The Origin of Life
spontaneous generation.
There were many theories inferred by different
scientists on the origin of life. These theories may or
may not have a scientific basis. Such for instance are
the Theory of Special Creation, Theory of
Panspermia or the Extraterrestrial Origin, Theory of
Spontaneous Generation, Theory of Evolution,
Theory of Biogenesis, Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent
Theory, and Theory of Biochemical Evolution.
The theory of special creation is at the core of most
major religions that life was created by supernatural
divine forces. This theory accounts that God created
life as written in the bible.
Another possibility proposes that cosmic dust may
have carried significant amounts of complex organic
molecules to Earth. Nor is life on other planets ruled
out as according to the theory of panspermia or the
extraterrestrial.
Meanwhile, the theory of spontaneous generation
says that life may have evolved from inanimate
matter associated with molecules and became
complex. The complexity of the molecules
culminated in the evolution of cells.
Since forth, the time of Charles Darwin came, and
the theory of evolution has been subjected to more
scrutiny for investigation just like the other scientific
claim.
Evolution is defined as any process of formation,
growth, or development. Charles Darwin published a
book on evolution in 1859 titled “On the Origin of
Species”. He also presented a lot of facts that
evolution occurs. The following are the main pieces
of evidence supporting evolution:
1. Species share similarities as a sign of their
common ancestry, such as diverse insects have six
(6) legs.
2. There are progressions of species changing over
time such as wild mustard is associated with other
vegetables like broccoli, cabbage, and cauliflower.
3. The traits which are shown by the species with
remnants of the past generation such as manatees
(Trichechus manatus) are closely related to
elephants as shown by the fingernails on the flippers
and hair on the body.
The theory of biogenesis says that living things come
from other living things. This theory was developed
by Rudolf Virchow in 1858 as a counterhypothesis to
Whereas, the deep-sea hydrothermal vent theory
proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane
mentioned the primordial soup theory. Life started
in a primordial soup of organic molecules. Some
form of energy from lightning combined with the
chemicals in the atmosphere to make the amino
acids (the building block of proteins.
Finally, the theory of biochemical evolution
proposed that at the molecular level in organisms
had changed over a period. These changes caused
deletions, additions, or substitutions of single
nucleotides thus the genomes were duplicated.
Early Forms of Life
The divergence that separated the two prokaryotic
domains, Bacteria, and Archaea, occurred very rarely
in the history of life, and no fossils from before this
divergence have been discovered.
It has been studied that the first form of life is
believed to have appeared 3.5 billion years ago.
Paleontologists are the scientists who study fossils
found microscopic living cells known as microfossils
in rocks that formed 3.5 billion years ago after Earth
cooled and solidified using radioisotope dating
(which uses radioactive materials such as the
radioactive components of potassium-argon). The
microfossils’ filaments found in Western Australia
resemble chains of modern photosynthetic bacteria
and the rocks in which they occur are thought to be
remains of ancient stromatolites which are
mounded, layered structure that forms in shallow
sunlit water when a mat of photosynthetic bacteria
traps minerals and sediment. These stromatolites
increase in size over time as new layers form over
the old. These organisms have been so abundant
1.25 billion years ago and were common worldwide.
Many types of bacteria carry out photosynthesis, but
only one group, cyanobacteria, does so by an
oxygen-producing pathway. The microfossils of
Figure 1. Example of microfossils of Sulphur-
metabolizing cells in 3.4-billion-year-old rocks of
Western Australia cyanobacteria were among the
easiest to recognize. The forms of these organisms
were remained the same and left chemical fossils in
the form of broken products from pigments. The first
microfossil that showed remains of organisms with
differences in structure and characteristics was seen
1.5 billion years ago on the rocks. They are bigger
compared to bacteria and have internal membranes
and thicker walls. These findings marked the
beginning of eukaryotic organisms on Earth. The
evolution of oxygen-producing photosynthesis in
cyanobacteria had started in early life. About 2.5
billion years ago, oxygen released by these bacteria
had begun to accumulate in Earth’s air and creating
a new, global selection pressure. Other species
considered oxygen as toxic thus evolved gradually in
its absence.

How did multicellular organisms evolve?

Multicellular organisms are believed to have evolved
from unicellular eukaryotes and until now it is the
concept that we believe. Some single eukaryotic
cells, like unicellular algae, formed multicellular
aggregates through association with other cell-
producing colonies. From colonial aggregates, the
organisms evolved to form multicellular organisms
through cell specialization. Organisms like
protozoans, sponges, and fungi came to be being.
The first fossilized animals which were discovered
580 million years ago were soft-bodied. The
continuous process of cell specialization brought the
emergence of complex and diverse plants and
animals, including human beings. Charles Darwin
said that organisms change over time as a result of
adaptation to their environment to survive.

