The Ideal Gas Law

THE LASALLIAN PRAYER

I will continue, O my God, to do all

my actions for the love of you.

St. John Baptist de La Salle, pray for

us.

Live Jesus in our hearts, Forever.

22/07/2022 2
Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number
To facilitate comparison of the mass of one atom with another, a mass
scale known as the atomic mass scale has been established.

The unit is called the atomic mass unit (symbol u). The reference
element is chosen to be the most abundant type or isotope of carbon,
which is called carbon-12.

The atomic mass is given in atomic mass units. For example, a Li atom
has a mass of 6.941 u.

𝟏 u = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg
Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number
One MOLE of a substance contains as many particles as there
are atoms in 12 grams of the isotope cabron-12.

The number of atoms per mole is known as Avogadro’s

number, NA.

𝑵𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 mol−𝟏

𝑵
𝒏=
𝑵𝑨
number of number of
MOLES ATOMS
Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number
The MOLE is the SI base unit for expressing “the amount of a
substance”.

1 mole of an object = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 (#)

# - number of objects

Examples are:
# - number of Sulfur atoms
# - number of H2O molecules
# - number of Air molecules
 Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number

𝑵 𝒎particle 𝑵 𝒎
𝒏= 𝒏= =
𝑵𝑨 𝒎particle𝑵𝑨 Mass per mole

The mass per mole (in g/mol) of a substance has the same numerical
value as the atomic or molecular mass of the substance (in atomic
mass units).

For example Hydrogen has an molar mass of 1.00794 g/mol, while the
mass of a single hydrogen atom is 1.00794 u.
Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number - Example
The Hope Diamond and the Rosser Reeves Ruby
The Hope diamond (44.5 carats) is almost pure carbon. The Rosser Reeves ruby (138 carats) is primarily
aluminum oxide (Al2O3). One carat is equivalent to a mass of 0.200 g. Determine (a) the number of carbon
atoms in the Hope diamond and (b) the number of Al2O3 molecules in the ruby.

𝒎
(a) 𝒏=
Mass per mole

𝟒𝟒. 𝟓 carats 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 g Τ 1 carat

𝒏 =
𝟏𝟐. 𝟎𝟏𝟏 𝐠Τmol

𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟏 mol

𝑵 = 𝒏𝑵𝑨

𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟒𝟏 mol 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 mol−𝟏

𝑵 = 𝟒. 𝟒𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 atoms
Molecular Mass, the Mole, and Avogadro’s Number - Example
The Hope Diamond and the Rosser Reeves Ruby
The Hope diamond (44.5 carats) is almost pure carbon. The Rosser Reeves ruby (138 carats) is primarily
aluminum oxide (Al2O3). One carat is equivalent to a mass of 0.200 g. Determine (a) the number of carbon
atoms in the Hope diamond and (b) the number of Al2O3 molecules in the ruby.

𝒎
(b) 𝒏=
Mass per mole

𝟏𝟑𝟖 carats 𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟎 g Τ 1 carat

=
𝟏𝟎𝟏. 𝟗𝟔 𝐠Τmol
𝟐 𝟐𝟔.𝟗𝟖 +𝟑 𝟏𝟓.𝟗𝟗

𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏 mol

𝑵 = 𝒏𝑵𝑨

𝑵 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟕𝟏 mol 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 mol−𝟏

𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 molecules
The Ideal Gas Law
An IDEAL GAS is an idealized model for real gases that have
sufficiently low densities.

The condition of low density means that the molecules are so far
apart that they do not interact except during (elastic) collisions.

The ideal gas law expresses the relationship between the absolute
pressure, the Kelvin temperature, the volume, and the number of
moles of the gas.

At constant volume, the pressure

is proportional to the temperature. 𝑷∝𝑻
The Ideal Gas Law
At constant temperature, the pressure is
inversely proportional to the volume.

𝑷 ∝ 𝟏Τ𝑽

The pressure is also proportional

to the amount of gas.

𝑷∝𝒏
The Ideal Gas Law
THE IDEAL GAS LAW

The absolute pressure of an ideal gas is directly proportional to the Kelvin

temperature and the number of moles of the gas and is inversely proportional
to the volume of the gas.

𝑷∝𝑻
𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻
𝑷 ∝ 𝟏 Τ𝑽 𝑷=
𝑽 where R is the universal gas constant and
has the value of 8.31 J/(mol K).
𝑷∝𝒏
The Ideal Gas Law
𝑹
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵
𝑵𝑨
𝑻 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻

𝑵 𝑹 𝟖. 𝟑𝟏 𝐉Τ mol ⋅ 𝐊
𝒏= 𝒌= = = 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝐉Τ𝐊
𝑵𝑨
𝑵𝑨 6.022 × 1023 mol−𝟏

The constant k is referred to as Boltzmann’s constant, in honor of the

Austrian physicist Ludwig Boltzmann (1844-1906)

𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻
The Ideal Gas Law - Example
Oxygen in the Lungs
In the lungs, the respiratory membrane separates tiny sacs of air (pressure 1.00 x 105 Pa) from the blood in
the capillaries. These sacs are called alveoli. The average radius of the alveoli is 0.125 mm, and the air inside
contains 14% oxygen. Assuming that the air behaves as an ideal gas at 310K, find the number of oxygen
molecules in one of these spherical sacs.

𝑷𝑽
𝑷𝑽 = 𝑵𝒌𝑻 𝑵=
𝒌𝑻

𝟒 𝟑
𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 Pa 𝝅 𝟎. 𝟏𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐦
𝑵= 𝟑
𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟑 𝐉Τ𝐊 𝟑𝟏𝟎 K

𝑵 = 𝟏. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒

https://www.verywellhealth.com/what-are-alveoli-2249043
Number of O2 molecules = 𝟏. 𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟒 × 𝟎. 𝟏𝟒 = 𝟐. 𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑
 The Ideal Gas Law
Consider a sample of an ideal gas that is taken from an initial to a final
state, with the amount of the gas remaining constant.

𝑷𝑽 𝑷𝒇 𝑽𝒇 𝑷𝒊 𝑽𝒊
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻 = 𝒏𝑹 = constant =
𝑻 𝑻𝒇 𝑻𝒊

BOYLE’S LAW CHARLES’ LAW

𝑷𝒇 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑷𝒊 𝑽𝒊 𝑽𝒇 𝑽𝒊
Constant T, constant n: Constant P, constant n: =
𝑻𝒇 𝑻𝒊
Boyle’s Law
• Robert Boyle was the first person to
study this pressure-volume
relationship in a systematic way.
• Boyle’s law states that for a given
mass of gas at constant temperature,
the volume of the gas varies inversely
with pressure.
P1  V1 = P2  V2
 Sample Problem 14.1

Using Boyle’s Law

A balloon contains 30.0 L of
helium gas at 103 kPa. What is
the volume of the helium when
the balloon rises to an altitude
where the pressure is only
25.0 kPa? (Assume that the
temperature remains constant.)
 Sample Problem 14.1

1 Analyze List the knowns and the

unknown.
Use Boyle’s law (P1  V1 = P2  V2) to
calculate the unknown volume (V2).

