PROJECT WORK

“Water and Society”

Master of Engineering (M.Eng.) – Sustainable Water Management

and Engineering- Winter Semester 2022-23

Title:

The Impact of Water and Climate Change on Humanity

Submitted to: Submitted by:

Prof. Dr. Tobias Schnabel Chitrang Dipakkumar Rana (00024122)

Alfons-Goppel-Platz 1 Mitul Rasikbhai Viradiya (00638221)
95028, Hof Akshesh Shashikant Chitte (00220022)

Hof, 1st FEBRUARY 2023

i
 Table of Contents

List of Figures ...................................................................................................................................... iii

Declaration of Honor.......................................................................................................................................... 1
Student Contributors ............................................................................................................................. 1
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................................2
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 3
2. Study area ........................................................................................................................................... 4
2.1. Climate Change .......................................................................................................................... 4
2.2. Climate Change Impact .............................................................................................................. 4
3. Impact of Water on Humans ........................................................................................................... 5
3.1.1. Lacks of Water Resource............................................................................................... 5
3.1.2. Disappearing of Wetlands ............................................................................................. 5
3.1.3. Damaged Ecosystems ................................................................................................... 5
4. The Impacts of Water and Climate Change on Japan ................................................................... 6
4.1. Climate Changes Impacts ......................................................................................................... 6
4.1.1. Sea Level Rise ...............................................................................................................6
4.1.2. Impacts to Humans .....................................................................................................7
5. Observed Climate Change ...............................................................................................................9
6. Projected Climate Change ............................................................................................................. 10
7. Adaptation........................................................................................................................................ 11
8. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 12
9. References ........................................................................................................................................ 13

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List of Figures

Sr. No. Figure Name Page No.

Figure 1 Impact of Water on Humans 05

Figure 2 Sea Level Rise 07

Figure 3 Observed Climate Change as Temperature Increase 09

Figure 4 Adaption and Mitigation to Climate Change 11

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 Declaration of Honor

We thus declare that the present work was entirely written by ourselves, without the aid of any other person,
and that we have cited any passages that were taken literally or roughly verbatim from other works. We
guarantee that the written version we submit is exactly the same as the electronic version. We further declare
that the paper has not yet been submitted to any examination office in the same or a comparable format. We
concur that the public will be able to access the material. We consent to the electronic version of this
document being placed on the servers of third parties for the purpose of conducting a plagiarism check.

The contribution of group members:

Sr. No. Name of Student Matriculation Contribution to this report Sign

Number

1 Chitrang Dipakkumar 00024122 Abstract, Introduction, Study

Rana Area, Impact of water on
Human

2 Mitul Rasikbhai 00638221 The Impact of Water and

Viradiya Climate Change on Japan,
Sea Level Rise, Impacts to
Humans

3 Akshesh Shashikant 00220022 Observed climate change,

Chitte Projected climate change,
Adaptation, Conclusion

4 All together (Chitrang, Conclusion and Appendices

Mitul, Akshesh)

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 ABSTRACT

Evaporation, groundwater recharge, temperature, runoff, and rainfall are just a few of the ways that climate
change affects water resources. The distribution and movement of contaminants as well as the mobilization
of nutrients are all impacted in freshwater systems by these changes. Changes in biology, physics, and
chemistry are among the direct and indirect effects of climate change on water quality. Waterborne
pathogens are among the biological alterations. The temperature of the water is rising, the amount of lake
and river ice is decreasing, the vertical stratification is more stable, there is less mixing of the water in
deep lakes, and there are variations in water outflow that affect the water level and retention time, among
other physical changes. Increased nutrient concentrations, changes in the color of the water, and a drop in
oxygen content are all examples of chemical changes. The effects of climate change on changing water
quality, however, have not been extensively studied in recent scientific literature.

The phrase “Climate Security” has been used more frequently as awareness of climate change has grown,
according to the fast-expanding body of literature on the topic. Despite Japan´s official recognition of the
significance of combating Climate change, nothing has been said about climate security among Japanese
government officials.

