2.

1 Metabolism

Organic compounds
1. Distinguish between organic compounds and inorganic compounds
Organic chemicals or compounds are mineral compounds such as salt (such as
sodium chloride and potassium sulfate). They all have carbons that are covalently
bonded with atoms of different elements, most commonly hydrogen or oxygen, or
nitrogen. The few carbon compounds that are not organic are: carbides, carbonates,
and cyanides.
An inorganic chemical or compound is any compound that lacks a carbon atom. They
do not form the complex molecular bonds that carbon makes possible. Examples of
inorganic compounds are: water (H2O), hydrochloride (HCl), nitrogen dioxide (NO2).
An example of a compound with a carbon that is labelled inorganic is carbon dioxide
(CO2).

2. List the 3 exceptions to the definition of organic compounds

Hydrogencarbonates, carbonates and oxides of carbon (know these three for the exam,
but take those aforementioned into consideration).

3. List the elements that compose carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids
Living organisms use four main classes of carbon compounds which have different
properties, and can thus be used for different purposes.
a. Carbohydrates
i. They are characterised by their composition; they are composed of
carbon, hydrogen,and oxygen (CHO), with hydrogen and oxygen in
the ratio of two hydrogen atoms per one oxygen.
b. Lipids
i. These are a broad class of molecules that are insoluble in water,
including steroids, waxes, fatty acids, and triglycerides (fats if solid in
room temperature or oil if liquid at room temperature). They are made
up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (CHO). Some even contain
phosphorus or nitrogen.
c. Proteins
i. Composed of one or more chains of amino acids, they contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen (CHON), but two of the twenty amino
acids also contain sulphur.
d. Nucleic Acids
i. They are chains of subunits called nucleotides, which contain carbon,
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus (CHONP). There are
two different types of nucleic acids; ribonucleic acid (RNA) and
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
A big example of a compound that is produced by living organisms, but can also be
artificially synthesised is urea. Urea is a nitrogen-containing compound with a relatively
simple molecular structure. It is a component of urine and is produced when there is
an excess of amino acids in the body, and is therefore used to get these excess amino
acids out of the body. A cycle of reactions, which happens in the liver, is used to
produce it; it is then transported by the bloodstream to the kidneys where it is filtered
out and passes out of the body through urine.
However, urea can also be synthesised artificially; the chemical reactions used are
different from those used organically, and enzymes are not involved, but the urea
produced in identical.

ammonia + carbon dioxide → ammonium carbamate → urea + water

About 100 million tonnes of urea are produced annually and is used as a nitrogen
fertiliser on crops.
Overview

Name of Group Full Structure Simplified Notation

Hydroxyl –OH

Amine –NH2

Carboxyl –COOH

Methyl –CH3

4. Draw molecular diagrams of the ring forms of ribose (D-ribose), alpha–D-

glucose and beta-D-glucose

NOTE: CARBON ATOMS CAN FORM FOUR (4) COVALENT BONDS

5. Draw a molecular diagram of a generalized amino acid
The generalised amino acid has an amine group (NH2) on the left, as well as a carboxyl
group on the right. If needed, the hydrogen from the hydroxyl group can merge with
the hydrogen from the amine group to form a dipeptide molecule with water as a
byproduct.
6. Draw molecular diagrams of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
Seeing as a fatty acid is generally a long carbon chain with hydrogens attached it, we
can also distinguish unsaturated fatty acids from saturated fatty acids.
Along with that, when we look at triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, we can see
that they, too, are lipids–or, fatty acids.
Metabolism
7. What is Metabolism?
Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme catalysed reactions in a cell or organism. Most
of these aforementioned reactions occur in the cytoplasm, but some are extracellular,
such as those used to digest food in the small intestine. Metabolism is therefore the
sum of all reactions that occur in an organism.
It is, yet, quite literally the way whereupon one molecule is transformed into another,
in a series of small steps. These steps are mostly pathways but also consist of cycles,
such as that shown in the cycle for creating Urea.
Even in prokaryotic cells, metabolism consists of over 1,000 different reactions; this
makes mapping a global map of all reactions very difficult. However, there are
examples, such as those shown below.