KNOWNS UNKNOWN
P1 = 103 kPa V2 = ? L
V1 = 30.0 L
P2 = 25.0 kPa
 Sample Problem 14.1

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Start with Boyle’s law.

P1  V1 = P2  V2
 Sample Problem 14.1

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Rearrange the equation to isolate V2.

P1  V1 = P2  V2 Isolate V2 by dividing
both sides by P2:
P1  V1 = P2  V2
V1  P1 P2 P2
V2 =
P2
 Sample Problem 14.1

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Substitute the known values for P1, V1,

and P2 into the equation and solve.

30.0 L  103 kPa

V2 =
25.0 kPa

V2 = 1.24  102 L
 Sample Problem 14.1

3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

• A decrease in pressure at constant

temperature must correspond to a
proportional increase in volume.
• The calculated result agrees with
both kinetic theory and the pressure-
volume relationship.
• The units have canceled correctly.
Charles’s Law
Charles’s law states that the volume of
a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its Kelvin temperature if
the pressure is kept constant.

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
 CHEMISTRY & YOU

A hot air balloon contains a

propane burner onboard to
heat the air inside the balloon.
What happens to the volume of
the balloon as the air is heated?
 CHEMISTRY & YOU

A hot air balloon contains a propane burner

onboard to heat the air inside the balloon.
What happens to the volume of the balloon
as the air is heated?

According to Charles’s law,

as the temperature of the air
increases, the volume of the
balloon also increases.
 Sample Problem 14.2

Using Charles’s Law

o
A balloon inflated in a room at 24 C has a
volume of 4.00 L. The balloon is then heated
o
to a temperature of 58 C. What is the new
volume if the pressure remains constant?
 Sample Problem 14.2

1 Analyze List the knowns and the

unknown.
Use Charles’s law (V1/T1 = V2/T2) to
calculate the unknown volume (V2).

KNOWNS UNKNOWN
V1 = 4.00 L V2 = ? L
o
T1 = 24 C
o
T2 = 58 C
 Sample Problem 14.2

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Because you will use a gas law, start by

expressing the temperatures in Kelvins.
o
T1 = 24 C + 273 = 297 K
o
T2 = 58 C + 273 = 331 K
 Sample Problem 14.2

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Write the equation for Charles’s law.

V1 V2
=
T1 T2
 Sample Problem 14.2

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Rearrange the equation to isolate V2.

V1 V2 Isolate V2 by multiplying
= both sides by T2:
T1 T2
T2  V1 = V2  T2
T1 T2

V1  T2
V2 =
T1
 Sample Problem 14.2

2 Calculate Solve for the unknown.

Substitute the known values for T1, V1,

and T2 into the equation and solve.

4.00 L  331 K
V2 =
297 K

V2 = 4.46 L
 Sample Problem 14.2

3 Evaluate Does the result make sense?

• The volume increases as the

temperature increases.
• This result agrees with Charles’s law.
Diffusion
The process in which molecules move from a region of higher concentration to one of lower
concentration is called DIFFUSION.
Diffusion
(a) Solute diffuses through the channel from
the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration.

(b) Heat is conducted along a bar whose

ends are maintained at different
temperatures
Diffusion
FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION
The mass m of solute that diffuses in a time t through a solvent contained in a channel of
length L and cross sectional area A is

𝑫𝑨𝜟𝑪 𝒕
𝒎=
𝑳

diffusion concentration difference

constant between ends

SI Units for the Diffusion Constant: m2/s

Diffusion - Example
Water Given Off by Plant Leaves
Large amounts of water can be given off by plants. Inside the leaf, water passes
from the liquid phase to the vapor phase at the walls of the mesophyll cells. The
diffusion constant for water is 2.4x10-5 m2/s. A stomatal pore has a cross
sectional area of about 8.0x10-11 m2 and a length of about 2.5x10-5 m. The
concentration on the interior side of the pore is roughly 0.022 kg/m3, while that on
the outside is approximately 0.011 kg/m3. Determine the mass of water that
passes through the stomatal pore in one hour.

𝑫𝑨𝜟𝑪 𝒕
𝒎=
𝑳

𝟐. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐦𝟐 Τ𝐬 𝟖. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝐦𝟐 𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 kgΤ𝐦𝟑 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟏 kgΤ𝐦𝟑 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 s

𝒎=
2.5 × 10−5𝐦

𝒎 = 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟗 kg
Diffusion

Drug delivery
mechanisms use diffusion
for drug to reach the
bloodstream.

“transdermal” means
“across the skin.”

A Transdermal Patch
 Summary
Conversion factor for 𝟏 u = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟔𝟎𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg
Atomic mass units Ideal Gas Law 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒏𝑹𝑻

𝑵 Temperature MUST BE IN KELVIN

Number of moles 𝒏=
number of
atoms/molecules
in a given sample 𝑵𝑨

𝑵𝑨 = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑 mol−𝟏 CHARLES’ LAW 𝑽𝒇 𝑽𝒊

Constant P, constant n: =
𝒏=
𝒎 Mass of given 𝑻𝒇 𝑻𝒊
sample
Mass per mole

FICK’S LAW OF DIFFUSION BOYLE’S LAW

𝑫𝑨𝜟𝑪 𝒕 D - diffusion constant Constant T, constant n: 𝑷𝒇 𝑽𝒇 = 𝑷𝒊 𝑽𝒊
𝒎= 𝚫𝑪 - concentration difference
𝑳 between ends
References
Cutnell, J. D. (2019). Physics: Biomedical Applications of Introductory
Physics. 11th ed. Wiley.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2016) University Physics with Modern

Physics, 14th ed. Pearson.

GE-PHY 101 Physics Group Lecture slides, Sir Oraa, Dr. Tibayan, Sir
Apuyan, Sir Abugao

42
Thermodynamics
CHAPTER 15
 Thermodynamic Systems and Their Surroundings
THERMODYNAMICS is the branch of physics that is built
upon the fundamental laws that heat and work obey.

The collection of objects on which attention is being

focused is called the system, while everything else
in the environment is called the surroundings.

Walls that permit heat flow are called diathermal walls,

while walls that do not permit heat flow are called
adiabatic walls.
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Two systems are said to be in THERMAL
EQUILIBRIUM if there is no heat flow
between then when they are brought
into contact.

Temperature is the indicator of thermal

equilibrium in the sense that there is no
net flow of heat between two systems
in thermal contact that have the same
temperature.
 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Two systems individually in thermal equilibrium with a third
system are in thermal equilibrium with each other.

