during the designing process which can lay the way forward. First, in order to
introduce NbS designs for urban water management in Vietnam, it is necessary to
include political leadership and planning beside technical interventions. A clear,
citywide vision and goal of NbS should be set out in order to create a comprehensive
and integrated strategy/master plan which can explore social, economic, climate and
environmental benefits. Additionally, integration of NbS into urban planning guide-
lines and regulations should also be promoted.
Second, besides political leadership and planning, the communication and active
participation of relevant stakeholders are also important. Community participation
from the design for the implementation of NbS design is a key factor in ensuring
success of the structures. Furthermore, awareness on the advantages of NbS structure
and grey infrastructures should be communicated to the public in order to mobilise
the contribution from the private sector and urban dwellers.
Third, knowledge and visible design of NbS for urban water management in
wider Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) is also a key for NbS adoption in
Vietnam. For example, international knowledge and design should be leveraged to
local context and for local need. Additionally, NbS design should be kept simple so
it is easy to maintain and constructed by local resources and materials, and demon-
stration projects will help stakeholders and developers to see and experience NbS
benefits.
5 Applications of Nature-Based Solutions in Urban Water Management. . . 123

5.3 Conclusion

The world’s population and consequently urbanisation is rising which is affecting

the quality and quality of urban stormwater which in turn has consequences on
human and marine habitats, therefore, urban water management is a critical topic.
Singapore, Thailand and Vietnam are facing various challenges related to urban
water management from urbanisation to climate change and from extreme floods to
severe droughts. Singapore has adopted NbS for such issues and the results are quite
fruitful by converting the grey infrastructure to green infrastructure. The country is
increasing awareness among people by educating them in educational institutions
about the process and benefits of NbS. On the other hand in Thailand, NbS is an
emerging paradigm where the government has completed few projects and there is a
need to build more as the country is facing severe floods every year. Vietnam is a
developing country with low economy and limited resources but still trying to cope
with the urban water issues by utilising NbS in many projects.
Engineers mostly are concerned with management of water quantity and end up
with grey infrastructures and overlook quality of water whereas, architects focus on
aesthetics and hence other features including economy, social welfare and biodiver-
sity are ignored. Therefore, the architecture and engineering must act together for
designing the systems for urban water drainage. Awareness in people, support from
government and collaboration of public and private entities are required for success-
ful and efficient implementation of NbS which can tackle issues like floods and water
quality problems and can provide additional benefits like enhanced biodiversity and
socio-economic benefits.

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Nguyen Sy Linh is currently the Head of Department of Climate Change and Global Issues at the
Institute of Strategy, Policy on Natural Resources and Environment-a think tank in Viet Nam. He
graduated from Hanoi National University-majoring in environmental science in 2000 and com-
pleted the Master’s Program in Physical Land Resources at Ghent University—Belgium in the year
2007. In 2017, Linh received a PhD degree in Global, Urban and Social Studies from RMIT
University—Australia. His research interests are conducting studies related to climate change in
Vietnam, particularly ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA), nature-based solutions (NbS) and so on.

Fahad Ahmed is a Lecturer at University of Sargodha Pakistan and PhD Scholar at Asian Institute
of Technology (AIT) Thailand. He holds Bachelor and Master Degree in Civil Engineering from the
University of Engineering and Technology (UET) Taxila, Pakistan and Master Degree in Water
Engineering and Management from Asian Institute of Technology (AIT) Thailand. Ahmed has
more than seven years of experience in teaching at undergraduate level. Ahmed’s research focus lies
in water resources engineering and his interest areas are diverse including hydraulics engineering,
sediment transport, flood management and river engineering. Research related to urban water
management through nature based solutions (NBS) and Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EBA) are
also of interest.

Ho Huu Loc is an Assistant Professor of Water Engineering and Management at the Asian
Institute of Technology (AIT). He obtained his Doctoral Degree from Kyoto University in 2017
in Environmental Engineering and his Masters from AIT, Thailand in 2013. His professional
126 N. S. Linh et al.

experience in teaching, research, and consultancy span over the last 10 years in Asia in the fields of
Ecosystem Services, Nature-based Solutions, Hydrology, and Physical Geography. He has
co-authored more than 40 journal articles in high impact factor international journals. Dr. Ho is
also serving as an editorial board of multiple Scopus indexed journals.
Chapter 6
Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals
of Vietnam: Restoration Using
Nature-Based Solutions

Bao-Trong Dang, Ngo Thuy Diem Trang, Vo Thi Phuong Thao,

Nguyen Thi Ngoc Dieu, Thi-Kim-Quyen Vo, Ngoc-Kim-Qui Nguyen,
Cong-Sac Tran, Phuoc-Dan Nguyen, Veeriah Jegatheesan,
and Xuan-Thanh Bui

B.-T. Dang
Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho
Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
N. T. D. Trang (*) · V. T. P. Thao · N. T. N. Dieu
Department of Environmental Sciences, College of Environment and Natural Resources, Can
Tho University (CTU), Can Tho City, Vietnam
e-mail: ntdtrang@ctu.edu.vn
T.-K.-Q. Vo
Faculty of Biology and Environment – Natural Resources and Climate Change, Ho Chi Minh
City University of Food Industry (HUFI), Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
e-mail: quyenvtk@hufi.edu.vn
N.-K.-Q. Nguyen · C.-S. Tran · X.-T. Bui (*)
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Faculty of Environment and Natural Resources, Key Laboratory of Advanced Waste Treatment
Technology, Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology (HCMUT), Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
e-mail: qui.nguyen.ee@hcmut.edu.vn; bxthanh@hcmut.edu.vn
P.-D. Nguyen
Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Centre Asiatique de Recherche sur l’Eau (CARE), Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology
(HCMUT), Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh (VNU-HCM), Ho Chi Minh City,
Vietnam
e-mail: npdan@hcmut.edu.vn
V. Jegatheesan
School of Engineering and Water: Effective Technologies and Tools (WETT) Research Centre,
RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: jega.jegatheesan@rmit.edu.au

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 127
N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_6
128 B.-T. Dang et al.

Abstract Nature-based Solutions for Wastewater Treatment (NbS-WT) is becom-

ing increasingly popular since it not only uses less energy to treat wastewater but
also improves urban greenery, which is beneficial to economic and social develop-
ment. The use of NbS-WT has been pushed internationally to achieve sustainable
urban city development and respond to climate change. In Vietnam, uncontrolled
urbanization is worsening canal pollution, resulting in a decline in the quality of life
and the esthetic of the cityscape. This work examined the current status of urban
canal wastewater and the applicability of NbS-WT using waste stabilization ponds
(waste stabilization ponds (WSPs), centralized system) and floating treatment wet-
lands (Floating treatment wetlands (FTWs), decentralized system). The WSPs, such
as maturation ponds, can be used to create more urban green space, biodiversity,
centralized wastewater treatment, flood control, urban heat control, and fish farming
practices. Additionally, FTWs aided in the development of the canal landscape,
provided employment opportunities for those working in the maintenance, and
encouraged the participation of many stakeholders. The lessons learned from the
study could be used not only to upgrade the next generation of WSPs and FTWs but
also to give public decision makers with recommendations for scaling up NbS-WT
processes for sustainable urban city development.

Keywords Nature-based solutions · Waste stabilization ponds · Floating treatment

wetlands · Sustainable urban development · Wastewater treatment · Climate change

6.1 Introduction

Vietnam is on track to becoming one of the most dynamic economies by 2030,

pursuing both economic and environmental sustainability in order to adapt to climate
change. More than 45 million people have been lifted out of poverty in the last two
decades, and the nation’s goal is to reach a high-income status by 2045 (i.e., gross
national income per capita of at least 12,696 USD/year) (Do 2022; Nguyen et al.
2020a, b). However, the impact of climate change and urbanization is increasingly
evident in big cities such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh, Da Nang, and Can Tho, causing a
significant impact on the Vietnamese economy (Chin et al. 2018; Huynh et al. 2020;
Le et al. 2022). According to the most recent climate change scenarios that were
provided by the Vietnam Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, if the sea
level were to rise by 1 m, 20% of the land area that makes up the city of Can Tho
would be submerged in water (Huynh et al. 2020). Besides, rapid urbanization in Ho
Chi Minh City (HCMC) leads to environmental degradation due to excessive water
withdrawal, eutrophication, and pollution (Tra et al. 2021). Although HCMC had a
goal of constructing 12 central wastewater treatment plants, only three are currently
operational, which treat only about 13% of total domestic wastewater (1.4 million
m3/day). Furthermore, costly issues such as outdated irrigation, drainage, sanitation,
and canal water pollution necessitate the execution of a sustainable and viable
alternative solution (Givental 2014; Van Leeuwen et al. 2016).
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 129

Canals in the urban city have long been recognized as essential for water supply,
flood control, and transportation connectivity in Can Tho and HCMC (Kieu-le et al.
2019; Givental 2014). Can Tho is Vietnam’s fourth-largest city by population, it is
also one of the most developed in the lower Mekong region. It contains more than
158 units of rivers, canals, large and small for fresh water, enabling farmers to
irrigate and reclaim land, build economically viable agriculture, industries, and
services (Nguyen 2020). However, such functions have been compromised and
altered due to increased pollution caused by untreated sewage, salt intrusion, and
garbage being dumped into the waterbody. Similarly, canal waters in HCMC were at
a heighten organic pollution state characterized by high PO43--P and NH4+-N
concentrations and oxygen-depleted waters (down to 0.03 mg dissolved oxygen/L)
(Strady et al. 2017), which indicate an accumulation of the domestic pollution
discharged into the canal (Nguyen et al. 2020b). As a tropical region, Vietnam
experiences a lot of rainfall (1909 mm or 75.2 in.) and high tides, making it easy to
spread pollutants and diseases from polluted canals. People are frequently exposed
to pathogenic microorganisms, and heavy metals (e.g., Hg and Cd) presented in
aquatic environments may have a negative impact on their health. According to the
Natural Resources and Environment and Health Ministries, 9000 people die every
year in Vietnam as a result of poor sanitation and water quality. 250,000 people are
hospitalized due to acute diarrhea caused by contaminated domestic water, and
200,000 people have cancer as a result of water pollution (https://www.unicef.org/
vietnam/stories/world-water-week-2021-meet-our-expert). Canal pollution degrades
the landscape, reduces air quality, alters urban habitats and biodiversity, and raises
urban temperatures. Although the activated sludge process can effectively treat
wastewater in the canals, it is plagued by high capital and operating costs due to
mechanical aeration, external carbonaceous and alkaline chemicals requirements,
and excessive sludge production (Tra et al. 2021). As a result, the challenge is to
transition into a more environmentally friendly technology that can collect 87% of
untreated wastewater (only 13% of wastewater is being treated) while also improv-
ing the city’s ecology and landscape.
In the last few years, nature-based solutions for wastewater treatment (NbS-WT)
have become more popular since they use less energy and chemicals and leave
behind a small amount of solid wastes (Crites et al. 2010). In fact, wastewater
treatment inspired by natural processes is not a new concept as its foundation
includes low-cost wastewater treatment facilities such as green-roof, wetlands,
floating wetlands, and waste stabilization ponds (Hogain and Mccarton 2018).
However, the term “Nature-based Solutions” (NbS) was coined only by practitioners
in the late 2000s and is now used by International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) to describe new approaches to climate change mitigation and adaptation by
addressing impacts through solutions inspired or based on nature instead of relying
solely on technical interventions (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016). Natural and artificial
(mimicking natural systems) systems that use and reinforce physical, chemical, and
microbiological treatment processes are referred to as NbS (Hogain and Mccarton
2018). People who know more about NbS and how to use it wisely can help protect
130 B.-T. Dang et al.

them from the worst effects of climate change by reducing surface warming,
improving biodiversity, and restoring ecosystem services.
The centralized and decentralized wastewater treatment are two options applica-
ble for large urban areas. Inspired by NbS, Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs,
centralized treatment systems) and constructed floating wetlands (CFWs,
decentralized treatment systems) are considered a nature-based solution for waste-
water treatment (NbS-WT), and technologically feasible among the diverse available
low-cost processes for treating canal wastewater. A WSP is man-made shallow
basins that contain single or multiple anaerobic, facultative, or maturation ponds
(MPs). Before treated water is discharged into the environment, a MP is used as
tertiary treatment. Nutrients from wastewater are removed from MPs by assimilation
into algal biomass, nitrification–denitrification process (Camargo Valero et al.
2010), and may partially be volatilized (NH3) or co-precipitated (P) at elevated pH
as a result of high CO2 uptake during algal photosynthesis (Tanner et al. 2005).
However, the primary function of a MP is pathogen removal, which is accomplished
entirely through aerobic processes and solar radiation (PAR, UV-A, UV-B) pene-
tration in a shallow maturation pond. Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is the funda-
mental factor controlling the performance of MPs (Passos et al. 2018; Lloyd et al.
2003). Nowadays, WSPs account for more than half of all WWTPs in the United
States (approximately 8000 facilities), 20% in France, and 33% in Germany
(Ho et al. 2021). In Vietnam, there are about seven urban wastewater treatment
systems using biological ponds (Table 6.1), located in Dak Lak province, Da Nang
City, Ho Chi Minh City, and Quang Ninh City (The World Bank 2013). WSPs are
low-cost and have efficient operations over a wide range of flows and loads. They are
simple to construct, operate, and maintain (Achag et al. 2021a, b; Taherkhani et al.
2018). WSPs could establish diverse communities of bacteria, algae, viruses, pro-
tozoa, rotifers, and insects, attracting fishes and birds that are critical to urban
biodiversity. The long HRT and large surface area of the system have the potential
for centralized wastewater treatment, flooding regulation (Smith and Cook 1985),
and fish farming (Trang et al. 2006).
CFWs are an emerging water treatment technology that is gaining popularity
worldwide which are referred to as “floating treatment wetlands” (FTWs). FTWs can
be effective and reliable water treatment systems in the correct situation with
appropriate design, installation, maintenance, and end-of-life costs. An
eco-friendly floating wetland consists of a spherical structure that floats on the
water surface and contains media for the growth of aquatic plants (Huth et al.
2021; Lucke et al. 2019; Sanicola et al. 2019; Schwammberger et al. 2017, 2019;
Walker et al. 2017). Floating wetlands have the potential for carbon sequestration,
nutrient recovery and biomass production, urban greening, climate regulation, and
increased local biodiversity.
Wastewater treatment with activated sludge remains the standard wastewater
treatment method in many developing countries, and given this fact, the role of
WSP and FTW should be considered with a view to sustainable development. For
urban cities, NbS-WT brings economic and social value in addition to its techno-
logical benefits. Presence of NbS in developing countries has a variety of
 6

Table 6.1 Urban WWTPs using biological ponds in Vietnam (The World Bank 2013)
Sewage BOD COD TSS
system Capacity (mg/L) (mg/L) TN (mg/L) TP (mg/L) (mg/L)
No. WWTPs Location (m3/day) Treatment process Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff. Inf. Eff.
1 Buon Ma Dak Lak SSS 8500 Anaerobic/Facultative/mat- 336 45 564 98 93.7 23 11.2 4.3 286 76
Thuot uration pond
2 Bai Chay Quang CSS 3500 Anaerobic pond 36 20 80 32 – – – – 196 11
Ninh
3 Ngu Hanh Da Nang CSS 10,000 Anaerobic pond with float 31 22 60 44 15.6 12.9 1.4 1.1 27 16
Son cover
4 Son Tra Da Nang CSS 25,500 Anaerobic pond with float 37 25 67 49 18 14 1.7 1.4 38 19
cover
5 Phu loc Da Nang CSS 36,430 Anaerobic pond with float 96 37 169 73 28.3 21.4 2.2 2.8 71 23
cover
6 Hoa Da Nang CSS 47,600 Anaerobic pond with float 63 31 115 60 23.6 18.6 2.2 1.8 59 23
Cuong cover
Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . .

7 Binh Hung Ho Chi CSS 30,000 Aerated Lagoon/Matura- 78 10 203 50 – – – – 49 18

Hoa Minh tion Ponds
QCVN 40:2011/BTNMT, A class 30 75 20 4 50
QCVN 40:2011/BTNMT, B class 50 150 40 6 100
131
132 B.-T. Dang et al.

consequences, both societal and economic. NbS-WT must be thoroughly assessed in

order to ensure a strategy to protect the environment, and human health and to
support sustainable economic development. With the current status of pollution in
Vietnam’s canal cities and other urban areas in mind, this chapter will look at how
well WSPs and FTWs might work in reducing pollution while also adapting to
climate change and creating a more beautiful cityscape.

6.2 General Impact of Climatic and Non-climatic

Challenges in Urban Areas

6.2.1 Geographical Location, Population Growth,

and Infrastructure Characteristics

Vietnam is located in Southeast Asia, with latitudes of 8°10′–23°24′ North and

longitudes of 102°09′–109°30′ East. Vietnam shares land borders with China to the
north, Laos, Cambodia to the west, and maritime boundaries with Thailand via the
Gulf of Thailand and the Philippines, Indonesia, and Malaysia via the East Sea. It has
a mainland area of 331,690 km2, with the country’s total length from north to south
of 1650 km. The coastline is 3260 km, and the inland border is 4510 km. The highest
point is Fan Si Pan, with a 3143-m height. Vietnam has a population of 96,462,108
(in 2019). Due to its location in the tropics, the climate of Vietnam is characterized
by high temperature and humidity. The average temperature ranges from 22 to 27 °
C. The average rainfall is 1500–2000 mm, depending on the location. The humidity
reaches around 80%. Vietnam focuses on industrial and agricultural development
and therefore, the total agricultural water used in 2016 is estimated at 76 billion m3
and is expected to increase to 91 billion m3 in 2030 (Sagris et al. 2017). At the same
time, the total amount of water used annually in the industries is estimated at 6 billion
m3 and is expected to increase to 15.6 billion m3 in 2030. As a result, the total
amount of wastewater discharged from the industrial parks is 450,000 m3/day,
excluding factories and craft villages (Sagris et al. 2017). In 2018, the total water
withdrawal per capita in Vietnam was 858.5 m3 per year. Rainwater, river water, and
groundwater are commonly used for daily purposes in Vietnam. However, rainwater
is used extensively. Combined sewage systems (CSS) and separate sewerage sys-
tems (SSS) are both utilized for the purpose of collecting urban wastewater and
transporting it WWTPs. In Vietnam, the CSS has become the de facto standard for
the collection of sewage. Besides, the SSS has been recently used in some urban
wastewater systems, namely: Da Lat, Buon Ma Thuot, and Ho Chi Minh City (Canh
Doi and Nam Vien WWTPs). The influent BOD concentrations measured at the Da
Lat and Buon Ma Thuot wastewater treatment plants were significantly higher than
in the CSS-based systems (The World Bank 2013).
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 133

6.2.2 Effects of Urbanization and Population Growth

on the Urban Environment

Among the major cities of Vietnam such as Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Can Tho and
Da Nang, Ho Chi Minh City has witnessed a rapid pace of urbanization and
industrialization as well as suffered most strongly associated with the accompanying
environmental consequences. In Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), increased water use for
industries and agriculture has depleted groundwater resources and polluted the
groundwater and surface water severely. Therefore, water quality, biodiversity,
and sanitation are all issues that need to be addressed otherwise the current and
future water supplies of HCMC will be in jeopardy (Van Leeuwen et al. 2016).
Flooding in Ho Chi Minh City has been happening for a long time and is considered
a “chronic” disease related to the inner canal (Tan Hoi 2020). In the past 20 years,
flooding has become more severe when heavy rain happens during high tidal times,
adversely affecting the lives of millions of people and the total number of submerged
locations reached 126 in 2008 (Vachaud et al. 2019). The impervious surface in the
flood-prone area has expanded by eightfold, while the population has increased by
twofold. The development of peri-urban zones with poor sewage installation and
maintenance, as well as increased rainfall events, are likely to blame for the
recurrence of flooding seen in 2013–2014. Overall, the city has several flood-
prone areas with submersion levels varying from 0.15 to 0.65 m and impacted by
subsidence (Vachaud et al. 2019).
In terms of urban temperatures, the radiant temperature in HCMC in 1996 ranged
from 22.4 to 35.8 °C, while the values were remarkably higher in 2007 (23.8–39.8 °
C) and 2016 (25.3–40.4 °C) due to the urbanization (Son et al. 2017). According to
the latest statistics, Ho Chi Minh City now has more than nine million motorbikes
and 500,000 cars of all kinds. Transport vehicles using diesel, gasoline fuel, or fossil
origin have discharged a lot of NO, CO2, and SO2 gases (Tan Hoi 2020). Rapid
urbanization is generally accompanied by a considerable increase in the number of
buildings and a loss of vegetation cover in the entire city. Urban encroachment into
neighboring agricultural and rural areas has replaced green space in central districts.
This is significant from a health standpoint since it raises the risk of heat-related
death and morbidity (Dang et al. 2018).

6.2.3 Current Status of Wastewater Treatment in Vietnam

Three main types of wastewater exist in urban areas including municipal, hospital,
and industrial wastewater. Over 90% of households have septic tanks, and only
70–80% of them have access to piped drainage or sewer systems. Then, around 17%
of collected drainage or sewage is treated by centralized wastewater treatment plants
(WWTPs) (Nguyen 2018). As reported, Vietnam has 41 municipal WWTPs in
operation with a total capacity of 950,000 m3/day, and over 30 municipal WWTPs
are to be constructed, with a total capacity of 1.5 million m3/day (The World Bank
134 B.-T. Dang et al.

Table 6.2 Characteristics of urban wastewater in Vietnam (The World Bank 2013)
Parameters Raw wastewater Treated wastewater QCVN 40:2011/BTNMT, class A
BOD (mg/L) 31–380 3–45 30
COD (mg/L) 60–604 15–98 75
TSS (mg/L) 27–792 5–82 50
NH4+-N (mg/L) 1.1–68 1.5–32 5
TN (mg/L) 11–95 7–30 20
TP (mg/L) 1.4–19.7 0.85–6.5 4
Remarks: QCVN 40:2011/BTNMT—National Technical Regulation on Industrial Wastewater, Ha
Noi, 2011

2013). The characteristics of urban wastewater before and after treatment are
summarized in Table 6.2.
Technologies employed to treat urban wastewater are different depending on each
wastewater and can be summarized as follows:
(i) For municipal WWTP, the process consists of a septic tank, activated sludge
process with various forms such as conventional activated sludge, anaerobic–
anoxic–aerobic tanks, oxidation ditch, and sequencing batch bioreactor.
(ii) For hospital WWTP, the process consists of a septic tank, sand sedimentation
tank, two-shell clarifier, filtered biological tank, flocculation, and conventional
activated sludge.
(iii) For industrial WWTP, the process consists of flocculation, separation of silt and
grease, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB), conventional activated
sludge, modified activated sludge process, and chlorination.
In urban wastewater treatment, there are many obstacles and challenges, such as
the dominance of combined sewer systems, a lack of capital investment, wastewater
with a low C/N ratio, and unsynchronized treatment equipment. Due to budget
limitations, most old urban areas possess combined sewer systems that collect
rainwater and wastewater via pipeline collection networks or drainage canals. Low
C/N wastewater flows from combined systems to wastewater treatment plants causes
many disadvantages for wastewater treatment plants, especially for biological treat-
ment processes. So, new urban projects are required to build separate sewer systems.
Besides, the low fee paid for wastewater treatment and low capital investment are
critical financial barriers to wastewater management in Vietnam. In addition, another
challenge is that fecal sludge is not well handled in all cities, and drying and
dumping at landfills is the most common sludge treatment method.
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 135

6.2.4 Effects of Untreated Wastewater on Inner-City Canals

Inner-city canals such as those in Ho Chi Minh City and Can Tho City, which were
built in the nineteenth century, have become a cultural feature of southern Vietnam.
These canals serve a triple purpose: they connect the city to the Mekong Delta, feed
the city with fresh water, and control seasonal monsoon-related floods (Babut et al.
2019; Givental 2014; Kieu-le et al. 2019). However, many urban canals and streams
in Ho Chi Minh City (700 km in length) have become highly polluted, and they are
increasingly being used as drains for untreated domestic and industrial wastewater.
As a result, the canals of Ho Chi Minh City have lost their function as a social–
ecological system. Through our current survey, many urban canals have been
heavily polluted, especially Hoa Binh Canal (COD: 115 ± 66 mg/L, BOD5:
76 ± 33 mg/L, TSS: 58 ± 25 mg/L for low tide; COD: 100 ± 63 mg/L, BOD5:
67 ± 41 mg/L, TSS: 46 ± 32 mg/L for high tide). Some measurement results are
described in Table 6.3. The canal systems in HCMC need to cover a high-density
population and polluting industrial areas. Unfortunately, industrial and domestic
wastewater are released into watercourses and canal systems directly without ade-
quate treatment. They are a source of a variety of organic toxins being released into
the canal, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs), and some insecticides, polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs),
and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) (Babut et al. 2019). Moreover, the accumu-
lation of trace metal(oid) (As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn, and Hg) were also found recently
(Strady et al. 2017). Trace metals and certain organic substances are regarded as
priority concerns due to their toxicity and tendency to accumulate in organisms.
Proposing a wastewater treatment system to treat canal wastewater is necessary not
only in terms of improving water quality but also toward sustainability with
enhanced biodiversity, urban landscape as well as regulating flood, and therefore
should be prioritized.

6.3 Assessing the Effectiveness of Natural-Based

Wastewater Treatment Systems

6.3.1 Effectiveness of Maturation Ponds

6.3.1.1 A Review of Maturation Ponds

Waste Stabilization Ponds (WSPs) are designed for wastewater treatment to reduce
the organic/inorganic contents and remove pathogens from wastewater. There are
three types of WSPs, namely (1) anaerobic, (2) facultative, and (3) aerobic (matu-
ration), each with different treatments and design characteristics. An overview of
some design dimensions of WSPs from previous studies is shown in Table 6.4. Each
pond type can be used individually or linked in a series for improved treatment. Full-
 136

Table 6.3 Average values of water quality parameters in the canals of Ho Chi Minh City
Turbidity PO43--P COD BOD5
Station Tide Temp. pH TSS (mg/L) NTU NH4+-N (mg/L) (mg/L) DO (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
An Loc High 30.59 ± 1.7 6.73 ± 0.35 33 ± 13 44.1 ± 36.6 5.52 ± 5.74 0.49 ± 0.48 2.78 ± 1.4 30 ± 22 19 ± 13
An Loc Low 30.21 ± 0.5 6.95 ± 0.27 39 ± 22 52.9 ± 35.4 10.23 ± 2.87 0.97 ± 0.36 1.82 ± 0.74 40 ± 19 26 ± 9
Cau chu Y High 29.84 ± 0.69 6.96 ± 0.42 44 ± 33 55.8 ± 39 4.38 ± 2.24 0.21 ± 0.2 3.22 ± 1.55 22 ± 10 13 ± 5
Cau chu Y Low 30.43 ± 0.72 6.92 ± 0.48 39 ± 20 69.6 ± 63.5 7.21 ± 3.3 0.49 ± 0.33 2.31 ± 1.39 34 ± 13 21 ± 7
Hoa Binh High 30.12 ± 0.95 6.72 ± 0.37 46 ± 32 63.8 ± 34.1 30.66 ± 21.15 1.44 ± 0.68 1.93 ± 0.7 100 ± 63 67 ± 41
Hoa Binh Low 30.27 ± 1.01 6.85 ± 0.32 58 ± 25 64.1 ± 35.1 27.09 ± 7.84 1.61 ± 0.6 1.82 ± 1.15 115 ± 66 76 ± 33
Nhi Thien Duong High 29.83 ± 0.86 7.05 ± 0.45 38 ± 23 58.9 ± 44.6 5.16 ± 2.08 0.24 ± 0.11 2.9 ± 1.27 25 ± 10 16 ± 5
Nhi Thien Duong Low 30.45 ± 0.84 6.87 ± 0.56 76 ± 86 87.3 ± 85.6 8.01 ± 4.23 0.39 ± 0.3 2.36 ± 1.44 34 ± 18 23 ± 10
Ong Buong High 30.23 ± 1.1 6.83 ± 0.27 49 ± 29 75.9 ± 48.7 20.57 ± 6.46 1.17 ± 0.51 2.02 ± 1.25 79 ± 49 52 ± 24
Ong Buong Low 30.4 ± 1.17 6.71 ± 0.57 48 ± 19 57.3 ± 31.5 22.32 ± 9.07 1.52 ± 0.5 1.72 ± 0.89 80 ± 45 54 ± 26
Phu Dinh High 30.58 ± 1.6 7 ± 0.23 46 ± 53 78.9 ± 63.2 7.93 ± 2.34 0.47 ± 0.2 2.45 ± 1.04 27 ± 7 19 ± 3
Phu Dinh Low 30.82 ± 1.41 7.09 ± 0.6 69 ± 89 109.6 ± 165.9 9.16 ± 3.63 0.55 ± 0.3 1.94 ± 0.69 32 ± 12 21 ± 8
Rach Ngua High 30.51 ± 1.15 7.04 ± 0.47 34 ± 16 56.5 ± 35.8 12.34 ± 3.38 0.78 ± 0.46 2.28 ± 1.12 37 ± 16 24 ± 8
Rach Ngua Low 30.76 ± 1.45 6.93 ± 0.36 40 ± 24 65.7 ± 55.4 14.62 ± 4.6 0.9 ± 0.35 2.2 ± 1.15 44 ± 18 29 ± 9
Tham Luong High 30.35 ± 1.18 6.99 ± 0.36 44 ± 23 54.9 ± 40.9 12.15 ± 5.97 1.13 ± 0.45 1.67 ± 0.55 66 ± 34 42 ± 16
Tham Luong Low 30.18 ± 0.79 7.07 ± 0.35 45 ± 22 51.4 ± 39.7 13.19 ± 5.43 1.12 ± 0.5 1.57 ± 0.88 81 ± 42 48 ± 19
B.-T. Dang et al.
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 137

Table 6.4 Overview of some design dimensions of WSP ponds

Pond type Depth (m) Area (m2) Volume (m3) References
Anaerobic pond – 1550 – Achag et al. (2021a)
3 2.25 6.75 Ajie and Setiadewi (2020)
2.5 8.33 20.825 Pearson et al. (1996)
2.5 1700 3300 Johansson et al. (1996)
2.5 8.085 20.2125 Silva et al. (1995)
3.5 – – Shereif et al. (1995)
Facultative pond – 13,300 – Achag et al. (2021a)
1.7 10 17 Ajie and Setiadewi (2020)
1.5 7100 9400 Johansson et al. (1996)
1–2 24 24–48 Silva et al. (1995)
2 24.01 48.02 Silva et al. (1995)
1.5 1500 2250 Shereif et al. (1995)
Maturation pond – 12,738 – Achag et al. (2021a)
0.9 2100 1890 Dahl et al. (2021)
0.7 15.4 10.78 Ajie and Setiadewi (2020)
0.44 131.25 57.75 Passos et al. (2020)
1.5 7100 9400 Johansson et al. (1996)
1 12,800 12,200 Johansson et al. (1996)
1 9250 8700 Johansson et al. (1996)
1 152.68 152.68 Silva et al. (1995)
0.39–0.9 39 15.21–35.1 Silva et al. (1995)
0.39 13.52 6.75 Silva et al. (1995)
0.6 31.6875 6.75 Silva et al. (1995)
1.5 270 6.75 Shereif et al. (1995)

scale studies have revealed that employing anaerobic and facultative ponds resulted
in high levels of DO, total TSS, COD, and BOD5, making it impossible to safely
discharge treated water into the natural environment or reuse it. As a result,
upgrading this plant by tertiary treatment with maturation ponds is advised to
improve the quality (Achag et al. 2021b).
Maturation ponds (MPs, low-cost polishing ponds) are primarily intended for
tertiary treatment, that is, the removal of pathogens, nutrients, and potentially algae
(Oragui et al. 1986). The remaining eggs and cysts in the effluent from anaerobic and
facultative ponds are removed further by MPs (Konaté et al. 2013). They are the
shallowest of the three WSPs to allow sunlight to pass through and also create
aerobic conditions through natural air diffusion as well as surface mixing by wind.
MPs with proper design can attain bacteriological levels suitable for unrestricted
irrigation; these ponds have several advantages over energy and chemical-intensive
disinfection treatment systems (Faleschini and Esteves 2017). The hydraulic reten-
tion time (HRT) is the most important design aspect since it influences the quality of
the treated water produced. Furthermore, the performance of the pond can be
affected by area/depth ratios (related to hydraulic short-circuiting), weather
138 B.-T. Dang et al.

conditions, influent quality, sludge accumulation, geometries of the configuration,

and the presence or absence of baffles (Passos et al. 2014). Using shallow depths for
bacterial disinfection is a traditional technique. The higher the possibility of sunlight
affecting the entire water column and, as a result, the higher the disinfection rate.
However, when the pond’s depth declines, the volume and HRT drop as well. To
overcome it, the addition of a baffle structure can increase the length to width (L/W)
ratio, make the pond achieve the desired plug flow, reduce short-circuiting, and
increase exposure to sunlight, resulting in improved disinfection (Passos et al. 2020).
When using well-designed baffles, the E. coli and enterococci removal effectiveness
was increased by 0.2–0.7 log units compared to that of the control condition (Ouali
et al. 2012). The kinetic disinfection coefficients have significant relationships with
pH, DO, T, and UV intensity (Ouali et al. 2015). Compared to planted wetlands,
where wetland systems are shown to be more efficient in removing organic matter
and suspended solids. However, the MPs system was more efficient in the removal
of nitrogen (ammonia) and coliforms (E. coli) (Von Sperling et al. 2010). Pham et al.
(2014) observed higher algal abundance, richness, and diversity values in MPs than
in facultative ponds in Ecuador. The nitrification and denitrification can be consid-
ered a feasible mechanism for nitrogen removal in pilot-scale MPs, which may be
supported by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB), ammonia-oxidizing archaea
(AOA), methanotrophs, nitrite-oxidizing bacteria, and denitrifier (Camargo Valero
et al. 2010).

