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  • Carbohydrate Metabolism BioChem Lec Finals2x1 Format

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    Sheene Imblarinag
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    Carbohydrate digestion begins with the breakdown of starches and polysaccharides by pancreatic alpha-amylase in the small intestine into disaccharides like maltose. Disaccharide-digesting enzymes on intestinal cells further break these down into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose. These monosaccharides are actively transported into the bloodstream for use by cells. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation in the process. It occurs in two stages: the six-carbon stage that prepares glucose for cleavage, and the three-carbon stage where the glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules.

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    metabolism in carbohydrates

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    Carbohydrate digestion begins with the breakdown of starches and polysaccharides by pancreatic alpha-amylase in the small intestine into disaccharides like maltose. Disaccharide-digesting enzymes on intestinal cells further break these down into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose. These monosaccharides are actively transported into the bloodstream for use by cells. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation in the process. It occurs in two stages: the six-carbon stage that prepares glucose for cleavage, and the three-carbon stage where the glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    30 views3 pages

    Carbohydrate Metabolism BioChem Lec Finals2x1 Format

    Uploaded by

    Sheene Imblarinag
    Carbohydrate digestion begins with the breakdown of starches and polysaccharides by pancreatic alpha-amylase in the small intestine into disaccharides like maltose. Disaccharide-digesting enzymes on intestinal cells further break these down into absorbable monosaccharides like glucose, galactose, and fructose. These monosaccharides are actively transported into the bloodstream for use by cells. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation in the process. It occurs in two stages: the six-carbon stage that prepares glucose for cleavage, and the three-carbon stage where the glucose is split into two three-carbon molecules.

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    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 3

    CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM - Pancreatic a-amylase breaks down 24.