If and , then
A C B C A B
The First Law of Thermodynamics
Recall: Work is associated with a change in Kinetic or Potential Energy
Heat is associated with a change in Internal Energy

The relationship between Work (W), Heat (Q), and Change in Internal
Energy (𝚫U) is known as the First Law of Thermodynamics. It is an
expression of Conservation of Energy.
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
Suppose that a system gains heat Q and no
work is done. Consistent with the law of
conservation of energy, the internal energy
of the system changes:
If a system does work W on its surroundings
and there is no heat flow, conservation of
energy indicates that the internal energy of
the system will decrease:

𝜟𝑼 = 𝑼𝒇 − 𝑼𝒊 = 𝑸 𝜟𝑼 = 𝑼𝒇 − 𝑼𝒊 = −𝑾
Work is done BY THE
System GAINS heat Q is POSITIVE (Q > 0) W is POSITIVE (W > 0)
SYSTEM
Work is done ON THE
System LOSES heat Q is NEGATIVE (Q < 0) W is NEGATIVE (W < 0)
SYSTEM
 The First Law of Thermodynamics
THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
The internal energy of a system changes due to heat and work:

𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾
Work is done BY THE
System GAINS heat Q is POSITIVE (Q > 0) W is POSITIVE (W > 0)
SYSTEM
Work is done ON THE
System LOSES heat Q is NEGATIVE (Q < 0) W is NEGATIVE (W < 0)
SYSTEM
The First Law of Thermodynamics - Example

Positive and Negative Work

In part (a) of the figure, the system gains 1500J of heat and 2200J of work is done BY the system
on its surroundings. In part (b), the system also gains 1500 J of heat, but 2200J of work is done
ON the system. In each case, determine the change in internal energy of the system.

(a) (b)

𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾 𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾

𝜟𝑼 = +𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 J − +𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 J 𝜟𝑼 = +𝟏𝟓𝟎𝟎 J − −𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 J

𝜟𝑼 = −𝟕𝟎𝟎 J 𝜟𝑼 = +𝟑𝟕𝟎𝟎 J
Thermal Processes
A QUASI-STATIC process is one that occurs slowly enough that a
uniform temperature and pressure exist throughout all regions of the
system at all times.

ISOBARIC: constant pressure ISOTHERMAL: constant temperature

ISOCHORIC: constant volume ADIABATIC: no transfer of heat

Thermal Processes
ISOBARIC: constant pressure Isobaric Volume Expansion of an ideal gas

𝑾 = 𝑭𝒔 = 𝑷 𝑨𝒔 = 𝑷𝜟𝑽

𝑾 = 𝑷𝜟𝑽 = 𝑷 𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊
Thermal Processes - Example

Isobaric Expansion of Water

One gram of water is placed in the cylinder and the pressure is maintained at 2.0x105 Pa. The
temperature of the water is raised by 31 Co. The water is in the liquid phase and expands by
the small amount of 1.0x10-8 m3. Find the work done, W and the change in internal energy 𝚫𝑼.

𝑾 = 𝑷𝜟𝑽

𝑾 = 𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 Pa 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐦𝟑 = +𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟎 𝐉

𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄𝜟𝑻

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟏𝟎 kg 𝟒𝟏𝟖𝟔 𝐉Τ kg ⋅ 𝐂 ∘ 𝟑𝟏 C∘ = 𝟏𝟑𝟎 J

𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾 = 𝟏𝟑𝟎 J − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟎 J = 𝟏𝟑𝟎 J

Thermal Processes
ISOCHORIC: constant volume

𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾

𝑾 = 𝑷𝜟𝑽
𝑾=𝟎

𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸
The Second Law of Thermodynamics
The second law is a statement about the natural tendency of heat to flow
from hot to cold, whereas the first law deals with energy conservation and
focuses on both heat and work.

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS: THE HEAT FLOW STATEMENT

Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher temperature to a substance at a
lower temperature and does not flow spontaneously in the reverse direction.
 Heat Engines
𝑸𝑯 = magnitude
A HEAT ENGINE is any device that uses heat to
perform work. It has three essential features.
of input heat

1. Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively

high temperature from a place called the hot
reservoir. 𝑾 = magnitude
2. Part of the input heat is used to perform
of the work done
work by the working substance of the engine.

3. The remainder of the input heat is rejected

to a place called the cold reservoir. 𝑸𝑪 = magnitude
of rejected heat
 Heat Engines
𝑸𝑯 = magnitude
A HEAT ENGINE is any device that uses heat to
perform work. It has three essential features.
of input heat

1. Heat is supplied to the engine at a relatively

high temperature from a place called the hot
reservoir. 𝑾 = magnitude
2. Part of the input heat is used to perform
of the work done
work by the working substance of the engine.

3. The remainder of the input heat is rejected

to a place called the cold reservoir. 𝑸𝑪 = magnitude
of rejected heat
 Heat Engines
The EFFICIENCY of a heat engine is defined as
the ratio of the work done to the input heat:

𝑾
𝒆=
𝑸𝑯

If there are no other losses, then

𝑸𝑪
𝑸 𝑯 = 𝑾 + 𝑸𝑪 𝒆=𝟏−
𝑸𝑯
Heat Engines - Example

An Automobile Engine
An automobile engine has an efficiency of 22.0% and produces 2510 J of work. How much heat is
rejected by the engine?

𝑾 𝑾
𝑸𝑯 = 𝑾 + 𝑸𝑪 𝒆= 𝑸𝑯 =
𝑸𝑯 𝒆

𝑸𝑪 = 𝑸𝑯 − 𝑾 𝟏
𝑸𝑪 = 𝑾 −𝟏
𝒆

𝟏
𝑾 𝑸𝑪 = 𝟐𝟓𝟏𝟎 J − 𝟏 = 𝟖𝟗𝟎𝟎 J
𝑸𝑪 = − 𝑾 𝟎. 𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝒆
Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine
CARNOT’S PRINCIPLE: AN ALTERNATIVE STATEMENT OF THE SECOND
LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
No irreversible engine operating between two reservoirs at constant temperatures
can have a greater efficiency than a reversible engine operating between the same
temperatures. Furthermore, all reversible engines operating between the same
temperatures have the same efficiency.

A reversible process is one in which both the system and the environment can be returned to
exactly the states they were in before the process occurred.
Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine
The CARNOT ENGINE is useful as an idealized model.

All of the heat input originates from a single

temperature, and all the rejected heat goes into a cold
reservoir at a single temperature.

Since the efficiency can only depend on the reservoir

temperatures, the ratio of heats can only depend on
those temperatures.

𝑸𝑪 𝑻𝑪 𝑸𝑪 𝑻𝑪
= 𝒆=𝟏− =𝟏−
𝑸𝑯 𝑻𝑯 𝑸𝑯 𝑻𝑯
Carnot’s Principle and the Carnot Engine - Example

A Tropical Ocean as a Heat Engine

Water near the surface of a tropical ocean has a temperature of 298.2 K, whereas the water 700
meters beneath the surface has a temperature of 280.2 K. It has been proposed that the warm
water be used as the hot reservoir and the cool water as the cold reservoir of a heat engine. Find
the maximum possible efficiency for such and engine.