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 1. Introduction

Human-induced climate change is often thought to occur in the future, but it is ongoing. Both communities
and ecosystems are now being affected on a global scale (Sky, 2021). Between 1901 and 2020, the average
global temperature he rose by 1.1°C (1.98°F), but there is more to climate change than just temperature
rise. It also includes sea level rise, changes in weather patterns such as droughts and floods, and much
more. The impacts of a changing climate are being felt in areas we rely on and value, such as water, energy,
transportation, wildlife, agriculture, ecosystems, and human health (EPA, 2020). Warming, changes in
precipitation patterns, increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events, and rising sea levels
are all effects of climate change. These impacts affect the food we consume, the water we drink, the air
we breathe, and the weather we encounter, putting our health at risk (Program, 2016). The international
community must act quickly to address the issue of climate change.

The Conference of the Parties (COP) has served annually since 1995 as the focal point for ongoing
discussions on reducing global greenhouse gas emissions. These discussions are based on the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted in 2017. 1992 (overall, 2014).
The impacts of climate change are already being felt in many sectors and critical areas of society, including
human health, agriculture, and food security, water supply, transport, energy, and ecosystems. These
influences are expected to intensify during this century (SOCIETY IO, 2012).

Prolonged heat waves from drought have exacerbated the situation in some areas, leading to larger
wildfires and longer fire seasons. Rising sea levels and coastal storms are increasing the risk of erosion,
storm surge damage, and flooding in coastal areas (SOCIETY T.R., 2000). Since 70% of our earth is
covered with water, it is reasonable to assume that there will always be enough water. Freshwater, which
we use for drinking, bathing, and irrigating our farmlands, is very scarce. Freshwater accounts for only
3% of the world's total water supply, two-thirds of which is hidden in frozen glaciers or otherwise
inaccessible to humans (yang, 2022). A total of 2.7 billion people worldwide experience water scarcity for
at least a month a year, and about 1.1 billion people have no access to water. Poor sanitation is a problem
for the 2.4 billion people who are exposed to cholera, typhoid, and other water-borne diseases. Diarrhea
kills two million people each year.

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 2. Study Area

2.1 Climate Change

Long-term changes in temperature and weather patterns are known as 'climate change'. These changes can
be caused by natural processes such as solar cycle oscillations. Since the 19th century, human activity,
primarily the burning of fossil fuels such as coal, oil and gas, has been a major contributor to climate
change. Burning fossil fuels releases greenhouse gases that wrap around the Earth, trap heat from the sun,
and increase global temperatures (MANDATE, 2018).

Carbon dioxide and methane are his two examples of greenhouse gas emissions that contribute to climate
change. These occur, for example, when burning coal or gasoline to heat a building (Program, 2016).
Carbon dioxide can also be released during deforestation and clearing. Methane emissions primarily come
from landfills. The largest sources of emissions include energy, industry, transportation, buildings,
agriculture, and land use.

The magnitude of these health risks is influenced by a person's behavior, age, gender, economic status,
and how well public health and safety systems manage or anticipate these evolving threats (Rights, 2020).
Impacts depend on an individual's location, susceptibility to health risks, exposure to the effects of climate
change, and how well individuals and their communities adapt to change. As average temperatures rise,
heat waves will become longer and more frequent (Sky, 2021). As a result of these changes, by the turn
of the 20th century, thousands to tens of thousands of Americans will die each year in the United States
from heat-related causes. Climate and water patterns change across the globe as humans continue to add
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. (Contract, 2018).
2.2 Climate Change Impact
Climate change will affect social and environmental determinants of health, such as clean air, clean drinking
water, adequate food, and safe shelter. (Climate-Data.org, undated). Between 2030 and 2050, climate change
is expected to kill around 250,000 people annually from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhea, and heat stress.
(Climate-Data.org, undated). The direct cost of health hazards (that is, excluding the costs of health-
determining sectors such as agriculture, water supply, and sanitation) is estimated at US$2-4 billion annually
by 2030 (Climate Data.org, date unknown). Areas with weak health infrastructure, especially in developing
countries, cannot cope without preparedness and response support. (Climate-Data.org, undated). Reducing
greenhouse gas emissions through better transport, food and energy-efficient choices can lead to improved
health, especially through reduced air pollution.