Rise of the Eukaryotes

The nucleus is not often preserved during

fossilization, but other traits provide evidence that a
fossilized cell was eukaryotic. These eukaryotic cells
are generally larger than the prokaryotic cells. A cell
wall with complex patterns, spines, or spikes
probably belonged to eukaryotes. Researchers and
scientists also look for biomarkers (the substance
that occurs only or predominantly in cells of a
specific type) for each eukaryote just like the
steroids found present only to eukaryotes.
● The existence of life on Earth was about billions of
years as Scientists believed and no exact date when
life begins on Earth.
● Some emerging pieces of evidence used to trace
how life developed and evolved through the
possibilities or theories proposed by scientists, such
as the Theories and possibilities, Theory of Special
Creation, Theory of Panspermia or the
Extraterrestrial Origin, Theory of Spontaneous
Generation, Theory of Evolution, Theory of
Biogenesis, Deep-Sea Hydrothermal Vent Theory,
and Theory of Biochemical Evolution.
● Theory of Special Creation is the core of major
religions in which life forms were created through a
divine force.
● Theory of Panspermia/Extraterrestrial Origin
proposed that life may not have originated on Earth
at all, but is attributed to the cosmic dust slammed
on Earth that formed the complex organic
molecules.
● Theory of Spontaneous Generation states that life
evolved from molecules which then more complex
associations were formed due to their stability.
● Theory of Evolution is most associated with
Charles Darwin who published a book about the
diversity of life due to natural selection.
● Theory of Biogenesis tells that living things
originated from other living things and was
developed by Rudolf Virchow in 1858.
● Deep Sea Hydrothermal Vent Theory were
proposed by Alexander Oparin and John Haldane
whom tells that organic molecules were once the
primal source of life in which energy from lightning
combined with the chemicals in the atmosphere to
make the building block of proteins.
● Theory of Biochemical Evolution mentioned that
organisms’ molecular level had changed over a
period due to deletions, additions, or substitutions
of single nucleotides thus the genomes duplicated.
● Early forms of life were microscopic.
● Prokaryotic cells are primitive, unicellular, small in
size, and non- bounded membrane. Whereas,
eukaryotic cells are advanced, multicellular, true
nucleus present, larger in Size, and membrane-
bounded.
● Eukaryotic cells have organelles with specific
functions to keep the life of every organism.
CELL ORGANELLES
 Organelle-little organs; specialized structure that
perform specific jobs in the cell
 Found only in eukaryotic cells; many are
membrane bounded
 Cytosol: watery matrix that organelles float in
 Cytoplasm: everything in the cell except the
nucleus
CELL MEMBRANE
 Surrounds the cell and decides what comes in
and out
 Semi permeable: allows nutrients in and waste
products out
 Also called plasma membrane
 Factory parts; gate or doors
 Found in plant, animals and prokaryotic cells
NUCLEUS
 Control center of the cell
 Stores DNA (chromosomes)
 Surrounds by the nuclear membrane; pores let
material in and out
 Also contains the nucleolus, which makes
ribosomes
 Factory part: managers office
 Found in plants and animal cell
RIBOSOMES
 Smallest organelle
 Not surrounded by membrane
 Makes protein according to DNA instruction
 Two types: free ribosomes: float free in cytosol,
bound ribosomes: attached to the rough ER
 Factory part: machines
 Found in plant, anima and prokaryotic cell
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Transport system for materials I cell
 Two types: rough ER: covered with ribosomes;
site of protein synthesis
smooth ER: it makes hormones and lipids
 Factory part conveyor belt
 Found in: plants, animal cell
GOLGI APPARATUS
 Delivery of the cell
 Collects, modifies and package molecules in cell
 Distributes and transport molecules in vesicle
 Factory part; post office or mail room
 Found in plant, animal cell
MITOCHONDRIA
 Powerhouse of the cell
 Site of cellular respiration
 Converts energy stored in food into energy the
cell needs- ATP
 Sugar+oxygen—carbon dioxide+water+ATP
ATP= adenosine triphosphate
 Factory part: power plant/ electrical room
 Found in: plant, animal cells
CHLOROPLAST
 Found only in plant cells and algae
 Contains green pigment, chlorophyll
 Changes sunlight (solar energy into foodlike
glucose (chemical energy))
 Sunlight+ carbon dioxide+ water—sugar+oxygen
 Factory part: solar powered energy panels
 Found in plant cells
CELL WALLS
 Rigid, protective barrier (contains cell shape)
 Found in plant and bacteria cells
 Located outside of the cell membrane
 Made of cellulose (carbohydrate fiber)
 Factory part: factory gates
 Found in plant cells and some prokaryotic cells
VACUOLES
 Large central vacuole usually in plant cells
 Many smaller vacuoles in animal cells
 Storage container for food, water, enzymes,
waste etc.
 Supports cell shape in plants
 Factory part: storage room
 Found in plant cells, animal cell (smaller)
REPRODUCTION
Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction is the perpetuation of a new