𝑻𝑪
𝒆carnot = 𝟏 −
𝑻𝑯

𝟐𝟖𝟎. 𝟐 K
𝒆carnot = 𝟏 − = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟎
298.2 K

𝒆carnot = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟎
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps

Refrigerators, air conditioners,

and heat pumps are devices that
make heat flow from cold to hot.
This is called the
REFRIGERATION PROCESS.
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
Is it possible to cool your
kitchen by leaving the
refrigerator door open or to
cool your room by operating
a window air conditioner
unit on the floor by the bed?

ANS: NO, the room will

actually heat up instead of
cooling down.
 Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
Is it possible to cool your kitchen by leaving the refrigerator door open or to cool
your room by operating a window air conditioner unit on the floor by the bed?

Refrigerators work by cooling down (removing heat from) the room (cold reservoir). If we
take heat QC from the kitchen, note that the heat QH is dumped into the hot reservoir which
also the kitchen room. So we are taking heat QC and dumping heat QH to the same place. But
note that QH > QC since QH = QC + Winput. Therefore, we are dumping more heat than we are
taking. So the net effect is that the room will heat up over time.

ANS: NO, the room will actually heat up instead of cooling down.
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps
For Refrigerators or air
conditioners, their quality is
rated according to their
Coefficient of Performance (COP)

𝑸𝑪
COP =
𝑾
Refrigerators, Air Conditioners, and Heat Pumps

The heat pump uses work to make

heat from the wintry outdoors flow
into the house.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics
THE THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
It is not possible to lower the temperature of any system to
absolute zero (0 K) in a finite number of steps.
 Summary
THE ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Two systems individually in thermal equilibrium with a The internal energy of a system changes due to heat
third system are in thermal equilibrium with each other. and work:
𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 − 𝑾

WORK DONE IN AN ISOBARIC PROCESS:

𝑾 = 𝑷𝚫𝑽 System GAINS heat Q is POSITIVE (Q > 0)

System LOSES heat Q is NEGATIVE (Q < 0)

WORK DONE IN AN ISOCHORIC PROCESS: Work is done BY THE SYSTEM W is POSITIVE (W > 0)
𝑾=𝟎 𝜟𝑼 = 𝑸 Work is done ON THE SYSTEM W is NEGATIVE (W < 0)
 Summary
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS COEFFICIENT OF PERFORMANCE (REGFRIGERATOR)
Heat flows spontaneously from a substance at a higher 𝑸𝑪
temperature to a substance at a lower temperature. COP =
𝑾
𝑾
𝒆= 𝑸𝑯 = 𝑾 + 𝑸𝑪
𝑸𝑯
THE THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Efficiency of heat engine It is not possible to lower the temperature of any
system to absolute zero (0 K) in a finite number
MAXIMUM 𝑻𝑪 of steps.
EFFICIENCY OF A 𝒆carnot = 𝟏 −
HEAT ENGINE
𝑻𝑯
References
Cutnell, J. D. (2019). Physics: Biomedical Applications of Introductory
Physics. 11th ed. Wiley.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2016) University Physics with Modern

Physics, 14th ed. Pearson.

GE-PHY 101 Physics Group Lecture slides, Sir Oraa, Dr. Tibayan, Sir
Apuyan, Sir Abugao

73
Waves and Sound
CHAPTER 16

74
 THE LASALLIAN PRAYER

I will continue, O my God, to do all

my actions for the love of you.

St. John Baptist de La Salle, pray for

us.

Live Jesus in our hearts, Forever.

22/07/2022 75
The Nature of Waves
A wave is a traveling disturbance.

A wave carries energy from

place to place.

77
 The Nature of Waves
Longitudinal waves

A longitudinal wave is one in which

the disturbance occurs parallel to the
line of travel of the wave. A sound wave
is a longitudinal wave.

Image Courtesy: acs.psu.edu

78
 The Nature of Waves
Transverse waves
A transverse wave is one in which
the disturbance occurs perpendicular to
the direction of travel of the wave. Radio
waves, light waves, and microwaves are
transverse waves. Transverse waves also
travel on the strings of instruments such
as guitars and banjos.

Image Courtesy: acs.psu.edu

79
The Nature of Waves
What type of wave is this?

TRANSVERSE WAVES!

80
Periodic Waves
Periodic waves consist of cycles or patterns that are produced over and over
again by the source.

In the figures below, every segment of the slinky vibrates in simple harmonic
motion, provided the end of the slinky is moved in simple harmonic motion.

81
Periodic Waves
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION, in physics, is the repetitive movement back and forth
through an equilibrium, or central position, so that the maximum displacement on one
side of this position is equal to the maximum displacement on the other side.

82
Unlike a travelling wave, a standing wave does not
appear to travel. Each point on the standing wave will
oscillate about a point on the axis of the wave.

Standing waves are formed by the superposition of two

travelling waves of the same frequency (with the same
polarization and the same amplitude) travelling in opposite
directions. This is usually achieved by using a travelling
wave and its reflection, which will ensure that the
frequency is the same.

Antinodes are points on a stationary wave that oscillate

with maximum amplitude. Nodes are points of zero
amplitude and appear to be fixed.

83
Periodic Waves

In the drawing, one CYCLE is shaded in color.

The AMPLITUDE A is the maximum excursion of a particle of the medium from the
particles undisturbed position.

The WAVELENGTH is the horizontal length of one cycle of the wave.

84
Periodic Waves

The PERIOD is the time required for one complete cycle.

The FREQUENCY is related to the period and has units of Hz, or s-1.

𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
85
Periodic Waves
A train moving at a constant speed serves as an
analogy for a traveling wave. A simple relation
exists between the period, the wavelength, and
the speed of any periodic wave, that is

𝝀
𝒗 = = 𝒇𝝀
𝑻

86
Periodic Waves - Example

The Wavelengths of Radio Waves

AM and FM radio waves are transverse waves consisting of electric and magnetic field
disturbances traveling at a speed of 3.00x108 m/s. A station broadcasts AM radio waves whose
frequency is 1230 x 103 Hz and an FM radio wave whose frequency is 91.9 x 106 Hz. Find the
distance between adjacent crests in each wave.

𝝀
𝒗 = = 𝒇𝝀
AM
𝑻 𝒗 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦Τ𝐬
𝝀= = 𝟑
= 𝟐𝟒𝟒 m
𝒇 1230 × 10 Hz

𝒗 FM
𝝀= 𝒗 𝟑. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦Τ𝐬
𝒇 𝝀= = 𝟔
= 𝟑. 𝟐𝟔 m
𝒇 91.9 × 10 Hz

87
The Speed of a Wave on a String
The speed at which the wave moves to the right depends on how quickly one particle of
the string is accelerated upward in response to the net pulling force.