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 3. Impact of Water on Humans

3.1.1 Lack of Water Resources

Humans need clean fresh water for healthy living, but 1.1 billion people do not have access to it and 2.7
billion face water stress for at least one month of the year. By 2025, her two-thirds of the world's population
could be affected by water scarcity. Lack of water can lead to economic losses as people cannot get enough
water to consume, wash and feed their plants. In addition, 2.4 billion people are affected. Poor sanitation
conditions lead to cholera, typhoid fever, and other water-borne diseases, including fatal illnesses
(SOCIETY I.O., 2012).

3.1.2 Disappearing of Wetlands

Since 1900, about 50% of the world's wetlands have been lost. Wetlands support dense populations of
animals such as mammals, birds, fish and invertebrates and serve as breeding grounds for many of these
species. They are one of the most productive habitats on earth. Wetlands also support the cultivation of
rice, a staple food for half the world's population. In addition, they provide various ecosystem services to
humans, such as flood management, storm protection, water filtration, and recreation (Wildlife, 2021).

3.1.3 Damaged Ecosystems

In times of water scarcity, natural landscapes are often spoiled. The Aral Sea, once her fourth largest
freshwater lake in the world, is located in Central Asia. But the ocean has lost an area the size of Lake
Michigan in just 30 years. Increasing pollution and the use of water for agriculture and power generation
have made it now as salty as the sea. The sea has receded, leaving behind an unclean land. This ecological
catastrophe leads to food shortages, which increases child mortality and shortens the life expectancy of
local populations (Synthesis, 2014).

Fig.1 Impact of Water on Humans

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 4. The Impact of Water and Climate Change on Japan

4.1 Climate Changes Impacts

The weather in Japan is changing. The environment has changed because of observed increases in land and
sea temperatures and precipitation, and future changes are expected to have significant socio-economic and
environmental effects (Atlas, 2017). Japanese agriculture, infrastructure, tourism, wildlife migration patterns,
availability of fish, and even the nation's cultural identity will all be impacted by increasing sea levels,
changing rain and snowfall patterns, warming temperatures, and extreme weather events (Atlas, 2017).

4.1.1 Sea Level Rise

The 20th Century saw an estimated 0.17 m rise in sea level worldwide. Sea levels are currently increasing in
Asia's coastal regions at a pace of 1 to 3 mm each year (Esteban, Adaptation to sea level rise in Tokoyo Bay:,
2015). Sea levels have been rising along Japan's coastline at an accelerated rate of 3.3 millimetres per year
since the middle of the 1980s, and at a rate of 5.0 millimetres per year since 1993. Kushiro, Hokkaido, saw
the highest rate of sea-level rise, rising 9.3 mm from year 1970 to 2003 (EPA, 2020) . According to future
climate change projections, the world's sea level will rise by an additional 0.18 to 0.59 m by 2100. However,
many scientists believe that this estimate is way too low. Over the next century, it is anticipated that the yearly
rate of sea level rise in East Asia will grow to 5 mm per year (Agency, 2020).

A significant portion of Japan's population and economic activity are concentrated around its 34,000 km of
coastline, which is significantly threatened by an increase of this scale (Esteban, Climate Change Impacts and
Adaption for Coastal Transport Infrastructure in the Caribbean, 2017). Moreover 30 million people (the sixth-
highest number among other nations) reside in Japan within 10 kilometres of the ocean (Prasad, 2017). Even
though coastal municipalities only make up about 32% of Japan's total land area, they are home to about 46%
of the country's population and produce about 47% of its industrial output. Surprisingly, 77% of all retail
business or market goods expenditures take place in coastal municipalities (Esteban, Climate Change Impacts
and Adaption for Coastal Transport Infrastructure in the Caribbean, 2017).