8. Describe the difference between Anabolism and Catabolism and show 3

examples
Metabolism can be divided into two different parts: anabolism, and catabolism.
Anabolism is the synthesis of molecules from simpler molecules, including the
formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions. This means
that it includes reactions that build up larger molecules from smaller ones; an easy way
to remember this is recalling that anabolic steroids are hormones that promote body
building. These reaction require energy, or ATP, and includes the following processes:
a. Protein synthesis using ribosomes
b. DNA synthesis during replication
c. Photosynthesis, including production of glucose from carbon dioxide and water
d. Synthesis of complex carbohydrates including starch, cellulose and glycogen
Catabolism, on the other hand, is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler
molecules, including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. This means
that larger molecules are broken down into smaller molecules; these reactions release
energy that can sometimes be captured in the form of ATP, which can be further used
in the cell. Some processes include:
a. Digestion of food in the mouth, stomach, and small intestine
b. Cell respiration in which glucose or lipids are oxidised to carbon dioxide and
water
c. Digestion of complex carbon compounds in dead organic matter by
decomposers
2.2 Water

Water molecules
1. Draw and label a diagram of a water molecule to show the polarity

2. Draw and label a diagram of a number of water molecules to show hydrogen

bond formation
 3. Compare the thermal properties of water with those of methane
Methane is a waste product of anaerobic respiration, or respiration that does not
require oxygen, in certain prokaryotes that live in habitats where oxygen is lacking.
Methanogenic (or methane-dependent) prokaryotes live in swamps and other wetlands
and in the guts of animals such as termites, cattle, and sheep. They are deliberately
encouraged to produce methane in anaerobic digesters; it can be used as a fuel, but
when released into the general atmosphere, acts as a contributor towards the
greenhouse effect.
Water and methane are both small molecules that are held together by covalent bonds;
however, methane molecules, unlike water, are non-polar and do not form hydrogen
bonds. Due to this, their physical properties end up being very different.
The following table distinguishes the two.

Property Methane Water

Formula CH4 H2O

Molecular Mass 16 18

Density 0.46g per cm3 1g per cm3

Specific Heat Capacity 2.2 J per g per ºC 4.2 J per g per ºC

Latent Heat of vaporisation 750 J/g 2,257 J/g

Melting Point -182 ºC 0 ºC

Boiling Point -160 ºC 100 ºC

NOTE: You do not need to know the specific values, but instead, know the trends between the two (ie:
the boiling point of methane is much lower than water, etc).

Properties
4. Explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water
Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the different properties that water has in
oppose to many other molecules.
To start off, cohesion refers to the binding together of two identical molecules; we know
that water molecules cohere due to the polarity that causes the hydrogen bonding
between them..
Secondly, their adhesive properties explain their ability to form hydrogen bonds
between themselves and other polar molecules; this allows them to stick to other
surfaces, such as leaves.
Thirdly, their thermal properties are very helpful to living organisms; their high specific
heat capacity works in a way where hydrogen bonds restrict the motion of water
molecules and to increase the temperature, these bonds needs to be broken. This
requires a lot of energy; therefore, the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of water is relatively large. Along with that their high latent heat of
evaporation, or the heat needed for a molecule to separate from other molecules in a
liquid and evaporate. Evaporation therefore has a cooling effect; considerable amounts
of heat are needed to evaporate water, because hydrogen bonds have to be broken.
Lastly, the boiling point of water is relatively high and has a temperature range is found
in most habitats on Earth; 0ºC to 100ºC.
Lastly, their solvent properties, along with their polar nature, mean that the molecule
forms shells around charged and polar molecules, preventing them from clumping
together and keeping them together. Water forms hydrogen bonds with polar
molecules; its partially negative oxygen pole is attracted to positively charged ions and
its partially positive hydrogen pole is attracted to negatively charged ions, so both
dissolve.