𝑭
𝒗=
𝒎Τ𝑳
tension linear density

88
The Speed of a Wave on a String - Example

Waves Traveling on Guitar Strings

Transverse waves travel on each string of an electric guitar after the string is plucked. The length
of each string between its two fixed ends is 0.628 m, and the mass is 0.208 g for the highest
pitched E string and 3.32 g for the lowest pitched E string. Each string is under a tension
of 226 N. Find the speeds of the waves on the two strings.

High E

𝑭 𝟐𝟐𝟔 N
𝒗= = = 𝟖𝟐𝟔 𝐦Τ𝐬
𝒎Τ𝑳 −3
0.208 × 10 kg ൗ 0.628 m

Low E

𝑭 𝟐𝟐𝟔 N
𝒗= = = 𝟐𝟎𝟕 𝐦Τ𝐬
𝒎Τ𝑳 −3
3.32 × 10 kg ൗ 0.628 m

89
 The Nature of Sound Waves
Sound is a longitudinal wave that is created by a
vibrating object, such as a guitar string, the human vocal
cords, or the diaphragm of a loudspeaker. Moreover,
sound can be created or transmitted only in a medium,
such as a gas, liquid, or solid. As we will see, the
particles of the medium must be present for the
disturbance of the wave to move from place to place.
Sound cannot exist in a vacuum.

LONGITUDINAL SOUND WAVES Image Courtesy: acs.psu.edu

90
The Nature of Sound Waves

The distance between

adjacent condensations is
equal to the wavelength of the
sound wave.

91
The Nature of Sound Waves
Condensations and rarefactions travel
from the speaker to the listener, but the
individual air molecules do not move
with the wave. A given molecule
vibrates back and forth about a fixed
location.

When the wave arrives at the ear, the

condensations and rarefactions force
the eardrum to vibrate at the same
frequency as the speaker. This vibration
is interpreted by the brain.

92
The Nature of Sound Waves
Frequency of a sound wave

The FREQUENCY is the number of cycles

per second.

A sound with a single frequency is called

a PURE TONE.

The brain interprets the frequency in terms

of the subjective quality called PITCH.

93
The Nature of Sound Waves
Pressure Amplitude of a sound wave

LOUDNESS is an attribute of
a sound that depends primarily
on the pressure amplitude
of the wave.

94
The Nature of Sound Waves
Speed of Sound

Sound travels through gases,

liquids, and solids at considerably
different speeds.

95
Sound Intensity
Sound waves carry energy that can be used to do work. The amount of energy
transported per second is called the POWER of the wave.

The SOUND INTENSITY is defined as the power that passes perpendicularly through
a surface divided by the area of that surface.

𝑷
𝑰=
𝑨

96
Sound Intensity – Example 1
Sound Intensities
12 x 10-5 W of sound power passed through the surfaces labeled 1 and 2. The areas of these surfaces
are 4.0 m2 and 12 m2. Determine the sound intensity at each surface.

𝑷 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐖
𝑰𝟏 = =
𝑨𝟏 4.0m𝟐

𝑰𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐖Τ𝐦𝟐

𝑷 𝟏𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐖
𝑰𝟐 = =
𝑨𝟐 12m𝟐

𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝐖Τ𝐦𝟐

97
Sound Intensity
For a 1000 Hz tone, the smallest sound intensity that the
human ear can detect is about 1x10-12W/m2. This intensity is
called the THRESHOLD OF HEARING.

On the other extreme, continuous exposure to intensities

greater than 1 W/m2 can be painful.

If the source emits sound uniformly in all directions, the

intensity depends on the distance from the source in a
simple way.
power of sound source
𝑷 𝟏
𝑰= 𝑰∝ 𝟐
𝟒𝝅𝒓𝟐 𝒓
area of sphere
98
Decibels
The DECIBEL (dB) is a measurement unit used when comparing two sound intensities.

Because of the way in which the human hearing mechanism responds to intensity, it is
appropriate to use a logarithmic scale called the INTENSITY LEVEL:

𝑰
𝜷 = 𝟏𝟎 dB 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑰𝒐

𝑰𝒐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐖Τ𝐦𝟐

Note that log(1) = 0, so when the intensity of the sound is

equal to the threshold of hearing, the intensity level is zero.

100
 𝑰
Decibels 𝜷 = 𝟏𝟎 dB 𝐥𝐨𝐠
𝑰𝒐
𝑰𝒐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐖Τ𝐦𝟐

Try solving for these

on your calculator

101
The Doppler Effect
The DOPPLER EFFECT is the change
in frequency or pitch of the sound
detected by an observer because the
sound source and the observer have
different velocities with respect to the
medium of sound propagation.

Image Courtesy: einstein-online.info

102
The Doppler Effect
Moving Source, Stationary Observer

𝟏 source moving
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 toward a stationary
𝟏 − 𝒗𝒔 Τ𝒗 observer

source moving
𝟏 away from a
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 stationary observer
𝟏 + 𝒗𝒔 Τ𝒗

103
The Doppler Effect - Example

The Sound of a Passing Train

A high-speed train is traveling at a speed of 44.7 m/s when the engineer sounds the 415-Hz
warning horn. The speed of sound is 343 m/s. What are the frequency and wavelength of the
sound, as perceived by a person standing at the crossing, when the train is (a) approaching and (b)
leaving the crossing?

Approaching:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟒𝟏𝟓 Hz = 𝟒𝟕𝟕 Hz
𝟏 − 𝒗𝒔 Τ𝒗 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕 𝐦Τ𝐬
𝟏−
𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝐦Τ𝐬

Leaving:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒇𝒐 = 𝟒𝟏𝟓 Hz = 𝟑𝟔𝟕 Hz
𝟏 + 𝒗𝒔 Τ𝒗 𝟒𝟒. 𝟕 𝐦Τ𝐬
𝟏+
𝟑𝟒𝟑 𝐦Τ𝐬

104
The Doppler Effect
Stationary Source, Moving Observer

𝒗𝒐 Observer moving
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 𝟏+ towards stationary
𝒗 source

𝒗𝒐 Observer moving
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 𝟏− away from
𝒗 stationary source

105
The Doppler Effect
General Case

𝒗𝒐 Numerator: plus sign applies when observer

𝟏± moves towards the source
𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒗
𝒗𝒔 Denominator: minus sign applies when
𝟏∓
𝒗 source moves towards the observer

𝒗𝒐 - speed of Observer 𝒇𝒐 - observed frequency

𝒗𝒔 - speed of Source 𝒇𝒔 - source frequency
𝒗 - speed of Sound

106
Applications of Sound in Medicine
By scanning ultrasonic waves across the body and detecting the echoes from various
locations, it is possible to obtain an image.