6.3.1.2 Urban WWTPs Using Biological Ponds in Vietnam

As a part of the treatment of urban wastewater, some WWTPs in major cities in

Vietnam make use of WSPs, such as anaerobic ponds and MPs. In Vietnam, there are
about seven urban wastewater treatment systems using biological ponds, located in
Dak Lak province, Da Nang City, Ho Chi Minh City, and Quang Ninh City. The
names and properties of these plants are mentioned in Table 6.1. To collect and
transport urban wastewater to WSPs, combined sewage systems (CSS) and separate
sewerage systems (SSS) are extensively employed. The CSS has been widely
employed as the standard sewage collection method in Vietnam. This is due to
both cost (CSS is less expensive than SSS) and simplicity of implementation. The
influent of organic (BOD: 31–78 mg/L) and nutrient (TN: 16–24 mg/L) are relatively
low in CSS due to dilution by stormwater runoff and drainage, and the quality of
treated water by WSP ponds meets discharge standards (QCVN 40: 2011/BTNMT,
class B). For example, most effluent BOD contents range from 10 to 45 mg/L, which
is significantly lower than the effluent standard of 50 mg/L.
By removing precipitation runoff and drainage from the system, the SSS has only
been used in a few sites, such as Da Lat and Buon Ma Thuot, to collect highly
concentrated urban wastewater (BOD: 336 mg/L and TN: 94 mg/L). The excessive
organic and nitrogen loading at the Buon Ma Thuot WWTP, on the other hand, may
cause an imbalance in the WSP ponds, resulting in lower effluent quality (Table 6.4).
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 139

Therefore, it can be understood that the combination of CSS and WSPs will bring
many advantages in terms of economy and quality of wastewater treatment.

6.3.1.3 Centralized Wastewater Treatment System in Ho Chi Minh City

According to the general plan up to 2025, HCMC will plan and build 12 more large-
capacity domestic wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) to treat about 3.2 million
m3 of wastewater generated daily, including about 0.2–0.35 million m3 of industrial
sewage throughout the city (Table 6.5). This is due to the city government’s efforts

Table 6.5 Planning for drainage and wastewater treatment in HCMC to 2025
Capacity Location
No. Drainage basin Locality (District) Collection (m3/day) (Tentative)
1 Basin 1 (Tau 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10, Tan Combined 512,000 Binh Hung,
Hu—Ben Binh, Binh Chanh and separate Binh
Nghe—Doi— sewers Chanh Dist.
Te)
2 Basin 2 (West 12, Tan Phu, Tan Shared and 180,000 Near Tan Thang
Saigon) Binh, Go Vap, Binh separate Park, Tan
Tan sewers Phu Dist.
3 Basin 3 (Tan 6, 8, 11, Tan Binh, Tan Shared and 300,000 Tan Nhut Com-
Hoa—Lo Gom Phu, Binh Tan, Binh separate mune, Binh
Chanh sewers Chanh Dist.
4 Basin 4 (South 7, Nha Be Separate 200,000 Phuoc Kien
Sai Gon) sewer Commune, Nha
Be Dist.
5 Basin 5 (East Sai 2, Thu Thiem Separate 350,000 Cat Lai, Dist.2
Gon) sewer
6 Basin 6 (North 9 Separate 130,000 Long Truong
Sai Gon 2) sewer Ward, Dist.9
7 Basin 7 (North Thu Duc Separate 170,000 Truong Tho
Sai Gon 1) sewer Ward, Thu Duc
District
8 Basin 8 (Tham 12, Binh Thanh, Go Shared and 250,000 An Phu Dong
Luong Ben Cat) Vap separate Ward, Dist.12
sewers
9 Basin 9 (Nhieu 1, 3, 10, Binh Thanh, Shared 500,000 Nhon Duc
Loc—Thi Nghe) Go Vap, Phu Nhuan, sewers Commune, Nha
Tan Binh Be Dist.
10 Basin 10 (Binh Binh Tan Separate 110,000 Near Den Canal
Tan) sewer area
11 Basin 11 (Cau 12, Hoc Mon Separate 100,000 Next to Dua
Dua Canal) sewer Canal
12 Basin Cu Chi, Hoc Mon Separate 130,000 Next to Xang
12 (Northwest) sewer Canal
Source: Decision 24/QD-TTg dated January 6, 2010, adjusting the general construction plan of Ho
Chi Minh City to 2025
140 B.-T. Dang et al.

and international assistance in official development assistance (ODA). Ho Chi Minh

City renovated the drainage system and first constructed two large-capacity
domestic WWTP: Binh Hung (Binh Chanh district) and Binh Hung Hoa (Binh
Tan district). With a design capacity of the first phase of 141,000 m3/day, the Binh
Hung WWTP that was built by the Japanese ODA capital started its operation in
early 2009. Binh Hung WWTP has an area of about 14 ha, located in district 7, Ho
Chi Minh City. The main technology of the plant is the use of aerobic biological
activated sludge (Binh Hung WWTP 2000). The quality of treated water from Binh
Hung and Binh Hung Hoa WWTP is within the limits of discharge regulations
(QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT—Class B). The use of activated sludge treatment systems
(Binh Hung WWTP) is considered outside the scope of discussion in relation to
Nature-Based Solutions for Wastewater Treatment. In this chapter, Binh Hung Hoa
WWTP will be discussed in detail.

6.3.1.4 A Case Study of Binh Hung Hoa WWTP

Binh Hung Hoa WWTP was built and operated in 2006, with a designed capacity of
30,000 m3/day (phase 1), and will be expanded to 46,000 m3/day in phase 2. The
wastewater was collected from Black Canal, located northeast of Ho Chi Minh City,
receiving from a drainage basin of about 785 ha. Binh Hung Hoa WWTP is
co-invested by Vietnam and Belgium governments, based on the design of a research
group from the Gent Universities and the University of Liège. A treatment plant has
been designed that incorporates aerated lagoon technology and stabilization ponds
(Fig. 6.1). The central units of this plant are: (1) Inlet pumping station, (2) Aerated
lagoon, (3) Sedimentation ponds, (4) Maturation pond (MPs), and (5) Sludge drying
bed. The total area of the wastewater treatment station is 36.4 ha, of which about
22 ha is pond area, and 5.3 ha is green area. The MPs have a water depth of
1.5–2.0 m and cover an area of 2.4 ha for the first, 2.7 ha for the middle and
3.3 ha for the final ponds (Trang et al. 2006).
The intake of wastewater from the Black canal is collected into the treatment
system (through coarse screens). A system of two screw pumps will be responsible
for pumping wastewater into the grit channel to remove sand and large particles. At
the end of the grit channel, the wastewater enters the aerated lagoon and then the
sedimentation pond. Then, the wastewater is led to six MPs by gravity flow. Treated
wastewater will be discharged back to the downstream of the Black canal. The
organic loading to the WWTP varies from 530 to 765 kg BOD/ha.day, averaging
647 kg BOD/ha.day, which is about 0.02 kg BOD/m3.day. The oxygen supplied to
the aerated lagoon provides a DO concentration of 0.6–7.03 mg/L, with an average
of 3.82 mg/L. In MPs, disinfection is by natural sunlight, the HRT in MPs ranged
from 4.1 to 6.15 days (mean 4.92 days). The average water retention time in whole
systems is 14.4 days.
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 141

Fig. 6.1 Schematic of Binh Hung Hoa Wastewater treatment plant

6.3.1.5 Removal of Organic Matter and Nutrients

From Table 6.6, the influent concentration of COD ranged from 117 to 303 mg/L,
with an average of 213 mg/L. The average TSS and PO43- were 51 and 3.4 mg/L,
respectively. Especially, the average value of NH4+-N is 9.2–38.1 with an average of
23.5 (mg/L), sometimes exceeding the design value (25 mg/L). Besides domestic
wastewater, wastewater generated from textile, dyeing, cattle slaughtering, vermi-
celli, plating, etc., and have not been treated also enter the WWTP resulting in high
pollution concentrations and sometimes exceeded design levels. However, the
quality of treated water from Binh Hung Hoa WWTP complies with discharge
regulations.
Based on the WWTP report (2021), TSS removal can be from 57 to 90%, while
BOD5 removal efficiency is relatively high (89–98%). The effluent has the following
quality: BOD (10 mg/L), COD (61 mg/L), TSS (22 mg/L), NH4+-N (8.2 mg/L), and
PO43- (0.3 mg/L). As a result of past research, Trang et al. (2006) showed that the
nitrification process improved gradually from the aerated lagoon to the MPs where
the total number of coliforms was reduced to less than 3000 MPN/100 mL. This
indicated that aerated lagoons combined with MPs are essential for bacterial elim-
ination and nitrification. With a capacity of 30,000 m3/day (phase 1), the amount of
sludge generated is from 994 to 1093 tons/year, with an average of 1040 tons/year,
and corresponds to the volume of treated water fluctuates from 9,361,522 to
10,297,120 m3/year (average 9,682,559 m3/year). To facilitate sludge drying before
final disposal, one pond (7000 m2; 1 m depth) has been constructed to collect the
sludge that is collected mostly in the sedimentation pond. The estimated volume of
generated sludge ranges from 0.1 kg/m3 of wastewater with an average moisture
content of 70%. The water volume loss due to evaporation and infiltration is
estimated at 5 mm/day and 2–3 mm/day.
The average flow rate of 10,515,680 m3/year is equivalent to $745,974.015 of the
wastewater treatment cost (Table 6.7). Therefore, the system has been working steadily
with very low operating costs ($0.071) for each m3 of wastewater treated. The
 142

Table 6.6 Treatment parameters of Binh Hung Hoa WWTP

Binh Hung Hoa WWTP
Parameters Influent (mg/L) Effluent (mg/L) Removal (%) QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT—Class B (mg/L)
COD 117–303 (213) 25–78 (61) 52.3–88.5 (69.7) –
BOD5 25–119 (84) 2–17 (10) 56.0–98.0 (87.5) 50
TSS 22–129 (51) 2–42 (22) 8.3–97.3 (49.6) 100
NH4+-N 9.2–38.1 (23.5) 4.1–12.6 (8.2) 14.4–82.2 (62.9) 10
PO43--P 1.7–7.0 (3.4) 0.1–1.0 (0.3) 47.4–98.4 (88.3) 10
Source: Data from Binh Hung Hoa WWTP
B.-T. Dang et al.
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 143

Table 6.7 Treatment costs at Binh Hung Hoa WWTP (inflow = 10.515.680 m3/year)
Cost value
No. Processing items ($/year)
1 Personnel costs 284,855.989
2 Maintenance and replacement supplies, regular repair 21,268.261
3 Energy expenditure 212,914.947
4 Cost of water sample analysis and analysis for periodic environmental 5622.448
monitoring reports
5 Cost of inspection and calibration of equipment and works items 1219.784
6 The cost of caring for the green landscape 177,510.645
7 Sludge treatment costs 42,581.068
8 Total 745,974.015
Source: Binh Hung Hoa WWTP. Average exchange rates ($1 = 22,897.5 VND) on April 15,2022.
(https://wise.com/vn/currency-converter/usd-to-vnd-rate)

wastewater treatment costs of the Binh Hung Hoa WWTP system were even lower in
the previous report (963 VND or approx. $0.042/m3) (The World Bank 2013).

6.3.1.6 Pros and Cons of Maturation Pond in a WWTP

The primary function of MPs is pathogen removal with high coliforms removal
efficiency (disinfection by UV light, e.g.), along with having important advantages
of providing storage (Lazarova 2022; Batista et al. 2021), the removal of BOD, TSS,
and enhanced nitrification. This can be observed in Binh Hung Hoa WWTP (Trang
et al. 2006). MPs use sunlight as their energy and other naturally occurring phe-
nomena for reducing carbon and nutrients and disinfection of coliforms as the last
stage of WSP. The systems are simple to build, operate, and maintain throughout a
broad array of flow and loading levels (Achag et al. 2021a, b; Taherkhani et al.
2018). The MPs, on the other hand, have a significant contribution to the environ-
mental footprint (up to 30.1%); this is primarily due to the use of high-density
polyethylene (HDPE) geomembrane and concrete for the pond-to-pond wall (Gikas
and Tsihrintzis 2014). However, according to the analysis of Gikas and Tsihrintzis
(2014), using soil structures, mainly clay, had an overall economic and environmen-
tal advantage over reinforced concrete.
In reality, a city’s large pond and green space should be regarded as a mitigation
method for urban heat islands because they lower air temperatures (Aram et al. 2019;
Ruiz-Aviles et al. 2020). For Binh Hung Hoa WWTP, the 36.4-ha large, aerated
lagoon paired with MPs could be an outstanding option in terms of reducing urban
heat islands in HCMC. According to previous research, large urban parks over 10 ha
have the highest cooling efficiency distance and cooling efficiency intensity, which
means a temperature reduction of 1–2 °C over a distance of 350 m from the park
boundary (Aram et al. 2019).
The system’s long HRT and vast area make it ideal for centralized wastewater
treatment while it could help with flooding regulation (Smith and Cook 1985) and
144 B.-T. Dang et al.

fish farming. With a total area of 16.5 ha of MPs (Binh Hung Hoa WWTP) and pond
depths of 1.5–2 m, circumstances are favorable for growing carp and snapper with a
possible yield of 20 tons/ha/year (Trang et al. 2006). WSPs already account for more
than half of all WWTPs in the United States (about 8000 facilities), 20% in France,
and 33% in Germany today (Ho et al. 2021). Another co-benefit is high water reuse,
especially for agriculture, irrigation of industrial crops, fodder and seed crops, and
forest (Lazarova 2022), as applied in large projects in Spain and France in the 1980s.
Additionally, co-benefits are presented in providing wildlife habitat for both fauna
and flora (Pham et al. 2014; Sarkar Paria et al. 2019). Grazing by Protozoa and
Rotifera could be an essential mechanism in bacterial removal in MPs at depths.
Ecological interactions between zooplankton and microalgae affect the coliform
community’s growth and decay, but the main driving factors were pH, DO, and
solar radiation (Batista et al. 2021). MPs and facultative ponds could also help the
ammonia volatilization process. This is because the pond’s pH can reach high values
(>9.0), increasing the amount of free ammonia, or unionized ammonia, present in
the total ammonia. High pond temperatures also speed up the mass transfer of free
ammonia to the atmosphere (Crites et al. 2010).
Some challenges when using MPs, particularly WSP in general, are related to lack
of space. In order to apply for a WSP, a large area is required. As a result, there is not
enough area for using lagoons for wastewater treatment. Besides, it could become a
potential mosquito habitat (Crites et al. 2010; Mukhtar et al. 2006). Water evapora-
tion can emit odors. Low water depth can cause rooted plants to invade the pond as
well as floating duckweed to grow in the ponds. Furthermore, the effluent may
contain algae, resulting in colored water, increased concentrations of suspended
solids, and pH of the treated water. The wastewater staying in the MP could
contaminate groundwater. One of the problems is odor due to overloading, espe-
cially in the warm season might cause a strong smell. To handle this problem,
desludging is required. The phenomena of algae and macrophytes formed on the
free surface lead to the effluent to contain algae and produce green color water. To
maintain MPs, submerged, floating, and overall site vegetation should be controlled
weekly, which prevents the growth of macrophytes and removes algal layers from
the surfaces. In conclusion, maturation pond brings lots of both advantages and
co-benefits. However, factors such as the environment and health, for example,
mosquito breeding, contaminated groundwater, and the requirement for large land
area, need to be considered.

6.3.1.7 Lessons Learned from the Case Study

Based on current knowledge and current case studies in HCMC, several lessons can
be drawn:
• Although there are many configurations of WSPs such as anaerobic and facultative
ponds which can be used for enhanced bacterial and nitrogen removal, MPs are
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 145

considered mandatory. Input qualities and treatment goals, as well as land, labor,
and energy resources, all play a role in determining the optimal combination.
• Using MPs as a part of centralized WWTPs enhances sanitation services and
provides several co-benefits, such as lower energy consumption, durability, and
lower maintenance costs than traditional wastewater treatment systems.
• The combination of an aerated lagoon and MPs is regarded as vital for the
removal of bacteria and enhanced nitrification while also reducing odor, and
their performance has been consistent for a prolonged period of time (more
than 15 years now in the case of Binh Hung Hoa WWTP).
• In order to get the best long-term performance, MPs must be maintained, such as
periodical sludge discharge, control of mosquito habitat, and reduction of algae
development on surface layers to achieve sunlight intensity.
• Future designs in MPs could explore the use of baffle structures to reduce short-
circuiting and improve UV disinfection.
• MPs establish diverse communities of bacteria, algae, viruses, protozoa, rotifers,
and insects, attracting fish and birds, which are critical for urban biodiversity.
• Urban green space, centralized wastewater water treatment, flood control, and fish
farming are all possible because of the system’s exceptionally large footprint.
• Urban heat islands can be potentially reduced using a combination of large, aerated
lagoons and mature ponds; however, more quantitative research is needed.

6.3.2 Evaluation of Existing Floating Treatment Wetlands

(FTWs) for Canal Wastewater Treatment in Vietnam
6.3.2.1 Overview of Floating Treatment Wetlands

Definition of Floating Treatment Wetlands

Floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) are technologies that have stood out for their
efficiency, ease of installation, and maintenance. They consist of macrophytes
emerging in a floating structure that keep the plant roots in direct contact with the
effluent regardless of the water flow variation over time, allowing the removal of
pollutants by various processes. Artificially created floating wetlands have been used
with varying success for several applications to date, such as water quality improve-
ment, habitat enhancement, and esthetic purposes in ornamental ponds (Headley and
Tanner 2008). The application of FTWs for the treatment of domestic wastewater
has the advantage of low costs in terms of removing nutrients and, at the same time,
reducing the cost of maintenance and energy consumption when compared to the
conventional centralized treatment of effluent (Oliveira et al. 2021). Up to date, the
FTWs have been applied successfully for water quality improvement, habitat
enhancement, and esthetic purposes in ornamental ponds.
The terminology used in naming floating wetland systems, both natural and
artificial, is extremely varied. Virtually all of the major natural floating wetland
ecotypes around the world have been given a different name, typically of local
146 B.-T. Dang et al.

origin. Because of the relatively novel status of artificial floating wetlands used for
water treatment, there is still no consistent terminology that has been broadly
applied. As artificially created floating wetlands become increasingly used for
water treatment there is a need to derive a commonly applicable and somewhat
generic term for such systems. The term “Floating Treatment Wetlands” (FTWs)
seems most broadly used. However, such floating marshes employing emergent
plants should be differentiated from treatment systems utilizing free-floating aquatic
plants (e.g., duckweed or water hyacinth) which, although sharing a number of
similarities, are structurally and functionally different from the systems being
discussed here (Headley and Tanner 2006).

Effectiveness and Advantages of Floating Treatment Wetlands in Water

Treatment

Floating treatment wetlands (FTWs), or islands, are small artificial platforms that
allow these aquatic emergent plants to grow in water that is typically too deep for
them. Their roots spread through the floating islands and down into the water,
creating dense columns of roots with lots of surface area. Not only do the plants
take up nutrients and contaminants themselves, but the plant roots and floating island
materials also provide extensive surface area for microbes to grow—forming a slimy
layer of biofilm. The biofilm is where the majority of nutrient uptake and degradation
occurs in an FTW system. The shelter provided by the floating mat also allows
sediment and elements to settle by reducing turbulence and mixing by wind and
waves (Grosshans et al. 2019).
Floating wetlands provide an effective system for the removal of nutrients,
suspended and floating solids, heavy metals, COD, and BOD as well as providing
supplemental aeration (Headley and Tanner 2008). Common applications of FTWs
are stormwater management, stormwater, and gray water reuse, golf course treat-
ment ponds, leachate from waste tips and mines, wastewaters from industry and food
processing, reservoirs and lakes used for storage and recreation, municipal sewage
ponds, dairies, feed lots and piggeries, recreational fisheries, aquaculture water
management ponds, landscape amenity, biodiversity, fish habitat, wave dampening,
and shoreline protection (Borne 2014; Borne et al. 2013, 2014; Dell’Osbel et al.
2020). Well-designed floating wetlands successfully decrease pollutant concentra-
tions and improve the health of the ecosystem, shown by lower algae biomass and
more diverse fish, algae, and invertebrate communities (Bi et al. 2019; Nakamura
et al. 1998). Floating wetlands are relatively low-cost water reclamation schemes
based on nature’s self-cleaning capacity (Jana 2011) and are generally cheaper than
other treatment options (Rezania et al. 2016).
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 147

Design Parameters and Configurations

The main design parameters of FTWs for wastewater treatment are strengthening the
root mat development and optimizing the contact between wastewater, the root mat
biofilms, and the roots. For enhancing the root mat development, the type of
vegetation is obviously an important factor. The locally available indigenous aquatic
plants are to be preferred, especially those with long roots which can form a dense
curtain in the water body. This may be accomplished by growing plants in a nursery
and then transporting already well-established root mats to their final location. The
development of root mats needs to be considered when using these systems in a large
scale; small frames may be needed to lock plants and put them together. Once
established, floating mats often become populated in nature by a diverse range of
species and can form communities of high species richness (Cherry and Gough
2006).
Water level is another important parameter in optimizing the contact between
wastewater and the root mat biofilms. The water level should be varied according to
different target pollutants; for instance, a high-water level is necessary for treating
water loaded with coarse particles, while a low water level is preferred for treating
water with fine particles and dissolved recalcitrant contaminants where a system with
attached microbial biomass growth is needed. The dimension of the free water zone
below the root mat is adjusted by the water level. Typical operation depths vary from
0.4 to 0.8 m.
The design of the system also offers greater flexibility for managing water quality.
Unlike a constructed wetland or reedbed which may require about 3% of the
catchment area for effective water treatment, floating wetlands are installed (float)
on existing water bodies and can move up and down with fluctuating water levels
which would be detrimental to a conventional wetland system. Floating treatment
wetlands have become an accepted technology in the United Kingdom, China,
Japan, United States, New Zealand, and Europe, where they are universally valued
for water quality treatment, biodiversity, wave energy dissipation, and landscape
amenity.

6.3.2.2 Factors Affecting the Floating Treatment Wetlands Treatment

Water Depth

Water depth is an important factor to be considered while designing the FTWs. This
is because the FTW system is devoid of soil/substrate and plants solely depend on
their rooting structure in the free water column for nutrient acquisition. For root
development, at least 0.8–1 m of water depth is required for horizontal and vertical
growth. However, increased water depth enhances the treatment performance of
FTWs due to increased contact time of pollutants with roots and microbial biofilm
(Headley and Tanner 2008). Additional factors such as type of wastewater, treatment
purpose, and inflow variations also determine the choice of the water depth.
148 B.-T. Dang et al.

Floating wetlands do occur naturally, where under certain conditions a 40–60 cm

deep floating organic mat can break away from the bottom sediment and float
supporting plant growth. Artificial wetland islands can be constructed from various
materials to mimic this same effect and allow aquatic emergent plants to grow as a
floating mat without the risk of inundation regardless of changes in water level
(Mcandrew et al. 2016). Rooted plants experience alternate periods of flooding and
drying, whereas the water level for plants on a floating wetland is effectively
constant. FTWs can adjust to fluctuations in water levels in rainfall-driven systems
and are potential alternatives to traditionally constructed wetlands for remediating
nutrient-rich water bodies. Due to this adaptive feature, FTWs can be established
quickly as “natural infrastructure” in any water body for a managed bioremediation
scenario, such as in small eutrophic lakes and ponds or wastewater lagoons. FTWs
are distinguishable from free-floating aquatic plant systems because of their larger
emergent plants growing on a consolidated mat, as opposed to an unconsolidated
mass of small, individual buoyant plants (Headley and Tanner 2006).

Vegetation

Floating treatment wetlands (FTWs) are a variant of these systems that employ
rooted, emergent plants (similar to those used in surface and subsurface flow
applications) growing as a floating mat on the surface of the water rather than rooted
in the sediments. Plants may either be supported on a floating raft structure and
rooted in some sort of matrix or soil media, or (as in many natural floating marshes)
self-supported on intertwined mats of their own buoyant roots and rhizomes, and
accumulated plant litter and organic matter. Because they float on the water surface,
floating treatment wetlands are little affected by fluctuations in water levels that may
submerge and adversely stress bottom-rooted plants. The FTWs may be likened to a
hydroponic system, as the plants acquire their nutrition directly from the water
column in which their roots are suspended, rather than from the soil. They also
share some similarities with subsurface flow treatment wetlands, in that treatment
occurs as water flows through the root zone of the plants, rather than among the
stems. The types of vegetation used are plants from natural wetlands, including
Cyperus, Phragmites, Typha, and Scirpus spp., which have been evaluated for their
positive effects on treatment efficiency for nutrient and organic compounds around
the globe (Vymazal 2013). In the Americas, such species are typical in CWs and are
found mainly in the United States, where the technology has been used extensively
and is implemented in different rural and urban zones (Karathanasis et al. 2003). In
recent studies, the goal of constructed wetlands studies involved an investigation
into the use of herbaceous perennial ornamental plants in constructed wetlands,
including the use of species with different colored flowers to make the systems more
esthetic, and therefore making it more probable for adoption and replication.
Various plant types have been used to establish FTWs, e.g., Agrostis alba, Canna
flaccid, Carex lasiocarpa, Chamaedaphen calyculata, Glyceria maxima,
Menyanthes trifoliate, Myrica gale, Phragmites australis, Panicum hemitomon,
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 149

Pontederia cordata, Torilis japonica, Typha latifolia, and T. angustifolia (Headley

and Tanner 2008). Their choice largely depends on the type of contamination, the
ability of plants to make dense root structures, adaptability to water composition and
climatic conditions, and local availability and influence. The plant growth and gain
in biomass depend on plant species, age, type of wastewater, nutrient concentration,
redox condition of water, trophic level of water, and supporting mat (Chen et al.
2016). High nutrient load and toxic compounds may affect the development of
plants, especially at the young stage. Oenanthe javanica exhibited more roots than
the other plants and hence was considered a suitable plant type for FTWs. Likewise,
another study reported Juncus edgariae to develop an intensive root network (root
length of 87 cm) during the treatment of storm wastewater. Some wetland plants are
found to be sensitive to the variation of water level such as T. domingensis showing
about a 52% decrease in biomass due to water level fluctuation. Whereas some
species, such as Juncus spp., Phalaris arundinacea, and P. australias, have great
morphological adaptation to the fluctuation of water levels. These plants can be
utilized in stormwater ponds which show great fluctuations in the water level
(Shahid et al. 2019).

Season

Solar radiations and air temperature have a prominent effect on wetland perfor-
mance. This is because those pollutants are degraded from the wastewater via a
combination of biogeochemical processes governed by meteorological parameters.
The relative contributions of the processes to the buoyancy of a particular marsh will
vary depending on the plant species, age, growth phase, and methane generation
rates from accumulated organic sludge. These processes will also tend to vary
seasonally, due to the effect of temperature on metabolic activity and gas production,
and the growth rate of the plants (Hogg and Wein 1988). Thus, the processes
contributing to mat buoyancy tend to be most active during summer (Swarzenski
et al. 1991).