    2 Glycolysis - C6 biphosphate is split into two C3


    polysaccharide chains into disaccharide monophosphate species
    24.1 Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates maltose  Metabolic pathway by which glucose is * Two C3 species formed are
    24.2 Glycolysis  Final step occurs on the outer membranes of converted to two molecules by pyruvate (a dihydroxyacetone phosphate and
    intestinal mucosal cells C3 molecule) glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
    24.3 Fates of Pyruvate
    - Disaccharide enzymes convert  Produces ATP and NADH-reduced
    24.4 ATP Production from the Complete Oxidation of Glucose - Reaction catalyzed by aldolase
    disaccharides to monosaccahrides coenzymes
    24.5 Glycogen Synthesis and Degradation - Maltase – Converts maltose to  Occurs in two stages – Six carbon and three-  Step 5 – Formation of glyceraldehyde 3-
    24.6 Gluconeogenesis glucose carbon stages) phosphate
    - Sucrase – Converts sucrose to - Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is isomerized
    24.7 Terminology for Glucose Metabolic Pathways Six-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis (Step 1-3)
    glucose and fructose to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate
    24.8 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
    - Lactase – Converts lactose to glucose  Energy-consuming stage - Enzyme involved – Trisephosphate
    24.9 Hormonal Control of Carbohydrate Metabolism and galactose isomerase
    - Two ATP molecules are converted to two
    24.10 B Vitamins and Carbohydrate Metabolism - Carbohydrate digestion products ADP molecules, and the energy released is  Step 6 – Formation of 1,3-
    (glucose, galactose, and fructose) are used to transform monosaccharides into bisphosphoglycerate
    absorbed into the bloodstream through monosaccharide phosphates - Reaction catalyzed by glyceraldehyde 3-
    24.1 Digestion and Absorption of the intestinal wall  Step 1 – Formation of glucose 6-phosphate phosphate dehydrogenase
    Carbohydrates - Intestinal villi are rich in blood capillaries - Phosphorylation of glucose – A phosphate - A molecule of the reduced coenzyme NADH
    into which the monosaccharides are group from ATP is attached to the hydroxyl is a product of the reaction
    Carbohydrate Digestion Process actively transported group on carbon 6 of glucose - Source of the added phosphate is inorganic
    - Protein carriers mediate the passage of the * Reaction is catalyzed by hexokinase phosphate (Pi)
     Digestion: Breakdown of food molecules by monosaccharides through cell membranes - Carboxylate ion and phosphate (Pi) are
    hydrolysis into simpler chemical units that - Energy required is derived from ATP hydrolysis
     Galactose and fructose are converted to joined together to form the biphosphate
    can be used by cells in their metabolic products of glucose metabolism in the liver  Step 2 – Formation of fructose 6-phosphate product
    processes
    - Glucose 6-phosphate is isomerized to  Step 7 – Formation of 3-phosphoglycerate
     Carbohydrate digestion – Begins in the
    fructose 6-phosphate by - Disphosphate species is converted back to a
    mouth
    phosphoglucoisomerase monophosphate species
    - Salivary a-amylase catalyzes the
     Step 3- Formation of fructose 1,6- - An ATP-producing species
    hydrolysis of a-glycosidic linkages in
    biophosphate *C1 high energy phosphate group of 1,3-
    starch and glycogen to produce smaller
    - Phosphorylation reaction bisphosphoglycerate is transferred to an
    polysaccharides and disaccharide
    - Energy derived from ATP hydrolysis ADP molecule to form the ATP
    maltose
    - Enzyme involved- Phosphofructokinase - Enzyme involved – Phosphoglycerokinase
    - A small amount of carbohydrate
    - Two ATP moleucules are produced for each
    digestion occurs in the mouth original glucose molecule
    because food is swallowed quickly
    Three-Carbon Stage of Glycolysis  Step 8- Formation of 2-phosphoglycerate
     Small amount of carbohydrate is - Involves isomerization of 3-
    digested in the stomach (Step 4-10) phosphoglycerate to 2- phosphoglycerate
    - Salivary a-amylase gets inactivated
    *Phosphate group moved from carbon 3 to
    because of stomach acidity  Reaction intermediates are derivatives of
    carbon 2
    *No carbohydrate-digesting glycerol and acetone
    *Enzyme involved – phosphoglyceromutase
    enzymes are present - C3 intermediates of glycolysis are all
     Step 9- Formation of phosphoenolpyruvate
     Small intestine- primary site for phosphorylated derivatives of
    - Alcohol dehydration reaction- Results in
    carbohydrate digestion dihydroxyacetone, glyceraldehyde,
    another high-energy phosphate group
    glycerate, or pyruvate
    containing compound
     Step 4- formation of two triose phosphates
    - Enzyme involved- Enolase
     Step 10 – Formation of pyruvate Regulation of Glycolysis Lactate Fermentation 24.4 ATP Production from the
    - High energy phosphate group is transferred
    from phosphoenolpyruvate to an ADP  Control points of glycolysis – step 1,3, and 10  Enzymatic anaerobic reduction of pyruvate Complete Oxidation of Glucose
    - Step 1 – conversion of glucose to glucose 6- to lactate
    molecule to produce ATP and pyruvate  NADH produced during Step 6 of glycolysis
    - Enzyme involved – Pyruvate kinase phosphate by hexokinase - Occurs mainly in muscles
    cannot directly participate in the electron
    - Two ATP molecules are produced for each - Step 3 – conversion of fructose 6-phosphate  Purpose – Conversion of NADH to NAD+ for
    transport chain
    original glucose molecule to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate by increased rate of glycolysis
    - Mitochondria are impermeable to NADH
    - Note – ATP molecules are involved in Steps phosphofructokinase  Lactate is converted back to pyruvate when
    and NAD+
    1,3,7, and 10 of glycolysis *High concentration of ATP and citrate aerobic conditions are reestablished in the
    - Glycerol 3-phosphate and
    inhibit enzyme activity cell
    dihydroxyacetone phosphate transport