107
Applications of Sound in Medicine

Ultrasonic sound waves cause

the tip of the probe to vibrate at
23 kHz and shatter sections of
the tumor that it touches.

108
Applications of Sound in Medicine

When the sound is reflected

from the red blood cells, its
frequency is changed in a
kind of Doppler effect because
the cells are moving.

109
 Summary
The AMPLITUDE, 𝑨 is the maximum excursion of a particle of the The SOUND INTENSITY is defined as the power that
medium from the particles undisturbed position. passes perpendicularly through a surface divided by the
area of that surface.
The WAVELENGTH, 𝝀 is the horizontal length of one cycle of the
wave. 𝑷 𝑰𝟏 𝒓𝟐𝟏 = 𝑰𝟐 𝒓𝟐𝟐
𝑰=
The PERIOD, 𝑻 is the time required for one complete cycle. 𝑨 𝑰
The FREQUENCY, 𝒇 is related to the period and has units of Hz, or Intensity Level 𝜷 = 𝟏𝟎 dB 𝐥𝐨𝐠
s-1.
𝑰𝒐
𝟏 Threshold of hearing 𝑰𝒐 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐖Τ𝐦𝟐
𝒇= 𝒗 = 𝒇𝝀
𝑻
Doppler Effect
Speed of a wave 𝑭 tension 𝒗 Numerator: plus sign applies when
on a string
𝒗= 𝟏± 𝒐 observer moves towards the source
𝒎Τ𝑳 𝒇𝒐 = 𝒇𝒔 𝒗
𝒗 Denominator: minus sign applies when
𝟏∓ 𝒔 source moves towards the observer
𝒗
References
Cutnell, J. D. (2019). Physics: Biomedical Applications of Introductory
Physics. 11th ed. Wiley.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2016) University Physics with Modern

Physics, 14th ed. Pearson.

GE-PHY 101 Physics Group Lecture slides, Sir Oraa, Dr. Tibayan, Sir
Apuyan, Sir Abugao

111
Electric Forces and Electric Fields
CHAPTER 18
The Origin of Electricity
The electrical nature of matter is inherent in atomic structure.

Electron
• negatively charged (-)
• 𝒎𝒆 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑𝟏 kg

Proton Neutron
• positively charged (+) • neutral (no charge)
• 𝒎𝒑 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg • 𝒎𝒏 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟐𝟕 kg

113
The Origin of Electricity
By adding or removing electrons from matter it will
acquire a net electric charge with magnitude equal
to e times the number of electrons added or
removed, N.

𝒒 = 𝑵𝒆

Fundamental Charge: 𝒆 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂

SI Unit of Electric Charge: 𝐂𝐨𝐮𝐥𝐨𝐦𝐛 (𝐂)

114
The Origin of Electricity – Example 1

A Lot of Electrons
How many electrons are there in one coulomb of negative charge?

𝒒
𝒒 = 𝑵𝒆 𝑵=
𝒆

𝟏. 𝟎𝟎 C
𝑵=
1.60 × 10−19 𝐂

𝑵 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟖

115
Charged Objects and the Electric Force
It is possible to transfer electric charge
from one object to another.

The body that loses electrons has an

excess of positive charge, while the body
that gains electrons has an excess of
negative charge.

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ELECTRIC CHARGE

During any process, the net electric charge of an isolated system remains constant
(is conserved).

116
Charged Objects and the Electric Force

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other.

117
 Conductors and Insulators

Not only can electric charge exist ON AN OBJECT, but it can also move THROUGH AN OBJECT.

Substances that readily conduct electric charge are called ELECTRICAL CONDUCTORS.

Materials that conduct electric charge poorly are called ELECTRICAL INSULATORS.

118
Charging by Contact and by Induction

CHARGING BY CONTACT.

The negatively charged rod induces a slight

positive charge on the surface of the plastic.
CHARGING BY INDUCTION.
119
Coulomb’s Law
COULOMB’S LAW

The magnitude of the electrostatic force

exerted by one point charge on another point
charge is directly proportional to the
magnitude of the charges and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance
between them.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒓𝟐
𝒌 = 𝟏Τ 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐 Τ𝐂 𝟐

Permittivity of free space 𝜺𝝄 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐂 𝟐 ൗ 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐

120
Coulomb’s Law – Example 2

A Model of the Hydrogen Atom

In the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom, the electron is in
orbit about the nuclear proton at a radius of 5.29x10-11m.
Determine the speed of the electron, assuming the orbit to
be circular.
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒓𝟐
𝟐
𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍⋅ 𝐦𝟐 Τ 𝐂 𝟐 𝟏. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟗 𝐂
𝑭= = 𝟖. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍
𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝐦 𝟐

𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝟖. 𝟐𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍 𝟓. 𝟐𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟏 𝐦

𝒗= 𝑭𝒓Τ𝒎 =
𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂𝒄 = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
𝒓
𝒗 = 𝟐. 𝟏𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐦Τ𝐬

121
Coulomb’s Law – Example 2
Three Charges on a Line
Determine the magnitude and direction of the net force on q1.

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 𝒌
𝒓𝟐
𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐 Τ𝐂 𝟐 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂 𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = = 𝟐. 𝟕𝐍
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝐦 𝟐

𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟑
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = 𝒌
𝒓𝟐
𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐 Τ𝐂 𝟐 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂 𝟕. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂
𝑭𝟏𝟑 = = 𝟖. 𝟒𝐍
𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝐦 𝟐

𝑭 = 𝑭𝟏𝟐 + 𝑭𝟏𝟑 = −𝟐. 𝟕𝐍 + 𝟖. 𝟒𝐍 = +5.7 N

122
The Electric Field
The positive charge experiences a force which
is the vector sum of the forces exerted by the
charges on the rod and the two spheres.

This TEST CHARGE should have a small

magnitude so it doesn’t affect the other charge.

124
The Electric Field
DEFINITION OF ELECRIC FIELD

The electric field that exists at a point is the electrostatic force experienced by a small
test charge placed at that point divided by the charge itself:

𝑭
𝑬=
𝒒𝒐

SI Units of Electric Field:

newton per coulomb (N/C)
It is the surrounding charges that create the electric
field at a given point.

125
The Electric Field – Example 1

A Test Charge
The positive test charge has a magnitude of 3.0x10-8 C and
experiences a force of 6.0x10-8 N.

(a) Find the FORCE PER COULOMB that the test charge experiences.
(b) Predict the force that a charge of +12x10-8 C would experience if
it replaced the test charge.