Aeration

The nutrient removal in ecological approaches for wastewater treatment such as

wetlands can be maximized by improving the aeration of wastewater (Maltais-
Landry et al. 2009). The aeration develops the aerobic micro-zones which stimulate
the biofilm production in the substrate. It promotes individual as well as simulta-
neous removal of ammonium and nitrate by the aerobic processes. In a study, nitrate/
nitrite removal was improved from 1.7 to 33.8% with an increase in gas-water ratio
from 0 to 5 in FTWs (Dunqiu et al. 2012). The aerated wetlands have been found to
have lower CH4 fluxes than non-aerated units as aeration helps efficient release of
oxidized nitrogen over ammonium in the effluent. The oxidized nitrogen is better
than ammonium due to its low toxicity and easy removal by denitrification in the
150 B.-T. Dang et al.

natural system. Likewise, COD reduction in winter as compared to summer can be

improved by an aeration system (Ouellet-Plamondon et al. 2006).

Harvesting of Plants

The primary mechanisms for nutrient removal are transformation and uptake by
microbes and plants, assimilation and absorption into organic and inorganic sedi-
ments, and conversion into gas through volatilization. Aquatic plants, both above the
water and submerged, take up and remove these elements from the sediment and
water column into their plant material or biomass. The study by Sasser et al. (1991)
indicated that the seasonal return of elements to the free water column may be more
significant in a floating wetland system compared to a substrate-attached wetland.
This may be related to the fact that the plant root mat and associated peat deposits
have a much greater potential for interaction with the water column.
Active plant harvesting can be utilized to expedite additional nutrient removal
and to limit internal nutrient cycle in FTWs. A previous study reported that about
half of the nutrients are accumulated in the shoots of wetland plants (Headley and
Tanner 2008). The aerial biomass has been positively linked to the removal of
nitrogen and phosphorus. As plant shoots can accumulate more nutrients during
vegetative stage, it is important to observe the temporal accumulation in order to
optimize the harvesting strategy.

6.3.2.3 Technical Aspects

Existing Demonstration and Pilot/Lab-Scale FTWs in Vietnam

Vietnam has improved its urban sanitation significantly in recent years by investing
in the construction of new wastewater treatment systems. However, a large propor-
tion of untreated domestic water is being released continuously into the environment
such as inner-city drainage systems such as canals, regulation ponds, and lakes. This
causes eutrophication in those water bodies and watersheds and surface water
becomes polluted if those areas do not have a proper water treatment system. In
this study, five existing experimental and four existing demo systems have been
reviewed (Fig. 6.2). The existing FTWs were listed based on the geographical
location from North to South Vietnam (Table 6.8). Desk review approach has
been used to review the relevant literature on the existing FTWs in Vietnam for
urban WW treatment, and to evaluate their effectiveness and impacts on environ-
mental and socio-economic benefits. The five pilot projects were reviewed based on
the relevant articles published in recognized Vietnamese journals, while the other
four demo projects we reviewed mainly were from relevant websites, as there are no
publications available about these systems (Table 6.8). The selected articles and
information on demo systems have been searched using the Google scholar tool with
the Vietnamese keywords of domestic/municipal wastewater, plants, and floating
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 151

Fig. 6.2 Location of nine existing FTWs in Vietnam (five experimental/four demonstration sites).
Notes: There are two pilot scale FTWs in the Thu Dau Mot University; the green arrows indicate
pilot scale FTWs while red arrows point to demonstration scale FTWs

wetlands. Unfortunately, there are not so many national articles that have focussed
on floating wetlands for pilot studies, the systems were designed only for hydroponic
conditions in which the plants have been placed and floated in the water without rafts
(Table 6.10).
(i) To Lich River (Ha Noi)
With terrain stretching across many latitudes, Vietnam has a dense network
of rivers with more than 2300 rivers, with some rivers stretching over 10 km
(Fig. 6.3). Hanoi, the capital, is known as the city of rivers and lakes with seven
large and small rivers flowing through. In addition, in the inner city, there are
two rivers To Lich and Kim Nguu (Tô Lịch, Kim Ngưu) and lakes and ponds
which are the drainage channels of Hanoi’s wastewater. In the past, To Lich
used to be a beautiful and poetic river, the important river route of waterway
traffic and the natural boundary of the Thang Long citadel. To Lich River used
to have cultural and historical value but is dying due to pollution and this green
and clean river is just nostalgia for the people of the capital. To Lich River is
currently heavily polluted because this river receives about 150,000 m3 of
wastewater daily from about 300 sluices along the river, causing serious
water resource depletion. To Lich River is the main drainage river and the
landscape ecological framework of Hanoi city center, which is heavily polluted
due to domestic wastewater discharge (Tran et al. 2020).
The Hanoi Water Supply and Sewerage Company opened the outlet to
discharge 1 million m3 of water from the West Lake (Ho Tay) into the river
to dilute the pollutants and the river turned green a few days later; then dead fish
appeared in the river near the discharge points. Pumping water from West Lake
152 B.-T. Dang et al.

Table 6.8 Details of nine existing pilot-and-demonstration scale FTWs

References
Year
established
Area of (started-
No. application Location (GPS) Treatment purposes ended)
Pilot scales
1 Hanoi Uni- Ha Noi capital city (21°04′ Domestic wastewater Huy et al.
versity of 19.8″N 105°46′26.2″E) treatment using water (2012)
Mining and hyacinth (05/01/
Geology 2012–30/9/
2012)
2 Hue Univer- Hue city, Thua Thien Hue River water treatment Hien and
sity of Agri- province (16°17′02.0″N 107° using Water primrose Tinh (2018)
culture and 20′32.1″E) (Jussiaea repens L.) (05/2016–06/
Forestry 2016)
3 Thu Dau Mot Thu Dau Mot city, Binh Domestic wastewater Hoang et al.
University Duong province (10°58′50.6″ treatment using water (2014)
N 106°40′31.6″E) hyacinth and buffalo
spinach
4 Thu Dau Mot Thu Dau Mot city, Binh Domestic wastewater Ngan and
University Duong province (10°58′50.6″ treatment using aquatic Tram (2017)
N 106°40′31.6″E) plants
5 Can Tho Ninh Kieu district, Can Tho Domestic wastewater Loc et al.
University city (10°01′48.7″N 105°46′ treatment using aquatic (2015)
14.1″E) plants (08/2013–12/
2013)
Demo scales
6 Nguyen Du Hoang Van Thu ward, Bac Urban wastewater Websites
Lake Giang city, Bac Giang prov- treatment integrated reviews
ince (21°16′25.6″N 106°12′ with city landscape (12/09/2021–
03.4″E) now)
7 To Lich River Cau Giay district, Ha Noi Urban wastewater Websites
(21°02′30.7″N 105°48′19.8″ treatment integrated reviews
E) with city landscape (2014–now)
8 Thac Gian Vinh Trung, Thanh Khe ward, Urban wastewater Websites
Lake Da Nang city treatment integrated reviews
(16°03′49.1″N 108°12′35.1″ with city landscape (2006–now)
E)
9 Tham Tuong Xuan Khanh ward, Can Tho Urban wastewater Websites
canal city treatment integrated reviews
(10°01′43.2″N 105°46′38.5″ with city landscape (2014–12/
E) 2021)
Remarks: Existing FTWs were listed in the order of their geographical locations from up North to
South of Vietnam
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 153

is the solution of washing pollutants away from the upstream to downstream of

To Lich River (but not for cleaning or reducing pollution), which is not a
sustainable and effective solution. Therefore, the wastewater from the sources
should be treated properly. In 2014, 38 aquatic floating rafts with Cyperus
alternifolius (in Vietnamese called Thủy Trúc) were built but according to local
residents’ opinion, planting trees did not prevent the smell from the river rising
up as well as did not reduce the black color of the river (Huong Anh 2014). The
installation of aquatic rafts this time was carried out on the section from Hoang
Quoc Viet Road to Cau Moi (Ngu Tu So intersection), with a length of more
than 6 km. The raft frame is a floating buoy system, supporting the net for
planting aquatic plants in clusters, each cluster is 30 cm apart (Fig. 6.3).
In 2016, experts from Japan applied the Nano-Bioreactor technology, which
produces oxygen in the water by activating both aerobic and anaerobic micro-
organisms in the water. Equipment used includes an aerator to treat water faster
using natural materials, which are installed on the bed of the river. Some
specialists also recommended that water purification by planting plants such
as Cannas, Savandara, and Heliconia using PVC pipes, bamboo, and foam
mattresses as floating supports has yielded successful results.
(ii) Thac Gian—Vinh Trung Lake
Danang City, central part of Vietnam, currently has 30 large and small
regulating lakes, with different pollution statuses and levels. In which, two
lakes Thac Gian and Vinh Trung have the lowest pollution level and have basic
treatment. Thac Gian-Vinh Trung Lake (Thạc Gián—Vĩnh Trung) is one of the
large lakes, located in the center of the city (between Thac Gian and Vinh Trung

Fig. 6.3 The sewers discharge wastewater into the To Lich River and floating wetlands set up
154 B.-T. Dang et al.

wards) with an area of nearly 30,000 m2 with a water capacity of

40,000–52,000 m3. This is the place where wastewater from the whole resi-
dential area of about 50 ha with a density of 200–300 people/ha is discharged
(Phu Loc Wastewater Treatment Station 2016). The fast rate of urbanization
was considerably shrinking the area of the lake and a large volume of domestic
effluents from residential areas nearby was being discharged into the lake, and
its sluice gates were blocked by garbage. As a result, the lake became a serious
environmental pollution hotspot at that time and people who passed by had to
put up with a sickening stench wafting off the lake (Da Nang Today 2015).
Since 2006, many effective measures have been taken to resolve the prob-
lem of environmental pollution in the lake. Phu Loc wastewater treatment
station has been assigned to clean the lake. The focus solutions have been
done such as . . .dredging the thick sediment out of the lake, treating the solid
waste, installing drain grates, and upgrading all the sluice gates and setting up
aquatic rafts in the middle of the lake with 24 rectangular rafts and 11 hexagonal
rafts planting water hyacinth (Eichhorina crassipes) (Fig. 6.4) that can both
handle odors, create ventilation for the lake surface, and beautify the urban
landscape. Now, from early morning through into the evening, many residents
gather there for fishing, doing physical exercise, or taking strolls to enjoy the
fresh air and cool breezes along the banks of the lake. Up to now, this solution
has been replicated in 14 other canals and lakes in Da Nang city, which were
planted with E. crassipes and Canna sp. (Vietnamnet 2005).
(iii) Nguyen Du Lake
In Hoang Van Thu ward (Bac Giang City), there are five regulating lakes.
Like many ponds and lakes in the city, recently, Nguyen Du Lake has been
polluted, sometimes the water smells fishy, dead fish float to the lake surface,

Fig. 6.4 The Thac Gian—Vinh Trung Lake in Da Nang city

6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 155

Fig. 6.5 Nguyen Du Lake in Bac Giang city

affecting the lives of surrounding households, and the urban environment. The
reason is that many lakes and ponds contain untreated domestic wastewater,
and stagnant lake water with no circulation.
On September 12, 2021, Hoang Van Thu Ward, the Youth Union, the
Fatherland Front, and ward sociopolitical organizations coordinated with Bac
Giang Urban Construction Management Joint Stock Company and deployed a
model of aquatic rafts to reduce environmental pollution at the lake on Nguyen
Du campus. In the morning, youth union members, women’s union members,
veterans’ members and people around the lake took part in picking up duck-
weed and trash, and at the same time built six rafts with a total area of 64 m2
(Fig. 6.5). Aquatic rafts are designed with high-strength PVC pipes, combined
with trellis and planted clusters of Umbrella papyrus (Cyperus alternifolius
Rottb.) and Water primrose (Jussiaea repens L.) on top of the net to create a
green landscape (Hoang Van Thu Ward Youth Union 2021).
(iv) Tham Tuong Canal
Tham Tuong canal (Can Tho city) has a length of about 4 km, which is
located across 2 wards of Xuan Khanh and An Phu in Ninh Kieu district, Can
Tho city. It is known as the “dead canal” because stagnant water for a long time
generates stench and garbage fills the canal seriously affecting people’s health
as well as the city’s environmental landscape. Although local authorities and
people try to overcome its polluted situation, the inevitable local flooding
makes people extremely frustrated (Hung 2021). Until the end of 2011, this
canal still had a bad reputation as one of the most polluted canals in Can Tho
city. In 2014, the Youth Union of An Phu ward set up nine water hyacinth rafts
(Fig. 6.6) with an area of 7.85 m2 with a budget of more than VND 100 million
supported by the local government along with financial participation from the
156 B.-T. Dang et al.

Fig. 6.6 Tham Tuong canal in Can Tho city

residents in this area for nearly VND 30 million (personal communication with
local government officers). They also said that the rafts were cared for and
pruned monthly by the volunteers of the Youth Union of An Phu Ward. In
addition, the officers recalled that in the beginning the water hyacinth rafts
treated water quite well, especially in treating odors and filtering water. How-
ever, after a while, the sediment was too much for the water hyacinth to grow,
as well as there was no one to take care of them and for a long time the pipes
and nets were damaged, so the Youth Union and the local government of An
Phu ward removed and cleaned up the rafts at the end of 2021 (Fig. 6.6). That
caused cancelling the assessment of the effectiveness and impacts of the
existing FTWs case study for this site in the first year of a project funded by
the Asia Pacific Network for Global Change Research.
Furthermore, the local government officers found that although the plant
rafts treated water quite well, besides creating a landscape and creating a clean
and comfortable environment for people around the area, they require regular
maintenance, management, and maintenance of the plants regularly.

Technical Design Characteristics

Table 6.9 summarizes technical design characteristics of the nine systems. There are
variations in design for plant biomass, density, hydraulic loading rate, hydraulic
retention time, and sampling interval. Information on the design of floating rafts was
unavailable for demonstration sites. The number of rafts used in each location was
available. In the case of the To Lich river, only the distance between plants (30 cm)
was known (Fig. 6.3) which was used to estimate the plant density (Table 6.9). This
 6

Table 6.9 Technical design characteristics of the nine existing FTWs for urban domestic wastewater treatment in Vietnam
Sampling Duration of the
Ord. References Design HLR (L/day) HRT interval Treatment experiment
Pilot scale
1 Huy et al. 30 and 50 L/day 18 and Every 540L(L×W×H:1.8×0.6×0.6m), Stage 2 (120 days)
(2012) (300 and 500 m3/ha/ 10.8 3 days water level of 0.5 m & stage
day) days 3 (100 days)
2 Hien and 150, 300, and 450 g of plant 10 days Every 10 L (0.8 × 0.4 m)
Tinh fresh biomass/10 L water 2 days
(2018)
3 Hoang 100 g of plant fresh bio- 4 weeks 4 weeks
et al. mass/18 L water
(2014)
4 Ngan and 200 g of plant fresh bio- 5 weeks Every
Tram mass/15 L water week
(2017)
5 Loc et al. 10 plants (Eichhornia 12 L/day 30 days Every 24 L (0.6 × 0.4 × 0.25 m), water
(2015) crassipes) 10 days level of 0.1 m
20 plants (Pistia stratiotes)
for 24 L
Demo scale
Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . .

6 Nguyen Du 6 FTWs n/a n/a n/a Total 64 m2 n/a

Lake
7 To Lich 38 FTWs placed along the 150,000 m3 urban n/a n/a Each FTWs = 8 × 3 m n/a
River canal 6 km long; 11/m2 WW discharged into
8 Thac Gian 24 rectangular rafts and n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a
Lake 11 hexagonal rafts
9 Tham 9 rectangular rafts n/a n/a n/a Total 7.85 m2 n/a
Tuong
canal
157

Remarks: n/a means not available or not applicable

158 B.-T. Dang et al.

indicates no common design characteristics in the FTWs systems have been applied
in Vietnam for pilot-and-demonstration scales.
The selected wetland plant species to be integrated in the FTWs are native
species, available and living around the contaminated area (e.g., the authors observe
Water primrose grow abundantly in the riparian of the Nhu Y river, Hue city,
Table 6.10). Therefore, free-floating leaves and emergent plants such as water
hyacinth and umbrella papyrus were commonly used in the pilot scales. In contrast,
emergent plants such as Cyperus alternifolius and Canna sp. (Table 6.10) were
selected for the demonstration treatment systems due to their accessibility, low cost,
and good performance. In the pilot projects, the floating rafts have not been used and
the plants had been placed directly in the wastewater containers (or under hydro-
ponics conditions). However, in the three demo sites, the plants were grown on top
of the floating rafts.

6.3.2.4 Effectiveness and Impacts of the Treatment Effectiveness

Data on the influent/effluent quality and removal efficiencies in the five pilot projects
are reported in Table 6.11, whereas the other four demo sites, do not have informa-
tion. In general, the effluent quality and removal efficiency depend on plant species
and biomass presented in the treatment systems. However, the concentrations of the
measured parameters in the effluents met the permitted levels in the National
technical regulation on domestic wastewater.
Hien and Tinh (2018) reported that Jussiaea repens showed high potential in
removing nutrients and organic matter from polluted river water. The authors
suggested that it is possible to build a floating treatment system for treating inner-
city eutrophic lake water with this plant species, contributing to the protection of the
landscape and the environment. Therefore, this plant is selected to integrate into the
FTWs in Nguyen Du Lake together with Cyperus alternifolius (Fig. 6.5).
Hoang et al. (2014) selected the sampling interval of 4 weeks (HRT) based on the
peak growth (fresh biomass) of the Eichornia crassipes and Enydra fluctuans. The
results showed that water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) was the best choice
providing high removal efficiencies of TSS, NH4+-N, and PO43--P of 64, 87.5,
and 98.98%, respectively. Water hyacinth was selected for the integration into the
FTWs in Thac Gian Lake together with Canna sp. (Fig. 6.4).
Ngan and Tram (2017) confirmed that Dracaena fragrans was the best candidate
for domestic wastewater treatment with a high removal efficiency of 75.8, 78.6, 97.5,
and 56.1% for TSS, BOD5, PO43--P, and NO3--N, respectively. The plant devel-
oped well after 4 weeks of transplanting. In summary, the optimum HRT for peak
plant growth and best performance was found to be 4 weeks.
Generally, the concentrations of COD, BOD5, TSS, and nutrients (total N, total P,
NO3-N, NH4-N, PO4-P) in the effluents are all lower than the permitted levels in the
National technical regulation on domestic wastewater (QCVN 14:2008 and QCVN
14:2015, columns A and B). Wastewater treatment with aquatic plants is an inex-
pensive technology, suitable for the conditions of surface water treatment in
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 159

Table 6.10 Vegetation used in the nine existing FTWs for urban domestic wastewater treatment in
Vietnam
Species/ Plant life
Description forms Wastewater (WW) System types References
Pilot scales
Water hya- Free Domestic WW from the resi- The experimental Huy et al.
cinth floating dential area next to the Uni- setup in aquarium (2012)
(Eichhornia versity (collected in the
crassipes drainage canal systems before
Mart.) being discharged into the
Invasive Nhue River)
species
Water prim- Free Surface water in Nhu Y River Hydroponics Hien and
rose (Jussiaea floating (Hue city) Tinh
repens L.) (2018)
Water hya- Free Urban domestic WW (col- The plants were Hoang
cinth floating lected in the urban city drain- placed directly in et al.
(Eichhornia age canal systems) the foam boxes (2014)
crassipes containing WW
Mart.)
Marsh herb/ Free
Water cress floating
(Enydra
fluctuans)
Golden pothos Free Urban domestic WW (col- The plants were Ngan and
(Epipremnum floating lected in the urban city drain- placed directly in Tram
aureum) age canal systems) the foam boxes (2017)
Lotus Floating containing WW
(Nelumbo leaved
nucifera)
Cornstalk Emergent
dracaena
(Dracaena
fragrans)
Red water lily Floating
(Nymphaea leaved
stellata)
Water hya- Free Domestic WW from PVC containers Loc et al.
cinth floating dormitory set up (2015)
(Eichhornia
crassipes
Mart.)
Water lettuce Free
(Pistia floating
stratiotes L.)
Invasive
species
Umbrella Emergent
papyrus
(Cyperus
(continued)
160 B.-T. Dang et al.

Table 6.10 (continued)

Species/ Plant life
Description forms Wastewater (WW) System types References
alternifolius
Rottb.)
Ornamental
plant
Demo sites
Umbrella Emergent Urban wastewater (Nguyen Floating wetlands
papyrus Free Du Lake)
(Cyperus floating
alternifolius
Rottb.)
Water prim-
rose (Jussiaea
repens L.)
Umbrella Emergent Urban wastewater (To Lich Floating wetlands
papyrus River)
(Cyperus
alternifolius
Rottb.)
Water hya- Free Urban wastewater (Thac Gian Floating wetlands
cinth floating Lake)
(Eichhornia
crassipes
Mart.)
Water hya- Free Urban wastewater (Tham Floating wetlands
cinth floating Tuong Canal)
(Eichhornia
crassipes)

Vietnam. From the previous studies, it can be recommended that the FTWs can be
applied to small and medium scales such as households, clusters of households or
residential areas near the city, ecotourism sites, craft villages, and farms. However, it
is necessary to pay attention to the actual conditions such as weather, temperature,
and light for water hyacinth to grow and develop, flow, and time of water retention of
the system for the treatment capacity. The maintenance of the plants and systems
should be implemented frequently to achieve high treatment efficiency of the
systems. The National technical regulation on domestic wastewater (QCVN 14:
2008 and QCVN 14:2015) does not specify any requirement for dissolved oxygen
(DO) level and therefore, in the treatment performance of pilot projects the authors
did not evaluate DO exerted on the effluent by the treatment systems. In contrast, the
low DO concentration in the water of the urban canals/ponds in the four demonstra-
tion sites is a problem that causes poor water quality, bad smell, and fish death.
The high treatment efficiency could achieve in the existing pilot systems for
suspended solids reached 90–95%; COD, BOD5 reached 70%; TP reached 61% and
TNK reached 75% (Table 6.11). In addition, the longer the applied HRT and higher
Table 6.11 Treatment performance of five pilot systems (pollutant concentration in mg/L, exept pH without unit, and coliform (MPN/100 mL) 6
(QCVN 14: (QCVN
Parameters Influent Effluent quality (removal, %) 2008) 14:2008) References
Influent Effluent (Eichornia crassipes) (A) (B) (A) (B1) Huy et al. (2012)
Stage Stage 2 (HRT Stage 3 (HRT 10.8 Urban drainage canal
1 (adaptation) 18 days) days) systems
BOD5 65–95 8–26 (48–60) (63) 30 50
COD 96–160 10–40 – –
TSS 90–140 6–12 (90–95) 6–12 (90–95) 50 100
PO43--P- 2.4–7.26 – – 6 10
TP 16–32 3.5–6.0 (61) 4–8 (50) – –
NH4+-N- 12.6–21 3.5–6.7 (70) – 5 10
TN 31–37 6–12 (75) 10–15 (63) – –
Total ≥9000 – – 3000 5000
Coliform
DO 1.2 – – – –
pH 6.9–7.3 – – 5–9 5–9
Influent Effluent (after 10 days); Jussiaea repens Hien and Tinh (2018)
No plant 150 g 300 g 450 g Surface river water
DO 4.10 5.25 (21.9) 6.23 (34.2) 6.59 (41.0) 7.25 (43.5) – –
BOD5 35.58 3.95 (88.9) 9.76 (72.6) 3.95 (88.9) 2.12 (94.0) 30 60
23.12 6.75 (70.8) 3.45 (85.1) 0.95 (95.9) 0.63 (97.3)
Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . .

NO3--N – –
NH4+-N 0.42 0.03 (92.9) 0.01 (97.6) 0.22 (47.6) 0.15 (64.3) – –
PO43--P 4.35 0.83 (80.9) 0.05 (98.9) 0.83 (80.9) 0.05 (98.9) 6 8
Influent Effluent (4 weeks) Hoang et al. (2014)
No plant Eichornia Enydra fluctuans Urban drainage canal
crassipes systems
TSS 33.3 25.0 (24.9) 12.0 (63.9) 17.0 (48.9) 50 100
PO43--P 0.148 0.01 (93.2) 0.001 (99) 0.01 (93.2) 6 10
NO3--N 0.618 0.02 (95.9) 0.037 (94) 0.04 (93.5) 30 50
161

NH4+-N 0.08 0.07 (12.5) 0.01 (87.5) 0.04 (50) 5 10

pH 5.7 6.4 6.1 6.2 5–9 5–9
(continued)
Table 6.11 (continued)
162

(QCVN 14: (QCVN

Parameters Influent Effluent quality (removal, %) 2008) 14:2008) References
Influent Effluent (5 weeks) Ngan and Tram (2017)
Nelumbo Nymphaea Epipremnum Dracaena Urban drainage canal
nucifera stellata aureum fragrans systems
TSS 62 67 (-8) 60 (3.2) 16 (74.2) 15 (75.8) 50 100
BOD5 140 81 (42.1) 73 (47.9) 39 (72.1) 30 (78.6) 30 50
PO43--P 1.96 2.45 (-25) 1.25 (36.2) 0.12 (93.9) 0.05 (97.5) 6 10
NO3--N 1.71 6.57 6.45 0.57 (66.7) 0.75 (56.1) 30 50
pH – 6.4 6.4 6.8 6.9 5–9 5–9
Influent Effluent (after 30 days) Loc et al. (2015)
C. alternifolius E. crassipes P. stratiotes Dormitory WW
BOD5 132.57 22.5 (83) 35.8 (73) 43.5 (67.2) 30 50
COD 250.17 41.1 (83.6) 61.0 (75.6) 63.2 (74.7) – –
Turbidity 45.27 0.75 (98.3) 2.33 (94.8) 3.13 (93.1) – –
TKN 7.16 2.02 (71.8) 3.06 (57.3) 2.47 (65.5) – –
TP 1.78 0.02 (98.9) 0.37 (79.2) 0.07 (96.1) – –
Total 4.6 × 106 1.8 × 103 3.8 × 103 (99.9) 2.2 × 103 (99.95) 3000 5000
Coliform (99.9)
Fe 0.13 – – – – –
EC 0.90 0.56 (37.8) 0.34 (62.2) 0.38 (57.8) – –
DO 1.74 4.05 4.55 4.71 – –
pH 7.13 7.35 7.03 7.27 5–9 5–9
Remarks: QCVN 14:2008/BTNMT and QCVN 14:2015/BTNMT denote the National technical regulation on domestic wastewater issued in 2008 and 2015
– Column A specifies the concentration of pollution parameters as a basis for calculating the permissible maximum value in domestic wastewater as being
discharged into water resources used for the purpose of domestic water supply
– Column B specifies the concentration of pollution parameters as a basis for calculating the permissible maximum value in domestic wastewater as being
discharged into water resources not used for the purpose of domestic water supply. Socio-economic Impacts
B.-T. Dang et al.
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 163

plant biomass, the better the treatment performance. As mentioned previously, the
water quality and FTWs effectiveness assessment in the demo sites were not
conducted, except for the Tham Tuong canal case study. Nguyen (2020) conducted
surface water quality assessment in Tham Tuong canal in period of 2018–2019
showed that BOD, COD, TSS, P-PO43-, and coliforms in Tham Tuong canal were
higher than those in other water bodies due to the presence of several production and
business activities that were taking place in the vicinity. The author also suggested
that the water pollution problem in Ninh Kieu district, Can Tho city needs to be
solved as soon as possible to ensure a healthy environment, attracting tourists to visit
Can Tho city. During this period, the FTWs were presented in the canal, however,
the poor reported surface water quality indicated that the floating rafts in the Tham
Tuong canal did not work well. In early 2021, by personal observation we saw there
were no plants on the FTWs, only some grass, which might have caused the local
authorities to remove the rafts out of the Tham Tuong canal at the end of 2021
(Fig. 6.6). In summary, there is a large research gap exists regarding the treatment of
domestic wastewater by FTWs in decentralized systems in Vietnam, mainly in terms
of technical design, treatment efficiency, and social aspects. Therefore, this assess-
ment of the effectiveness of existing FTWs pilots and demo sites to contribute to
improving water quality and human well-being, while enhancing the liveability and
resilience of cities in Vietnam is needed.
Information on cost investment and socio-economic benefits for the nine existing
pilot and demo FTWs was not available in the related references, except for the
Tham Tuong case with the investment cost of VND 130 million for 9 floating rafts.
The social benefits that the FTWs brought about were evaluated based on the
perspective of local people which were reported in the electronic news. They are
presented below. For the pilot-scale case studies, the researchers and students
benefited via research, teaching, and learning activities through the treatment sys-
tems. Job generation is another benefit brought by the FTWs besides the beautiful
landscape created for the locals.
• To Lich River Case Study
Ms. Ha (living in Quan Hoa) said to the journalist that: “In many large and
small lakes in Hanoi, growing aquatic plants is very beneficial for reducing
pollution and creating a friendly landscape. The implementation of the project
of growing aquatic plants in To Lich River is very supportive of myself and many
households living around the riverbank. I hope in the next few years when aquatic
plants thrive, plus people’s awareness that it would make the river revive, fish and
shrimp can swim around.”
According to Ms. Tran Thi Ngoc—drinking water seller in the section of To
Lich River flowing through Quan Hoa Street, the aquatic raft proved to be
effective in some sections, but it was still insignificant: “In the sections where
there are no aquatic rafts, still feel bad, still polluted even though there are still
people picking up trash and taking care of these plants, but it only helps in nearby
places.”
164 B.-T. Dang et al.