organism from two organisms with the use of
gametes. In this process, male gametes which is the
sperm cell fuses with a female gamete known as the
egg cell to form a diploid cell called zygote
containing two sets of chromosomes. During sexual
reproduction, the genetic material contained in their
chromosomes combine to produce genetically
diverse offspring that are different from both
parents. Most mammals and amphibians reproduce
through the method of sexual reproduction.

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction is defined as the formation of

new individuals from the cells of a single parent. This
is very common in plants and is less common in
animals. Asexual reproduction does not involve the
union of gametes (sperm cell and egg cell) and it
does not change the number of chromosomes
present. The resulting offspring is similar or identical
to the parent and without the need for a mate, they
are able to reproduce. There are different types of
asexual reproduction in animals.

FRAGMENTATION- pieces of the parent breaks off and

develop into a new animal

BINARY- process in which an organism divides into two

and grow into a new organism

BUDDING- process outgrowth or callus projecting from the

parent and eventually buds off

PARGENOGENESIS- mechanism of asexual reproduction in

which female offspring develops from unfertilized eggs

TRANSVIRSI- fission that involves direct reproduction in

which each portion regenerates missing parts to become a
complete new animal depending on the axis of separation

OVIPAROUS ANIMALS that lay their egg with little or no

other embryonic development within the parent

VIVIPAROUS ANIMALS- bringing forth live young that have

developed inside the body of parent

Each of the body systems relies on the others to
work well. The respiratory system relies on the
circulatory system to deliver the oxygen it gathers,
while the muscles of the heart cannot function
without the oxygen they receive from the lungs. The
bones of the skull and spine protect the brain and
spinal cord, but the brain regulates the position of
the bones by controlling the muscles. The circulatory
system provides the brain with a constant supply of
oxygen-rich blood while the brain regulates the
heart rate and blood pressure
1. The digestive system relies on the circulatory
system to deliver the nutrients to the entire
body of the organism.
2. The respiratory system provides oxygen to
the organ system.
3. Carbon dioxide from cells is delivered from
the circulatory system back to the respiratory
system so it can exit the body.
4. The circulatory system carries the waste from
throughout the organism to the urinary system,
which takes care of excreting the waste from
the organism. 5. The circulatory system and the
respiratory system interact to deliver oxygen to
and to remove carbon dioxide from cells.
Animal cells need constant supply of nutrients such
as water, oxygen, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins,
and vitamins (Weigel 2018,1). They must also
eliminate waste products like carbon dioxide and
nitrogen-containing compounds. But how it is
possible to take place?
In single-celled organism, exchange of materials
occurs directly with the external environment.
However, multicellular animals cannot exchange
materials this way. Instead, various organ systems
perform functions of exchange. The different parts
and organs of each organ systems play a very
important role in the unique characteristic and
function in keeping animals alive.
Organ system is a set of organs that that work
together to perform an intricate function in the body
(Brouhard 2020,1). The heart for example is the
main organ of the circulatory system.
ORGAN SYSTEM - PARTS/ ORGANS
Respiratory System - Nose, Trachea, Lungs and Skin
Circulatory System - Heart, Blood Vessels, Veins
Nervous System - Brain, Spinal Cord and Peripheral
Nerves
Digestive system - Mouth, Esophagus, Stomach,
Liver, Gall Bladder, Pancreas, Small and Large
Intestines
Endocrine System - Glands, Hormones
Reproductive system - Reproductive Organs and
Endocrine Glands such as the Hypothalamus, Pineal,
Thyroid, Pancreas and Adrenals
Muscular system - Skeletal, Smooth, and Cardiac
Muscles
Immune system - White Blood Cells, Antibodies,
Complement System, Lymphatic System, Spleen,
Thymus, Bone Marrow
Lymphatic System - Bone Marrow, Thymus, Lymph
Nodes, Spleen, Tonsils, Mucous Membranes
Skeletal System - Bones, Cartilage, Ligaments, Axial-
Skull, Spine, Rib Cage, Appendicular- Appendages,
Girdles
Urinary System - Kidneys, Renal Pelvis, Ureters,
Bladder, Urethra
ORGAN SYSTEM - FUNCTIONS
Circulatory System - Transports nutrients, gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide), hormones, and wastes
throughout the body.
Digestive System - Converts air, food and water into
building materials for living tissue. Breaks down
food, absorbs nutrients and eliminates wastes.
Lymphatic System - Destroys and removes invading
microbes and viruses. Removes fat and excess fluids
from the blood
Muscular/Skeletal System - Provides structure and
