THE CELL
secretory products such as
3 Components of the body
1. Cell - a discrete entity bound by a
membrane that “isolates” it from its
environment
2. Intercellular or extracellular
substances - materials that lie between
cells to support and nourish them
3. Body fluids - includes blood, tissue or
intercellular fluid, and lymph
Blood - confined within the vascular
system
Tissue or intercellular fluid - between
and around cells
Lymph - drain tissue fluid back to the
venous system
Histology: Microanatomy - science concerned
with the minute structure of cells, tissues and
organs in relation to their function.
Cell - the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of
living independently.
- The structural and functional unit of
body
2 types of Cells:
1. Prokaryotic - found in primitive cells
such as bacteria.
- Metabolic and hereditary
components are mixed
- No histones (basic proteins)
bound to their DNA
- No membranous organelles
2. Eukaryotic - in all higher plants and
animals
- Bulk or hereditary material is
isolated in a membrane-bound
nucleus lying in the remainder of
the cell or cytoplasm
Components of Protoplasm
1. Protein
- main structural elements of the cell and
the intercellular material
- Exist as pure lipoprotein, glycoprotein,
proteoglycan, or mucoprotein
- Ex.
enzymes, some hormones.
2. Nucleic acids
- DNA - found mainly in the nucleus
- RNA - nucleus and cytoplasm
3. Carbohydrates
- As glucose, stored as glycogen
4. Lipid
- Also an energy source
- Important component of cellular
membrane
5. Inorganic materials
- Exists as: free radical
- e.g., sodium (Na+), potassium (K+),
magnesium (Mg2+), calcium (Ca2+),
phosphate (HPO42-), chloride (Cl-), and
bicarbonate (HCO3-)
INVOLVED IN ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS:
a. Maintenance of osmotic pressure
gradients
b. Muscle contraction or relaxation
c. Tissue rigidity e.g. bone
d. Cell adhesion
e. Enzyme activation
6. Water - 75% of protoplasm
- Partly free: available for metabolic
processes
- Partly bound to protein: as a structural
component.
PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM
1. Irritability – capability to respond to a
stimulus
2. Conductivity – can transmit a wave of
excitation (an electrical impulse) throughout the
cell from the point of stimulus - highly developed
in nerve cells lesser extent, in muscle cells
3. Contractility – property of changing shape in
the sense of shortening - ex. Muscle cells
4. Respiration – essential for life. Process
whereby food substances and oxygen within the
cell interact chemically to produce energy,
carbon dioxide and water
5. Absorption – imbibition of materials that later
may be assimilated by the cell in metabolism or
otherwise utilized
6. Secretion – process by which cell extrudes
material (useful) - such as digestive enzyme or a
hormone
7.Excretion – extrusion of waste material from - consist of a small and large subunit composed
the cell of several types of RNA
8. Growth – increase in size - may be:
● free in the cytosol
Components of the Cell ● bound to membranes of the
Cytoplasm: 3 main structural components *rough endoplasmic reticulum
- Organelles *outer nuclear membrane
- Inclusions ● actual sites of protein synthesis
- cytoskeleton ● responsible for the basophilic staining of
- the cytoplasm
Fluid component: cytosol
- Exhibits functional interactions among 3. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
organelles (RER)
Results in: a. Uptake and release of material b. - site where non-cytosolic proteins are
Protein synthesis (intracellular digestion) synthesized
● Secretory
ORGANELLES ● Plasma membrane
- metabolically active units of living matter ● Lysosomal
- limited by a membrane - provide an area of storage and transport of
proteins
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE/ cell membrane/
plasmalemma 4. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC
- 7.5 nm thick RETICULUM/Agranular endoplasmic reticulum
- composed of a lipid bilayer and associated - irregular network of membrane bounded
proteins channels that lack ribosomes on its surface
- envelopes the cell appearing smooth
- aids in maintaining its structural and functional - appears as branching anastomosing tubules or
integrity vesicle membranes
- functions as a semipermeable membrane - less common than RER
between the cytoplasm and the external - predominates in cells synthesizing steroids,
environment triglycerides and cholesterol
- sensory device - serves different functions in different cell types:
- recognize other cells and macromolecules ● steroid hormones and lipid synthesis
- composed of an inner leaflet (facing the ● drug detoxification (liver)
cytoplasm) and an outer leaflet (facing the ● muscle contraction and relaxation
extracellular environment
- exhibits a trilaminar structure (called the unit 5. ANNULATE LAMELLAE
membrane) - parallel stacks of membranes (6-10) located
- performs special processes like: phagocytosis, near the nucleus
pinocytosis, exocytosis - resemble the nuclear envelope, including its
pore complexes
Lipid bilayer - are continuous with the RER
- composed of phospholipids, glycolipids and - are found in rapidly growing cells (germ cells,
cholesterol embryonic cells, tumor cells)
- function is not fully known
2. RIBOSOMES/ Palade granules
- 12 nm wide and 25 nm long 6. MITOCHONDRIA
- rod-shaped organelles [0.2 µm (W) – 7 µm (L)]
double layered sac
- possess an outer smooth membrane and an
inner membrane, which invaginates to form
cristae
-important in energy metabolism as major
source of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- site of many metabolic reaction
- subdivided into an intermembrane
compartment and an inner matrix compartment
- contain granules within the matrix that bind the
divalent cations Mg+2 and Ca+2
- contain all of the enzymes of the krebs (TCA)
cycle
7. GOLGI COMPLEX (apparatus)
- consists of disk-shaped cisternae (saccules)
arranged in a stack
- pale area near the nucleus
2 major functions:
1. processing of non-cytosolic proteins
synthesized in the RER
2. membrane retrieval, recycling and
redistribution(renewal of cell membrane)
8. COATED VESICLES
- characterized by a visible cytoplasmic surface
coat
2 varieties:
● clathrin-coated vesicles
● clathrin
- essential for intracellular digestion
Types of lysosomes:
a. Multivesicular bodies/endosomes
b. Phagolysosomes/phagosomes +
lysosomes
c. Auto-phagolysosomes
d. Residual bodies
10. PEROXISOMES
- also known as microbodies
- membrane-bound, ovoid
- has oxidative enzyme for the breakdown of
hydrogen peroxide and alcohol
11. CENTRIOLES
- pair of cylindrical rods (0.2 µm wide and 0.5 µm
long) oriented at right angles to one another
- located in the centrosome (cell center)
- direct the formation of spindle fiber during cell
division forms the bases of cilia and flagella
(mother centriole)
INCLUSIONS
- glycogen, lipid droplets, lipofuscin
- lifeless accumulations of material
- not metabolically active
- temporarily present
CYTOSKELETON
- microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate
filaments, microtrabecular lattice
- structural framework within the cytosol