• Nguyen Du Lake Case Study

According to Mrs. Nguyen Thi Lan, Chairwoman of the Fatherland Front
Committee of the ward “the placing of aquatic rafts into the lake aims to
contribute to filtering and purifying the water, reducing organic matter, and at
the same time decorating the lake to make the space more beautiful.”
• Thac Gian—Vinh Trung Lake Case Study
From a position of serious pollution, Thac Gian—Vinh Trung Lake is becom-
ing attractive due to the improvements in the environment. This is the result of the
work of cleaning the lake and treating environmental pollution in the lake bottom
by the Da Nang Urban Environment Company in the past.
Due to this positive environmental improvement, Vinh Trung and Thac Gian
wards are promoting a plan to exploit the area around the lake to initiate services
and create jobs for the people. Mr. Ho Thanh, Chairman of the People’s Com-
mittee of Vinh Trung Ward emphasized: “Keeping the hygiene and ensuring the
environment for Thac Gian-Vinh Trung Lake, in addition to the efforts of Da
Nang Urban Environment Company, needs the self-consciousness of each person
living around the lake area, service businesses and guests coming here to rest and
eat. We will strengthen this through propaganda, advocacy and take measures to
deal with the problem. Raise the awareness of environmental protection of the
lake and protect the source of income for the locals and many households living
around.”
Mr. Nguyen Van Tinh, acting Chairman of Thanh Khe District People’s
Committee (2015), said that “before 2006 when passing by the Thac Gian lake,
people had to cover their nose with their hand and wince because of the stench.
Now, from early morning through into the evening, many local residents gather
for fishing, doing physical exercise or taking strolls to enjoy the fresh air and cool
breezes along the banks of the lake.”

6.3.2.5 Pros and Cons

Success in Adapting FTWs for Urban Wastewater Treatment in Vietnam

The demonstration systems partly contribute to water purification, provide a beau-

tiful landscape for urban residents, provide jobs for workers involved in the main-
tenance activity of floating rafts, and attract the engagement of many different
stakeholders (Fig. 6.7).

Challenges in Adapting FTWs for Urban Wastewater Treatment in Vietnam

However, there are many challenges that make adapting FTWs for urban WW
treatment ineffective in Vietnam, due to the discharge of untreated urban wastewater
into the lakes and canals, poor environmental awareness of local residents (as they
litter solids wastes directly into water bodies), lack of maintenance of floating rafts
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 165

Fig. 6.7 Success in adapting FTWs for urban wastewater treatment in Vietnam

Fig. 6.8 Challenges in adapting FTWs for urban wastewater treatment in Vietnam

(as can be seen in the pictures, the plants do not grow so well and a lot of broken
bamboo rafts floating on the water), and high sedimentation causing low oxygen
concentration in the water (Fig. 6.8). FTWs become insufficient to treat large canals
carrying huge amounts of pollutants.
166 B.-T. Dang et al.

Table 6.12 A comparison between the pilot and the demonstration projects with respect to their
impact/effectiveness
Pilot scale Demo scale
• Treatment performance: High removal effi- • Treatment performance: No data for water
ciency quality monitoring (only people’s perspectives
• Social impacts: Place for researchers/students on water quality via color and smell)
to learn/conduct projects leading to their • Social impacts: Providing jobs for workers,
increased awareness engaging stakeholders, providing landscape/
• No information on cost investment/assessment esthetic values
of FTWs • No information on cost investment/assess-
ment of FTWs
• Challenges: Untreated urban wastewater
makes the FTWs ineffective
• Maintenance: Important task

6.3.2.6 Key Lessons Learned

A comparison between the pilot-and-demonstration projects with respect to each

indicator is presented in Table 6.12. For treatment performance, the pilot-scale
FTWs provided high removal efficiency and good effluent water quality, which
met the national standard; but for demonstration sites, data on the treatment perfor-
mance are unavailable. For social impacts, the pilot projects provide place for
researchers and students to learn and implement research activities, but in the
demonstration sites which attract many stakeholders to be involved in and provide
jobs for workers and esthetic values for local residents.

6.4 Conclusions

Water contamination from inner-city canals is becoming an increasing challenge for

cities. MPs and FTWs, two potential NbS-WT models, have been studied and
analyzed in this work. Such centralized and decentralized treatment processes have
been successful in lowering pollutants while generating a more beautiful cityscape.
WSPs, such as MPs, can be utilized to increase urban green space, biodiversity,
centralized wastewater treatment, flood management, urban heat control, and fish
farming business functions. Additionally, FTWs contributed to the development of
the canal landscape, offered economic possibilities to those who maintain floating
rafts, and stimulated the participation of many stakeholders. For inner-city canals, it
is also thought that combining both NbS-WTs in an ordered sequence is a better
option. Quantitative tests, field tests, and simulation studies will need to be com-
bined in the future to gain a comprehensive picture of the impact of NBSs on
engineering, economics, and society. The lessons learnt from these case studies
provide valuable information to decision makers who aim to increase the utilization
of these technologies in the future.
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 167

Acknowledgments This work was funded by APN Project number: CRRP2021-06MY-

Jegatheesan. In addition, we would like to thank the students who assisted in the collection of data.

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172 B.-T. Dang et al.

Bao-Trong Dang received a Ph.D. degree from the Graduate School of Engineering, Nagasaki
University, Japan. Research topics of interest include wastewater treatment processes, membrane
processes, biochar in composting, genetics, and molecular biology, algae-based bioeconomy, and
nature-based solutions for wastewater treatment. His research obtained 32 publications, participated
in 04 book chapters (Elsevier), and 06 international research projects in less than 05 years of his
career. He has received certifications for outstanding publications from top-rated international
journals, including Bioresource Technology and Science of the Total Environment. Currently, he
is invited as a reviewer for a number of international/national scientific journals.

Ngo Thuy Diem Trang received her doctoral degree from the University of Aarhus, Denmark.
She is permanent senior lecturer at the Department of Environmental Sciences, the College of
Environment and Natural Resources Management (CENREs), Can Tho University (CTU). She got
a number of international grants and also national grants to conduct research in the Mekong Delta of
Vietnam with the focus on ecophysiology of aquatic and terrestrial plants in relation to growth
conditions. She has more than 18 years of experience in constructed wetland projects. She has
published over 70 papers in peer-reviewed national and international journals.

Vo Thi Phuong Thao is currently a master student at Department of Environmental Sciences, the
College of Environment and Natural Resources Management (CENREs), Can Tho University
(CTU). She has experience involved in the operation, and evaluation of the constructed wetland
models.

Nguyen Thi Ngoc Dieu currently is a master student at Department of Environmental Sciences,
the College of Environment and Natural Resources Management (CENREs), Can Tho University
(CTU). She has experience in the design, and construction of the constructed wetland models for
water pollution control in the tropics.

Thi-Kim-Quyen Vo obtained Bachelor and Master degrees in the field of Environmental engi-
neering at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology—Vietnam National University Ho Chi
Minh (VNU-HCM). Then, she got Ph.D. degree in the field of Environmental engineering and
Energy at Myongji University (Republic of Korea). Her research focuses on the fields of biological
wastewater treatment (sulfur-based autotrophic denitrification and algae-based treatment process)
and membrane technology. She has 21 publications (including 12 ISI, 7 international non-ISI,
2 national papers). She has played the role of project investigator/key member for 5 projects funded
by international/national organizations.

Ngoc-Kim-Qui Nguyen is currently a master student and research assistant in the field of
Environmental Engineering at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology—Vietnam National
University Ho Chi Minh (VNU-HCM). Her research focuses on membrane separation processes
and biological treatment processes. She has experience in floating treatment wetlands projects for
water pollution control.

Cong-Sac Tran is currently a research assistant in the field of Environmental Engineering at Ho

Chi Minh City University of Technology—Vietnam National University Ho Chi Minh
(VNU-HCM). His research focuses on water and waste treatment technologies. He has experience
in green roof and floating wetland projects for water pollution control.

Phuoc-Dan Nguyen, The key research and training areas include: (1) Water and wastewater
treatment processes; (2) Water resources management; (3) Water supply and sanitation for the
rural area; (4) Solid waste treatment and management and (5) Wastewater reuse and organic waste
recycling. He is Scientific Director of Asian Center for Water Research—HCMUT. His current
6 Wastewater Pollution in Urban Canals of Vietnam: Restoration. . . 173

interesting research focuses on two-stage anaerobic MBR for co-digestion of organic solid waste
and wastewater, anammox based processes for nitrogen removal and monitoring of CECs (con-
taminants of emerging concerns) in raw water and drinking water.

Veeriah Jegatheesan, Professor of Environmental Engineering at RMIT University, Melbourne,

Australia. Jega is co-founder and Chairman of the international conference series on Challenges in
Environmental Science & Engineering (CESE) held annually since 2008. Jega has conducted
extensive research on the application of membrane bioreactors, sugar cane juice clarification and
seawater desalination. He has over 450 publications including more than 170 peer-reviewed journal
articles and five edited books. In 2019, Stormwater Industry Association (Australia) has appointed
him as one of the Governance Panel members for the Australian Stormwater Quality Improvement
Device Evaluation Protocol (SQIDEP).

Xuan-Thanh Bui received his Ph.D. degree in environmental engineering at Asian Institute of
Technology, Thailand. His research focuses on membrane separation processes, water and waste
treatment technologies, biological treatment processes, algae processes, green technologies and
environmental materials. He has published ~170 SCIE journal papers, 30 book chapters and
3 patents. He has played a role of project investigator of more than 60 international/national
research projects in the field and organized three international conferences. Since 2017, he became
a member of the scientific committee of National Foundation and for Science and Technology
Development, Ministry of Science and Technology.
Chapter 7
Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic
Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines

Perlie Velasco, Ma. Catriona Devanadera, Michaela Dalisay, Cloie Mueca,

Darry Shel Estorba, and Amy Lecciones

Abstract Urbanisation and climate change aggravated the water scarcity in the
Philippines. On top of these issues, the major challenge in improving the access to
clean water supply and sanitation in the country is the limited funding and institu-
tional budget allocated for these sectors. Although there are existing technologies
and technical capabilities for the effective treatment of wastewater, they are not
readily accessible, costly, and not sustainable, particularly for those regions outside
the capital region of the Philippines. With this, it has been acknowledged by the
national government the potential of nature-based solutions (NbS) for water
resources management (like mangroves) and wastewater treatment (like constructed
wetlands or CWs). The most common type of NbS for wastewater management in
the country is the CWs, with the most successful system of using a hybrid CWs and
combining them with other grey infrastructures like anaerobic baffled reactor.
Moreover, successful adoption of NbS would require a policy guide in the assess-
ment and implementation, with local stakeholders’ support and national funding.

Keywords Philippines · NbS · Domestic wastewater treatment · Constructed

wetland

7.1 Introduction

Urbanisation has become a highly relevant factor in global development. In the

Philippines, urban area is defined based on the location and population of a village
(or locally known as “barangay” which is the smallest political unit in the country),
where (1) the village is located in the National Capital Region (NCR), (2) the village

P. Velasco (*) · M. C. Devanadera · M. Dalisay · C. Mueca

University of the Philippines – Los Baños, Los Baños, Laguna, Philippines
e-mail: ppvelasco@up.edu.ph
D. S. Estorba · A. Lecciones
Society for the Conservation of Philippines Wetlands, Inc., Pasig City, Philippines

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 175
N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_7
176 P. Velasco et al.

has a population of at least 5000, and (3) the village has one establishment with at
least 100 employees or at least five establishments with at least ten employees each
and at least five facilities within the 2-km radius from the barangay hall (government
office for the village) (National Statistical Coordination Board Resolution
No. 9, 2003). According to the Philippines Statistics Authority (PSA), the level of
urbanisation in the country in 2015 reached 51% (around 52 million people resided
in areas classified as urban). This is 4.1% increase from the year 2010. The rate of
urbanisation has a significant impact on the country’s overall progress, as population
has a direct influence on its economic, social, and political dynamics. However,
these advantages of urbanisation come with negative effects on the environment
which greatly affects the people’s quality of life. It has made major contributions to
climate change and increase in energy demands, increase in air and water pollution,
affecting the water supply and sanitation (Regmi 2017). As a result, the Philippines
have become more vulnerable to water-related disasters such as flooding and water
quality issues, which provide a direct impact on people’s livelihoods and security
(World Bank 2020).
For one, the Philippines faces numerous challenges in terms of water supply and
sanitation. In 2017, it is estimated that 6% of the 24 million families in the country
still depend primarily on unsafe and unsustainable water sources (such as unpro-
tected well, springs, and surface waters) and similar distribution of families lack
access to improved sanitation (such as pit latrines without a slab, bucket latrines, and
open defecation) raising the risk of contracting water-borne diseases (PSA 2019).
The limited access to improved water supply (water source that is located on
premises, available when needed, and free from faecal contamination) is due to
inadequate water distributions, infrastructures, and the effect of El Niño (Wateroam
2020). Further, existing water supplies are still not fully utilised and improved to
meet the clean water needs of a growing population, as only 36% of its rivers are
classified as public sources of water, and only 42% of its groundwater is free from
contamination (Shah et al. 2003). Water scarcity is aggravated by water pollution
due to the untreated disposal of wastewater from households and various industries
(such as manufacturing and agriculture). Around 2004 when the Philippines’ 50 out
of 421 rivers were considered as biologically dead (negligible dissolved oxygen for
any species to survive in the water) and the annual economic loss (in health,
fisheries, and tourism) due to water pollution is estimated to be around USD1.3
billion (ARCOWA 2018).
To help offset and respond to these water supply and management problems, one
of the mitigation techniques is the use of nature-based solutions (NbS), either on its
own or in combination with other infrastructure interventions. NbS aims to protect
biodiversity and reduce climate-related risks while also ensuring livelihood sustain-
ability. One of the objectives of the Philippine National Climate Change Adaption
Plan (NCCAP 2011–2028) is to employ NbS to enhance the adaptation and resil-
ience of the communities and ecosystems to climate change. However, countermea-
sures being done are still dominated by traditional technology and infrastructures,
leaving NbS as under-utilised or not established due to the unavailability of clear
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 177

guidance and ownership of monitoring and maintenance of nature-based systems

and structures, where the government should take lead (OECD 2020).
Focusing on assessing the NbS implementation in the Philippines for domestic
wastewater treatment, this paper aims to provide information on the following:
(1) overview of the water resources and wastewater management in the Philippines,
including the policies and governance, challenges, plans, and gaps; (2) NbS for
wastewater management in the Philippine context, mainly focusing on constructed
wetlands (CWs); and (3) challenges and future perspective for the implementation of
NbS for wastewater management in the Philippines. Understanding the current
situation and gaps in NbS implementation for wastewater treatment in the Philip-
pines may lead to an enormous potential in improving water availability and quality
as well as in reducing disaster risks and climate change, which could make a
significant contribution to the country’s progress towards sustainable development
(Koncagül et al. 2018).

7.2 Water Resources and Wastewater Management

in the Philippines

Being an archipelago, the Philippines has a vast number of water resources: 421 riv-
ers, 79 lakes, and about 266,000 m2 of coastal and marine waters. In 2020, the
classified water bodies in the Philippines are around 942 or 89% (76% for rivers, 2%
for lakes, and 11% for marine) while 118 waterbodies or 11% are unclassified (see
Fig. 7.1) (Environmental Management Bureau 2022).
The definition of each classification can be found in the “Water Quality Guide-
lines and General Effluent Standards of 2016”, which is one of the administrative
orders in the Philippines (https://emb.gov.ph/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/DAO-

Fig. 7.1 Classification of water bodies in the Philippines in 2020 (Environmental Management
Bureau 2022)
178 P. Velasco et al.

2016-08_WATER-QUALITY-GUIDELINES-AND-GENERAL-EFFLUENT-
STANDARDS.pdf). In summary, (1) Classes AA/A/SA can be used as drinking
water (for fresh waters) or for the propagation of marine life for commercial
purposes or reserve parks (for marine waters) and (2) Classes B/C/D/SB/SC/SD
are limited to recreational, tourism (for marine water only), fishery, agriculture, and
industrial uses. Conservatively, only around 20% or 155 out of 828 classified fresh
water (rivers/lakes) can be utilised for drinking water supply (Fig. 7.1). In some
regions in the Philippines, groundwater is being extensively used as a source for
domestic (54%) and irrigation purposes (Environmental Management Bureau 2014).
From the National Water Resources Board (NWRB) Statistics in 2013, the total
amount of groundwater extraction was estimated at about 3.7 million m3.

7.2.1 Wastewater Management

Water pollution in the country is significantly contributed by the disposal of

untreated wastewater (33% domestic, 27% industrial, 29% agriculture, and 11%
non-point sources). Due to water pollution, mismanagement of water resources, and
climate change, the water supply will not be enough to support the demand,
particularly in the major cities and urban areas in the country. Around 12% of the
rivers in the Philippines are considered biologically dead and around 47.5% of the
monitored freshwater bodies failed the standard, particularly for faecal coliform
(71%). These do not consider unmonitored freshwater bodies of around 22.4%,
and the groundwater where 58% of the groundwater resources are contaminated.
Overall, 167 waterbodies passed the water quality standards (for the parameters
listed in Table 7.1), 151 failed, and 92 are not being monitored (Environmental
Management Bureau 2022). Moreover, the percent passing/failing rate of waterbody
quality parameters is summarised in Table 7.1. The government estimates showed

Table 7.1 Distribution of freshwater bodies with passing, failing, or no water quality data in 2019
(Environmental Management Bureau 2022)
Rate, %
Water quality parameters Passed Failed No monitoring
1. Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD5) 58.33 29.17 12.5
2. Chloride 41.07 23.21 35.71
3. Colour 70.24 2.97 26.79
4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) 80.95 17.26 1.79
5. Faecal coliform 0.60 70.83 28.57
6. Nitrates 57.14 0.60 42.26
7. pH 89.88 8.33 1.79
8. Phosphates 61.31 33.93 4.76
9. Temperature 72.62 25 2.38
10. Total Suspended Solids (TSS) 76.19 23.81 0
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 179

Table 7.2 Some of the conventional sewage treatment plants (STP) in Metro Manila and adjacent
provinces (Tuddao 2021)
Sewage treatment plant
facility Location Purpose Capacity
Maynilad Water Services, Paltok Sewage treatment plant 4900 m3/day
Inc. project
Kimberly Clark Philippines San Pedro Wastewater treatment plant 10,000 m3/day
Laguna project
Tiger Resort, Leisure & Paranaque City Operation and Maintenance STP:
Entertainment, Inc. of STP and RO 10,000 m3/day
RO: 1000 m3/
day
PMFTC, Inc. Marikina and Operation and Maintenance 300 m3/day
Batangas City of STP and RO Process
745 m3/day
Potable
1480 m3/day
non-potable
San Miguel Pet Recycling San Fernando, Wastewater treatment plant 200 m3/day
Plant Pampanga project
Subic Water & Sewerage Olongapo City Sewage treatment plant 5000 m3/day
Co., Inc. Project
Note: RO reverse osmosis

that it will not be able to reach its goal to provide 100% water supply access to the
country by 2025, where the projection is only about 90% by this year (WSP 2015).
The water supply shortage for major cities and urban areas by 2025 ranges from 7 to
93%, except for Iloilo City with a surplus of 70% (but this is a drop of 24% per year).
Moreover, it was estimated in 2015 that annual economic losses (in health, fisheries
production, and tourism) due to water resources pollution is around USD1.3 billion
(about 0.5% of the country’s gross domestic product) (Claudio 2015; ARCOWA
2018).
Less than 10% of the population is connected to sewerage systems (while 11% in
the capital city, Manila) and 77% of the families use septic tanks for their sanitary
sewage. However, the common design of septic tanks is under capacity with only
one chamber instead of two or three, and no liner at the bottom. Thus, it could lead to
septage infiltrating into the soil and may contaminate the groundwater. Also, there is
no regular desludging being practised. In Metro Manila, there are two concession-
aires namely Manila Water Company, Inc. (MWCI) and Maynilad Water Services,
Inc. (MWSI), which handle the sewage and septage treatment system. These con-
cessionaires are under the Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage System
(MWSS). While the domestic wastewater outside of Metro Manila is managed/
regulated by the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA) (Claudio 2015).
Some of the conventional sewage treatment plants in the Philippines are given in
Table 7.2. Aside from the cost of the treatment plants, other issues with the
conventional treatment plants are the limitations of engineering firms, which have
180 P. Velasco et al.

the capacity to design, build, and operate advanced wastewater treatment facilities,
as well as resource recovery technologies, particularly in areas outside of Metro
Manila (ARCOWA 2018).
A Sanitation Sourcebook about low-cost sanitation technologies options is devel-
oped and written in collaboration with local and international sanitation practitioners
with the objective of identifying and discussing factors that should be considered
when deciding on the most appropriate sanitation and wastewater technology. This
Sourcebook also has an objective of stimulating informed demand for sanitation.
This is the first attempt to address information gaps on sanitation and wastewater
management in the Philippines, and also in consideration of sanitation planning with
different types of environments. Core concepts on sanitation were also introduced in
this guidebook together with the design and specifications for conventional technol-
ogies such as the Reed Bed Technology, a nature-based solution used for secondary
treatment after the septic tank system. This is a valuable reference for sanitation
professionals and investment decision makers, particularly the local governments.
This initiative is supported by the Water and Sanitation Program—East Asia and the
Pacific of the World Bank, the German Technical Cooperation Agency, and the
Government of Australia in this initiative.
The Sourcebook is mainly written for Philippine project planners, but may be
useful to community organisers, service providers, sanitation project financiers,
environmental and sanitation regulatory officers, other such practitioners, and to
communities and users. During project preparation and implementation, readers are
advised to seek advice from experts such as civil and environmental engineers, social
scientists, and finance specialists.

7.2.2 Policies and National Government Agencies

The main regulations for wastewater treatment in the Philippines are: Clean Water
Act (RA 9275) and the Water Quality Guidelines and General Effluent Standards of
2016. Several government agencies in the Philippines are involved in water-related
matters such as marine welfare or water sustainability projects. These agencies are
closely associated to work on water-related challenges and are all vital in coming up
with the most effective water management practices in the country. The National
Water Regulatory Board (NWRB) is under the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources (DENR). The DENR is the main government agency responsible
for the conservation, management, and development environment and natural
resources of the Philippines. On the other hand, the mandate of NWRB is to manage
and regulate all the water resources and related services through the integration and
coordination of all water-related activities that have social, environmental, and
economic impacts in the Philippines, while the National Economic and Development
Authority (NEDA) will formulate and approve policies on water resources manage-
ment (UNESCAP 2013). The other agencies involved in the water resource man-
agement are the following (Claudio 2015):
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 181

• Environmental Management Bureau (EMB)—Develop and implement plans and

policies along with appropriate environmental quality standards; in-charge of
environmental protection, establishment, and implementation of research and
development programmes for environmental and compliance monitoring; and
analyse the current and potential environmental challenges and difficulties.
• Department of Health (DOH)—Main government agency that develops and
implements sanitation initiatives (while establishing and monitoring drinking
water standards).
• Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)—Main agency that imple-
ments the National Sewerage and Septage Management Program (NSSMP).
• Local Government Units (LGUs)—Administer and manage the river systems
within the jurisdiction of the local unit; under the NSSMP, the LGUs share
responsibility in the management and improvement of water quality within
their territorial jurisdiction; and key players in the Water Quality Management
Areas (WQMA) designated by DENR in accordance with the Clean Water Act.
• Metropolitan Waterworks and Sewerage Systems (MWSS)—Build, operate,
maintain, and manage waterworks and sewerage systems economically in
Metro Manila and parts of Cavite and Rizal (ensuring adequate and continuous
supply of potable water for domestic use, irrigation, agriculture, and other
activities); and provide sanitary sewerage services and regulating the construction
of sewerage systems owned by private institutions.
• Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA)—Specialised lending institution
that promotes, develops, regulates, and finances water utilities (excluding Metro
Manila).
• Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA)—Formulate, regulate, and imple-
ment all policies, plans, programmes, projects, and activities relative to the
prevention and control of pollution as well as management and enhancement of
environment in Laguna Lake Region.
• Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development
(PCAMRD)—Provide a unified and focused path for crops, livestock, forestry,
fisheries, soil and water, mineral resources, and socioeconomic research and
development.
It is clear from the institutional framework that the water resources sector is
fragmented with a multitude of agencies that could lead to uncoordinated and
overlapping roles with more than 30 departments and offices that share in the
implementation of water resource management functions (UNESCAP 2013).

7.2.3 Plans, Challenges, and Gaps

Listed below are some of the targets in water resources governance in the Philippines
headed by the DENR and are summarised below (Tuddao 2021):
182 P. Velasco et al.

• By 2037, 100% of all households and commercial establishments within Metro

Manila will be connected to sewer lines for centralised wastewater treatment. It
will be constructed and operated by the MWCI and MWSI. Also, all LGUs are
required to develop their own septage management systems to handle their own
domestic wastewater.
• By 2022, all seventeen (17) highly urbanised cities (HUCs) will develop their
own sewerage systems based on the Philippine Development Plan (PDP). Around
40% of the population will have access to Septage Treatment Plants and 3% will
have access to Sewerage Treatment Plants.
Furthermore, recommendations are also provided to better address the challenges
in water resources in the Philippines (Tuddao 2021):
• Limited access to cost-effective and efficient domestic wastewater
technologies—increase knowledge and access to technologies and approaches/
strategies through global/international and regional research and development
and financial and technical assistance.
• Inadequate government funding resources—encourage private investments or
public–private partnership and Built-Operate-Transfer Scheme.
• Better provision for a bigger budget under the general budget of the government
with consistent implementation of policies and programmes.
• Provision and promotion of guidebook/sourcebook on green-grey infrastructure
or nature-based solutions for wastewater treatment and incorporation into policies
and programmes.

7.3 Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in the Philippine Context

7.3.1 Overview

The term “Nature-Based Solutions” was introduced in 2008 to describe a method for
reducing and adapting to climate change while preserving biodiversity and enhanc-
ing livelihood sustainability. The definitions from the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the European Commission (EC) are the most
widely accepted NbS interpretations among others (Wendling et al. 2019). The
IUCN (2020) defines NbS as “effective and adaptable activities that address societal
concerns while also providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits in order to
preserve natural or modified ecosystems”.
Eggermont et al. (2015) proposed a method for categorising NbS based on their
objectives or function, as well as the level of ecosystem intervention. These three
classifications were used as there is no single comprehensive list of NbS. Type
1 NbS is distinguished by no or limited interference in ecosystems, with the goal of
preserving ecosystem service delivery both within and outside of protected natural
environments. Type 1 NbS include protection and conservation strategies, urban
planning strategies, and environmental monitoring techniques such as the creation of
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 183

protected areas or conservation zones and the preservation of natural wetlands. If

there are substantial or intensive management techniques that build sustainable,
multifunctional ecosystems, and landscapes to facilitate the delivery of ecosystem
services in comparison to traditional interventions, the NbS is classified as Type
2. This category includes a number of different sustainable management methods,
such as integrated water resource management, aquifer contamination protection,
and sustainable withdrawal management. Type 3 NbS entails either extensive
ecosystem management or the creation of new ecosystems. In newly formed eco-
systems, Type 3 NbS are by far the most “visible” solutions. This includes, but is not
limited to, urban parks and gardens, mangroves, and surface and subsurface
(constructed) wetlands.
In the Philippines, similar to other countries, NbS can be used for food security,
climate change, water security, human health, disaster risk, and social and economic
development. Compared to conventional technologies, NbS are often lower cost,
sustainable, and have multiple synergistic benefits for a variety of sectors. Some of
the examples of NbS in the Philippines are shown in Table 7.3.

7.3.2 NbS for Wastewater Treatment

NbS is being used for a variety of purposes to address rising concerns about water
quality and safety. For instance, it protects source water quality by maintaining
proper watersheds that collect, store, filter, as well as provide water to communities.
This has direct implications for urban suppliers in the form of reduced water
treatment costs, steadily increasing access to clean drinking water in rural areas,
and the possibility to provide water of acceptable standard for purposes like agri-
cultural irrigation. Also, NbS contributes to the reduction of agricultural impacts on
water quality, especially contaminants generated by untreated wastewater from
intensive livestock farming or food-processing plants.
Furthermore, integrating green infrastructure into the plans and designs for urban
areas to control and reduce environmental damage improves water quality in
inhabited areas by aiding wastewater treatment and reducing stormwater runoff.
Additionally, the need to minimise the impacts of industries on water quality
becomes more and more important as the potential for NbS for industrial wastewater
treatment grows. Although grey infrastructure solutions are needed for several water
sources, industrial NbS applications are increasing, such as the use of CWs for
industrial wastewater treatment, which are used to treat a wide range of industrial
effluents (Koncagül et al. 2018).
Water scarcity is affected by both supply and demand. NbS can help to reduce
water demand by lowering the amount of crop water needed for irrigation. They
significantly reduce water shortage by improving the location, timing, and quantity
of water supplies for all human activities and demands via effective water storage,
infiltration, and transmission management. As a result, NbS becomes a viable
solution for addressing water availability issues via supply-side management,
184 P. Velasco et al.