Moreover 30 million people (the sixth-highest number among other nations) reside in Japan within 10
kilometres of the ocean (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2008). Even though coastal municipalities only make
up about 32% of Japan's total land area, they are home to about 46% of the country's population and produce
about 47% of its industrial output. Surprisingly, 77% of all retail business or market goods expenditures take
place in coastal municipalities (IEA, 2021). Unfortunately, sea level rise does not happen in a vacuum; it can
also increase other important dangers to coastal communities and economic productivity, such as storm surges,
typhoons, tsunamis, and beach erosion (Atlas, 2017).
Inundation and submersion, aggravated flooding, saline intrusion in rivers and ground water aquifers, and
erosion of Japan's coastal zone are all effects of a rise in sea levels. Increased storm surges, floods, inundation,
9
and the intrusion of tidal waters into estuaries and river systems will have an impact on people and wildlife
species (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2008). In fact, more than 50% of Japan's sandy beaches could perhaps
disappear with a 0.3 m rise in sea levels. With a 1-meter sea level rise, much of the tidal wetlands where
migratory birds feed as well as more than 90% of Japan's beaches would vanish. The cost of defending Japan
from a 1 m rise in sea levels, according to the Japanese government, would be roughly US$115 billion, but
the value of the assets at danger from the same amount of sea-level rise exceeds US$1 trillion (Prasad, 2017).

Fig. 2 Sea Level Rise

4.1.2 Impacts to humans

In addition to direct effects like heatwaves, floods, and storms, climate change will also have indirect effects
including changes in air and water quality and the loss of ecosystem services, as well as social and economic
disruption (EORC, 2008). According to regional climate projections, Japan will experience increasingly
intense heatwaves (IEA, 2021), and as temperatures rise, the rapidly aging population may be more susceptible
to heat stress and infectious diseases. The spread of several vector-borne and aquatic diseases may also be
aided by rising temperatures.

According to a National Institute of Infectious Diseases assessment, mosquito habitat in Japan is growing,
which could result in dengue disease spreading to Hokkaido (Statista, 2022). In addition, higher temperatures
can promote the growth of parasites and pathogenic organisms. According to a national health research on the
effects of climate change, Japan has already seen a rise in heat-related emergencies as well as allergies and
disorders linked to allergies from Japanese cedar pollen (Atlas, 2017).The likelihood of increasingly powerful
and frequent extreme weather events, such as storms, droughts, and floods, is rising as Japan's climate and
weather patterns change. These events will almost likely have a serious impact on Japan's economy. While it
can be challenging to link specific incidents to climate change.
A study by the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) suggests that changes in
the climate and a number of socioeconomic factors have increased the likelihood of flooding, particularly in
10
urban areas, as well as the vulnerability to flooding because of Japan's growing population density and
concentration of economic resources (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2008).

As a result, there is a higher chance that a flood occurrence will turn into a disaster, and Japan will have to
deal with rising living expenses and the need for more protection from "natural" disasters. Japan is not an
exception to Asia's propensity for natural disasters. By potentially raising the wind speed of Japanese typhoons
by 6%, climate change may increase Japan's current vulnerabilities to such extreme weather events as
typhoon (EFA, 2007). One of the three main storm kinds that has an impact on one of the three largest
insurance markets in the world is typhoons. Typhoon-related losses to Japan's insurance sector are projected
to be US$4 billion on average (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2008), with the 2004 typhoon season being
the highest in a century due to losses from three typhoons totalling more than US$14 billion.
Some freshwater lakes in Japan may be negatively impacted by rising temperatures and dwindling water
supplies; especially, water quality will likely degrade and an increase in chemical fertilizers may become more
prevalent, reducing fish production and harvests (Forum, 2022). Health, public safety, biodiversity,
agriculture, and industry are just a few socioeconomic and environmental sectors that could be impacted by
changes in water resources (Forum, 2022).

Warming temperatures' effects will have a significant influence on Japan's agricultural industries. Increases in
regional temperatures have already had a variety of effects on Hokkaido's agricultural industry, both
favourably and negatively to produce fruits and grains. In fact, rising temperatures have had a severe impact
on several fruit crops, and anomalous fruit has been observed across Japan, from grapes that don't turn red to
peaches with dark flesh. According to the IPCC, at doubled atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations,
rice yield is projected to decline by up to 40% in irrigated lowland areas of central and southern Japan (wildlife,
2021). On the other hand, Hokkaido can see a brief boost in grain harvest. But if it does happen, it might not
endure long due to variations in precipitation and soil moisture. Freshwater and saltwater fish will be impacted
by climate change in Japan and its coastal waterways, which poses a threat to the staple of Japanese cuisine.

