BONE

● B one is a mineralized
connective tissue consisting
by weight of about 28% type I
collagen and 5%
noncollagenous, structural
matrix proteins such as bone
sialoprotein, osteocalcin,
osteonectin, osteopontin, and
proteoglycans; growth factors
and serum proteins also are
found in bone
● Bones have been classified as long or flat based
on their gross appearance. Long bones include
the bones of the limbs (e.g., tibia, femur, radius,
ulna, and humerus).
● Characteristic of all bones are a dense outer
sheet of compact bone and a central,
medullary cavity.
● In living bone the cavity is filled with red or
yellow bone marrow that is interrupted,
particularly at the extremities of long bones,
by a network of bone trabeculae (trabecular,
cancellous, or spongy bone are the terms
used to describe
● Mature or adult bones, whether compact or
trabecular, are histologically identical in that
they consist of microscopic layers or
lamellae.
● Three distinct types of layering are
recognized:
a. circumferential
b. concentric
c. interstitial
● Circumferential lamellae enclose the entire
adult bone, forming its outer and inner
perimeters.
● Concentric lamellae make up the bulk of
compact bone and form the basic metabolic
unit of bone, the osteon (also called the
haversian system).
● The osteon is a cylinder of bone, generally
oriented parallel to the long axis of the bone.
● In the center of each is a canal, the
haversian canal, which is lined by a single
layer of bone cells that cover the bone
surface; each canal houses a capillary.
● Adjacent haversian canals are
interconnected by Volkmann canals,
channels that, like haversian canals, contain
blood vessels, thus creating a rich vascular
network throughout compact bone.
 ● Interstitial lamellae are interspersed between adjacent
concentric lamellae and fill the spaces between them.
● Interstitial lamellae are actually fragments of preexisting
concentric lamellae from osteons created during remodeling that
can take a multitude of shapes.
● Surrounding the outer aspect of every compact bone
is connective tissue membrane, the periosteum,
which has two layers.
● The outer layer of the periosteum consists of a dense,
irregular connective tissue termed the fibrous layer
● The inner layer of the periosteum, next to the
bone surface, consists of bone cells, their
precursors, and a rich microvascular supply.
● The internal surfaces of compact and cancellous
bone are covered by endosteum.
BONE CELLS

● Different cells are responsible for the formation, resorption,

and maintenance of osteoarch itecture.
● Two cell lineages are present in bone, each with specific
functions:
(1) osteogenic cells, which form and maintain bone, and
(2 ) os teoclasts, wh ich resorb bone
OSTEOCYTES
● As osteoblasts form bone, some become entrapped
within the matrix they secrete, whether mineralized or
unmineralized; these cells then are called osteocytes

● The number of osteoblasts that become osteocytes varies

depending on the rapidity of bone formation; the more
rapid the formation, the more osteocytes are present
per unit volume.
● As a general rule, embryonic (woven)
bone and repair bone have more osteocytes than does
lamellar bone.
● After their formation, osteocytes become reduced in
size.
● The space in the matrix occupied by an osteocyte is
called the osteocytic lacuna
● Narrow extensions of these lacunae form enclosed channels, or
canaliculi, that house radiating osteocytic processes
OSTEOCLASTS
Compared with all other bone cells and their precursors,
the multinucleated osteoclast is a much larger cell.
Because of their size, osteoclasts can be identified easily
under the light microscope and often are seen in clusters

The osteoclast
is characterized cytochemically by possessing tartrate-resist-
ant acid phosphatase within its cytoplasmic vesicles and
vacuoles which distinguishes it from mult-
inucleated giant cells. Different osteoclast morphologies
occur; however, unequivocally determining whether the
cell is about to initiate or terminate resorption based
solely on appearance is difficult.
ENDOCHONDRAL BONE
FORMATION
● Endochondral bone formation occurs at the extremities of
all long bones, vertebrae, and ribs and at the articular
extremity of the mandible and base of the skull.
● Early in embryonic development a condensation of
mesenchymal cells occurs.

● Cartilage cells differentiate from these

mesenchymal cells, and a perichondrium forms around the
periphery, giving rise to a cartilage model that eventually
is replaced by bone.

● Rapid growth of this cartilage anlage ensues by interstitial

growth within its core (as more and more cartilage matrix is
secreted by each chondroblast) and by appositional growth
through cell proliferation and matrix secretion within the
expanding perichondrium.
INTRAMEMBRANOUS BONE
FORMATION
● Intramembranous bone formation was first recognized
when early anatomists observed that th e fontane lles of
fetal and newborn skulls were filled with a connective
tissue membrane that was replaced gradually by bone
during development and growth of the skull.
● In intramembranous bone formation, bone develops
directly within the soft connective tissue.
● The mesenchymal cells proliferate and condense.
● Concurrent with an increase in vascularity at these
sites of condensed mesenchyme, osteoblasts differentiate and
begin to produce bone matrix .
● A s the mesenchymal cells differentiate into osteoblasts,
they start exhibiting alkaline phosphatase activity.
● This sequence of events occurs at multiple sites within
each bone of the cranial vault, maxilla, body of the
mandible, and midshaft of long bones.
SUTURAL BONE GROWTH
● Sutures play an important role in the growing
face and skull.
● Found exclusively in the skull, sutures are the
fibrous joints between bones; however, sutures
allow only limited movement.
● Their function is to permit the skull and face to
accommodate growing organs such as the
eyes and brain.
BONE TURNOVER (REMODELING)
● The process by which the overall size and shape of
bones is established is referred to as bone modeling
and extends from embryonic bone development to
the preadult period of human growth.
● During this phase, bone is being formed rapidly,
primarily (but not exclusively) on the periosteal
surface.
● Simultaneously, bone is being destroyed along the
endosteal surface at focal points along the periosteal
surface and within the osteons of compact bone.
● Because bones increase greatly in length and
thickness during growth, bone formation occurs at a
much greater rate than bone resorption.
● This replace-ment of old bone by new is called bone
turnover or remodeling.