5. Know at least one example of a benefit to living organisms of each property of

water
Examples:
1. COHESIVE PROPERTIES
a. Helps plants absorb and transport water up through the xylem
b. The property of cohesion is very useful in plants; water is sucked
through the xylem at very low pressure; this can only work if the water
molecules remain linked instead of being torn apart by the suction
forces
2. ADHESIVE PROPERTIES
a. Useful in leaves, where water adheres to cellulose molecules in cell
walls; if water evaporates from the cell walls and is lost from the leaf via
the network of air spaces, adhesive forces cause water to be drawn out
of the nearest xylem vessels. This keeps the walls moist for carbon
dioxide uptake
3. THERMAL PROPERTIES
 a. Water’s temperature remains relatively stable in comparison to air or
land, so it is a thermally stable habitat for aquatic organisms.
b. Water is a good evaporative coolant; an example for this is the sweating
within humans
c. Water is liquid over a broad range of temperatures- from 0º too 100ºC;
this range is found in most habitats on Earth

Transport
6. Know the modes of transport of glucose, amino acids, cholesterol, fats, oxygen
and sodium chloride in blood in relation to their solubility in water
Blood transports a wide variety of substances to prevent possible problems and to
ensure that each substance is carried in large enough quantities for the body’s needs.
To start off, glucose is a polar molecule; that means that it is freely soluble in water
and can be transported dissolved in the blood plasma.
Amino acids have both a negative and a positive charge; because of this, they are
soluble, but their solubility depends on the R group that they hold. However, all amino
acids are soluble enough to be dissolved in the blood plasma.
Cholesterol molecules, on the other hand, are, for the most part, hydrophobic; this
does not allow it to be dissolved in water. Therefore, it is rather transported with fats in
lipoprotein complexes. The cholesterol molecules are positioned in the phospholipid
monolayers, with their hydrophilic regions facing outwards.
Fats molecules are entirely nonpolar, which means that they are insoluble in water,
and larger than oxygen. They are carried in the blood inside lipoprotein complexes;
just like cholesterol.The hydrophilic heads are facing towards the outside whilst the
hydrophobic hydrocarbon tails face inwards and are in contact with the fats.

Oxygen is a nonpolar molecule and is also very small; because of this, it dissolves in
the water sparingly and makes the water saturated with oxygen at relatively low
concentrations. Also, if the temperature rises, the solubility of the oxygen will decrease,
so blood plasma at 37ºC can hold much less dissolved oxygen than water at 20ºC.
The amount of oxygen that blood plasma can carry is far too low for the body; therefore,
hemoglobin is used. It has binding sites for oxygen and greatly increases the capacity
of oxygen in the blood.

Sodium chloride is an ionic compound that is freely soluble in water, dissolving to form
Na+ and Cl-, which are carried in the blood plasma respectively.
2.3 Carbohydrates & Lipids

Carbohydrates
1. Outline the formation of maltose
Maltose is a disaccharide that is created by the linking together of two
monosaccharides, such as glucose, fructose, and ribose. Monosaccharides are single
sugar units, disaccharides are two monosaccharides linked together, and
polysaccharides are a lot of monosaccharides linked together (such as starch,
glycogen, and cellulose).

Maltose is formed by the joining together of two alpha glucose molecules in a

condensation reaction which forms a glycosidic bond.

2. Describe how sucrose, lactose and maltose are produced by combining

monosaccharides
Sucrose is created by the linking together of glucose and fructose, lactose is created
by the linking together of galactose and glucose, and maltose is created by the linking
together of two glucose molecules.

3. Outline the structure and function of starch, cellulose and glycogen

Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are all polysaccharides that are created by linking
many glucose molecules together. However, even though they all consist of glucose,
they all have different structures and functions. This is due to the difference in the type
of glucose used in their formation and because of the difference in the type of linkage
between the molecules.
Glucose, as a molecule, has five -OH groups, any of which can be used in a
condensation reaction. Usually, only three of these are used, the most common of
which is the link between the -OH on carbon 1 atom and the -OH on carbon 4 atom.
The -OH on carbon 6 is used to create side branches in polysaccharides. Glucose can
have the -OH group on carbon 1 pointing either upwards or downwards. In alpha
glucose (𝛼-glucose) the -OH group points downwards (so that the groups run Down
Up Down Down [DUDD]), whilst in beta glucose (β-glucose), the -OH group points
upwards (so that the groups run Down Up Down Up [DUDU]). SEE THIS DIAGRAM.