Table 7.3 NbS examples in the Philippines (Magalang 2022)

Type of NbS Example Description
Urban Ecosystem- Urban forest Urban forests are isolated patches of green in a drab
based Adaptation environment. They are strands of life crisscrossing a
primarily man-made landscape. They are hidden within
suburban development and crowded streets, sanctuaries
of tranquillity and biological richness (McPherson et al.
1997)
Roof/vertical Vertical gardens and green roofs have been accepted as
gardens conventional construction methods in many nations for
several years. This is primarily due to the layer of plants
and soil’s remarkable insulative properties. They aid in
keeping heat inside the building in cold areas and keep-
ing heat outside in warm climates (Peck et al. 1999)
Green Infrastructure Mangrove Mangrove ecosystem restoration and rehabilitation are
rehabilitation important for coastal communities because of their eco-
logical, economic, and social benefits. Mangrove eco-
systems that have been restored can be purposefully
planned and constructed to offer important ecosystem
services, be able to adapt to climatic changes, and create
platforms for teaching non-specialists about both the
benefits and drawbacks of mangrove ecosystem resto-
ration (Ellison et al. 2020)
Slope The use and design of NbS interventions for slope sta-
stabilisation bility and slope protection systems, and thus contribute
to the management of hazards such as landslides and
erosion (Gonzalez-Ollauri 2022)
Ecosystem-based CWs CWs are engineered systems, designed and built to
Mitigation mimic many of the same processes that occur in natural
wetlands including wetland vegetation, soils, and asso-
ciated microbial assemblages for wastewater treatment
(Vymazal 2010)
Forest Landscape – The continual process of restoring biological function-
Restoration ality and promoting human well-being across deforested
or degraded forest landscapes is known as forest land-
scape restoration (FLR). FLR involves more than just
tree planting; it involves restoring an entire landscape to
accommodate present and future needs and to provide a
variety of benefits and long-term land uses (IUCN n.d.)

which is regarded as one of the primary reasons for agricultural water sustainability.
Water availability is also important for other sectors other than agriculture, as clean
and plentiful water supplies are heavily used in urban settlement, energy and
industry, desertification mitigation, and water, sanitation, and hygiene (Koncagül
et al. 2018).
Another primary goal of NbS is to reduce water-related risks, variability, and
change. These are highlighted by the fact that it is widely used for flood manage-
ment, drought management, and risk management. Flood risk mitigation considers
flood susceptibility and exposure, as well as the hazard, to determine overall flood
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 185

risk. Then, via wetland restoration, land use policies, and multiple techniques of
enhancing conveyance and storage capacity, NbS plays an essential part in mitigat-
ing these hazards. Drought, on the other hand, is at the other end of the water-related
variability spectrum and can last for a long time. In fact, the recently published
comprehensive analysis of drought risk globally is hazard, exposure, and vulnera-
bility. NbS can then be used to manage flood and drought hazards as well as multiple
risks. Wetlands, for example serve as a natural sponge trapping rain and surface
runoff, lowering the risk of landslides and storm surges. Understanding the functions
of NbS can therefore help to increase resilience to natural disasters (Koncagül et al.
2018).
Natural-based mitigation strategies rely primarily on ecosystems and their activ-
ities to address societal concerns such as food security, climate change, water
security, human health, disaster risk, and social and economic progress. It is, in
fact, defined as “Actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural or
modified ecosystems that handle societal concerns effectively and adaptively,
while simultaneously offering human well-being and biodiversity benefits”,
according to the IUCN. It can frequently be used in conjunction with other sorts of
technologies or systems, where it can substitute, supplement, or work in parallel with
them, allowing for the most cost-effective combination of advantages. In environ-
mental sciences and nature conservation contexts, NbS has evolved in place of
traditional engineering solutions such as those of the IUCN and the World Bank to
overcome numerous environmental difficulties while still enhancing livelihoods and
preserving the natural environment (Cohen-Shacham et al. 2016).
It is analysed that NbS might provide 37% of the required greenhouse gas
reductions by 2030, keeping global warming below 2 °C (Griscom et al. 2017). It
also shows that relying solely on NbS without also lowering emissions is
unsustainable. Take, for example the largest public businesses, which have vowed
to achieve net-zero commitments by 2030 but have yet to develop a long-term
strategy to do so. Most firms, notably those in the fossil fuel industry, are opting
to offset their pollution by investing in NbS (e.g. huge monoculture tree plantations)
in the hopes of cancelling their emissions. This is a concern since, clearly, such
businesses are not willing to change their business methods in order to continue
earning. As a result, these efforts are regarded as false answers because, rather than
working with nature, they end up harming it.
In the case of the Philippines, contemporary climate and environmental gover-
nance concerns must therefore be addressed. Unfortunately, there are still gaps
between various government offices’ policies and objectives. Thus, Increased NbS
implementation is essential for solving the primary contemporary water resource
management issues of sustaining and improving water supply and quality while
reducing water-related dangers. Water security will continue to erode dramatically
unless NbS is adopted more quickly. The need for and prospects for expanded NbS
implementation, however, remains shaky (Koncagül et al. 2018).
Significantly, changes in climate, economic activity, and people’s standards of
living are putting a strain on the Philippines’ water supply and delivery infrastruc-
ture, just as they are in other countries. As a result, proper management of the
186 P. Velasco et al.

country’s water resources is required. CWs are one of the options offered by a group
of engineers to address water security (Idia 2021). Proponents highlighted studies
showing that just 10% of wastewater in the country is treated and that poor sanitation
costs the country more than 78 billion pesos per year in economic losses. They
propose, in particular, the construction of a hybrid subsurface flow-built wetland that
uses low-cost technology and reusable materials to treat reusable wastewater.

7.3.3 NbS Case Studies for Wastewater Treatment

7.3.3.1 Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS)

Decentralised Wastewater Treatment Systems (DEWATS) provide treatment for

wastewater flows with close COD/BOD ratios from 1 m3 to 1000 m3 per day and
can treat wastewaters from domestic or industrial sources (i.e. sanitation facilities,
housing colonies, and public entities like hospitals). It can be an integral part of
comprehensive wastewater strategies and can provide a renewable energy source.
DEWATS are designed to be reliable, long-lasting, cost-efficient, inflow fluctuation
resilient, and have low control and maintenance requirements. The typical treatment
design of DEWATS involves sedimentation, anaerobic digestion, planted gravel
filter, and polishing ponds (Gutterer et al. 2009).
Figure 7.2 summarises the DEWATS projects pioneered and managed by Bremen
Overseas Research Development Association (BORDA 2017), German founded not
for profit organisation focusing on the development of environment-friendly and
appropriate technologies which enhance the communities’ self-help potential and
protect natural resources. In the Philippines, the projects of BORDA are mostly in
collaboration with Basic Needs Services Philippines Inc. (BNS-Phils.), a
non-government organisation focusing on water and sanitation issues through infor-
mation and education campaigns, and project implementation. There are at least
50 DEWATS projects in the Philippines since 2015 as presented in Table 7.4.
DEWATS projects are distributed all over the Philippines from Luzon to Mindanao.

7.3.3.2 Floating Constructed Wetlands

The Estero de Paco is a prominent tributary of the Pasig River, which runs through
Manila’s core, whose stream is approximately 2.5 km long (Coco Technologies
Corporation n.d.) In addition, there is a public market along the creek, which
contributes to the region’s bustling community and economic activity. Market
activities, on the other hand, have contributed to water contamination in the creek.
This is because the vast majority of vendors dump their trash in the Estero, as well as
the informal settlers who live near the stream throw their wastewater into it, causing
it to deteriorate the streams even further. Thus, the residents of the area indeed
caused the ruining of Estero de Paco.
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 187

Fig. 7.2 DEWATS projects by BORDA (BORDA 2017)

188 P. Velasco et al.

Table 7.4 Some DEWATS projects in the Philippines (BNS Philippines, Inc. 2022)
Island group Municipality
Luzon Metro Manila (Valenzuela City, Quezon City, Manila)
Antipolo City
Laguna
La Union (San Fernando, Bauang, Rosario, Bacnotan, Balaoan, Naguilian, Agoo)
Sorsogon City
Virac, Catanduanes
Visayas Iloilo City
Leyte (Palo, Alangalang)
Cebu
Negros Oriental (Dumaguete City, Manjuyod, Guihulngan, Zamboanguita)
Mindanao General Santos
Kidapawan City
Saranggani

The ABS-CBN Foundation and the PRRC launched a mission to restore the
Estero de Paco ecosystem in 2010, in partnership with other local government
organisations (Coco Technologies Corporation n.d.). Several measures were
conducted throughout the rehabilitation, including dredging, the transfer of informal
settlers to Laguna, the construction of a linear park, and the restoration of stream
biodiversity, which was accomplished by constructing wetlands and plants on both
banks of the creek. In addition, a 3-m easement has been constructed for a linear park
where visitors can promenade and enjoy the area’s various attractions. The sur-
rounding municipalities were required to connect their sewage pipes to the main
sewerage lines that had been installed rather than dump their effluent into the creek.
Therefore, the creek’s restoration was made possible through a concerted effort
between the public and private sectors.
The rehabilitation operations also included the planting of flora and the creation
of floating wetlands along the river’s banks (Coco Technologies Corporation n.d.).
In preparation for planting operations, an embankment was created along the creek
side. The cocologs and coconets were also utilized as a cover for the embankment
surface to mitigate its erosion. Moreover, various plants such as Vetiver grass,
heliconia, and other types of water grass were planted on an embankment covered
in erosion control materials. Similarly, the water was cleaned through the construc-
tion of floating wetlands with grass and an aeration system in specifically chosen
places. Generally, these bioengineering activities will help clean up the Estero River
in addition to dredging and relocation projects.
However, issues have remained even after the dredging of the estero. This
includes having no improvement in the water quality of the estero, having a costly
operation, managing the creation of sludge, and obstructing water flow (ADB n.d.).
Consequently, the floating wetlands in Estero de Paco are no longer operational
because of the difficulty in maintaining its rehabilitation and the discipline of the
people on waste management around the area.
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 189

7.3.3.3 Constructed Wetlands

In the Philippines, the most common NbS for wastewater treatment is the CW. It
imitates the functions and processes that a natural wetland possesses, so-called
Green Filters. Moreover, they are natural and economical technology that is also
utilised as an eco-technological biological wastewater treatment due to its high
potential in treating wastewaters, making it a sufficient alternative for conventional
systems (UN-HABITAT 2008). Furthermore, a CW is composed of elements
namely, a basin, a substrate, vegetation, a liner, and an inlet/outlet arrangement
system. It consists of a shallow dip, also called a basin, which is planted with flora
and is made up of types of substrates, wherein commonly composed of either sand or
gravel. Additionally, wastewater is also inoculated into the ground dip and overflows
on the surface through the substrate materials, wherein a device is utilised upon the
discharge of wastewater to control its depth in the wetland. Figure 7.3 summarises
the types of CWs. Different design and operating parameters that define the perfor-
mance of a certain CWs are: (1) removal efficiencies for various water quality
parameters (such as BOD, COD, and TSS), (2) site conditions (such as slope,
location from the source and discharge point, land access for maintenance and
reuse), (3) plant or vegetation used (wide network of roots and rhizomes, locally
available, manner of disposal or recycle potential for the plants’ by-products,
aesthetic value), (4) permeable media bed (substrate that utilises soil for plants,

Fig. 7.3 CWs for water management (Rahman et al. 2020)

190 P. Velasco et al.

like sand, gravel, rock, and organic elements such as compost), (5) water depth,
(6) hydraulic retention time, and (7) organic loading rate.
Unfortunately, wetland technologies remain unutilised despite its enormous
potential in treating wastewaters, causing a slow progress in its implementation in
developing countries. Indeed, adoption to new systems requires sufficient knowl-
edge and experience, especially on the design, construction, and management for its
effective utilisation. However, there is an evident lack of these requirements, and
thus resulting in a low rate of adoption of the system. Nonetheless, it paved the way
for international conferences such as the biennial International Conference on
Wetland Systems for Water Pollution Control organised by the International Water
Association (IWA). Furthermore, some municipalities in the Philippines like
Bayawan City, Negros have established CWs despite being an unusual practice for
wastewater treatment.
Abundant gain from Bayawan City’s rich agricultural lands has always been
negated due to the devastating effects of floods and landslides coming from its
denuded and degraded upland areas. Due to the disasters of flooding and siltation in
the municipality, it has destroyed millions worth of property and crops. For instance,
3 days of torrential rains drove Bayawan City to its knees in 2013, destroying farms
and infrastructure with an overall worth of Php 90.9 million (USD1.6 million), while
a total of P100.1 million was anticipated to be lost due to business damage. Above
all, 36 families were displaced, affecting nearly 20,000 people in the municipality
(Marisand Resources Co., LTD and City Government of Bayawan 2018). The
prospect of living in continual danger prompted Bayawan’s municipal administra-
tion to address the root causes of these issues and pave the way for their mitigation
using their enormous natural resources, resulting in the establishment of NbS in
Bayawan, Negros (Mercado 2008).
According to the Bayawan City LGU (2021), coastal areas became their priority
for implementing projects when Bayawan initially became a city in December 2000.
Thus, a 7-ha land was bought by the municipality, utilised as a relocation area to
cater about 750 families who reside in a very deprived area in the city, and used to
construct coastal roads for common use. As a result, The Gawad Kalinga
Fisherman’s Village was born out of this initiative, wherein Bayawan City’s first
wastewater treatment facility was created in accordance with the mandate of Repub-
lic Act 9275, also known as the Philippine Clean Water Act of 2004, and with
technical aid supplied by the German technical cooperation through the DILG Water
and Sanitation Program. In fact, they are known to be the country’s first local
government unit to build and operate an artificial wetland treatment plant.
Bayawan City’s CW as a wastewater treatment facility is a hybrid kind that
consists of two combined reed bed systems (vertical followed by horizontal CW)
that operate as biological filters (Fig. 7.4). Additionally, it has become part of GK
Village along the shoreline as part of its coastal route. Thus, the facility also has a
key location within the village. It was built with a flow rate of 50 L per person per
day and a BOD content of 300 mg/L for a total village population of 3000 people.
Moreover, in a 7.4-ha housing project, the total surface area of the facility is
2680 m2, or roughly 0.9 m2 per resident, which is an “optimistic” design figure
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 191

Fig. 7.4 Hybrid CWs at GK Village, Bayawan City (street view along the Bayawan Blvd, Google
Maps 2022)

due to its low per capita flow rate, sewage pre-settling in the septic tanks, and tropical
temperatures (Lipkow and von Münch 2010). Furthermore, the designed CW has a
rated capacity of 180 m3 and can be replenished three times per day. The reed bed is
made up of 0.6 m of sand, 0.05 m of pea-size gravel, 0.1 m of gravel, and has a depth
of 0.75 m. In fact, Phragmites karka, an abundant plant in the area with a root
structure that penetrates the entire bed, is employed in the planted gravel filter as an
impoverished species of reed (Guino-o II et al. 2009).
Sewage then goes to the common septic tank. Houses are clustered where one
septic tank serves ten households. Septic tanks are made of a three-chamber type.
Sludge will just be retained for further treatment as part of our septage management
programme. Effluent on the third chamber of the septic tank goes to the main, then
pumped to the heather tanks. From the heather tanks all flow now goes by gravity,
distributed to the surface of the reed bed, number one, which is a vertical type, and
has an area of 1800 m2. The bed is a layer of sand and gravel planted breeds.
Production pipes are installed at the bottom outlet of partially treated effluent.
Intermediate chamber is provided in between the two tanks where the quality of
the pre-treated wastewater could be monitored. The effluent from the first reed bed
(vertical CW) goes to the second reed bed, which is an 880 m2 horizontal type of
CW. It has a subsurface flow, so there is no chance for mosquitoes to thrive on. In
terms of maintenance, there are flushing points, or pipelines to avoid clogging up and
flushing is done every 6 months, as part of the preventive maintenance programme.
Reeds are cut yearly as it regenerates again. Treated effluent is pumped to the header
tanks for irrigation, firefighting, and construction purposes. Portions are recycled
back to the inlet during summer to cope up with the water requirements of the reeds.
Excess-treated effluent finally is discharged to the sea. Although clean in terms for
agriculture and other purposes, it is not recommended for human consumption
(Bayawan City LGU 2021). The summarised schematic is shown in Fig. 7.5.
The method is extremely simple, has a cheap cost, requires little maintenance,
does not require expensive equipment, and, most significantly, does not require any
chemicals. In fact, its primary filter is Phragmites karka, also known as Tambu or
Tabun-ac locally. (Bayawan City LGU 2021). Additionally, Nipa, mangroves, and
192 P. Velasco et al.

Fig. 7.5 Schematic of a wastewater treatment facility in GK Village, Bayawan City (ABR anaer-
obic baffled reactor, VCW vertical constructed wetland, HCW horizontal constructed wetland)

other aquatic plants can also be utilised to remediate wastewater, as they are also
known as the earth’s kidneys. Tabun-ac is the most popular species since it is simple
to grow and maintain. Moreover, the root growth of the plants determines the
wastewater treatment facility’s efficiency. After all, the Tabun-ac’s root system is
particularly good at neutralising pollutants in wastewater. The root thickens as it
matures, and it can penetrate to a depth of 1 m. Aerobic bacteria become used to the
root system, implying that more roots require more treatment. Furthermore, oxygen
enters the body through the leaves, stem, and roots, and thus they are called aerobic
bacteria since they require a lot of oxygen to function effectively and contribute to
the efficiency of the treatment process. Furthermore, microorganisms are the most
essential factor in wastewater treatment because they use the existing organic
chemicals as a source of nourishment.
However, the biggest challenge remains to be the social acceptability of the
utilisation of CWs among those residing nearby the facility since it takes up a lot
of space, causes visual obstructions in certain locations, and emits a bad smell into
the treatment area each time wastewater and effluents are released. Nonetheless,
social acceptability is enhanced over the years through proper mitigation measures
by the local government unit to address these issues (Guino-o II et al. 2009). Overall,
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 193

the project brought a significant impact on the enormous growth of the city. Thus,
the promenade and housing project in Bayawan City currently serve as a symbol of
growth and development (Bayawan City LGU 2021).

7.4 Evaluation of NbS Performance

The National Academies Press (NAP) (2019) noted that trade-offs between positive,
negative, and neutral impacts, and the incorporation of sources of uncertainty must
be taken into consideration when evaluating effectiveness and impact of NbS
systems through any decision framework. This method incorporates the assessment
of prospective benefits into a typical risk assessment framework, which involves
estimating the potential degree and probability of harm as well as mitigation options.
Ultimately, for several environmental, social, and economic concerns, nature-
based solutions have emerged as a promising and possibly beneficial method of
intervention to these problems. However, a more successful implementation can
only be achieved with clear and sufficient evidence of their varied outcomes,
synergies and trade-offs between them, and the procedures and pathways which
ideal results are obtained. A comprehensive evaluation of nature-based solutions in
diverse cities and regions will contribute to the development of an evidence base that
can be used to inform urban planning, interventions, investments, and policymaking.
As a result, part of the design and implementation of nature-based and grey solutions
can help the establishment of an impact assessment culture in the medium and long
term. Furthermore, effective monitoring and evaluation procedures have been
regarded as key enablers for the NbS’s performance. Impact assessment plans that
follow and are associated with local spatial development objectives facilitate the
change to nature-based solutions design by providing the evidence base for projects,
programmes, and policies (Dumitru and Wendling 2021).
Several indicators with their corresponding metrics are used to construct an
integrated framework for evaluating the performance of any NbS. An indicator, by
definition, is a numerical or qualitative variable that allows you to assess a phenom-
enon or characteristic in relation to a specified aim. A metric, on the other hand, is a
calculated measure, or a value produced from two or more quantities that are used to
assess certain indicators. Overall, a single indicator may have a variety of distinct,
specific measurements that can be utilised to more efficiently analyse the NbS
(Dumitru and Wendling 2021). In the European context, there are given indicators
with specific metrics related to water management for the assessment of NbS as
evident in Table 7.5.
Dumitru and Wendling (2021) developed a framework for integrated assessment
for the assessment of NbS’ impacts and effectiveness to maximise its benefits. This
method is about constructing a theory of change and developing a chain of results.
The theory of change is used to describe how effective systems are in achieving the
desired outcomes based on the project’s objectives and challenges. The theory of
change will also provide the chain of results that will lead to the intended impacts.
194 P. Velasco et al.

Table 7.5 List of indicators with possible metrics for assessing NbS (Wendling et al. 2019)
Indicator
Water quality
Flood vulnerability
Drought vulnerability
Metric
Basic water quality (pH, temperature, EC, DO, flowrate)
Nitrogen and phosphorus in surface water and/or groundwater
Metal pollutants in surface water and/or groundwater
Total suspended solids (TSS)
Pollutant discharge to local water bodies
Total number and species richness of aquatic macroinvertebrates
Flood peak height
Time to flood peak
Run-off in relation to precipitation quantity
Infiltration capacity
Evapotranspiration
Rainwater or greywater use for irrigation purposes
Depth to groundwater
Water Exploitation Index

Table 7.6 Equivalent impact Indicator value (%) Score

scores given the percentage
<20 1
difference in the indicator
value with or without NbS 20–40 2
(Watkin et al. 2019) 40–60 3
60–80 4
>80 5

Evaluation questions provide the theory of change in a narrative context, which

guide the selection of appropriate indicators or parameters to evaluate the effective-
ness and impacts of NbS.
However, not all indicators are the same for all types of NbS and society’s
characteristics and challenges. Thus, selecting the adequate indicators are important
to efficiently assess the impacts of NbS. A qualitative analysis using the SMART
(Specific, Measurable, Attributable, Realistic, and Time bound) criteria could be
used to determine the appropriate indicators for local conditions, such as: (1) Is an
indicator relevant to the type of NbS being considered? (2) Is an indicator been tested
with a solid scientific basis? (3) Is an indicator measurable? and (4) Is an indicator
adaptable to changing conditions? (Sowińska-Świerkosz and Garcia 2021).
For its impact assessment, on the other hand, NbS impacts on the environment
can either be beneficial or not and can be evaluated by comparing the study areas
with and without NbS. Each indicator can be converted to a corresponding impact
value if NbS will be present or used in terms of percentage difference. The percent-
age difference and associated impact scores are displayed in Table 7.6. For the
interpretation, for instance, scores less than 2 indicate that there is little or no
difference in the beneficial impact, and its effect is only less than 40% as its indicator
value. Thus, it needs to be reevaluated or re-designed when the impact score is low.
Furthermore, a negative percentage shows that the area’s NbS application is
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 195

completely ineffective. Finally, the NbS grade will be taken from the average of all
the indicator scores. Weighted scores can also be used to consider the perception of
the stakeholders regarding the importance of indicators compared with the other
indicators. Finally, after indicators have been weighted and averaged to get the final
numerical NbS grade (consolidating all the impacts considered), relevant recom-
mendations will need to be provided to improve the adoption of the NbS in a specific
area.

7.5 Adaptation of NbS in the Philippine Context

A handbook for practitioners by Dumitru and Wendling (2021) Entitled “Evaluating

the Impact of Nature-based Solutions” gives an introduction to the NbS evaluation
process, with a focus on the technical aspects of the monitoring methods that are
critical to NbS assessment and implementation. It gives a full explanation of the
development and execution of the NbS evaluation framework, from the conception,
design, and implementation of a monitoring and evaluation strategy to NbS moni-
toring and final impact evaluation. The NbS impact indicators in this handbook, as
well as their corresponding methods, are used as a query tool in the NbS evaluation
and encompass the environmental, social, and economic aspects. As a result, it
contains detailed instructions on how to use all of the NbS impact indicators. The
major goal of this manual is to make NbS intelligible to educated non-experts,
particularly those individuals and organisations involved in developing,
implementing, and evaluating NbS. As a result, it provides essential background
on the NbS concept and how it fits into European and international policy contexts,
and also gives ideas of important steps in monitoring intervention plans. Moreover, it
provides sufficient guidance on the selection of appropriate indicators, as well as
informative discussion on effective data management for the evaluation of NbS.
Significantly, some of the indicators and methodologies used to assess the efficiency
of NbS can be adapted using the handbook. Even though it is mostly utilised in the
context of European and international policy, the full explanation of processes in the
assessment process is still extremely valuable, and it may be modified in some ways
to make it appropriate to conduct an evaluation in the Philippine setting. As a result,
some of the assessment techniques are used in this study to provide a unique
framework for evaluating NbS in the Philippines.
Additionally, another report by Raymond et al. (2017) achieves its goals of
establishing an impact assessment framework with a set of criteria for evaluating
NbS performance in addressing climate resilience concerns in urban areas; Devel-
oping an application guide for assessing how NbS initiatives perform in terms of
delivering diverse environmental, economic, and societal benefits using the defined
indicators; and making recommendations to improve the evaluation of NbS projects’
effectiveness, including the identification of its main purpose as a reference guide for
participants in current and future European projects interested in NbS in urban
contexts, as well as practitioners interested in comparing the effectiveness and
196 P. Velasco et al.

impacts of NbS design, implementation, and evaluation. It also provides useful

examples of indicators and procedures for analysing NbS impacts that may be
utilised in several ways across European cities, with varying types and degrees of
impacts based on the different NbS and the context in which they are used.
Consequently, the report aids in determining the usefulness of any indicators or
procedures employed in the impact assessment. The precise indicators and method-
ologies utilised in the formulation of the framework can still be beneficial with an
assessment of which ones are solely appropriate in the Philippine setting, even
though the report is written in the context of Europe. As a result, some of the
methods described in the study can still be used in the examination of NbS efficacy
and impacts, albeit with certain modifications based on the status of the Philippines.
For the Philippines, DEWATS (combined grey infrastructure and reed bed) is the
most established and used NbS for wastewater treatment. This can be attributed to
the collaborations between the local (BNS-Phils.) and international (BORDA)
NGOs involved in the development and dissemination of NbS technologies for
water and sanitation, with enhanced engagements. Some of the BNS-Phils. strategies
are the following: (1) establishment of Integrated Sanitation Approach (ISA), where
they cooperate with LGUs for piloting their DEWATS in line with SDGs and New
Urban Agenda; (2) establishment of Sustainable Sanitation Development Partner-
ship & Program (SSDP) to anchor with the Local Sustainable Sanitation Plan (LSSP)
and National Sewerage and Sanitation Program (NSSP), which serves as the plat-
form for the LGUs to develop and implement DEWATS; and (3) execution of
memorandum of agreement with LGUs and other government agencies involved
in health and environment. In terms of funding, the following are the options
explored and used by BNS-Phils.: (1) Mandanas Law, where LGUs can allot their
budget for the construction of DEWATS; (2) internal revenue of LGUs; (3) user fee
for wastewater treatment; and (4) Area Water Quality Management Fund. Other
funding options are done through co-financing as follows: (1) among the LGU and
other government agencies (DOH, DPWH); (2) between the LGU and the private
sector (using Public–Private Partnership financing mode); and (3) loans with
Landbank and other international funding agencies (such as Landbank of the
Philippines, World Bank, Asian Development Bank). It should be emphasised that
the free services provided by BNS-Phils. provided a great impact to improve the
adaptation of DEWATS in the country (BNS Philippines, Inc. 2022).
On the other hand, the most successful implementation of CWs for wastewater
treatment in the Philippines can be found in the Fishermen’s Village in Bayawan
City. This can be attributed to the established ownership of their LGU and the
dedication of their engineering staff to lead the operation and maintenance of their
CWs. They also managed to create collaboration with their local water concession-
aire that pays for the water quality tests for monitoring purposes and to allot budget
from their annual general appropriation budget. In terms of social acceptability,
majority of the residents in the village are aware of the benefits of the CWs (such as
treating their wastewater and reducing water pollution, reducing the water bill cost
when they reuse the treated wastewater, increasing the tourism in the area) and they
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 197

are very satisfied with the construction of the CWs in their village. However, the
main challenges are the following: (1) complaints of odour issues during the
application of wastewater in the CWs but this reduces when the reeds are very tall;
(2) majority of the residents are not willing to pay additional fees for their waste-
water treatment; and (3) sustainable ownership of the management of the CWs.

7.6 Conclusion

The review of the current state of wastewater treatment systems, water management,
water governance, and policies in the Philippines gives us an overview on how NbS
for wastewater treatment can be introduced, promoted, and replicated in the Philip-
pines. With the inclusion of case studies on floating wetlands, CWs, and DEWATS
and the initial review of relevant indicators will help develop an integrated frame-
work in assessing the effectiveness, and efficiency of NbS adoption for water
resources management and wastewater treatment in the Philippines. For instance,
CWs are established NbS that can be effectively used for domestic wastewater
treatment. From here, the indicators that will provide the measure of its effectiveness
are removal efficiency (of various water quality parameters depending on the
effluent standards in the Philippines), hydraulic retention time, organic loading
rate, substrate, and plants used. Thus, the effectiveness of the CWs can be concluded
if the system improved the water quality, reduced the contaminants in the wastewa-
ter, and comply with the Philippine standards for water quality effluent. Otherwise,
the CWs are ineffective as an alternative for the treatment of domestic wastewater
and revisiting the design parameters and operating conditions of CWs must be done
to improve the performance of the system. For the impacts, some water-related
indicators of CWs are water storage and reuse, biodiversity improvement or protec-
tion, promote tourism, and job creation. The percentage difference (of having the
CWs) can be determined and a single numeric score for the CWs can be found.
Through this assessment, the effectiveness and impact of the CWs and other NbS
types in the management of water resources in the Philippines can be done to
improve their adaptation in the country. It should be emphasised that assessment
should also provide a clear and simple guide to construct, operate, and maintain the
NbS in terms of the following: (1) technical aspect for operation and maintenance
and performance evaluation of NbS; (2) potential collaborators of various local and
international stakeholders, such as communities, LGUs, universities, NGOs, and
private companies, (3) schematic of existing local and national policies or laws to
support the implementation of NbS technologies (and potential to create policies/
laws); and list of potential local and international grants or loans.

Acknowledgement This work was funded by APN Project number: CRRP2021-06MY-

Jegatheesan.
198 P. Velasco et al.

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Perlie Velasco is an Assistant Professor 7 at the Department of Civil Engineering, University of

the Philippines—Los Baños (DCE, UPLB). She is the lead faculty in Environmental Engineering at
the department with research projects in constructed wetlands and integrated solid waste manage-
ment. She got her PhD degree in Environmental Engineering at the RMIT University, Australia;
Master’s degree in Water Resources Engineering at the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium,
and undergraduate degree in Civil Engineering at UPLB. Her research focus are recovery of
dissolved methane from wastewater using membrane-based technology and Nature-based solutions,
particularly constructed wetlands.

Ma. Catriona E. Devanadera is an Associate Professor at the Department of Community and

Environmental Resource Planning, College of Human, Ecology, University of the Philippines Los
Baños. She took her BS Metallurgical Engineering, MS Environmental Engineering, and a PhD in
Environmental Engineering from the University of the Philippines Diliman. Dr. Devanadera has
research related to wetlands conservation and management, circular economy in wetlands manage-
ment, nature-based solutions such as constructed wetland systems, and has conducted several
climate and disaster risk assessments for municipalities in the Philippines.

Michaela M. Dalisay finished her secondary education at Assumption College San Lorenzo in
2017. She recently finished her Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering degree at the University of
the Philippines—Los Baños (UPLB). She is also an active member of student organizations, the
University of the Philippines Civil Engineering Society and the Philippine Institute of Civil
Engineers UPLB Student Chapter. After gaining some experience, she also plans to take graduate
studies abroad.

Cloie Chie Aleman Mueca is a student in the Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering program at
the University of the Philippines—Los Baños. She was born on the 18th of August 2000 in Pasig
City, NCR. She belongs to the first batch of the K to 12 Curriculum and graduated both Junior and
Senior High School with honors at Pasig City Science High School in years 2016 and 2018,
respectively. Currently, Cloie is a resident member of the University of the Philippines Civil
Engineering Society (UPCES) and the Philippine Institute of Civil Engineers (PICE)—UPLB
Student Chapter.