3 large and 3 small polypeptide chains that form functions in:

a triskelion (3 legged structure) ● maintaining cell shape by providing
● formed during endocytosis cellular support
● associated with signal-directed transport ● stabilizing cell attachments
● non-clathrin-coated vesicles ● facilitating endocytosis and exocytosis
● involved in the transport of proteins ● promoting cell motility
● from RER to golgi,
● one golgi cisterna to another NUCLEUS
● golgi complex to plasma membrane Includes:
● associated with constitutive protein ● Nuclear envelope
transport ● Nucleoplasm
● Nucleolus
9. LYSOSOME - dark staining body containing ● Chromatin
hydrolytic enzymes
- control various activities of the cell essential for
reproduction and heredity transmission
- contains genetic apparatus encoded in the
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosomes
- directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm via:
ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
- surrounds the nuclear material
- consists of two parallel membranes separated
from each other by a narrow perinuclear cisterna
- perforated at intervals by openings called
nuclear pores
NUCLEOLUS
- well-defined nuclear inclusion (sometimes >
one)
- eccentrically placed within the nucleus
- not membrane-bound
- present in cells actively synthesizing protein
- generally detectable only when cell is in
interphase
- involve in synthesis of rRNA and its assembly
into precursors of ribosomes
2. EUCHROMATIN
- light microscope: lightly stained dispersed
region of the nucleus
- electron microscope: electron-lucent regions
among heterochromatin
- transcriptionally active
THE CELL CYCLE
2 major periods:
1. Interphase – interval
2. Mitosis (M phase) – period of cell division
1. Interphase
- longer than M phase
- cell doubles in size and DNA content
- 3 separate phases: G1, S and G2
G1 phase
- the gap phase just after mitosis
- when certain “trigger proteins” are synthesized
enabling the cell to reach a threshold (restriction
point) and proceed to the S phase
- lasts from a few hours to several days
- cell growth and protein synthesis occur,
restoring daughter cells to normal volume and
size