Starch is made by linking together alpha glucose molecules; the links are made by
condensation reactions between the -OH groups on the carbon 1 atom of one glucose
and the carbon 4 of another one. These -OH groups both point downward, so all the
glucose molecules in starch can be oriented in the same way. Because of this, starch
will have a curved structure to it. There are, however, two different forms of starch; in
amylose, the chain of alpha glucose molecules is unbranched and forms a helix, whilst
in amylopectin, the chain is branched, so has more of a globular shape.
Starch is only made by plants and is useful in cells where large amounts of glucose is
needed to be stored due to their hydrophilic, insoluble nature. Starch is used as a store
of glucose, and therefore energy, and is used as a temporary store in leaf cells when
glucose is made faster by photosynthesis than it can be exported to other parts of the
plants.
 Cellulose is made by the linking together of beta glucose molecules; condensation
reactions will link carbon 1 to carbon 4. The -OH groups of carbon 1 and 4 point in
opposite directions; up on carbon 1 and down on carbon 4, which allows each new
beta glucose to be positioned at 180º to the previous one. This means that the cellulose
molecule is straight, rather than curved.
Cellulose molecules are made up of beta molecules, and are unbranched, which allows
them to form bundles with hydrogen bonds between the cellulose molecules. These
bundles are called cellulose microfibrils and have a very high tensile strength and are
generally used for the basis of plant cell walls; the strength prevents the cell from
bursting, even when very high pressures have developed inside the cell due to entry
of water by osmosis.

Glycogen is very similar to amylopectin, in the sense that it is branched, but in the case
of glycogen, there is a lot more branching, making the molecule more compact.
Glycogen is made by animals and is stored in the liver and some muscles. It has the
same function as starch in plants; it acts as a store of energy in the form of glucose in
cells where large stores of dissolved glucose would cause osmotic problems.
With both starch and glycogen, it is very easy to add extra glucose molecules; this can
be done at both ends of an unbranched molecule or at any of the ends in a branched
molecule. Starch and glycogen do not have a fixed size and the number of molecules
do not have fixed size; this allows the number of glucose molecules that they contain
to be increased and decreased.

4. Describe that the structure of starch includes amylose and amylopectin

See question 3.

5. Define the following terms: pentose, hexose, monosaccharide, disaccharide,

polysaccharide
Pentose: A single simple-class sugar with five carbons, such as ribose and xylose.
Hexose: A single simple-class sugar with six carbons, such as glucose and fructose.
Monosaccharide: A single sugar unit. (see question 1)
Disaccharide: A link of two monosaccharides. (see question 1)
Polysaccharide: A link of multiple monosaccharides. (see question 1)

Lipids
6. Distinguish between saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fatty
acids
Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated; in the basic
structure for fatty acids, there is a chain of carbon atoms, with hydrogen atoms linked
to them by single covalent bonds. It is therefore a hydrocarbon chain; at one end of
the chain is the acid part of the molecule–this is a carboxyl group, which is better known
as -COOH.
The length of hydrocarbon chains are variable, but most of the fatty acids used by living
organisms have between 14 and 20 carbon atoms. Another variable feature is the
bonding between the carbon atoms; in some fatty acids, the carbon atoms are linked
by single covalent bonds, but in others, there are one or more positions in the chain
where carbon atoms are linked by double covalent bonds.
 A fatty acid with merely single bonds in its entire chain, and therefore contains as much
hydrogen as it possibly could is called a saturated fatty acid. Fatty acids that have
one or more double bonds are unsaturated fatty acids, because they contain less
hydrogen than they potentially could.
If there is only one double bond, the fatty acid is monounsaturated (mono = single,
one), and if it has more than one double bond it is polyunsaturated (poly = more,
many)

7. Distinguish between cis and trans unsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers. In unsaturated fatty acids in living
organisms, the hydrogen atoms are nearly always on the same side of the two carbon
atoms that are double bonded- these are called cis-fatty acids. The alternative to this
is where the hydrogen atoms are on the opposite sides of the two carbon atoms that
are double bonded- these are called trans-fatty acids. SEE THESE DIAGRAMS. Cis-
fatty acids are bent while trans-fatty acids are straight

8. Describe how triglycerides are formed

Triglycerides are formed by the condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol.
Lipids are a very diverse group of carbon compounds that share the property of being
insoluble in water. Triglycerides are one of the principal groups of lipid; some examples
are adipose tissue and oil in sunflower seeds.Take note that fats are liquid at body
temperature (37ºC) whereas oils are liquid at both temperature and room temperature.