Darry Shel Malla Estorba completed her Master of Community Development degree at the
University of the Philippines (UP) Diliman and her Bachelor of Science degree in Human Ecology,
Major in Social Technology at UP Los Baños. She has experiences in the field of community
development, youth and governance, and environmental conservation, particularly on wetlands,
water, and sanitation through Communication, Education, Participation, and Awareness strategies.
She is well-experienced on crafting environment and community plans, facilitating capacity
building, developing of communication and educational materials, and administering projects as
evident in her involvement in the Society for the Conservation of Philippine Wetlands, Inc.
7 Nature-Based Solutions for Domestic Wastewater Treatment in the Philippines 201

Amy Lecciones is currently Vice-President and Executive Director of the Society for the Conser-
vation of Philippine Wetlands, Inc., and a Trustee of the Philippine Water Partnership. Ms.
Lecciones’ work on wetlands has helped shape policies for its wise use and conservation in the
country as well as in the global arena. She has extensive experience in wetland conservation and
management particularly in biodiversity assessment and monitoring including ecological profiling,
ecological services assessment and ecosystem restoration employing NBS, among others.
Chapter 8
Application of Floating Wetlands
as a Nature-Based Solution for Water
Reclamation of Urban Lakes in Sri Lanka
and Development of an Appropriate
Assessment Criterion

S. K. Weragoda, K. B. S. N. Jinadasa, M. Makehelwala,

T. I. P. Wimalaweera, and M. I. M. Mowjood

Abstract Sri Lanka is highly popular for its advanced irrigation systems dating
back to the third century BC. Tank cascade system is a unique intervention to store
water in a series of interconnected tanks during the rainy season and to use it during
the drought in the dry zone of Sri Lanka. At present, ancient knowledge and wisdom
have been used with advanced modifications for wastewater treatment. Sewage
collection, treatment, and disposal/reuse strategy has been developed based on
hybrid solutions. The floating wetlands are a recent intervention on wastewater
reclamation. Application of floating wetlands was tested in pilot studies at the
University of Peradeniya and implemented at Kandy Lake as a pioneering field
scale application in the country. The learning from the constructed floating wetland
in Kandy Lake was extended to Kurunegala Lake. The effectiveness of the floating
wetland is assessed with reference to technical, social, economic, and policy and
governance. The assessment is, in principle, based on a matrix as impact and
existence. There is substantial number of parameters used in each subcategory in
order to ensure a detailed and unbiased assessment ensuring sustainability. This
exercise is very helpful to sustain, upscale, and replicate nature-based solutions in Sri
Lanka.

S. K. Weragoda · M. Makehelwala
National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
Joint Research and Demonstration Centre, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
K. B. S. N. Jinadasa · M. I. M. Mowjood (*)
University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
e-mail: mmowjood@pdn.ac.lk
T. I. P. Wimalaweera
Joint Research and Demonstration Centre, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 203
N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_8
204 S. K. Weragoda et al.

Keywords Floating wetland · Integrated assessment framework · Nature-based

solution (NBS)

8.1 Introduction

Sri Lanka is an island situated in the Indian Ocean (5.55–9.51°N and 79.4–81.53°E)
with an extent of 65,612 km2. It has a tropical climate with average temperatures
between 16 and 38 °C. The rainfall pattern of the country follows a bimodal
distribution annually due to north-east and southwest monsoons. The mean annual
rainfall varies spatially from 900 mm to over 5000 mm. The runoff flows over a
radial network of rivers from the central hills to coastal plains through 103 rivers.
Although the country is bestowed with an abundance of water with high per
capita water availability, its usage is restricted by the increasing trend of water
pollution in water bodies such as rivers, reservoirs, ponds, and tanks. There is no
robust legal framework to prevent activities that are polluting water bodies while
enforcement of existing regulations is not effective. Sustainable Sri Lanka 2030
vision and strategic plan state that the quality of all water sources is decreasing as a
result of urbanization and discharge of sewage and industrial wastewater into water
bodies (Munasinghe 2019). This is partly due to the lack of priority for rural water
supply schemes and absence of technical support from respective authorities to
implement simple, low-cost schemes. It further set the goal for 2030 to ensure the
quality of water in rivers and water bodies to meet WHO standards for drinking
water sources.
The island is highly famous for its advanced early irrigation systems dating back
to the third century BC. Tanks, Anicut, Vaan, and Bisokotuwa are comparable to the
modern reservoirs, sluice, spillway, and valve pits and are still in use in the country.
Tank cascade system is a unique intervention to store water in a series of
interconnected tanks during the rainy season and to use it during the drought in
the dry zone of Sri Lanka (Geekiyanage and Pushpakumara 2013). Tank receives
water from the upper tank and delivers it to the downstream tank after usage by
interconnected small earthen tanks and paddy fields. Village tank cascade system
controlled the sedimentation and facilitated the flood and drought mitigation process
in the lower parts of the ecosystem during heavy rains and dry periods. Sigiriya, an
ancient rock fortress, is another example of a water garden. It is considered as one of
the examples of best-preserved urban planning in Asia with a sophisticated and well-
planned city dating back to fifth century AD arranged with gardens, swimming
pools, fountains, caves, palaces, with trees, plants, veins, grasslands, and waterways
planned in natural harmony (https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/history-
magazine/article/sri-lanka-sigiriya-fortress). It is evident that nature-based technol-
ogies have been used in the country as effective sustainable solutions for problems.
In the recent past, nature-based solutions (NbS) have been used as a unit as well
as a system approach. Riparian buffer zones have been introduced to the streams as a
soil conservation measure as well as control pollution by agrochemicals. Lock and
spill drainage canals have been practised in tea and rubber estates in hilly areas to
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 205

protect the soil erosion and improve the infiltration (Krishnarajah 1985). Check
dams are used to conserve water and as sediment traps in the upper catchment areas
of the country. Integrated pest and weed management practices were used in
agriculture. Urban green parks are an important feature in new urban development
planning. Constructed wetlands have been used for treatment of wastewater from
various sources as a system for low organic loading and as a polishing unit for high
organic loading (Weerakoon et al. 2013, 2016, 2018). Floating wetlands is a recent
intervention in wastewater reclamation (Weragoda et al. 2012).
Management of urban water bodies is in a dilemma whether to continue their
deterioration or to make interventions to sustain their services to make cities liveable.
Beira lake in Colombo, the Capital city of Sri Lanka, Gregory Lake in Nuwara-Eliya,
Kandy Lake in Kandy, Kurunegala Lake in Kurunegala, and Nuwara Wewa in
Anuradhapura are few to mention that have been located at the heart of the cities
and built centuries ago for multiple purposes such as domestic and irrigation water
supply, flood, and drought mitigation, aesthetic appeal, relaxation, fishing, biodiver-
sity, etc. They silently add color to the urban social fabric. However, with the
expansion of cities, urban infrastructure development, industrialization, and living
style, cities have ignored or compromised the services of urban lakes.
Several attempts have been made to restore the water quality in urban lakes.
De-siltation, restoration of lake banks, aeration, and catchment protection are some
of the interventions (Karunaratna 1999). Due to several reasons, those interventions
could not cease the water quality deterioration and bring back normalcy to the lake.
Nature-based water treatments such as infiltration galleries, constructed wetlands,
floating wetlands, maturation ponds, and biofilters have been suggested as promising
low-cost intervention to control water pollution (Oral et al. 2020). Floating wetlands
have been installed in Kandy Lake, Kurunegala Lake, and Beira Lake in 2011, 2014,
and 2022, respectively. However, sustainability of this system is a concern. This
chapter discusses the few nature-based solutions in practice in Sri Lanka with more
focus on the floating wetland in Kandy Lake and Kurunegala Lake.

8.2 Sewage Treatment

Sri Lanka is a tropical country and reaching to be a middle-income country which

requires a significant investment to achieve safe sanitation coverage from public
sewerage systems to reach above 90%. Unlike potable water supply coverage by
the National Water Supply and Drainage Board (NWSDB) alone amounts to 53%,
the coverage from public sewer systems is as low as 2% of the population whereas
the sanitation coverage is 99% which is highest in the South-East Region (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=OOeJHLZtsQc). Therefore, NWSDB’s approach was
developed to enhance sanitation coverage as the strategy for the implementation of
Sanitation Master Plan as follows: Onsite treatment in rural areas where the plot size
of 10 perch (253 m2) or more can be designed based on SLS 745 Part II: 2009
requirements. The septage in septic tanks is removed at a designated time by tankers
(Gully Bowsers) for safe disposal/reuse while densely populated city areas are
206 S. K. Weragoda et al.

Fig. 8.1 Distribution of public sewer systems and other facilities in Sri Lanka

provided with public sewer system, treatment, and disposal/reuse of treated effluent
as shown in Fig. 8.1 (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OOeJHLZtsQc). Isolated
pockets of populations are provided with decentralized systems as it is not
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 207

Fig. 8.2 Types of sanitation

systems used in Sri Lanka
and their coverage

9.01%

1.5% 87.4%
2.09%

Onsite sanitation Piped Sewer

Unknown sanitation Other sanitation types
(not using toilets) (shared/ common/ public toilets)

economical to connect them to centralized systems. Further, NWSDB strategy is to

implement a separate system with treatment differing from natural to biological
nutrient removal based on land availability, reuse potential, and sensitivity of the
receiving waters. Hence, the NbS play a significant role in promoting low-cost
technologies in addressing requirements for the treatment of both point and nonpoint
source pollution.
At present, ancient knowledge and wisdom have been used with advanced
modifications for wastewater treatment. Sewage collection, treatment, disposal/
reuse strategy has been developed based on hybrid solutions. The NWSDB has
successfully implemented nature-based sustainable techniques such as waste stabi-
lization ponds systems, floating wetlands, constructed wetlands, and sludge treat-
ment systems to treat wastewater in Sri Lanka (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
OOeJHLZtsQc). For the sustainability of these systems, the public contribution is
essential. Hence, a thorough understanding of social aspects would be beneficial to
maintain, upscale, and replicate nature-based solutions throughout the country.
Figure 8.2 shows the types of various sanitation systems used in Sri Lanka where
the nature-based treatment systems are used significantly in treating the wastewater.
Currently, on-site sanitation takes up 87.4% of wastewater treatment. For
decentralized wastewater treatment systems, septic tanks along with upflow anaer-
obic filters, subsurface wetlands, and disinfection are being used. In centralized
wastewater treatment systems, either waste stabilization ponds or maturation
ponds along with other conventional treatment systems are being used (https://
www.youtube.com/watch?v=OOeJHLZtsQc). Thus, NbS such as wetlands, waste
stabilization ponds, and maturation ponds are being integrated with conventional
wastewater treatment systems.
208 S. K. Weragoda et al.

8.3 Floating Wetlands in Urban Lakes

Urban lakes play a significant role in the urban built environment in Sri Lanka, the
same as elsewhere in the world. The Beira Lake, Kandy Lake, Kurunegala Lake,
Gregory Lake, and Nuwara Wewa located in Colombo, Kandy, Kurunegala,
Nuwara-Eliya, and Anuradhapura, respectively, are a few of them. These Lakes
are unique compared to other water bodies since they provide a variety of ecosystem
services to the residents, dwellers, and visitors. However, over time, urban infra-
structure development, sedimentation, and unregulated wastewater discharge
resulted in bringing negative impacts, such as water pollution, loss of biodiversity
and loss of aesthetic conditions, to those lakes. Those negative impacts have resulted
in the loss of their services and have affected the well-being of the residents.
Therefore, protecting and restoring the urban lakes are vital.

8.3.1 Floating Wetlands at Kandy Lake

Kandy Lake is located in the heart of Kandy, which is a UNESCO world heritage
city and the second largest city in Sri Lanka (Fig. 8.3). It has a social, cultural, and
religious significance due to its long-lasting history and its location next to the sacred
Buddhist Temple of the tooth, “Sri Dalada Maligawa”. It is most popular for local
and foreign nationals for its annual festival called as “Essala perehara”. Residents,
floating population, and the rapid urbanization cause water pollution in the lake. This
is due to wastewater discharge from the residents, restaurants, tourist hotels, and
other establishments in the vicinity. Algal blooms, mortality of fish, and loss of
aesthetic conditions have been observed (Tomonori et al. 2011; Jinadasa et al. 2019;

Construction – 1810 – 1812 AD

Area of the lake – 14.7 ha (0.147 km2)
Perimeter – 3.4 km
Deepest point – 14 m
Capacity – 8.41 Mm3
Area of watershed – 2.85 km2
Average annual rainfall – 1.80 m
Area of the floating wetlands – 140
m2
Lake flow rate – very seasonal

Fig. 8.3 Kandy Lake is the first lake to introduce Floating Wetlands in Sri Lanka
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 209

Ng et al. 2018). Thus, several plans for water quality improvement were considered.
Those plans were not implemented due to lack of budget and other constraints.
Kandy Lake was found to be highly eutrophic. Higher total nitrogen
(TN) concentrations (more than 1 mg N/L) were observed almost across the lake.
Over saturation of dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration at 8.1–10.5 mg/L during the
daytime indicated active primary production by microalgae. The total organic carbon
(TOC) concentrations were in the range of 3.2–4.4 mg C/L (Tomonori et al. 2011).
Kandy Lake receives water from the catchment through four major inlet channels as
well as small water channels connected to the lake. Water from those channels was
supposed to contain wastewater from domestic residences and hotels. Inflows
contaminated by black water were tested for high concentrations of coliform and
ammonium. Kandy Lake is at risk due to high eutrophication which may cause
harmful microalgae bloom or oxygen depletion at the bottom layer. The water
quality of Kandy Lake is presented in Table 8.1. Chemical stratification was
recognized in the vertical profile of the lake. The topmost layer of 0.5 m thickness
was recognized for supersaturation of dissolved oxygen in the daytime due to
excessive growth of algae compared to the layers underneath. The water quality is
varied toward the bottom layers and a comparison is presented in Table 8.1.
Kandy Lake has one outlet canal which meets the Mahaweli River downstream.
The outlet canal also receives domestic wastewater, high ammonium and coliform
were observed at points in the canal and near the meeting point at the Mahaweli
River. No obvious contamination with heavy metals was found in the downstream of
Kandy Lake. Contamination of this outlet canal would be a concern because the
Mahaweli River is used by waterworks and for irrigation.
To address the water pollution in the lake, a novel and feasible technique was
considered by a team from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka and Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore. Application of floating wetlands was tested in
pilot studies at the University of Peradeniya and decided to implement at Kandy
Lake as a pioneering field scale application in the country (Weragoda et al. 2012).
The constructed floating wetlands were installed at six major inlets to the lake with
the commitment of the Department of Irrigation, the responsible government agency
for the lake with the support from NWSDB and other stakeholders, and started to
function in 2014.
The wetland plants, Canna iridiflora, added value to the aesthetics of the lake’s
surroundings and caught the attention of the public (Fig. 8.4). The floating wetlands
are maintained by the Irrigation Department. As another outcome of the establish-
ment of floating wetlands, a Wetland Education Club has been formed with the
teachers and students at the Mahamaya Girls School, a premier secondary school
located closer to one of the major inlets of the lake.

8.3.2 Floating Wetlands at Kurunegala Lake

Kurunegala city requires around 5000–7000 m3 of water to fulfill its daily water
demand and water is abstracted mainly from Deduru Oya, a river closer to the city.
210 S. K. Weragoda et al.

Table 8.1 The water quality results of Kandy Lake (n = 10)

Day Night
0–500 cm 900 cm 0–500 cm 900 cm
Std. Std.
Parameter Average Dev. (±) Average Dev. (±)
pH 8.11 0.084 7.93 8.16 0.099 8.07
EC / 265 5.5 270 260 0.0 280
(uS/cm)
Na+ /(mg/L) 17.192 0.058 16.060 17.366 0.039 16.180
NH4+ /(mg/L) 0.088 0.041 2.323 0.099 0.035 2.270
K+ /(mg/L) 6.509 0.037 6.257 6.640 0.014 6.349
Mg2+ /(mg/L) 8.232 0.036 7.946 8.357 0.025 8.016
Ca2+ /(mg/L) 26.681 0.127 27.450 27.068 0.095 27.637
F- /(mg/L) 0.035 0.631 0.034 0.034 0.002 0.034
Cl- /(mg/L) 24.640 0.631 21.898 23.626 0.111 21.872
NO3- /(mg/L) 2.007 0.048 0.000 1.922 0.055 0.000
PO43- /(mg/L) 0.003 0.004 0.225 0.001 0.002 0.234
SO42- /(mg/L) 7.364 0.232 4.263 7.106 0.083 4.046
Grans ALK 1914 48 2264 1926 26 2170
(NH4+NO3)- /(mg/L) 0.522 0.023 1.806 0.511 0.020 1.766
N
Org-N /(mg/L) 0.489 0.015 0.194 0.504 0.018 0.256
TN /(mg/L) 1.011 0.032 2.000 1.016 0.011 2.022
T-P /(mg/L) 0.020 0.039 0.004 0.004 0.000 0.093
Ag2+ /(μg/L) 10.4 0.6 10.8 10.3 0.5 9.8
Al3+ /(μg/L) 11.4 6.6 8.9 7.2 1.1 6.5
Cd2+ /(μg/L) 1.0 0.0 1.3 0.8 0.1 1.0
Cr2+ /(μg/L) 10.9 0.5 11.9 11.0 0.4 11.2
Cu2+ /(μg/L) 3.6 0.2 3.6 3.2 0.4 2.1
Fe2+ /(μg/L) 2.7 0.4 1586.2 3.4 1.2 1436.6
Mn2+ /(μg/L) 1.9 0.9 1608.3 2.4 1.2 1583.7
Ni2+ /(μg/L) 7.4 0.4 8.5 7.6 0.4 7.7

Fig. 8.4 Construction of Floating Wetlands in 2014 as a pilot project to restore Kandy Lake
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 211

But the water level in Deduru Oya goes down significantly during drought seasons
which leads to a shortage in meeting the total water demand. When this occurs, water
demand of the city is met by the Kurunegala Lake. Thus, Kurunegala Lake has
become a critical water resource of the city for recreation and drinking. It occupies
0.46 km2 and the catchment that drains the surface runoff to the lake has an area of
1.8 km2. However, the quality of water suffers due to the urban runoff that enters the
lake via Moda Ela and other culverts and has experienced occasional eutrophication
in the recent past (in 2002, 2003, and 2009) and the lake was cleaned twice in 2003
and 2010. It has been found that the lake receives highly polluted stormwater runoff
coming through the guest house and households. Algal toxins (7.1 μg/L) were found
to exceed the WHO guidelines (https://urbanlakes.edu.lk/water-and-environment-
system-analysis/, https://urbanlakes.edu.lk/solutions/). Thus, introducing suitable
onsite water treatment technologies are recommended at locations of the lake
where high pollution loads enter.
The learning from the constructed floating wetland in Kandy Lake has been
extended to Kurunegala Lake. In this regard, first a set of baseline data was
generated. The water quality analysis (Table 8.2) was conducted from January
2017 to December 2017 based on nine sampling locations that were selected
considering the major inlets of the lake (Fig. 8.5). Onsite measurements were carried
out for temperature, pH, electrical conductivity, and dissolved oxygen (DO) and
laboratory analyses were conducted for NO3-, PO43-, COD, BOD5, TOC, NH4+,
chlorophyll-a, algal density, diversity, and algal toxins (https://www.downtoearth.
org.in/news/kandy-gets-beauty-treatment-41495).
According to the results obtained from water quality analyses, it was found that
the water near Ranthaliya Rest House (location 2) has the highest COD value of
104 ± 31.6 mg/L (Table 8.2) compared to other sampling locations. This sampling
point is located near unauthorized houses. Most houses do not have proper toilet
facilities. During precipitation events, the runoff brings pollutants from those houses
to the lake. Apart from that, people who are living in those housing use the lake water
for washing purposes. The chlorophyll-a and PO43- concentrations of location
3 (near children’s park) were 138.93 ± 30.4 mg/L and 0.30 ± 0.13 mg/L
(Table 8.2), respectively. According to trophic level indices, if chlorophyll-a and
PO43- concentration exceed the amounts of 63 mg/L and 0.23 mg/L (Table 8.2),
respectively, it can be classified as hypereutrophic conditions. Also, the presence of
dense lotus vegetation observed at location 3 is one of the indications of high nutrient
input to the lake.
The highest average dissolved organic carbon (DOC) of 13.2 ± 1.8 mg/L
(Table 8.2) was reported at location 5 (near Blue Merayan Rest House) due to
stormwater runoff bringing organic matter from the catchment to the lake. At
location 6 (Near Hotel Viveka), the water has a high average PO43- and
chlorophyll-a value of 141.5 ± 29.1 mg/L and 0.27 ± 0.12 mg/L (Table 8.2),
respectively. As per the results obtained, a high algal density of 27,600 cells/
100 mL was recorded due to considerable amount of nutrient load that had entered
the lake. The most dominant algal species was Cylindrospermopsis sp., responsible
for producing toxins such as Cylindrospermopsin. About 7 μg/L of
cylindrospermopsin was reported and it is higher than WHO standards of 1 μg/L
 212

Table 8.2 The water quality results of Kurunegala Lake (n = 12)

BOD5 PO43- Turbidity Chlorophyll-a
COD (mg/L) (mg/L) DOC (mg/L) (mg/L) NO3- (mg/L) NH4+ (mg/L) (NTU) (mg/L)

Sampling location Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD Mean ±SD
1 72 5.7 2.84 1.50 11.26 1.87 0.24 0.06 0.51 0.35 0.51 0.35 37 13.57 122.238 6.8
2 103 31.6 4.02 2.30 12.00 1.19 0.23 0.09 0.55 0.31 0.55 0.31 34 14.81 114.702 9.5
3 47 20.2 3.81 1.70 11.30 0.99 0.30 0.13 0.49 0.56 0.47 0.54 39 24.78 138.930 30.4
4 68 9.6 5.42 1.60 11.21 1.87 0.21 0.07 0.66 0.51 0.66 0.51 36 26.80 138.501 29.7
5 64 10.8 4.48 1.40 13.15 1.80 0.20 0.07 0.64 0.40 0.64 0.40 57 18.49 112.853 13.4
6 56 12.6 5.69 1.50 12.29 2.02 0.27 0.12 0.42 0.31 0.42 0.31 39 23.54 141.465 29.1
7 85 14.5 4.75 2.80 11.31 1.29 0.32 0.11 0.49 0.31 0.49 0.31 39 28.30 162.088 32.1
8 56 8.8 5.53 1.20 11.70 1.39 0.18 0.12 0.46 0.43 0.46 0.43 42 26.15 137.290 20.2
9 57 6.2 3.82 1.40 12.92 1.95 0.17 0.08 0.83 0.57 0.83 0.57 39 26.93 123.847 24.6
S. K. Weragoda et al.
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 213

Fig. 8.5 Sampling locations in Kurunegala Lake

(https://urbanlakes.edu.lk/water-and-environment-system-analysis/). According to
water quality analyses of Kurunegala Lake, it is concluded that more attention
should be given to these locations by which the most critical nutrient and organic
matter entering points to the lake.
Floating wetlands have been installed since then to improve the water quality in
the lake. A comprehensive monitoring program was planned to evaluate the impacts
of floating wetlands on water quality improvements.

8.4 Integrated Assessment Framework to Evaluate

the Effectiveness and Impacts of Floating Wetlands
Situated in Kandy and Kurunegala

The effectiveness of the floating wetland is assessed with reference to technical,

social, economic, and policy and governance as shown in Table 8.3. The assessment
(modified from already existing criteria that are used by the Urban Development
Authority, Sri Lanka) is, in principle, based on the following evaluation criteria that
use a semiquantitative approach:
214 S. K. Weragoda et al.

Table 8.3 Rapid assessment criteria were developed to analyze the NbS in Sri Lanka (a) A pilot
study on maturation pond conducted at the Army Headquarters in Colombo, Sri Lanka (b) A pilot
study conducted for the floating wetlands at Kandy lake, Sri Lanka

Value Score Importance Score

Only present/ Found within

(a)

wetland complex through

surrounding sub basin (2)
Present/ Found within

Present/ Found within

wetland complex (3)

wetland complex

the basin (1)

Medium (8)

High (10)
None (0)

Low (6)
Value of the Wetlands Score
Score Score

1 Air quality regulaon x 8 x 3 24

2 Water regulaon x 10 x 2 20

3 Flood hazard regulaon x 6 x 2 12

4 Storm hazard regulaon x 6 x 2 12
5 Primary producon x 6 x 3 18
6 Provision of habitat x 8 x 2 16
Ecological/ Technical value

7 Erosion regulaon x 6 x 2 12
8 Salinity regulaon x 0 x 3 0
9 Fire regulaon x 0 x 2 0
10 Pollinaon x 0 x 2 0
11 Noise and visual buffering x 0 x 2 0
12 Biochemical process x 10 x 2 20
13 Soil formaon x 0 x 2 0
14 Fresh water x 6 x 2 12
15 Water recycling x 8 x 3 24
16 Genec resources x 6 x 2 12
17 Local climate regulaon x 0 x 2 0
18 Disease regulaon- human/ livestock x 10 x 2 20
19 Strategically suitable locaon x 10 x 3 16
20 Plant resistance to wind/ de x 8 x 2 16
234
1 Cultural heritage x 6 x 2 12
2 Aesthec value x 10 x 2 20
3 Spiritual and religious value x 0 x 2 0
4 Inspiraon value x 8 x 2 16
Social

5 Social relaons x 8 x 2 16
6 Educaonal and research x 8 x 2 16
7 Instuonal involvement x 10 x 2 20
8 Public wellbeing x 6 x 2 12
9 Self efficacy x 6 x 2 12
10 Public awareness x 8 x 2 16
140
1 Food x 0 x 2 0
2 Recreaon and tourism x 0 x 2 0
3 Natural medicine x 0 x 2 0
Economic value

4 Ornamental resources x 0 x 2 0
5 Clay/ mineral aggregaon x 0 x 2 0
6 Fuel x 0 x 3 0
7 Fiber x 0 x 3 0
8 Impact on land value x 10 x 2 20
9 Impact on industry x 6 x 2 12
10 Energy harvesng from natural air and water flow x 0 x 3 0
32
1 Enforceable authority (Ownership) x 10 x 2 20
2 Mandate x 10 x 2 20
Governance
Policy and

3 Regulaon x 10 x 2 20
4 Management x 10 x 2 20
5 Implemenng agency x 10 x 2 20
6 Regulatory bodies x 10 x 2 20
7 Ordinance (law) x 10 x 2 20
140

(continued)
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 215

Table 8.3 (continued)

Value Score Importance Score

(b)

Only present/ Found within

wetland complex through

surrounding sub basin (2)
Present/ Found within

Present/ Found within

wetland complex (3)

wetland complex

the basin (1)

Medium (8)

High (10)
None (0)

Low (6)
Value of the Wetlands Score
Score Score

1 Air quality regulaon x 6 x 2 12

2 Water regulaon x 10 x 3 30
3 Flood hazard regulaon x 0 x 2 0
4 Storm hazard regulaon x 0 x 2 0
5 Primary producon x 6 x 2 12
6 Provision of habitat x 10 x 2 20
Ecological/ Technical value

7 Erosion regulaon x 6 x 2 12
8 Salinity regulaon x 0 x 3 0
9 Fire regulaon x 0 x 2 0
10 Pollinaon x 0 x 2 0
11 Noise and visual buffering x 0 x 2 0
12 Biochemical process x 10 x 2 20
13 Soil formaon x 0 x 2 0
14 Fresh water x 6 x 2 12
15 Water recycling x 8 x 3 24
16 Genec resources x 6 x 2 12
17 Local climate regulaon x 0 x 2 0
18 Disease regulaon- human/ livestock x 10 x 2 20
19 Strategically suitable locaon x 10 x 3 16
20 Plant resistance to wind/ de x 8 x 2 16
206
1 Cultural heritage x 10 x 3 30
2 Aesthec value x 10 x 3 30
3 Spiritual and religious value x 6 x 3 18
4 Inspiraon value x 8 x 3 24
Social

5 Social relaons x 8 x 3 24
6 Educaonal and research x 10 x 3 30
7 Instuonal involvement x 10 x 3 30
8 Public wellbeing x 6 x 3 18
9 Self efficacy x 6 x 3 18
10 Public awareness x 8 x 3 24
246
1 Food x 0 x 2 0
2 Recreaon and tourism x 10 x 2 20
3 Natural medicine x 0 x 2 0
Economic value

4 Ornamental resources x 8 x 2 16
5 Clay/ mineral aggregaon x 0 x 2 0
6 Fuel x 0 x 3 0
7 Fiber x 0 x 3 0
8 Impact on land value x 10 x 2 20
9 Impact on industry x 10 x 2 20
10 Energy harvesng from natural air and water flow x 0 x 3 0
76
1 Enforceable authority (Ownership) x 8 x 2 16
2 Mandate x 10 x 2 20
Governance
Policy and

3 Regulaon x 8 x 2 16
4 Management x 10 x 2 20
5 Implemenng agency x 8 x 2 16
6 Regulatory bodies x 10 x 2 20
7 Ordinance (law) x 8 x 2 16
124
216 S. K. Weragoda et al.

Value of the Wetland = ½value score × ½importance score

Value score expresses the contribution of NbS under specific subcategories such
as ecological/technical, social, economic, and policy/governance. The value has
been evaluated based on the four indices with scores of none (0), low (6), medium
(8), and high (10). The scores were allocated by giving an additional emphasis
toward the benefits that the introduction of NbS can bring. Therefore, minimum
score is given as (6) appreciating the delivery. Thereafter the scoring system is linear
to find a semiquantitative approach.
The importance was grouped as only present/found within the wetland complex
(3). Present/found within the wetland complex surrounding sub-basin (2), and
present/found within wetland complex and throughout the basin (1). Sufficient
parameters were used in each subcategory to ensure a detailed and unbiased assess-
ment that ensures the sustainability of NbS.
The assessment was extended to a case on NbS in the wastewater treatment
system (maturation ponds) in the Army Headquarters, Colombo. The results
obtained from the army headquarters (Table 8.3(a)) have proven the importance of
governance and Kandy Lake has convinced the significance of the social impacts
(Table 8.3(b)) for the long-term sustainability. Hence, the evaluation criterion will be
a useful tool for the development authorities and policy makers to use in future
endeavors under a similar scope.