NUCLEOPLASM S phase
- portion of the protoplasm that is surrounded by - synthetic phase
the nuclear envelope - DNA replication and protein synthesis occur
- consists of a matrix and various types of - resulting in duplication of the chromosomes
particles - period when centrioles are self-duplicated
- lasts 8-12 hours in most cells
CHROMATIN
- double-stranded DNA complexed with histones G2 phase
and acidic proteins - gap phase
- responsible for RNA synthesis - follows the S phase and extends to mitosis
- lasts 2-4 hours
2 forms: heterochromatin and euchromatin - when:
● cell prepares to divide
1. HETEROCHROMATIN ● centrioles grow to maturity
- light microscope: basophilic clumps of ● energy required for the completion of
nucleoprotein mitosis is stored
- electron microscope: dense granular clumps ● RNA and proteins necessary for mitosis
- concentrated at periphery of nucleus, around are synthesized
the nucleolus and scattered throughout the
nucleoplasm 2. Mitosis
- transcriptionally inactive - follows the G2 phase
- completes the cell cycle
- involves: Karyokinesis – division of the
nucleus Involves:
Cytokinesis – division of the cytoplasm ● doubling of DNA content in S phase
resulting ● affected by 2 successive cell divisions
in the production of two identical daughter cell that give rise to 4 haploid cells
-last 1-3 hours - accompanied by recombination of maternal
- 4 major stages: and paternal genes by crossing over and
● prophase random assortment
● metaphase
● anaphase 2 stages:
● Telophase A. Reductional division (meiosis I)
1. Prophase I
1. Prophase a) Leptotene
- chromosomes condensed and become rod-like b) Zygotene
- centrioles are forming asters c) Pachytene
- nucleus and nuclear envelope disappear d) Diplotene
e) Diakinesis
2. Metaphase 2. Metaphase I
- condensed chromosomes are aligned at the 3. Anaphase I
equatorial plate of the mitotic spindle 4. Telophase I
B. Equatorial division (meiosis II)
3. Anaphase - begins soon after completion of meiosis I
- chromatids separate at the centromere - events similar to meiosis
- daughter chromosomes move to opposite
poles of the cell 1. Prophase I
- elongation of the spindle 5 stages:
- formation of a cleavage furrow a) Leptotene
- due to contraction of a band of actin filaments - chromatin condenses into visible
called the contractile ring chromosomes
- each contains 2 chromatids joined at the
4. Telophase centromere
- deepening of the cleavage furrow which leaves
the midbody (containing overlapping polar b) Zygotene
microtubules) b/w daughter cells - homologous maternal and paternal
- facilitating the completion of cytokinesis and chromosomes pair and make physical contact
formation of 2 identical daughter cells (synapsis) via the synaptonemal complex,
- reformation of the nuclear envelope forming a tetrad
- reappearance of nucleoli
- completed when daughter cells enlarged and c) Pachytene
dense chromosomes disperse in interphase - chiasmata are formed
- crossing over occurs
MEIOSIS - random exchange of geners b/w segments of
- special form of cell division homologous chromosomes
- sex cells divide this type - increasing genetic diversity
- chromosome number is reduced from diploid
(2n) to haploid (n) d) Diplotene
- occurs in developing germ cells (spermatozoa - chromosomes continue to condense
and oocytes), fertilization results in diploid - chiasmata can be observed
zygotes
- indicating sites where crossing over has taken 6. Scanty or absent intercellular substance
place 7. Supported by a basement membrane