As aforementioned, triglyceride is made by combining three fatty acid “tails” with one
glycerol. Each of the tails are attached to this glycerol by a condensation reaction, so
three water molecules are produced. The bond that is formed between each fatty acid
and the glycerol is an ester bond; this type of bond is formed when an acid reacts with
the -COOH group on a fatty acid and an -OH group on the glycerol.

9. State three functions of lipids

The three main functions of lipids are:
1. Energy Storage
a. Lipids are more suitable for long term energy storage in humans than
carbohydrates, although both are used for energy storage. This is
because they are stored in specialised groups of cells called adipose
tissue. There are several reasons that lipids outdo carbohydrates in the
energy storage department
i. The amount of energy released in cell respiration per gram of
lipids is double the amount released from a gram of
carbohydrates. In fact, the mass advantage of lipids is even
greater because the fats form pure droplets in cells with no water
associated, whereas each gram of glycogen is associated with
about two grams of water, so lipids are actually six times more
efficient in the amount of energy that can be stored per gram of
body mass. This is important, because we have to carry out
energy stores with us wherever we go.
2. Thermal Insulation
 a. Stored lipids have some secondary roles that could not be performed
as well by carbohydrates; because lipids are poor conductors of heat,
they can be used as heat insulators. This is the reason for much of our
stored fat being in subcutaneous adipose tissue next to the skin.
Because fat is liquid at body temperature, it can also act as a shock
absorber. This is the reason that there is adipose around the kidney and
some other organs.
3. Membrane Stability/Structure

BMI
10. Calculate body mass index (BMI) from the body mass and height of a person
The body mass index, or better known as BMI, was developed by a Belgian statistician
and can be calculated by dividing the subject’s mass in kilograms by their height in
meters squared. The units given to the dividend are kg m -2. It can be also be found
using a type of chart called a nomogram. A straight line between the height on the left
hand scale and the mass on the right hand scale intersects the BMI on the central
scale.
BMI is used to assess whether a person’s body mass is at a healthy level, or is too
high or too low.

11. Distinguish, using the body mass index, between being underweight, normal
weight, overweight and obese

BMI STATUS

Below 18.5 Underweight

18.5 - 24.9 Normal Weight

25.0 - 29.9 Overweight

30.0 or more Obese

Food & health

12. Describe the suitability of Lipids
Refer to question 9.

13. Explain how trans - fats and fatty acids can affect health
The main concern that comes along with fats is the increased possibility of Coronary
Heart Disease, or CHD. In CHD, the coronary arteries become partially blocked by
fatty deposits, which can, in within itself, lead to blood clot formation as well as fatal
heart attacks.
A positive correlation has been found between saturated fatty acid intake and the rates
of CHD; however, finding such a correlation will not validate or prove that saturated
fats are the only or rather the main cause of the disease as it could also be low intakes
of dietary fibre that cause the disease in hindsight.
There are populations, however, that do not fit this correlation; the Maasai of Kenya
have a diet that is rich in meat, fat, blood, and milk; they have a very high consumption
rate of saturated fats, but have little to no traces or history of CHD.
Diets rich in olive oil, which is abundant in cis-monounsaturated fatty acids, are
traditionally eaten in Mediterranean countries; the populations of these countries have
low rates of CHD, and it has been claimed that this is due to their intake of such cis-
monounsaturated fatty acids. However, genetic factors, or other portions of their diet,
could also explain these low rates of CHD.
There is also a positive correlation between amounts of trans-fat and the risk for CHD;
other risk factors have been tested, but none came close to the correlation between
the disease and trans-fats. In patients that have died due to the disease were found to
have high concentrations of trans-fats and fatty deposits in their arteries.