mobility, and even controls the movement of
materials through some organs.
Nervous System - Relays electrical signals, directs
behavior and movement, and helps control
physiological processes such as digestion, circulation,
respiration, etc.
Reproductive/Endocrine System - Manufactures cells
that create and support new life. Regulates
hormones and relays chemical messages throughout
the body.
Respiratory System - Provides oxygen and gas
exchange between the blood and the environment.
Urinary System/Excretory System - Filters wastes,
toxins, excess water and nutrients from the
circulatory system
There are four basic types of digestive systems;
monogastric, avian, ruminant, and pseudo-ruminant
(Gallagher 2020,1).
1. A monogastric digestive system has one
simple stomach that secretes acid. This acid destroys
most bacteria in the stomach and break down the
foods into its simplest form. They can easily digest
foods with high in energy and low in fiber.
2. The avian digestive system is found in
poultry, animals that do not have teeth. They break
their food into small pieces by pecking it with their
beaks or scratching them before swallowing. Food
enters the mouth, travels to the esophagus, and into
the crop. The crop is where the food is stored and
soaked. The food moves to the stomach of birds
called proventriculus where the gastric enzymes and
hydrochloric acid are secreted. From there, the food
goes to the gizzard, a very muscular organ, which
contains stones that act like teeth to grind the food.
The food then moves to the small intestine and to
the large intestine. The food components that
cannot be digested move to the cloaca.
3. The ruminant digestive system has a large
stomach divided into four compartments—the
rumen, the reticulum, the omasum, and the
abomasum. They are herbivores, which eat large
amounts of fiber. Their digestive system can digest
large amount of cellulose. Their foods are not
chewed well and are swallowed in large quantities.
The first compartment of the stomach is the rumen
which has millions of bacteria and microbes that
helps in the partial break down of foods. And since
these animals do not chew well their foods before
swallowing, the reticulum traps foreign materials,
such as wire, and nails. From the reticulum, the
digested cellulose is swallowed into the omasum
that removes water and passes to abomasum where
it is digested by the enzyme produced by the
ruminant.
4. The Pseudo-ruminant digestive system is
found in animals that eat large amounts of fiber but
do not have stomach with several compartments.
The digestive system has the same functions of
those of ruminants.
Different types of Respiratory systems have evolved
in animals. They all function to exchange in oxygen
and carbon dioxide with the environment and
internal fluids of the transport system. The gases are
then transported to and from the tissue where cell
respiration occurs.
Small multicellular animals such as the Hydra have
no respiratory organs. Gases are exchange directly
by diffusion between the organism and environment
through the epidermal cells. These animals have no
need for a transport system because all their cells
are in contact with the external environment. In an
earthworm, the surface of the skin has a film of
moist, mucus-like material where gas molecules
dissolve and diffuse.

More complex animals have specialized surfaces

where gas exchange takes place. Organisms that live
in different habitats have different kinds of
respiratory surfaces. The gills of some aquatic
animals like crustaceans, mollusks provide a large
respiratory surface. Oxygen and carbon dioxide are
exchange between the blood surrounding the gills
and the watery environment.

Land dwelling insects have developed a system of air

tubes called trachea. Air enter the insect’s body
through openings called spiracles along the side of
the body. From these openings, the trachea branch
into smaller tubes that have direct contact with the
cells. Thus, the cells easily receive oxygen and give
off carbon dioxide by diffusion through the walls of
the air tubes. The insect’s respiratory system is not
connected to its circulatory system.

Summary

• Organ system is a group of organs that contribute

to specific function to the body.

• Each organ system is composed of accessory

organs to carry out its function.

• The organ systems in advanced animals:

Circulatory system, Digestive System, respiratory,
circulatory, nervous, digestive, endocrine,
reproductive, muscular, immune, lymphatic, skeletal,
and urinary systems.

• Animals from different habitats differ on the way

they exchange gases from the body and
environment.

• Animals differ in their ability to digest food,

depending on their types of digestive system.

• There four types of Digestive System: Monogastric

Digestive System, Avian Digestive System, Ruminant
Digestive System, and Pseudo-ruminant Digestive
System

• Each organ system works harmoniously to

maintain the homeostasis with the other organ
system to ensure animal survival.