The Northern Bering Sea was one of the first areas studied to show a significant change in fish ranges and
abundance (EPA, 2020), but similar findings also hold true for Japanese waters. Temperature has an impact
on a fish's metabolism, growth, and distribution. It can also change the effects of predator-prey balances in the
food web, changing the water's nutrient levels. A change in the timing of ice retreat will have an impact on
fish output and consequently Japan's fishing sector because drift ice fosters ice algae, which is the first link in
the ocean food chain (Climate Change and Its Impacts in japan, 2022). Although it is thought that the current
loss in sea-ice extent is the result of both warming temperatures and shifting ocean currents, it is undoubtedly
a symbol of Hokkaido, and without it, Hokkaido would lose some of its cultural integrity.

11
 5. Observed Climate Change

Japan is getting warmer. Over the past century, the average annual temperature in Japan has risen by around
1.0°C (engineer, 2016).Additionally, Japan has been seeing less extreme cold days and more frequent hot days
( days with maximum temperatures higher than 35°C).Unfortunately, Hokkaido, whose average winter
temperatures have increased more than the national average (1.33°C warming for Hokkaido compared to the
national average of 1.09°C), is where this trend is most pronounced (Agency, 2020). Even if the changes in
precipitation across the entirety of Japan may not seem to be as obvious, precipitation events have become
more unpredictable.

According to the IPCC (2007), there haven't been any discernible patterns in either precipitation increasing or
decreasing throughout the course of the 20th century. However, for Japan, the variety has increased in terms
of timing, seasonality, quantity, etc. (EPA, 2020). Planning for agriculture and the management of water
resources would be more challenging if this type of shift resulted in more erratic rainfall patterns. Significant
decreases in annual mean rainfall have been seen in some regions of Japan (Agency, 2020). In the southern
part of the Sea of Okhotsk, including along Hokkaido's coastline, there have also been notable decreases in
snowfall and the duration and extent of sea-ice. However, these changes are primarily caused by shifting ocean
currents and cannot be entirely attributed to climate change (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2020). Over the
past three decades, sea ice has decreased by 4.4% year, according to satellite photos over the Sea of Okhotsk
(EORC, 2008).

In the last four years, the average number of observed days with drifting sea ice has dropped from 87 to 65
days annually (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2008). Japan has experienced an increase in the frequency and
severity of extreme weather occurrences. Extreme rain events have become more frequent over the past 100
years, and this increase has been linked to an increase in frontal weather systems. Additionally, between 1961
and 2000, the highest amount of rainfall has increased (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2020).

Fig. 3 Observed Climate Change as Temperature Increase

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 4. Projected Climate Change

For all East Asia, it is predicted that the annual mean temperature will rise by 3°C by 2050 and by 5°C by
2080. Similar temperature estimates are made for Japan, where annual mean temperatures are predicted to
increase by 2 to 3°C over the course of the next century. In Hokkaido, it is anticipated that the temperature
will rise by more than 4°C near the Sea of Okhotsk (Atlas, 2017) . It is anticipated that the rate of warming
will vary depending on the season and the time of day, with the rate of warming being greater in the winter
than the summer and at night than during the day (IEA, 2021). By 2090, it is anticipated that there would be
20 to 45 days fewer frost days across all of Japan, with Hokkaido and the Sea of Japan seeing the biggest
changes. In East Asia, it is anticipated that summer heatwaves will occur more frequently, last longer, and
be more intense (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2008). Similar to this, a significant rise in the frequency of
exceptionally warm seasons is anticipated in Japan, where the average daytime summer temperature (June,
July, and August) is predicted to rise 3.0 to 4.2°C by 2100 (JMA, Climate Change in Japan, 2020).

Furthermore, a recent Japanese study shows that by 2100, there would be over 100 days annually with
temperatures above 30°C, a dramatic rise from the current 40 days or so. Temperature shifts like these might
cause Japan to go from having four seasons to just three, which would have an impact on the entire society
(Agency, 2020). The eastern equatorial Pacific, which includes the east coast of Hokkaido, will likely see a
rise in sea-surface temperatures of 1 to 6°C as the waters continue to warm. East Asia is also expected to
experience a rise in precipitation and the frequency of intense precipitation events. Over the 21st Century,
average precipitation in Japan is anticipated to rise by more than 10%, especially during the hotter seasons
(reports, 2021). While there may be localized variations, the summer (June to September) precipitation in
Japan is anticipated to rise by 17 to 19%.