8.4.1 Technical

1. Design
The design criterion of the floating wetland was simple and very straightforward
based on the balance of loads in the vertical direction. In addition, the total area
coverage of floating wetlands shall be always considered to avoid anaerobic
conditions within the lake as well as treatment adequacy to the total pollution
load from the catchment. The basic rule of thumb are:
• Weight of the system should be equal to uplift force (the buoyancy).
• Area covered by the floating wetland should be less than 30% of the free
surface area of the waterbody (to avoid anaerobic conditions).
• Area of the floating wetland shall be about 7% of the catchment to ensure the
complete treatment under the average pollution potential.
Components of the floating wetland model were selected after several pilot
studies at laboratory and in situ piloting and are listed as follows to ensure enough
buoyancy and longevity of the units:
• Floater
• Net for keeping the vegetation
• Medium for the growth of the vegetation
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 217

NYLON
ROPE 110mm PVC PIPE

110mm PVC BEND

800mm

2mm THICK PVC NET

2200mm
PLAN VIEW

Fig. 8.6 Plan view of floating wetland unit

Fig. 8.7 Section view of floating wetland unit

• Concrete cubes for anchoring

• Vegetation
The materials used were always natural or locally available for ensuring the
zero-carbon emission concept. Coir shall be washed well prior to use to minimize
releasing of dissolved matter into water.
• PVC/Bamboo pipes as floaters
• Coconut coir as the planting medium-
• PVC net
Design details of a single unit are presented in Figs. 8.6 and 8.7.
• Unit weight of saturated coir = 0.86 g/cm3
• Weight of unit length in PVC pipes = 7.63 g/cm
• Total weight of the floater = 4.578 kg
• Total weight of the coir = 104.4 kg
• Weight of the PVC net = 1 kg
• Weight of the plants = 4 kg
• Total weight of the model = 113.978 kg
Buoyancy check: Applying Archimedes theorem to system for buoyancy:
218 S. K. Weragoda et al.

• Submerged height of the model = H

• Diameter of the PVC pipe = 10.2 cm
• Length × width of wetland = 2.2 × 0.8 m2
• Weight of water replaced by the wetland = vρg
• H × 0.8 m × 2.2 m × 1000 kg/m3 × 9.81 ms-2 = 113.978 kg × 9.81ms-2
• H = 6.48 cm (<10.2 cm diameter)
Buoyancy check is satisfied.
Applying Archimedes’ theorem to the system for buoyancy:
• Maximum weight that can be carried by the
model = 0.102 × 2.2 × 0.8 × 1000 = 179.52 kg
• Additional weight that can be carried by the model = 179.52 -
113.978 = 65.54 kg

2. Maintenance
Floating wetlands require very little maintenance compared to other conven-
tional and advanced treatment options. Weeding has to be done if unwanted
plants take root in the floating wetland. Wetland vegetation should be harvested
once matured and harvested vegetation can be composted or otherwise disposed
of and not placed in the water. Harvesting the plant biomass removes the nutrients
that the plants have captured from the water. When the floating wetland becomes
crowded with plants, additional plants/shoots have to be removed to manage the
space availability in the unit. Also, it is not recommended to use pesticides on
floating wetlands. Additional care is needed when birds eat the plants.

8.4.2 Social Aspects

Several social criteria can be considered for assessing the performance in social
aspects in the case of floating wetlands in Kandy and Kurunegala. Social cohesion in
terms of the type of stakeholders involved and number of stakeholders meetings
held, aesthetic improvement by increasing the number of visitors, habitat enhance-
ment by diversity, capacity development by conducting research & development
through reports & publications and education & training in schools & universities
and awareness program for public are few aspects to assess social impact and
effectiveness.
(i) Stakeholders
Several individuals and institutions are involved in the design and develop-
ment, establishment, and operation and maintenance of floating wetlands in
Kandy and Kurunegala lakes as shown in Table 8.4 (Jinadasa et al. 2019; Ng
et al. 2018).
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 219

Table 8.4 Stakeholders and operational responsibilities

Description Kandy Lake Kurunegala Lake
Design and Researchers from the University of Researchers from the University of
Development Peradeniya, Sri Lanka and Nanyang Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Nanyang
Technological University, Singapore Technological University, Singapore
Establishment Researchers from the University of University of Peradeniya, National
Peradeniya and the Irrigation Water Supply and Drainage Board
Department
Operation and Irrigation Department Kurunegala Municipal Council
Maintenance

The effectiveness of floating wetlands depends on the human resources and

their capacity. Two academic and research institutions have been involved in
both lakes. These lakes are under the custody of the Irrigation Department, the
government agency responsible for operation and maintenance of the lakes.
Several consultative stakeholder meetings have been held under the Kandy
Lake project as the very first piloting in the country to comprehend the need and
aspirations of the people concerned such as Sri Dalada Maligawa, Governor of
Central Province, Urban Development Authority, Kandy Municipal Council,
National Water Supply Drainage Board, Irrigation Department, Central Envi-
ronmental Authority and Mahamaya Girls College in addition to the researchers
from University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore (Jinadasa et al. 2019; Ng et al. 2018). On the other hand, in
Kurunegala Lake, the owners of restaurants around the lake are also involved.
There is a social awareness, acceptability, consensus, and blessing from all sides
of the concerned parties to the floating wetland solutions in both Lakes to be
effective. Required approval for the installation of the Floating wetland solution
from the relevant authorities such as the Irrigation Department and Urban
Development Authority, were obtained with the assistance of the members
represented at the consultative workshops. The success/failure of the interven-
tion in both lakes is highly sensitive due to their proximity to the public and Sri
Dalada Maligawa, thus needing careful attention in establishment, operation and
maintenance.
In addition, the involvement of school in the floating wetland is very
encouraging in terms of education and training of the younger generation
toward environmental concerns. As a side product of the establishment of a
floating wetland, an environmental field lab has been established on the pre-
mises of Mahamaya School, in Kandy. The enthusiasm of postgraduate students
at the University of Peradeniya is highly acknowledged for data collection,
interpretation, and documentation. However, there is no mechanism in the
whole system of lake management to maintain the involvement of school
students and youth in maintaining the lakes in cities.
(ii) Awareness and impact assessment
A preliminary questionnaire survey in Kandy Lake with 30 participants
(residents and local visitors) revealed that most of them (93%) have seen the
220 S. K. Weragoda et al.

floating wetland. However, 70% responded thought that the purpose of the
floating wetland is to improve the aesthetic condition of the lake. They were
not aware of the main objective of the floating wetland which is to improve the
water quality. It is observed that, the public require knowledge and skills in the
case of floating wetlands in urban lakes. The participants mentioned that there is
no physical display of information about the floating wetland for new visitors.
They were supportive of physical contributions such as voluntary service for
cleaning the wetlands and surroundings (sharamadana) and financial contribu-
tion for maintaining the floating wetlands.

8.4.3 Economics

Financing and cost recovery is an important criterion for the sustainability of floating
wetlands. The financial requirements for designing and the development/establish-
ment of the floating wetland solutions are fulfilled by the collaboration between the
University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka and Nanyang Technological University, Singa-
pore in 2010. The financial allocation from the budget of Irrigation Department,
Kandy region contributes to the operation and maintenance of the established
floating wetlands since 2010. The monitoring of technical performance is also
performed by the laboratory at the Irrigation Department. Kurunegala Lake has the
funding from the grant received from the Nanyang Technological University, Sin-
gapore for its construction and initial establishment. There is no system for monetary
contributions by the beneficiaries. Economic return from the services provided by
the floating wetland is yet to be valued.
All direct and indirect econoimic benefits has to be identified and properly valued.
In the case of Kandy Lake, number of people (local and foreign) visit the site for
physical exercise, relaxation, and entertainment (such as photoshoots) need to be
quantified. The income by the local vendors from the visitors can be quantified. The
boat service in the lake for recreation also can be quantified. Local vendors and boat
service providers agree that more income can be earned if the lake and its surround-
ings are clean and attractive. Cooling effect on the city, habitat improvement, and
mitigation of drought and flood are yet non-valued benefits in the case of Kandy Lake.
Lack of information, information pooling/sharing, selection of appropriate tools for
economic valuation for non-monetary benefits and analysis (cost/benefit) are few
challenges that need to be resolved to quantify the monetary impact of the lakes.

8.4.4 Policy and Governance

Enabling environment, policy, act, ordinance, and regulation guidelines are impor-
tant in the operation and maintenance of urban lakes. Both lakes are under the
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 221

custody of the Department of Irrigation by the ordinance. The maintenance of the

lake for the intended services is the mandate of the Irrigation department. Kandy and
Kurunegala Municipal Council are composed of public representatives from differ-
ent political parties. Their voices are very significant in maintaining the lake without
environmental nuisance. However, the ordinary public has no specific roles in day-
to-day operation and maintenance and decision-making for the extension or devel-
opment of the floating wetlands. The Irrigation Department alone maintain the
floating wetlands and the lake since its establishment.

8.5 Conclusion

Nature is an excellent master to find solutions to the problems of humans. Ancient

knowledge and wisdom that are perceived from nature have been used with
advanced modifications for wastewater treatment and pollution control. Sewage
collection, treatment, and disposal/reuse strategies have been developed based on
hybrid solutions. Floating wetlands is a recent intervention in wastewater reclama-
tion. Floating wetlands have been established in Kandy Lake and Kurunegala Lake
as a pioneering field scale application in the country. The effectiveness of the
floating wetland is assessed with reference to technical, social, economic, and policy
and governance. Several parameters were used in each subcategory in order to assess
the sustainability. There are many gaps in information sharing. This experience will
be helpful to formulate an integrated assessment of existing practices and develop-
ment of pathways for the effective integration of nature-based water treatment in
urban areas in Sri Lanka.

Acknowledgments This work was funded by APN Project number: CRRP2021-06MY-

Jegatheesan. The water quality data supplied from a project supported by NEWRI Community
Development and Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute (NEWRI), Nanyang Tech-
nological University (Singapore), and the Lien Foundation is also acknowledged.

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S. K. Weragoda is the Director of the Joint Research and Demonstration Centre for Water
Technology attached to the Ministry of Water Supply, Sri Lanka. He is a charted engineer and a
master trainer of the application of Water Safety Plans in the region recognized by the WHO. He has
been involved in water treatment plant design, construction, and operation for over 20 years.
Further, he also serves as a visiting Lecturer in many national universities in Sri Lanka. He has
contributed to over 70 research publications and supervised many postgraduate researchers.

Shameen Jinadasa is currently a Professor of the Department of Civil Engineering, University of

Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. He earned his BScEng in Civil Engineering from University of Peradeniya
and MEng degree from National University of Singapore in Civil Engineering. Subsequently he
obtained his PhD from Saitama University, Japan in 2006. Dr. Shameen’s area of expertise is
environmental engineering with a special focus on developing sustainable wastewater management
technologies for tropical developing countries. Dr. Shameen has previous experience coordinating
international research projects on Constructed wetlands in which researchers from Singapore,
Japan, Australia, USA, New Zealand and Sri Lanka collaborated.

Madhubhashini Makehelwala is a Senior Chemist at the Joint Research and Demonstration

Centre for Water Technology, Ministry of Water Supply, Sri Lanka. She obtained her PhD from the
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, China in 2019. She is a member of the Royal Society
of Chemistry, UK. She has 7 years of work experience in water treatment as a Senior Chemist in the
National Water Supply and Drainage Board, Sri Lanka and research experience in environmental
8 Application of Floating Wetlands as a Nature-Based Solution for. . . 223

organic chemistry. She got a Presidential award for Research published in International Scientific
Journals, cited in the Science Citation Index.

Ishanka Wimalaweera is currently a PhD researcher attached to the University of Chinese

Academy of Sciences, China. He earned his BScEng in Civil Engineering and MScEng degree in
Water and Wastewater Engineering from University of Peradeniya. Eng. Ishanka’s area of expertise
is environmental engineering with a special focus on industrial wastewater treatment. Eng. Ishanka
has industrial exposure in working at an environmental engineering firm in Sri Lanka as senior
technical manager.

M. I. M. Mowjood is a Chair Professor of Agricultural Engineering at the Department of

Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka. He has
obtained his Master in Yamagata University and PhD in Iwate University, Japan. He has gathered
over 25 years of research and teaching experiences for undergraduate and postgraduate programs in
wastewater engineering, bio-remediation, environmental hydrology and integrated water resources
management. He has authored several book chapters on water management, and served as a
resource person in several national and international trainings programs. He has more than
100 journal publications.
Chapter 9
Role of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) in Following Global
Standard for NbS: The Bangladesh
Perspective

Md Khalid Hossain

Abstract In 2020, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)

launched the global standard for Nature-based Solutions (NbS). While NbS are
relevant for all the countries where different societal challenges persist, in
Bangladesh, NbS are highly relevant due to the presence of all forms of societal
challenges like climate change impacts, water crisis, disaster risks, food insecurity,
environmental degradation, and biodiversity loss. In this regard, based on existing
evidence, it has been found that Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
can offer a facilitating role in promoting NbS in Bangladesh by following the global
standard for NbS. However, despite having the vision to promote digital technology
for development, in Bangladesh, the role of ICT in promoting NbS is not prominent.
It is, therefore, important to explore what roles ICT can play in promoting NbS in
Bangladesh. This chapter aims to explore this issue by using IUCN’s global standard
for NbS while looking at some cases for water management sectors in Bangladesh
where NbS have high relevance. By following a case study research design based on
secondary information, the paper proposes an ICT framework to facilitate NbS
implementation in Bangladesh while blending some ideas generated in other
contexts.

Keywords Nature-based solutions · ICT · Global standard for NbS · Biodiversity ·

Developing country · Bangladesh

M. K. Hossain (*)
Faculty of Information Technology, Department of Human Centred Computing, Monash
University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
e-mail: md.khalid.hossain@monash.edu.au

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 225
N. Pachova et al. (eds.), Regional Perspectives of Nature-based Solutions for Water:
Benefits and Challenges, Applied Environmental Science and Engineering for a
Sustainable Future, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-18412-3_9
226 M. K. Hossain

9.1 Background

At the Fifteenth session of the Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) held in Copenha-
gen, Denmark in 2009, the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
submitted its position paper to UNFCCC to make full use of nature-based solutions
(NbS) in the post-2012 global climate change regime. The foundation of NbS was
initially built on multiple sector-specific ecosystem-based approaches such as forest
landscape restoration in the forestry sector, ecosystem-based adaptation in agricul-
ture and water sectors, and ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction (eco-DRR) for
the emergency management sector (IUCN 2009). Subsequently, other environmen-
tal organisations gradually started to promote NbS as a concept and influenced other
development and donor agencies to emphasise NbS in different interventions. In
2016, at the World Conservation Congress (WCC) held in Hawaii, the United States
of America, members of IUCN adopted resolution 69 to define NbS while linking it
also to the Ecosystem Approach of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) along with the UNFCCC. The
definition of NbS adopted at the WCC 2016 is still the widely used definition albeit
some other agencies have also come up with closely matched definitions of NbS.
The adopted definition says that Nature-based Solutions are ‘actions to protect,
sustainably manage, and restore natural or modified ecosystems, that address societal
challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being
and biodiversity benefits’ (Stefanakis et al. 2021, p. 307). In this regard, considering
the pioneering role of the European Commission in promoting nature-based solu-
tions, it has been found that the Commission also has a closely matched definition
of NbS: ‘solutions that are inspired and supported by nature, which are cost-
effective, simultaneously provide environmental, social and economic benefits and
help build resilience. Such solutions bring more, and more diverse, nature and
natural features and processes into cities, landscapes and seascapes, through locally
adapted, resource-efficient and systemic interventions’ (Faivre et al. 2017, p. 510).
There were eight preliminary principles set in resolution 69 of WCC 2016 which
later formed the basis of a Global Standard for NbS adopted in 2020 to a great extent.
When launched as the Global Standard for NbS, the eight principles have been
presented as eight key criteria to assess whether any intervention qualifies as NbS as
claimed by the implementing agencies (shown in Fig. 9.1). Since there has been a
tendency of rebranding ongoing interventions as NbS due to the growing importance
of NbS by the government, donors, and experts, it was important to set those criteria
so that organisations can self-assess their own interventions and others can also
evaluate different interventions to adopt those as NbS. To facilitate this, Global
Standard for NbS comes up with a self-assessment tool that includes 28 associated
indicators for the eight criteria (IUCN 2020). While these criteria are about the
scope, process, extent, and outcome related to NbS, the indicators aim to explain
those to make the standard practically relatable to a particular context and sector.
Criterion one of the standard emphasises the potential of NbS to effectively address
 9

IUCN WCC Resolution 6.069

Definition of Nature-based Solutions

Nature-based solutions are actions to protect, sustainably manage and restore

natural and modified ecosystems in ways that address societal challenges
effectively and adaptively, to provide both human well-being and biodiversity
benefits.
Global Standard for Nbs

Principles 1. Societal challenges

Principle 1 Nbs embrace nature conservation norms and principles.

Principle 2 Nbs can be implemented alone or in an integrated manner with other 2. Design at scale
solutions to societal challenges.
Principle 3 Nbs are determined by site-specific natural and cultural contexts(incl. 3. Biodiversity net-gain
traditional, local and scientific knowledge).
Principle 4 Nbs produce societal benetits in a fair and equitable way in a manner 4. Economic feasibility
that promotes transparency and broad participation.
Principle 5 Nbs maintain biological and cultural diversity and the ability of 5. Inclusive governance
ecosystems to evolve over time.
Principle 6 Nbs are applied at a landscape scale. 6. Balance trade-offs
Principle 7 Nbs recognize and adress the trade-offs between the production of a
few immediate economic benefits for development, and future 7. Adaptive management
options for the production of the full range of ecosystem services.
Principle 8 Nbs are an integral part of the overall design of policies, and measures 8. Mainstreaming &
Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . .

or actions, to address a specific challenge. Sustainability

Fig. 9.1 Link between the NbS principles and the NbS standard criteria (IUCN 2020, p. 13)
227
228 M. K. Hossain

societal challenges like climate change, and food security (scope) while criterion two
highlights that any nature-based solution should be informed by scale when designed
(extent). One of the distinctive criteria of NbS over other solutions is related to its
potential to result in a net gain to biodiversity and ecosystem integrity (outcome).
Some climate solutions like renewable energy development or food security mea-
sures like the development of high-yielding crop variety can address climate change
challenges or ensure food security but they may not be considered as NbS unless
those solutions generate net gain to biodiversity.
Despite focusing on nature, criterion four of NbS standard puts importance on
economic viability (scope) while criterion five emphasises inclusive, transparent,
and empowering governance processes in designing, implementing, and monitoring
NbS (process). The standard acknowledges that while implementing any solution, all
stakeholders are not equally benefited and there are perceived losses on the parts of
some stakeholders. Therefore, criterion six of the NbS standard emphasises effective
and equitable management of trade-offs in ensuring a balance (process). Criterion
seven of the standard is focused on monitoring and evaluation of NbS as well as
learning from those so that an evidence-based adaptive management process always
exists (process). Finally, criterion eight of the standard emphasises the long-term
sustainability of NbS as a result of its design and implementation within the sectoral,
national, and other policy frameworks (extent).
Although all the criteria of the Global Standard for NbS are important and need to
be addressed for designing and implementing NbS, an assessment tool to evaluate
the strength and improvement areas of any nature-based solution has also been
provided with the standard. According to the tool, Inclusive governance (criterion
five) has the maximum score or weightage of 15 (fifteen), indicating it as the most
important criterion of the standard. This criterion is followed by Biodiversity net
gain (criterion three) and Economic feasibility (criterion four) related criteria, each
with a maximum score of 12 (twelve). All the other five criteria have a maximum
score of 9 (nine), making them equally important to address while backing the idea
that designing and implementing nature-based solutions must start with an inclusive,
empowering, and transparent governance process with the stakeholders while ensur-
ing biodiversity net gain and economic viability at the outset (IUCN 2020). There-
fore, it is important to observe what roles ICT can play primarily in addressing the
top three criteria while contributing also to the other five criteria directly or indirectly
(due to the inherent potential of ICTs in contributing to those five criteria).
Based on these criteria of the Global Standard for NbS, it is expected that different
tools and strategies will be used by organisations to design and implement activities
related to NbS. With the ever-growing use of information and communication
technology (ICT), it is obvious that different ICTs will be used for contributing to
the scope of NbS and strengthening related processes. ICTs may also assist in
broadening the extent of NbS and ensuring the expected outcomes. Besides, envi-
ronmental informatics, defined by Kolehmainen (2004, p. 21) as the application of
‘information technology to environmental issues using data-driven methods’, has
been gaining popularity among different academic disciplines and professional
groups across the world. Consequently, the role of ICT in following the Global
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 229

Standard for NbS will be noteworthy. However, since the initial discussion on the
Global Standard for NbS, academic literature has hardly explored the role of ICT in
following the Global Standard for NbS despite the growing body of literature on
environmental informatics. Therefore, it is important to explore this role by looking
at existing examples and best practices in different contexts where NbS are highly
relevant. Bangladesh as a country with multiple societal challenges like climate
change impacts, biodiversity loss, and high population density while having a strong
focus on economic development and digitalisation offers a perfect context to explore
the role of ICT in following the Global Standard for NbS due to the high relevance of
NbS in addressing the societal challenges.
Considering the above research context for applying the Global Standard for
NbS, this chapter explores the role of ICTs in following the Global Standard of NbS.
In doing so, the case study research design is followed by looking at different
examples from Bangladesh while simultaneously keeping a focus on the use of
ICTs globally for socio-economic development and environmental protection due to
the focus of NbS standards beyond environmental issues. The examples presented in
the chapter are based on the available secondary information with an aim to collect
primary information through future action research and pilot project interventions.
Hence, to facilitate the design process of the action research and pilot interventions,
this chapter also proposes an ICT framework to facilitate NbS implementation in
Bangladesh while looking at some ideas from other related contexts so that the
framework could be adapted elsewhere. As there is hardly any literature focusing on
ICTs and Global Standard for NbS, this chapter also aims to address that gap by
contributing to the body of literature on environmental informatics.

9.2 Information and Communications Technology

and Nature-based Solutions

As indicated, based on scanning of academic literature, it has been found that

specific literature on ICT and Nature-based Solutions and, more specifically, ICT
and global standard for NbS are almost non-existent. However, there are numerous
pieces of academic literature on ICT for the natural environment, which we can
consider in discussing ICT and global standard for NbS. Spinnato et al. (2019) have
made a notable effort by proposing an ICT framework to support the implementation
of nature-based solutions in smart cities based on their European Union-funded
UNaLab (Urban Nature Labs) project. The project and related framework are
urban focused as the project consortium members are from ten cities across Europe
and beyond, comprising municipalities, research institutions, businesses, and indus-
try partners. At the core of its design, this project focuses on citizen-driven nature-
based solutions concentrated on climate and water-related challenges by working
with three demonstration cities (Eindhoven in the Netherlands, Genova in Italy, and
Tampere in Finland), seven replication cities, and several observers. Since the
230 M. K. Hossain

project aims to develop more innovative, inclusive, resilient, and increasingly

sustainable societies, the proposed ICT framework aligns with several criteria of
the global NbS standard despite not being deliberately designed in light of the
standard.
For example, the framework has five major components as shown in Fig. 9.2,
namely, City Performance Monitor (CPM), Open Nature Innovation Arena (ONIA),
the Internet of Things (IoT) Harmonization Middleware, Knowledge Base, and, NbS
Simulation Visualisation Tool. The framework aligns with criterion one of the NbS
standard due to focusing on societal challenges like climate and water crisis although
it has not specifically highlighted ICT-based climate or water solutions. Engaging
several cities in developing the framework demonstrates that it is aligned with
criterion two of NbS standard by considering the scalability of the solution. IoT
Harmonisation Middleware (HM) facilitates the plug-in of existing IoT platforms
with data from sensors that are already in use in every city while considering the
scale. It is not clear whether the framework is aligned with criterion three by ensuring
a net gain to biodiversity and ecosystem integrity since the role of ICT in the
framework is less in terms of designing climate or water solutions. The ICT
component, City Performance Monitor (CPM), in the framework, aligns well with
criterion five of the NbS standard as it aims to facilitate the participatory planning
process along with the co-creation process of nature-based solutions by engaging
common citizens. The Open Nature Innovation Arena (ONIA) also enables the
co-creation process by bringing both bottom-up and top-down innovations. The
framework strongly aligns with criterion seven of the NbS standard focusing on
monitoring, evaluation, and learning for adaptive management since the NbS

Open Innovation/ Other e.g.

Data sources City or 3rd
Crowdsourcing & interviews,
Performance party
IoT Open data platforms questionnaires
Measurement Tools sensors sources etc.

City Performance
Monitor

Machine learning Harmonization Middleware

component

KPI calculation
NBS Simulation
and data visualisation

UNaLab
Knowledge SDST User interface
Open Nature Base
Innovation Arena

Fig. 9.2 UNaLab ICT framework architecture for supporting NbS (Spinnato et al. 2019)
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 231

Simulation Visualisation Tool provides a map-based application that allows the

cities to observe how implementation and non-implementation of NbS can result
in different future scenarios (Spinnato et al. 2019). As the researchers have not
developed the ICT framework to support NbS in cities by keeping the global
standard for NbS, there is an opportunity to intentionally consider ICT frameworks
to advance the global standard on NbS while expanding the works beyond cities and
developed countries. Besides, there is a need to emphasise the direct role of ICT in
offering solutions to societal challenges (criterion one) by ensuring net biodiversity
gains (criterion three) that may not be possible when ICT is considered more as an
indirect mediating or facilitating tool to support NbS (as observed in the work of
Spinnato et al. 2019).
As the literature on ICT for NbS or ICT in following global standard for NbS is
scarce, this study focuses on the existing academic literature on ICT for the natural
environment to analyse solutions and activities mentioned in that literature in light of
the NbS standard. One of the main areas of analysis is focused on how the literature
simultaneously addresses criterion one (societal challenges related) and criterion
three (net biodiversity gains related) while indicating the emphasis on ‘nature’ or
‘natural environment’. Considering the distinctiveness of criterion three of the global
standard for NbS, academic literature on ICT for biodiversity conservation is also
analysed. As other global standards cover different criteria of NbS standard (like
inclusivity, scale, and socio-economic viability) other than criterion three, a specific
focus on identifying net biodiversity gains through numerous actions have been
found justified. However, those seven criteria related to scope, process, and extent
are considered in reviewing the literature on ‘ICT for Natural Environment’ and
‘ICT for Biodiversity Conservation’ despite not separately reviewing literature like
ICT for Impact at Scale or ICT for Inclusive Design and Management. In this regard,
along with widely used ICTs like the computer, Internet, and smartphone, observa-
tories, innovative tele-detection for natural disasters, monitoring and alarm systems,
and geographic information system (GIS) technology have been considered with the
broader purview of ICT. Combined use these ICTs generate environmental data-
bases for environmental projects which comprise large interdisciplinary multivari-
able data sets (social, economic, meteorological, biological etc.) that will become
useful for decision makers subsequent to analysing the data.
In terms of ICT for the Natural Environment, Andreopoulou (2012) has
highlighted that ICT can address a societal challenge like climate change by facil-
itating the development of systems that can contribute to reducing energy consump-
tion from households. The use of innovative IT systems like energy sensors can
measure, manage, and reduce electricity consumption and air-conditioning require-
ments. Therefore, from an energy efficiency perspective, the use of ICT has been
widely discussed for having smart sustainable cities with energy-efficient buildings
and smart power grids by using e-mobile innovation and environmental data
(Houghton 2009). Besides, the use of ICT like the broadband network and 3G
Internet for teleconferences have reduced the air and road transportation needs and
thereby greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to environmental protection
(Andreopoulou 2012). However, as discussed in relation to criterion three of the
232 M. K. Hossain