(a) 𝑭 𝟔. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍
= −𝟖
= 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐍Τ𝐂
𝒒𝒐 𝟑. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 𝐂

(b) 𝑭 = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐍Τ𝐂 𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂 = 𝟐𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍

126
The Electric Field – Example 2
An Electric Field Leads to a Force
The charges on the two metal spheres and the ebonite rod create an electric field at the spot
indicated. The field has a magnitude of 2.0 N/C. Determine the force on the charges in (a) and (b)

(a) 𝑭 = 𝒒𝒐 𝑬 = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐍Τ𝐂 𝟏𝟖. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂 = 𝟑𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍

(b) 𝑭 = 𝒒𝒐 𝑬 = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝐍Τ𝐂 𝟐𝟒. 𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐂 = 𝟒𝟖 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟖 𝐍

127
 The Electric Field
Additional Notes:
Source (point) charge q:

𝑭 𝒒 𝒒𝒐 𝟏
𝑬= =𝒌
𝒒𝒐 𝒓𝟐 𝒒𝒐

𝒒
𝑬=𝒌 𝟐
𝒓
The electric field does not depend on the
Electric fields from different sources test charge.
ADD AS VECTORS.
128
The Electric Field – Example 3
The Electric Field of a Point Charge
The isolated point charge of q=+15 μC is in a vacuum. The test
charge is 0.20 m to the right and has a charge qo=+0.8 μC.
Determine the electric field at point P.

𝒒 𝒒𝒐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒓𝟐

𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐 Τ𝐂 𝟐 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂 𝟏𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟔 𝐂

𝑭= = 𝟐. 𝟕𝐍
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝐦 𝟐

𝑭 𝟐. 𝟕 N
𝑬= = = 𝟑. 𝟒 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝐍Τ𝐂
𝒒𝒐 0.80 × 10−6 𝐂

129
 Electric Field Lines
ELECTRIC FIELD LINES or LINES OF FORCE provide a map of the electric field
in the space surrounding electric charges.

Electric field lines are always directed

away from positive charges and toward
negative charges.

130
Electric Field Lines
Electric field lines always begin on a The number of lines leaving a positive
positive charge and end on a negative charge or entering a negative charge is
charge and do not stop in midspace. proportional to the magnitude of the charge.

24 LINES 24 LINES

131
Electric Field Lines

Field lines that are closer together

indicate a region with relatively
stronger Electric field.

Field lines that are farther apart

indicate a region with relatively
weaker Electric field.

Electric field lines DO NOT intersect.

132
 Summary
Net charge of an object
COULOMB’S LAW
𝒒 = 𝑵𝒆
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐 𝒌 = 𝟏Τ 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐 = 𝟖. 𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟎𝟗 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐 Τ𝐂 𝟐
𝑭=𝒌 𝜺𝝄 = 𝟖. 𝟖𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟐 𝐂 𝟐 ൗ 𝐍 ⋅ 𝐦𝟐
Like charges repel and unlike 𝒓𝟐
charges attract each other.

ELECTRIC FIELD LINES ELECRIC FIELD

𝑭 The electric field does not

𝑬= depend on the test charge.
𝒒𝒐
Electric field lines DO NOT intersect.
References
Cutnell, J. D. (2019). Physics: Biomedical Applications of Introductory
Physics. 11th ed. Wiley.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2016) University Physics with Modern

Physics, 14th ed. Pearson.

GE-PHY 101 Physics Group Lecture slides, Sir Oraa, Dr. Tibayan, Sir
Apuyan, Sir Abugao

148
Electric Circuits
CHAPTER 20
 THE LASALLIAN PRAYER

I will continue, O my God, to do all

my actions for the love of you.

St. John Baptist de La Salle, pray for

us.

Live Jesus in our hearts, Forever.

22/07/2022 160
 Electromotive Force and Current
Energy consuming device
Conducting wires
(light bulb)

Energy source
(battery)

In an electric circuit, an energy source and an energy consuming device are connected
by conducting wires through which electric charges move.
Electromotive Force and Current
Energy source

Within a battery, a chemical reaction occurs that transfers electrons from one terminal
to another terminal. The maximum potential difference across the terminals is called
the ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (emf).

Note: Electromotive force is NOT a force!

 Electromotive Force and Current
The ELECTRIC CURRENT is the amount of charge
per unit time that passes through a surface that is
perpendicular to the motion of the charges.

𝜟𝒒 https://gfycat.com/gifs/search/alternating+current

𝑰=
𝜟𝒕 If the charges move around the circuit in the same
direction at all times, the current is said to be
DIRECT CURRENT (DC).
One coulomb per second equals one AMPERE (A). If the charges move first one way and then the
opposite way, the current is said to be
ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC).
Electromotive Force and Current - Example

A Pocket Calculator
The current in a 3.0 V battery of a pocket calculator is 0.17 mA. In one hour of operation how much
charge flows in the circuit?

𝜟𝒒
𝑰= 𝜟𝒒 = 𝑰 𝜟𝒕
𝜟𝒕

𝜟𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟑 𝐀 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 s

https://www.caulfieldindustrial.com/p/cr2430-3v-coin-cell-battery/p-e09122 𝜟𝒒 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏 C
Electromotive Force and Current

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT is the hypothetical flow of positive charges that would have the
same effect in the circuit as the movement of negative charges that actually does occur.
 Ohm’s Law
The RESISTANCE (R) is defined as the ratio of the
voltage V applied across a piece of material to the
current I through the material.

𝑽 SI Unit of Resistance:
𝑹= volt/ampere (V/A) = ohm (Ω)
𝑰

OHM’S LAW 𝑽
= 𝑹 = constant
The ratio V/I is a constant, where V is the 𝑰
voltage applied across a piece of material or
and I is the current through the material: 𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Ohm’s Law - Example

A Flashlight
The filament in a light bulb is a resistor in the form of a thin piece of
wire. The wire becomes hot enough to emit light because of the
current in it. The flashlight uses two 1.5-V batteries to provide a
current of 0.40 A in the filament. Determine the resistance of the
glowing filament.

𝑽
𝑹=
𝑰

𝟑. 𝟎 V
𝑹=
0.40 A

𝑹 = 𝟕. 𝟓 𝜴
Resistance and Resistivity
For a wide range of materials, the resistance
of a piece of material of length L and cross-
sectional area A is
𝑳

𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨

A Rheostat varies its resistance by

changing the effective length of the
RESISTIVITY in units of ohm·meter resistor.
Resistance and Resistivity

𝑳
𝑹=𝝆
𝑨

Electrical Conductors
– low resistivity

Electrical Insulators
– high resistivity
Resistance and Resistivity - Example

Longer Extension Cords

The instructions for an electric lawn mower suggest that a 20-gauge extension cord can be used
for distances up to 35 m, but a thicker 16-gauge cord should be used for longer distances. The
cross sectional area of a 20-gauge wire is 5.2x10-7 m2, while that of a 16-gauge wire is 13x10-7m2.
Determine the resistance of (a) 35 m of 20-gauge copper wire and (b) 75 m of 16-gauge copper
wire.