Japan's winter precipitation is predicted to either stay the same or slightly decline. In Japan, there will likely
be more variation in precipitation events; the number of heavy precipitation days (days with daily precipitation
of above 30mm/day) is predicted to rise by 5 days per year, and the number of dry days is predicted to rise by
10 days per year (Project, 2019). The amount and frequency of precipitation are expected to rise in Hokkaido.
Climate sensitivity, an increase in sea-surface temperatures of 2 to 4°C Cover current levels may cause a 10
to 20% increase in the intensity of tropical cyclones (MANDATE, 2018).

13
 5. Adaptation

Japan's population and industrial output are largely concentrated in coastal regions, making them particularly
susceptible to the effects of climate change. Particularly vulnerable infrastructure includes steel mills,
shipyards, factories, refineries, gas liquefaction, and chemical facilities in Japan's heavily industrialized ports
(MANDATE, 2018). Japan has a sizable coastline that is vulnerable to storm surges brought on by storm-
surge-related sea-level rise, tsunamis, coastal erosion, and flooding (Knutson, 2004). In actuality, the
susceptible area would be three times greater with a 1-meter sea-level rise because the major industrial centres
of Japan cover an area of about 860 km2 that is below mean highwater (MANDATE, 2018). Unfortunately,
global warming and sea level rise will continue for decades even if CO2 concentrations were to be stabilized
at current levels. Adaptation methods should be incorporated into current national frameworks and climate
change assessments should be incorporated into national policies in order to successfully deal with the
inevitable temperature rises and their effects, such as coastal inundation and floods.

According to the IPCC's recommendations, purposeful retreat, adaptation, and prevention may be used in
relation to adaptive measures for social infrastructure defence, coastal zone protection, and agricultural
production and cultivation techniques.

Fortunately, there is mounting evidence in Japan that the transportation and construction industries are now
taking climate change implications and adaptation strategies into account (Agency, 2020), and that adaption
techniques frequently involve coastal defence structures. However, it's projected that US$115 billion would
be required to safeguard Japan's infrastructure from a just 1-meter rise in sea level (IIED, 2007).

Fig. 4 Adaption and Mitigation to Climate Change

14
 Conclusion

• This report demonstrates that climate change is already having an impact on Japan's ecosystems,
biodiversity, and cultural aspects, for example identity and heritage. The repercussions of changes
range from symbolic ones like the iconic cherry trees' early blossoming to life-threatening and
expensive ones like sea level rise and extreme weather.

• According to the science synthesized for this paper, a changing climate will increasingly force
irreversible change on the people of Japan. Despite its great capacity for adaptability, Japan is
nevertheless very susceptible to the effects of global warming.

• As a result, it needs to urgently reduce greenhouse gas emissions while putting adaptation plans
into place as soon as possible. If we don’t take action now, the overall costs and hazards of climate
change will be comparable to losing 5 to 20% of global GDP per year, according to sir Nicholas
Stern (2006), Head of the U.K. Government Economic Service. Stern emphasizes that the costs of
decreasing greenhouse gas emissions to prevent the worst effects of climate change may be kept to
less than 1% of the global GDP per year, in contrast to these astronomical costs of inaction.

• The greatest challenge we face is probably global climate change and given the amount of
greenhouse gases we have already released into the atmosphere; we are obligated to continue
warming the planet by at least 0.6°C over the coming years.

• To combat climate change and its effects, we urgently need to reduce our greenhouse gas emissions
and deploy suitable and efficient adaption techniques. The world still has time to prevent the worst
effects of climate change, but time is running out to take the necessary steps to keep temperature
below the risky 2°C threshold.

• Industrialized nations like Japan must take responsibility for the current climate issue and lead the
way in climate change issue and lead the way in climate mitigation and adaptation. Both human
lives and material resources are lost as a result of floods.

• Our empirical analyses, which are based on historical data from Japan, indicate that the indirect
effects of flood damage on the real economy, land values, and financial conditions of FIs have not
always been significant over the study periods and tend to fade out over the medium- to long-term
as the reconstruction process progresses.

15
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 Appendices

Fig. 1 & 2 of News Articles after Tsunami

Fig. 3 Japan Economic Crisis

Fig. 4 Effects on Human Health