e) Diakinesis Functions:
- nucleolus disappears 1. Protection
- chromosomes are condensed maximally 2. Transport
- nuclear envelope disappears 3. Sensory reception
4. Absorption
2. Metaphase I 5. Reproduction
3. Anaphase I 6. Secretion
4. Telophase I 7. Excretion

B. Equatorial division (meiosis II) Epithelia - Occur as membranes and as glands

- begins soon after completion of meiosis I, Membranes - formed by sheets of cells
following a brief interphase without DNA - cover an external surface or line an internal
replication surface
- separation of sister chromatids and distribution Glands - down growth of epithelial surfaces into
into 4 daughter cells each containing underlying connective tissue
● Usually, connection to surface remains
as a duct
FUNDAMENTAL TISSUES ● such are exocrine glands
● in some cases, surface connections is
4 Major types lost and the gland secretes internally
1. Epithelial Tissues into the vascular system
- all germ layers
- Sheet-like covering of body surfaces Classifications of Epithelia
2. Connective Tissues Based on number of cell layer and the
- Mesoderm morphology of the cells
- Supporting, connecting & bonding
tissues I. Simple – one layer of cells
3. Muscular Tissues
- Mesoderm A. Simple squamous
- Flesh of human body & walls of hollow - single layer of flattened cells
organs - cells are saddle-like with serrated edges and a
4. Nervous Tissues centrally located nucleus (top view)
- Ectoderm - on surface view, cells appear elongated or
- Highly irritable tissue and conducts spindle in shape
impulses as waves of excitation
Ex:
EPITHELIAL TISSUES - closely apposed 1. Blood vessels, heart and lymphatics
polygonal cells with little or no intercellular (endothelium)
material 2. Serous cavities (mesothelium)
3. Lung alveoli
General Characteristics: 4. Bowman’s capsule (parietal layer)
1. Highly cellular 5. Loop of Henle
2. Arranged in sheets or in layers 6. Membranous labyrinth
3. Intimate contact with one another 7. Tympanic membrane
4. Avascular
5. Forms glands
B. Simple Cuboidal 4. Neuroepithelium - for sensory reception
- Cells look like tiny squares where the height of ex. Taste buds
the cell is equal to its width Organ of Corti
Ex: Olfactory mucosa
● Thyroid follicle
● Ducts of glands II. Stratified or Complex
● Germinal epithelium - multi-layer
● Kidney tubules of ovary - serves chiefly for protection
● Rete testes
● Choroid plexus 1. Stratified squamous
● Capsule of lens topmost layer: flattened cells
middle layer : 2 or more layers of polyhedral
C. Simple Columnar cells
- Cells resemble tall prism-like rectangles basal layer: cuboidal to columnar cells
- Height is more than its width
Ex: 2 types:
● Digestive tubes Keratinized
● Uterus - topmost layer undergo metamorphosis
● Oviducts Ex. Skin
● Gallbladder
● Small bronchi Non-keratinized
● Large bronchioles - seen in wet, moist surfaces that is subjected to
● Central canal of spinal cord considerable wear and tear
Ex:
D. Pseudostratified Epithelium 1.Buccal mucosa
- Layers of cells have false stratification 2.Esophagus
- All the cells in all the layers are attached to the 3.Epiglottis
basement membrane 4.Vagina
Ex: 5.Anus
● Trachea 6.Cornea
● Bronchus
● male urethra 3. Stratified Columnar
● Excretory ducts of parotid gland - top: columnar cells
● Ductus epididymis - middle layer: irreg. shaped polyhedral cells
● Vas deferens - basal: columnar cells touching the basement
membrane
Modified Epithelia Ex:
- usually are columnar cells with added Pharynx
specializations Fornix of conjunctiva
Excretory ducts of salivary & mammary glands
1. Glandular or pyramidal - secretory type like
the goblet cells 4. Stratified Cuboidal
2. Ciliated - cilia is present on the top surface of - composed of large polyhedral cells with
the cell topmost layer being big coboidal cells
ex. Uterus, oviduct Ex:
3. Pigmented Epithelia - cells contain colored 1. Semiferous tubules (testes)
pigment granules 2. Duct of sebaceous & sweat glands
ex. Retina 3. Vesicular follicles of the ovary
5. Transitional
- Variety of stratified epithelium - Prevents movement of substances into the
- Transition b /w stratified squamous and intercellular space
stratified columnar epithelia Occludin & Claudin
- Superficial cells tend to bulge into the lumen - Analogous to fascia occludens b/w endothelial
giving a dome-shaped profile called “umbrella cells
cells”(facet cells)
Ex: Lining of urinary passages from renal 2. Zona adherens
calyces to the urethra - belt desmosome or intermediate junction
- completely around the perimeter of epithelial
SPECIALIZATIONS ON THE SURFACE OF cells basal to the zona occludens
EPITHELIAL CELLS - analogous to fascia adherens in intercalated
I. Lateral disks
A. Junctional Complex - Linked to actin cytoskeleton
a. Zonula occludens
b. Zonula adherens 3. Macula adherens
c. Macula adherens - desmosome
B. Gap Junction - small, discrete, disk-shaped adhesive site
C. Lateral Interdigitations - found at sites other than the junctional complex
attaching epithelial cells together
II. Basal - dense plaques of desmoplakins associated
A. Basal Lamina with keratin filaments (tonofilaments)
B. Hemidesmosomes
C. Basal Plasma Membrane infoldings B. Gap Junctions
- nexus or communicating junctions
III. Apical - couple adjacent cells metabolically and
A. Cilia electrically
B. Microvilli - common in certain tissues like CNS, cardiac
C. Stereocilia and smooth muscles
D. Striated or brush border - composed of an ordered array of subunits
E. Cuticle called connexons