𝐿 1.72 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m 35 m
(a) 𝑅=𝜌 = = 1.2 Ω
𝐴 5.2 × 10−7 m2

𝐿 1.72 × 10−8 Ω ⋅ m 75 m
(b) 𝑅=𝜌 = = 0.99 Ω
𝐴 −7
13 × 10 m 2
Electric Power
ELECTRIC POWER
When there is current in a circuit as a result of a voltage, the electric power delivered to the
circuit is:

𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 SI Unit of Power: watt (W)

Many electrical devices are essentially resistors:

𝑷 = 𝑰 𝑰𝑹 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹

𝑽 𝑽𝟐
𝑷= 𝑽=
𝑹 𝑹
Electric Power - Example

The Power and Energy Used in a Flashlight

In the flashlight, the current is 0.40A and the voltage is 3.0 V. Find
the power delivered to the bulb.

𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽

𝑷 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎 A 𝟑. 𝟎 V

𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟐 W
Series Wiring
There are many circuits in which more than one device is connected to a voltage source.
Series wiring means that the devices are connected in such a way that there is the same
electric current through each device.

https://www.autodesk.com/products/eagle/blog/series-vs-parallel-circuits/
Series Wiring
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 + 𝑰𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝑺

Series resistors: 𝑹𝑺 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + ⋯
20.6 Series Wiring

Resistors in a Series Circuit

A 6.00 Ω resistor and a 3.00 Ω resistor are connected in series with

a 12.0 V battery. Assuming the battery contributes no resistance to
the circuit, find (a) the current, (b) the power dissipated in each resistor,
and (c) the total power delivered to the resistors by the battery.
20.6 Series Wiring

V 12.0 V
(a)
RS = 6.00  + 3.00  = 9.00  I= = = 1.33 A
RS 9.00 

P = I 2 R = (1.33 A) (6.00 ) = 10.6 W

2
(b)

P = I 2 R = (1.33 A) (3.00 ) = 5.31 W

2

(c) P = 10.6 W + 5.31 W = 15.9 W

Parallel Wiring
Parallel wiring means that the devices are connected
in such a way that the same voltage is applied across
each device.

When two resistors are connected in parallel, each

receives current from the battery as if the other was
not present.

Therefore the two resistors connected in parallel

draw more current than does either resistor alone.
Parallel Wiring

https://www.energy.gov/articles/how-do-holiday-lights-work
Parallel Wiring

𝑽 𝑽 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 = + =𝑽 + =𝑽
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝑷

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Parallel resistors: = + + +⋯
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

𝟏
𝑹𝑷 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + +⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Parallel Wiring
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Parallel resistors: = + + +⋯
𝑹𝑷 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

𝟏
𝑹𝑷 =
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
+ + +⋯
𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
20.7 Parallel Wiring

Main and Remote Stereo Speakers

Most receivers allow the user to connect to “remote” speakers in addition

to the main speakers. At the instant represented in the picture, the voltage
across the speakers is 6.00 V. Determine (a) the equivalent resistance
of the two speakers, (b) the total current supplied by the receiver, (c) the
current in each speaker, and (d) the power dissipated in each speaker.
20.7 Parallel Wiring

1 1 1 3
(a) = + = RP = 2.67 
RP 8.00  4.00  8.00 

Vrms 6.00 V
(b) I rms = = = 2.25 A
RP 2.67 
20.7 Parallel Wiring

Vrms 6.00 V Vrms 6.00 V

(c) I rms = = = 0.750 A I rms = = = 1.50 A
R 8.00  R 4.00 

(d) P = I rmsVrms = (0.750 A)(6.00 V) = 4.50 W

P = I rmsVrms = (1.50 A)(6.00 V) = 9.00 W

Circuits Wired Partially in Series and Partially in Parallel
Internal Resistance
Batteries and generators add some resistance to a circuit. This resistance is called
INTERNAL RESISTANCE.

The actual voltage between the terminals of a battery is known as the TERMINAL VOLTAGE.
Internal Resistance – Example

The Terminal Voltage of a Battery

The car battery has an emf of 12.0 V and an internal resistance of
0.0100 Ω. What is the terminal voltage when the current drawn from
the battery is (a) 10.0 A and (b) 100.0 A?

(a) 𝑽 = 𝑰𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎. 𝟎 A 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝜴 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 V

𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 V − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎 V = 11.9 V

(b) 𝑽 = 𝑰𝒓 = 𝟏𝟎𝟎. 𝟎 A 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟎 𝜴 = 𝟏. 𝟎 V

𝟏𝟐. 𝟎 V − 𝟏. 𝟎 V = 11.0 V
 Kirchhoff’s Rules
For more complex networks of resistors, one alternative to the series–parallel method
is to take advantage of Kirchhoff’s rules, named after their developer Gustav Kirchhoff
(1824–1887). There are two rules, the JUNCTION RULE and the LOOP RULE, and both arise
from principles and ideas that we have encountered earlier.
 Kirchhoff’s Rules

The JUNCTION RULE states that the The LOOP RULE expresses conservation of energy in
total current directed into a junction terms of the electric potential and states that for a
must equal the total current directed closed circuit loop, the total of all potential rises is
out of the junction. the same as the total of all potential drops.
Kirchhoff’s Rules - Example

Using Kirchhoff’s Loop Rule

Determine the current in the circuit.

𝑰 𝟏𝟐 𝜴 + 𝟔. 𝟎 V + 𝑰 𝟖. 𝟎 𝜴 = 𝟐𝟒
ถV
potential drops potential rises

𝑰 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎 A
Safety and the Physiological Effects of Current
The physics of the physiological effects of current.
Serious and sometimes fatal injuries can result from electrical shock. The severity of the injury
depends on the magnitude of the current and the parts of the body through which the moving
charges pass. The amount of current that causes a mild tingling sensation is about 0.001 A.
Currents on the order of 0.01–0.02 A can lead to muscle spasms, in which a person “can’t let go” of
the object causing the shock. Currents of approximately 0.2 A are potentially fatal because
they can make the heart fibrillate, or beat in an uncontrolled manner. Substantially larger
currents stop the heart completely
To reduce the danger inherent in using circuits, proper electrical grounding
is necessary.
 Summary
OHM’S LAW

The ratio V/I is a constant, where V is the voltage

applied across a piece of material and I is the current
through the material:

𝑽 𝑽
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 𝑰=
𝑹
𝑹=
𝑰

𝑳
Resistance of a material: 𝑹=𝝆
𝑨

ELECTRIC POWER
𝑽𝟐
𝑷 = 𝑰𝑽 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 𝑷=
𝑹
References
Cutnell, J. D. (2019). Physics: Biomedical Applications of Introductory
Physics. 11th ed. Wiley.

Young, H. D. and Freedman, R. A. (2016) University Physics with Modern

Physics, 14th ed. Pearson.

GE-PHY 101 Physics Group Lecture slides, Sir Oraa, Dr. Tibayan, Sir
Apuyan, Sir Abugao

195