Global Standard for NbS, the literature on ICT for climate solutions like energy
conservation and efficiency has not been discussed from the perspective of the global
standard for NbS as those solutions have not been observed from the net biodiversity
gain perspective. Therefore, it is necessary to purposely explore the link between
ICT use in energy efficiency and conservation and biodiversity conservation so that
the role of ICT in following the global standard for NbS becomes more prominent.
In their study of the role of ICT in resource management in the South Korean
context, Batool et al. (2019) have also concluded that ICT reduced environmental
degradation in the medium and long run in the South Korean economy. Their study
has suggested that there should be organised strategies by policymakers in using ICT
for tackling the cycles of major environmental degradation. They have argued that
ICT helps in achieving energy efficiency through the e-sharing system and e-books
and audio files reduce the energy consumption that is required for printing books.
They have also identified in some sectors like transportation (logistics), big data
centres (network coding), and telecom (smartphones, GPS) where emission reduc-
tion can be enabled by ICT. Besides, ICT can ensure precise waste management, and
reduce resource wastage in the workplace (Batool et al. 2019). Although the study
has highlighted the role of ICT in protecting the natural environment, it has not
linked the benefits to net biodiversity gain while not also putting importance on
criterion three related to inclusive governance.
The use of ICT for water management and ensuring water efficiency has been
widely covered in academic literature (Andreopoulou 2012; Batool et al. 2019;
Gourbesville 2011). Innovative electronic and mobile systems are now in place to
reduce water losses. Through the use of ICT, smart water metering for the water
industry has been in place that can provide daily water usage data to consumers and
establish communications between the water utility, the water metre, and consumers.
When customers get notifications of water usage, they are able to act to save water in
case of abnormal usage (Gourbesville 2011). These actions contribute to overall
water use efficiency. As an example, in the European Union, @qua Innovation
Network was founded by 17 partners from the business, research, and public sectors
at different levels and managed by a university. These partners had significant
expertise in ICT and water and they shared expertise to develop and implement
ICT solutions for water management through the forum. The network used different
ICT solutions like data acquisition, numerical modelling, real-time monitoring, and
field operation management. The interventions resulted in reduced individual water
consumption that was up to 15% immediately when consumers got information
through digital means. Besides, water consumption was also reduced at the macro
scale due to the use of smart metering as consumers got text messages at the time of
non-coherent patterns of water usage. Water providers could also know the real-time
water consumption pattern and were able to identify the seasonal needs of the
population and the required volume of water supply (Gourbesville 2011). Although
water efficiency may result in net biodiversity gain, it was not a target of ICT and
water efficiency interventions of the @qua Innovation Network mentioned above.
Similarly, most of the academic literature related to ICT for water management has
not highlighted the associated net gain to biodiversity despite there being an apparent
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 233

impact on biodiversity conservation. However, it has been found that other criteria of
the global standard for NbS could largely be linked to ICT and water conservation
efforts.
Along with the water sector, academic literature has also highlighted the use of
ICT in climate change management (reducing greenhouse gases and adapting to
climate change impacts) from other sectoral perspectives like crop agriculture,
forestry, wildlife, livestock, and fisheries. In crop agriculture, ICTs are assisting in
the automation of production and cultivation while monitoring the precise use of
agricultural inputs (Andreopoulou 2012). In irrigation projects, ICTs assist in
minimising water losses through the use of wireless sensory networks. Such net-
works can monitor the quality of soil moisture, mineral requirements, chemical
usage, and adjustment of temperature and evaporation process (Batool et al. 2019).
In this way, ICT contributes to more food production and addresses societal chal-
lenges like food insecurity (addressing criterion one of the global standard for NbS).
It can be argued that such usage of ICT in precision agriculture contributes to net
agro-biodiversity gain through natural resource conservation and reducing environ-
mental pollution (addressing criterion three of the global standard for NbS). How-
ever, related academic literature has not specifically looked at the net biodiversity
gain aspect emphasised in the NbS standard.
Similarly, ICT applications have been used to address different aspects of forest
governance. Castrén and Pillai (2017) have identified that ICT applications are
ensuring transparency, accountability, and public participation in forest management
by promoting e-government services and open government applications. Through
text messaging and Internet social networking sites and community radio, advocacy
related to forest governance is ensured. ICT applications support collaborative and
participatory mapping for forest governance and management information require-
ments related to fire management, inventories, and wildlife tracking. ICTs also assist
the law enforcement agencies to address illegal logging and illegal wildlife trade,
which can generate net biodiversity gains (Castrén and Pillai 2017).
Notable literature also exists on ICT for natural environmental crisis management
like flood management or cyclone management, since the development and use of
early warning systems have been driven by ICT. As a data-driven Internet of Things
(IoTs) system, an early warning system (EWS) includes sensor and data source plug-
and-play, dynamically analyses metadata, and provides solutions related to environ-
mental disaster risk and impact management (Houghton 2009; Poslad et al. 2015). In
terms of scope, process, and extent, it has been found that an early warning system as
an ICT-driven solution addresses societal and nature-related challenges and has
increasingly been following a participatory process. Although in most cases the
inclusive, transparent, and empowering governance processes are absent, the extent
has been found wide due to larger geographic coverage, contributing to the sectoral,
national, and other policy frameworks. However, in terms of outcomes related to net
biodiversity gain, the literature has not established any clear link between ICT-based
natural environmental crisis management and net biodiversity gain. This indicates
that there is an opportunity to broaden the scope of early warning for biodiversity
loss related to the natural environmental crisis so that related measures are taken to
restore biodiversity with a long-term perspective along with early and long-term
234 M. K. Hossain

recovery from natural disasters. In this way, an ICT-based early warning system can
meet the criteria of the global standard for NbS.
While most of the literature on ICT for the natural environment does not highlight
the criterion three of the Global Standard for NbS related to net biodiversity gain,
Watve (2020) has argued that present biodiversity information can be analysed by
ICT in facilitating corporate biodiversity net gain reporting in a highly biodiverse
country like India. ICT can analyse complex issues like spatial and temporal
dynamics, a wide range of ecosystem services, and stakeholders with competing
rights and claims over natural resources (Watve 2020). In implementing any nature-
based solution, ICT can therefore be useful to observe whether the solution meets
criterion three of the Global Standard for NbS by analysing related net biodiversity
gain through analysing a large set of diverse data. Maezawa et al. (2014) have also
presented the example of the Fujitsu Group in Japan that used ICT for biodiversity
conservation by formulating the Fujitsu Group Biodiversity Action Principles 2009.
To advance the Action Principles, the Mobile Phone Photo System cloud service was
implemented through citizen participation as action research resulting in biodiversity
conservation. Besides, an ICT-based birdcall recognition system for research has
contributed to habitat protection of endangered Blackston’s fish owls under the
action plan. Therefore, it has been observed that the deliberate use of ICT for
biodiversity conservation can assist in addressing criterion three of the Global
Standard for NbS.
Although the role of ICT for the natural environment has been discussed in
different literature, academic literature has also highlighted that rather than
supporting the natural environment, ICT is increasingly bringing detrimental effects
to nature and resulting in net biodiversity loss instead of gain (Andreopoulou 2012;
Bekaroo et al. 2016). The ICT sector is increasingly having a large carbon footprint
and aggravating the global climate crisis (Batool et al. 2019). Therefore, it may be
argued by many that ICT will have a negative role in following the global standard
for NbS due to its role in environmental pollution. However, based on their analysis,
Hilty and Ruddy (2010) did not agree with any of the groups who are absolutely
optimists or pessimists regarding the role of ICT in dematerialising production and
consumption processes. They argued that ICT can play such a role in the natural
environment only when the economic incentives are present to change behaviour
and trigger innovation towards dematerialisation. This is in line with criterion five of
the global standard for NbS focusing on economic viability and it can be argued that
ICT can contribute to following the standard only if it generates economic benefits.

9.3 ICT and Nature-based Solutions in the Bangladesh

Context

Bangladesh is a climate-vulnerable developing country where other societal chal-

lenges like biodiversity loss, natural disasters, and food insecurity exist. Therefore,
nature-based solutions are highly relevant for Bangladesh and the country has been
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 235

selected as the case for this chapter. A special focus has been provided on the water
sector considering the country as one of the largest deltas in the world with the
highest importance given to water resources management (Islam and Gnauck 2008;
Zevenbergen et al. 2018; Mutahara et al. 2020). The Government of Bangladesh
formulated the Bangladesh Delta Plan 2100 (BDP2100), which is a long-term
adaptive strategy for sustainable water resources management in Bangladesh to
address different water-related challenges (Kabir et al. 2022). Although the
BDP2100 highlights climate-resilient development without harming the environ-
ment or ecosystems, it does not specifically and adequately prioritise NbS to
implement the plan (Gain et al. 2022). Therefore, it is visible that structural engi-
neering solutions are predominantly prioritised in Bangladesh by undermining the
potential of nature-based solutions in the water sector that can address the complex-
ity of natural deltaic processes and human influence on these processes.

9.3.1 NbS in the Water Management Sector of Bangladesh

and Role of ICT

In Bangladesh, experts and practitioners often consider Tidal River Management

(TRM) as a nature-based solution in the water management sector due to some of its
features that take the protection of nature into consideration (Gain et al. 2022; Ullah
and Mahmud 2017). TRM has been an indigenous practice in the southwestern part
of Bangladesh with wide-ranging tidal rivers connected to the Bay of Bengal, several
rivers coming from the upstream along with the water-filled wetlands known as Beel
in the local language. During the high tides, the tidal rivers flow to the flood plains
and deposit a considerable amount of sediment along the river bank when there are
no polders and embankments to restrict the water flow. People in that area used TRM
as an indigenous sediment management practice by creating temporary earthen
embankments during the dry season to restrict saline water intrusion in the cropland
from tidal rivers and preserve freshwater coming from upstream. The earthen
embankments are washed away during the monsoon season by the river water
coming from upstream and depositing a high volume of silt on the floodplain. The
croplands become fertile through this natural process while restricting saline water
intrusion from the tidal river. Different wetlands are used for TRM after a cycle of
silt deposition passes on making the land a raised one over 4–5 years (Mutahara et al.
2018). TRM was a response to the structural engineering solutions resulting in a
waterlogging crisis in the southwestern part of Bangladesh.
Besides TRM, excavation and re-excavation of canals and traditional ponds are
considered another nature-based solution for water management in the drought-
prone north-western region of Bangladesh. Since climate change is making the
drought condition severe in that region over the years, Hossain et al. (2016) looked
at different options for climate change adaptation and explored the preferences of
farmers. One hundred percent of the respondents in their study involved in farming
emphasised the re-excavation of traditional ponds and canals in the area to increase
236 M. K. Hossain

the capacity of irrigation during drought periods rather than depending on ground-
water irrigation. It has also been found that the conserved water in the re-excavated
ponds and canals can also be used for groundwater charge in the drought-prone areas
by following Managed Aquifer Recharge (MAR) technique (Hossain et al. 2021).
Besides, Anik and Khan (2012) have found that excavation and re-excavation of
canals and traditional ponds are rooted in local knowledge and ensure people’s
participation.
Although TRM aims at reducing waterlogging and increasing river navigability
and excavation and re-excavation of canals and traditional ponds aim at conserving
water (NbS criterion one—addressing societal challenges), these interventions in the
water sector indirectly assist in increasing agro-biodiversity, fish biodiversity, and
related wildlife biodiversity in the respective areas (NbS criterion three—biodiver-
sity gain). These interventions also have a strong participatory element by engaging
the people in the local area (NbS criterion five—inclusive process) with notable
economic benefits generated for the community (NbS criterion four—economic
benefits). The interventions could be informed by scale by covering a large area
(NbS criterion two—extent of solution) while a national-level plan incorporates such
interventions (NbS criterion eight—policy uptake). Tidal river management and
excavation and re-excavation of canals and traditional ponds, therefore, meet several
criteria of the global standard for NbS as nature-based solutions in the water
management sector.
In this regard, it has been found that the academic literature has not specifically
highlighted the role of ICT in Tidal River Management or excavation and
re-excavation of canals and traditional ponds as nature-based solutions. However,
there are pieces of literature that have discussed the use of digital technology for
TRM. The study of Adnan et al. (2020) used the GIS technology to identify wetlands
or Beels suitable for TRM through modelling of potential sediment deposition by
modifying several geomorphological factors. By using the remote sensing and GIS
technology, Digital Elevation Model (DEM), and field investigations, Khadim et al.
(2013) also assessed the rate of tidal sedimentation due to TRM and presented
evidence of the impacts of TRM on flood resistance and agricultural production in
Bangladesh. Besides, GIS technique has been used to detect the changes in surface
water availability in the northwestern part of Bangladesh and it is a useful tool to
monitor the changes due to excavation and re-excavation of ponds and canals (Kafy
et al. 2019). Therefore, these studies show that the use of ICT can assist the decision
makers and practitioners to consider the potential of any intervention in the water
management sector like TRM as a nature-based solution.

9.3.2 NbS in the Other Sectors of Bangladesh and the Role

of ICT

It has been found that nature-based solutions have a high potential for mitigating the
impacts of coastal disaster risks, mainly cyclones and flooding in Bangladesh
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 237

through solutions like mangrove afforestation, and oyster reef cultivation. However,
it has been argued that the implementation of NbS depends on successfully and
strategically addressing socio-economic, biophysical, governance, and policy chal-
lenges (Gain et al. 2022). Rahaman et al. (2020) have also found the significant
potential of promoting climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction through
NbS in the coastal area of Bangladesh. Their study has argued the natural coastal
ecosystems of Bangladesh such as coastal dunes, salt marshes, seagrass beds, and
lagoons play the role of natural buffers against major disasters and natural hazards in
the coastal area of Bangladesh including cyclones and storm surges. The nature-
based solutions also support carbon storage and sequestration, groundwater storage,
and land protection, thereby contributing to climate change mitigation. Nevertheless,
the full potentials of these NbS are unutilised or underutilised in Bangladesh due to
overexploitation and lack of consciousness and integrated coastal management
approaches (Rahaman et al. 2020).
In this regard, Islam et al. (2021) have also observed the high potential of nature-
based solutions for adapting to climate change impacts in Bangladesh. They have
presented NbS like the floating agricultural garden practice to address the
waterlogging challenge, and large-scale coastal afforestation to address storm
surge and sea-level rise along with carbon sequestration. However, they have argued
that the potential of NbS has not been translated into comprehensive policy action
despite its high potential in Bangladesh. Seddon et al. (2020) have also found that
despite being a highly vulnerable country due to climate change impacts and natural
disasters, 291 of 329 (88%) adaptation projects approved by the Bangladesh Climate
Change Trust between 2009 and 2016 involved grey solutions or engineered solu-
tions while not prioritising the nature-based solutions. However, they have men-
tioned that the case of Bangladesh is not unique since globally there is a bias towards
structural or engineered solutions.
In their study on coastal Bangladesh, Verschuur et al. (2020) have analysed
welfare losses from natural disasters and how different structural and nature-based
solutions can address those losses. They have indicated a reforestation stretch in the
coastal zone as a nature-based solution that was developed by changing the rough-
ness of the land surface. While the dike intervention has been presented in the study
as the structural solution, it has been observed that the inland districts of coastal
Bangladesh benefitted from the dike intervention, and the coastal sea-exposed
districts benefited primarily from the nature-based solution. The study also argued
that in the districts where large sea-level rise will occur, the nature-based solutions
are not robust for welfare loss reduction in comparison to dike interventions.
Besides, nature-based solutions become effective in the coastal districts when access
to savings for the poor, improved housing, and an early warning system are
combined with nature-based solutions. Based on their case study of coastal
Bangladesh, Doelle and Puthucherril (2021) similarly found the effectiveness of
combining structural and nature-based solutions for climate change adaptation and
recommended an effective law and policy framework in this regard. While the
above-mentioned studies have highlighted nature-based solutions in Bangladesh,
238 M. K. Hossain

none of the studies has discussed the role of ICT in facilitating NbS in Bangladesh
and have not been developed in light of the global standard for NbS.
While focusing on the Chunati Wildlife Sanctuary, a protected area of
Bangladesh, Mamun et al. (2022) have also found the potential of nature-based
solutions in restoring the ecology through natural regeneration. They argued that for
sustainable forest management and biodiversity conservation, natural regeneration is
the best nature-based solution for the forest ecosystem of Bangladesh. In this regard,
the study of Ahmed et al. (2022) has assessed the stand structure and carbon storage
of a young mangrove plantation as a nature-based solution in a coastal district of
Bangladesh and compared it to the natural mangrove forest. They found positive
impacts on the carbon stock and progressive species richness through the plantation
and argued that young mangrove plantations have the potential to act as a nature-
based solution in coastal Bangladesh. Besides, privately managed home gardens
have been found as a potential nature-based solution for biodiversity conservation
and climate change mitigation in Bangladesh as a sustainable agroforestry system
promoting a home of diverse tree species. Tree-diverse home gardens store carbon
and can also have both direct and indirect effects on upper-layer soil organic carbon
(Rahman et al. 2021; Smith et al. 2021).
Like most of the academic literature, the study of Smith et al. (2021) has primarily
focused on the effective role nature-based solutions can play in addressing climate
change challenges in Bangladesh but it also has looked at the contribution of NbS in
achieving other sustainable development goals through addressing related societal
challenges. This study is significant from the Bangladesh perspective and globally
since it has attempted to apply the Global Standard for NbS by bringing numerous
examples from Bangladesh. It has a specific focus on criterion three of the NbS
standard by having a broader purview of biodiversity when net biodiversity gain
results in an appropriate mix and abundance of habitats and species in the location
where NbS are adopted. As it has been found that academic literature on nature-
based solutions from the Bangladesh perspective is scarce, Smith et al. (2021) have
also pointed that out since they had to rely on grey literature for identifying nature-
based solutions and analysing those by using the global standard for NbS. However,
62% of the academic literature they have analysed is based on robust evidence while
none of the grey literature they have analysed is based on robust evidence (based on
primary data, use of clear and appropriate methodology, use of baseline, accounting
for confounding factors etc.). Smith et al. (2021) have found that most of the nature-
based solutions in Bangladesh highlighted in the academic literature are related to
agriculture and food production. Protection, restoration, and creation of ecosystems
are the next three major focuses of academic literature while there is also a focus on
sustainable management of ecosystems like cropland or fisheries management.
However, all these areas strongly overlap with each other and cannot be seen
discretely like conservation agriculture as a nature-based solution contributing to
food production, ecosystem protection, and management.
In Bangladesh, outcomes of NbS have been identified as greenhouse gas reduc-
tion through protecting and restoring mangrove forests, managing forests for pro-
duction, practising conservation agriculture, and non-puddled transplanting of rice;
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 239

addressing coastal floods, erosion, and salinisation through mangrove plantation and
artificially creating oyster reefs; addressing inland flooding and erosion through
protecting and restoring forests, practising agroforestry, restoring freshwater
swamp forests in wetland areas and planting trees on embankments; and addressing
wind damage through the mangrove, coastal shelterbelts, and home gardens. Other
major outcomes mentioned are ensuring water security through conservation agri-
culture, rainwater harvesting, and construction of wetlands; ensuring food security
through conservation agriculture, integrated pest management, practising agrofor-
estry, home gardens, floating gardens, and sustainable fisheries management, and
protecting, restoring, and sustainably managing rivers (Smith et al. 2021). The study
has found that despite there being numerous examples of NbS in Bangladesh, there
is a gap in evidence from urban areas of Bangladesh. It has also been argued that
government policy support in promoting NbS, multi-stakeholder participation in
implementing NbS, strong and transparent governance, and providing secured
finance and land tenure are four critical factors in promoting NbS in Bangladesh.
Although the study of Smith et al. (2021) is a notable one from the perspectives of
NbS, Global Standard for NbS, and NbS in Bangladesh, the study has not explicitly
presented any evidence of using ICT for promoting NbS or the Global Standard for
NbS in Bangladesh. The study has not also recommended the use of ICT as a
potential enabling factor. This is also the case in relation to most of the academic
literature discussing nature-based solutions in Bangladesh. Overall, since different
academic literature highlighted the potential of NbS in Bangladesh and presented
numerous associated challenges to promoting NbS without considering the role of
ICT, based on academic literature from other contexts, it is important to observe the
roles ICT can play in addressing the indicated challenges in Bangladesh.

9.4 Implications and Way Forward

It can be argued that in following the Global Standard for NbS, there is not much
insight into how ICT can offer net biodiversity gain even if there is a wider focus on
using ICT in protecting the natural environment. The academic literature on ICT for
the natural environment has not largely extended the focus to net biodiversity gain,
creating an opportunity to expand the perspective in future research on ICT for
nature-based solutions. In this regard, the separate body of literature on ICT for
biodiversity conservation can offer related insights so that related perspectives are
integrated into the larger body of ICT for the natural environment literature and
practical interventions. However, since most of the criteria of the global standard for
NbS are met by using ICT except the criterion three the standard related to net
biodiversity gain, a concentrated effort will be needed to find out the scope of
generating such gain so that role of ICT in following the standard becomes accept-
able due to the distinctive importance of criterion three in establishing a particular
solution as a nature-based solution. In this regard, existing literature indicates that
240 M. K. Hossain

such a role will sometimes be limited to mere data analysis to analyse net biodiver-
sity gains and sometimes will be expanded to NbS interventions like conservation
agriculture through directly contributing to saving water or measurement and main-
tenance of soil fertility.

9.4.1 ICT for Promoting Global NbS Standard in Bangladesh

Similar to the scarce global academic research and practical interventions on ICT for
following the Global Standard for NbS, in developing country contexts like
Bangladesh where numerous societal challenges including climate change and
natural disasters exist, ICT for nature-based solutions by following all the criteria
of the global standard for NbS are not evident from the literature and practices. ICT
has been used in addressing some of the nature-related societal challenges but has
not been considered widely for nature-based solutions in general, and following all
the criteria of the global standard for NbS in particular. However, the discrete use of
ICT in addressing different criteria in other contexts like solving social or economic
challenges shows that ICT has the potential of addressing all the criteria of the global
standard for NbS in developing countries like Bangladesh through a deliberate
attempt while following an integrated ICT framework for meeting the global stan-
dard for NbS rather than unintentionally supporting some of the criteria.
In this regard, it has also been found that existing works on nature-based solutions
in Bangladesh are narrow in terms of the nature of solutions, geographic focus, and
programmatic focus. While the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has a
thematic focus on Inland waters biodiversity, Marine and coastal biodiversity,
Agricultural biodiversity, Forest biodiversity, Dry and sub-humid lands biodiversity,
and Mountains biodiversity (Smith et al. 2010), in Bangladesh the focus of
nature-based solutions is predominantly on forest biodiversity with significant
discussion on the potential of mangrove as a nature-based solution. Besides, despite
all the agroecological zones of Bangladesh facing numerous societal challenges
including climate change and natural disasters, there is a significant focus on coastal
agroecological zones in the academic discussion of nature-based solutions while
other zones like drought-prone areas in northwest Bangladesh or flash flood-prone
areas in northeast Bangladesh have not been explored adequately. Moreover, sig-
nificant academic literature is focused on nature-based solutions in urban areas
(Frantzeskaki 2019; Langergraber et al. 2020; Xing et al. 2017). However, as pointed
out by Smith et al. (2021), the focus on NbS in Bangladeshi cities is largely
overlooked in academic literature despite the presence of different societal chal-
lenges in urban contexts. Considering the above-mentioned points as well as the
criteria of the Global Standard for NbS, the use of ICT for diverse biodiversity gains
in different geographic regions and in both rural and urban areas can be considered in
developing countries like Bangladesh.
While consideration of scale is highly important to follow the Global Standard of
NbS, it has been indicated that criterion five of the standard in relation to inclusive
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 241

governance has the highest weightage among all the criteria. However, the academic
literature and practices on the ground do not demonstrate that ICT for natural
environmental actions is designed and implemented through an inclusive process.
Those actions are largely designed as a technical or technological solution without
adequately engaging users and stakeholders. While the process of ICT for natural
environment action design and implementation could be made more inclusive and
transparent, ICT itself plays a strong role in ensuring an inclusive and transparent
process due to the ease of using ICT-based time- and cost-saving consultations
(Andreopoulou 2012). Remote and isolated populations are oriented to be environ-
mentally aware and encouraged to participate in the environmental decision-making
process by the use of modern ICTs like mobile Internet better than the traditional
information and communication channels like newspapers, TV, radio, and maga-
zines. ICT-based special Internet sites, blogs, forums, social network groups, inter-
net polls etc. are also enabling the inclusive and transparent process to share
environmental information and ensure people’s participation (Andreopoulou 2012).
In this regard, it has also been found from the discussion on nature-based
solutions in Bangladesh that an inclusive and transparent governance process is
not often prioritised and sometimes not discussed at all. In terms of forest gover-
nance, Rahman and Miah (2017) indicated that an open and inclusive decision-
making process is absent in Bangladesh that contributes to the marginalisation and
impoverishment of forest-dependent communities and indigenous peoples in
Bangladesh. In relation to fisheries governance, the study of Islam et al. (2016)
has also identified the exclusion of a segment of fishers and important stakeholders
such as boat owners, big seine nets operators, and commissioning agents from the
needs assessment and decision-making process along with weak institutional
arrangements for the enforcement of fisheries regulations and lack of good gover-
nance. It is, therefore, more significant to use ICT in Bangladesh in ensuring an
inclusive and transparent process in promoting any nature-based solution according
to the Global Standard for NbS.
Since academic literature has repeatedly pointed out the lack of consideration of
nature-based solutions at the policy level of Bangladesh, it can be argued that it will
be difficult to create impact at scale without the buy-in from the government. In this
regard, ICTs can play a strong role when there is an attempt to design and implement
scalable nature-based solutions since ICTs can facilitate large environmental net-
works by linking local, regional, national, cross-border, and transnational actors. The
scale can be achieved through effective communication between stakeholders while
securing information flow between environmental groups, research institutes, gov-
ernment organisations, non-government organisations (NGO), and local actors,
contributing to related policy frameworks (Andreopoulou 2012). Consequently,
criteria two and eight of the global standard for NbS that are related to the extent
could be strongly supported by information and communication technologies in
developing countries like Bangladesh where policy buy-in is challenging and a
tendency exists to have narrow biodiversity or geographic focus.
242 M. K. Hossain

Although the adaptive management of NbS in the Bangladesh context has not
been notably discussed in the academic literature, ICTs can play a significant role in
addressing criterion seven of the global standard for NbS related to monitoring and
evaluation of and learning from NbS for adaptive management. It has already been
observed that geospatial technologies, time-series data collection from remote places
through wireless networks, environmental databases, and multi-criteria analysis
through software strongly support environmental monitoring in a combination of
data collected from the ground (Andreopoulou 2012).
Since the Global Standard for NbS observes any solution as strong, adequate,
partial, and insufficient from the perspective of each criterion, the role of ICT in
following the Global Standard for NbS in a particular context like Bangladesh needs
to be seen in that way. If ICTs have systematically contributed to NbS upon demand
from stakeholders and with strategic audiences in an accessible manner, it can be
argued that it plays a strong role in following the standard. If the demand needs to be
created among different stakeholders including the policymakers but they then
embrace ICT options for following the NbS standard, we can say that ICTs are
playing an adequate role. If only provisions are made to systematically use ICTs in
following the global standard for NbS but those are not proactively used by different
stakeholders due to numerous barriers, it can be argued that ICTs play a partial role
in following the standard. Finally, if the role of ICTs is not considered and provi-
sioned in following the standard despite the deliberate usage of ICT for other actions,
we can term that as an insufficient role of ICT in following the global standard for
NbS in a specific country context like Bangladesh. At the moment, through
reviewing the academic literature and existing practices related to NbS in
Bangladesh, it can be argued that the role of ICT has not been adequately explored
and there should be an aim to make the role stronger considering Bangladesh’s
vision for a digital and innovative economy.
In this regard, the ICT framework presented by Spinnato et al. (2019) is consid-
ered useful since it has offered an ICT-based process that can be utilised in fulfilling
most of the criteria of the global standard for NbS while developed at scale with the
engagement of policy actors and other stakeholders. Although the framework has
been developed on the basis of work in urban contexts in Europe, it can be
customised in developing country contexts as well as will be applicable for NbS
interventions in rural areas. As the framework has not considered the Global
Standard for NbS, the customisation of this framework can be done while consid-
ering all the criteria of the standard. The major components of the framework that are
aligned with different criteria of NbS standard can be adopted whereas additional
components can be proposed to address missing criteria. Besides, considering
numerous negative impacts of ICT on biodiversity loss, there should also be a
criterion that stipulates the need for acknowledging those impacts and embedding
related mitigation actions (it is proposed as criterion nine). Considering all these
elements, an eclectic framework is proposed in Fig. 9.3 to enable the role of ICT in
facilitating the Global Standard for NbS in developing countries like Bangladesh.
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 243

Fig. 9.3 ICT for NbS in developing countries following the Global Standard for NbS

9.4.2 ICT for NbS in the Water Sector of Bangladesh

In light of Fig. 9.3 presented in this chapter and the specific focus on NbS in the
water sector of Bangladesh, the potential roles of ICT can be discussed in following
the Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions (NbS) in the water sector. As
observed from the eclectic framework, it is proposed that direct ICT-based actions
like the smart water metering system will be explored for designing NbS intervention
to address any societal challenge when the role of ICT in following the Global
Standard for NbS is considered (addressing criterion one). From the ICT framework
of Spinnato et al. (2019), it is proposed that IoT Harmonization Middleware is used
to address criterion two of the Standard in facilitating NbS implementation at scale
like tidal river management in several locations by using GIS and remote sensing
technology. Three other components of their framework can also be adopted in
relation to addressing criteria five and seven. Open Nature Innovation Arena (ONIA)
is proposed to ensure an inclusive and transparent governance process for designing,
implementing, and monitoring NbS interventions for water management. City Per-
formance Monitor can also be customised as Village Performance Monitor to ensure
adaptive management through monitoring, evaluation, and learning along with using
the NbS Simulation Visualisation tool in water management.
In addressing criterion three of the NbS Standard, the eclectic framework pro-
poses ICT-based or ICT-facilitated NbS to generate net biodiversity gain or generate
data on determining net biodiversity gain in the water sector like the examples of
tidal river management and excavation and re-excavation of canals and ponds.
Similarly, ICT-based or ICT-facilitated NbS in the water sector can generate eco-
nomic benefits or generate data on determining economic benefits while addressing
244 M. K. Hossain

criterion four of the global standard for NbS. ICT-based NbS in the water sector can
balance trade-offs and ICT can also facilitate data generation and analysis to
determine the desirable trade-offs in addressing criterion six of the standard. In
addressing criterion eight related to policy influencing on NbS, all the ICT-based
components used by Spinnato et al. (2019) and other tools indicated in the eclectic
framework can be used for water management. Finally, the eclectic framework
proposes criterion nine while specifically using ICT for following the Global
Standard for NbS to acknowledge that the use of ICT may have detrimental effects
on biodiversity and the natural environment. To follow criterion nine, those detri-
mental effects will be identified and mitigation measures will be in place so that the
focus does not remain solely on the positive sides of using the ICT.

9.5 Conclusions

In this chapter, the potential roles of information and communication technology

(ICT) are explored in following the Global Standard for Nature-based Solutions
(NbS) in developing country contexts by using the case of Bangladesh with a strong
focus on the water sector. While there has been previous academic literature
published to observe the use of ICT in advancing nature-based solutions, conserving
biodiversity, and protecting the natural environment, no previous academic literature
has been published to explore the role of ICT in following the Global Standard for
NbS in a developing country context. It has been found that despite having potential,
ICTs have not been deliberately and widely used to facilitate NbS. Although
ensuring net biodiversity gain is one of the key criteria of the Global Standard for
NbS, it has been found that this perspective is not often explicitly highlighted while
using ICT for protecting the natural environment and addressing nature-related
challenges. Therefore, this chapter has aimed to bring these perspectives together
in proposing an eclectic framework to follow the Global Standard for NbS by using
ICT by focusing on a developing country context with numerous societal challenges.
Focusing on Bangladesh as a developing country has brought the challenges of
adopting the Global Standard of NbS since ensuring an inclusive and transparent
governance process, providing importance on nature-based solutions by
policymakers over structural solutions, and ensuring net biodiversity gains while
simultaneously ensuring the economic viability of NbS are difficult for developing
countries. The proposed eclectic framework considers that increased digitalisation
and the use of ICT in developing countries may assist in overcoming some of the
challenges. The framework and the chapter have been developed on the basis of
secondary literature with an aim to promote the Global Standard for NbS adopted in
2020. ICT has been considered a useful tool in this regard and some pieces of
evidence have been presented to support that while also highlighting the potential
negative impacts of ICT. For future empirical research, therefore, it is important to
apply the proposed eclectic framework in Fig. 9.3 to design, implement, and monitor
9 Role of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in Following. . . 245

ICT-based and ICT-facilitated NbS in developing countries to observe the usefulness

of the framework and modify it as necessary.

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Md Khalid Hossain works as a Research Fellow at the Department of Human Centred Computing
of Monash University where he focuses on environmental and community informatics with a strong
interest in nature-based solutions through the use of ICT. He previously worked for IUCN, Oxfam,
CCDB, RMIT University, and the Government of Bangladesh. Khalid was an Australian Leader-
ship Award scholar during his doctoral research on climate change adaptation at the RMIT
University and an Australian Development Scholar during his Masters study at Monash University.
His interests include climate change, sustainability, natural resource management, international
business, governance, and ICT for Development.