I. LATERAL EPITHELIAL C. Lateral Interdigitations

SURFACES - regular, fingerlike projections that interlock
- Specialized junctions for adhesion adjacent epithelial cells
communication b/w cells and in
restricting mov’t of materials into and out of II. BASAL EPITHELIAL SURFACES
lumina A.Basal Lamina
- extracellular supportive structure
A. Junctional complex - produce by epithelium
- intricate arrangement of membrane- assoc’d - composed of type IV collagen, laminin, entacin
structures & proteoglycans (mostly heparin sulfate)
- Also known as “ terminal bar”
2 Zones:
1. Zonula occludens 1. Lamina rara or lucida
- tight junction - lies next to plasma membrane lamina
- zone around the entire apical parameter of densa
adjacent cells formed by fusion of the outer - denser meshwork
leaflets of the plasma membrane.
 - lies adjacent to the reticular lamina of
the
- deeper connective tissue
- Contains gp laminin
2. basement membrane
- underlying reticular lamina observed by
light microscopy
B. Hemidesmosomes
- specialized junctions that resemble ½ of a
macula adherens
- mediate adhesion
- present in basal & myoepithelial cells
- link the cytoskeleton with the extracellular
matrix
C. Basal Plasma –Membrane Infolding
- common in ion-transporting epithelia
ex. Distal convoluted tubules ducts in salivary
glands
- compartmentalize mitochondria
- function to bring ion pumps close to their
energy supply (mitochondria)
- which arise from a basal body during
ciliogenesis
GLANDS
- specialized as organ of secretion or excretion
- formed when epithelial tissues grow down into
the underlying connective tissue
Classifications:
I. According to morphology - based on duct
branching
A. SIMPLE - duct does not branch
1. simple straight tubular Ex. Crypts of
Lieberkuhn
2. Simple coiled tubular Ex. Sweat glands
3. simple branched tubular ex. Gastric glands,
uterine glands
4. Simple unbranched alveolar ex. Tarsal glands
5. Simple branched saccular ex. Sebaceous
gland
B. COMPOUND - duct branches