    ATP Production and Consumption - Step 10 – Conversion of  Muscle fatigue associated with strenuous
    system shuttles electrons from NADH, but
    phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate by physical activity is attributed to increased
     There is a net gain of two ATP molecules in not NADH itself, across the outer
    pyruvate kinase build-up of lactate
    glycolysis for every glucose molecule membrane
    *Enzyme is inhibited by high ATP *Dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glycerol
    processed
    concentrations
    Ethanol Fermentation
    phosphate freely cross the mitochondrial
    *Both pyruvate kinase (Step 10) and  Enzymatic anaerobic conversion of pyruvate membrane
    phosphofructokinase (Step 3) are allosteric to ethanol and carbon dioxide *The interconversion shuttles the electrons
    enzymes  Simple organisms regenerate NAD+ through from NADH to FADH2
    ethanol fermentation reaction  30 ATP molecules are produced in skeletal
     Overall equation for Glycolysis - Ethanol fermentation, involving yeast, muscle and nerve cells
    24.3 Fates of Pyruvate causes bread and related products to rise - 26 are from the oxidative phosphorylation
    as a result of CO2 bubbles being released associated with the electron transport
     Under aerobic (oxygen-rich) conditions,
    during baking chain
    pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA by
     Beer, wine, and other alcoholic drinks are *2 are from the oxidation of glucose to
    Entry of Galactose and Fructose into pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
    produced by ethanol fermentation of the lactate
     Pyruvate formed through glycolysis crosses
    Glycolysis the two mitochondrial membranes and
    sugars in grain and fruit products * 2 are from the oxidation of glucose to
    - Steps of conversion ethanol
     Both fructose and galactose are converted in enters the mitochondrial matrix
    *Decarboxylation reaction to produce  Aerobic oxidation of glucose is 15 times
    the liver to intermediates that enter into the  Acetyl CoA molecules produced from
    acetaldehyde more efficient in ATP production as
    glycolysis pathway pyruvate enter the citric acid cycle
    *Aceltaldehyde reduction to produce compared to anaerobic lactate and ethanol
     Entry of fructose into the glycolytic pathway  Most pyruvate formed during glycolysis is
    ethanol processes
    involves phosphorylation by ATP to produce converted to acetyl CoA
     Overall ethanol fermentation reaction  In heart and liver cells, 32 molecules are
    fructose 1-phosphate
    produced instead of 30 per glucose molecule
    - Fructose 1-phosphate is converted to:
    *Glyceraldehyde – should be
    phosphorylated before it enters into
    glycolysis
    * Dihydroxyacetone phosphate – Enters
    into glycolysis directly
     Entry of galactose into the glycolytic
    pathway begins with its conversion to
    glucose 1-phosphate, which is then
    converted to glucose 6-phosphate
    24.5 Glycogen Synthesis and 24.9 Hormonal Control of 24.10 B Vitamins and Carbohydrate
    Degradation Carbohydrate Metabolism Metabolism
     Glycogen – Branched polymeric form of Insulin  B vitamins are coenzymes in metabolic
    glucose pathways
    - Storage form of carbohydrates in humans  51 amino-acid protein hormone, produced  B vitamins that are involved n carbohtydrate
    and animals by beta cells of the pancreas metabolism
    *In muscle, it is the source of glucose for  Promotes the utilization of glucose by cells - Niacin (as NAD+ and NADH)
    glycolysis  Function – To lower blood-glucose levels - Riboflavin (as FAD)
    * in liver tissue, it is the source of glucose -Involved in lipid metabolism - Thiamin (as TPP)
    required to maintain normal blood glucose  Release of insulin is triggered by high blood- - Panthothenic acid (as CoA)
    levels glucose levels - Biotin
    - Produced by the process of glycogenesis  Binds to proteins receptors on the outer - Vitamin B6 in the form of PLP (pyridoxal 5-
    surfaces of cells, by which facilitates entry of phosphate)
    Glycogenesis the glucose into the cells
     Metabolic pathways by which glycogen is  Produces an increase in the rate of glycogen
    synthesized from glucose 6-phosphate synthesis
    Two Stages
     Involves: Glucagon
    - Formation of glucose 1-phosphate  Oxidative stage
    - Formation of UDP- glucose - involves three steps through which glucose  Polypeptide hormone (29 amino acids)
    - Glucose transfer to a glycogen chain 6-phosphate is converted to ribulose 5-  Produced in the pancreas by alpha cells
    phosphate and CO2  Released when blood-glucose levels are low
     Non-oxidative stage  Principal function is to increase blood-
    - in the first step, ribulose 5-phosphate (a
    24.6 Gluconeogenesis glucose concentration by speeding up the
    ketose) is isomerized to ribose 5-phosphate conversion of glycogen to glucose
    24.7 Terminology for Glucose (an aldose) (glycogenolysis) in the liver
    Metabolic Pathways  Elicits the opposite effects of insulin

     Helps meet cellular needs Epinephrine (Adrenaline)


    24.8 The Pentose Phosphate Pathway
    - when ATP demand is high, the pathway
    continues to its end products, which enter  Released by the adrenal glands in response
    Structure of NADPH to anger, fear, or excitement
    glycolysis
     Pentose phosphate pathway - When NADPH demand is high,  Function is similar to glucagon
    - Pathway in which glucose 6-phosphate is intermediates are recycled to glucose 6- -stimulates glycogeolysis
    used to produce NADPH, ribose 5- phosphate (the start of the pathway), and  Primary target – Muscle cells
    phosphate (a pentose phosphate), and further NADPH is produced -Promotes energy generation for quick
    numerous other sugar phosphates -Helps generate ribose 5-phosphate for action
    nucleic acid and coenzyme production  Functions in lipid metabolism
    * NADPH – reduced form of NADP+
    (nicotinamide phosphate)
    - NADP+/NADPH – Phosphorylated version of
    NAD+/NADH
    - NADPH+ is essential for biosynthetic
    reactions/ pathways

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