III. APICAL EPITHELIAL SURFACES 1. Compound tubular Ex. Testes

A. Microvilli 2. compound alveolar ex. Glands in the
- finger-like projections of epithelia that extend respiratory tracts
into the lumen 3. Compound tubulo-alveolar ex. Large salivary
- characterized by a glycocalyx (sugar coat) on glands
their exterior surface 4. Compound saccular ex. Mammary gland
- bundle of 30 actin filaments
- constitute the II. According to number
• brush border of kidney PCT (proximal A. Unicellular - single cell functioning as a gland
convoluted tubule) ex. Goblet cell
• striated border of intestinal absorptive cells
B. Multicellular - many cells joined together in
B. Stereocilia producing a gland
- very long microvilli ex. Mammary glands salivary glands pancreas
located in the:
• epididymis III. According to site of secretion
• vas deferens - based on how the glands discharge its
secretory products
C. Cilia
- actively motile processes Exocrine - secrete into a duct or onto a surface
- propel substances along epithelial surfaces - most glands in the body are of this type
- core of longitudinally arranged microtubules
(axoneme) B. Endocrine - ductless
 - secrete into the blood
ex.
thyroid gland, parathyroid, pituitary gland,
adrenal gland, testes

IV. According to types or nature of

secretions
A. Serous - watery secretion, often rich in
enzymes
- individual cells have:
• round nucleus near the base - dark basophilic
• pyramidal in shape

B. Mucous - thick viscous secretion

- individual cells have:
• pyramidal
• elongated nucleus at base
• light-staining cytoplasm

C. Seromucous or mixed - both cell types are

present in a single alveolus
serous secreting cell - are found in the periphery
of a mucous alveoli
- so-called serous demilunes of Gianuzzi

V. According to mechanism of secretion

A. Merocrine - secretory cells release their
contents by exocytosis

ex. Parotid gland

B. Apocrine - part of the apical cytoplasm is

released along with the contents

ex. Lactating mammary gland

C. Holocrine - entire secretory cell along with its

content is released

ex. Sebaceous gland

 TISSUE FUNCTIONS:
-Protection
Main characteristics of the four basic types -Transcellular Transport
of tissues -Secretion
-Absorption
TISSUE CELLS ECM MAIN
FUNCTIONS -Selective permeability
-Detection of sensations
Nervous Elongated cells Very small Transmission of
with extremely amount nerve impulses
fine processes EPITHELIUM
- Avascular, tightly bound contiguous cells
Epithelial Aggregated Small Lining of surface
forming sheets covering or lining the body
polyhedral cells amount or body cavities,
glandular Basal lamina - separates the epithelium from
secretion
the underlying connective tissue; via diffusion,
nourishments and oxygen are passed from the
Muscle Elongated Moderate Strong
adjacent connective tissue to the epithelium
contractile cells amount contraction;
Body
movements CELL SURFACE SPECIALIZATIONS
I. APICAL
Connective Several types Abundant Support and -Cilia
of fixed and amount protection of -Microvilli
wandering cells tissues/organs
-Stereocilia

II. BASAL
EPITHELIUM AND GLANDS
-Basal lamina
2 FORMS:
-Hemidesmosomes
1. Sheets of contiguous cells that cover the
-Basal Plasma Membrane infoldings
body on its external surface and line the body on
its internal surface
III. LATERAL
-Gap Junction
2. As glands, which originate from invaginated
-Lateral Interdigitations
epithelial cells
-Junctional Complex
>Zonula occludens
Ectoderm: oral and nasal mucosae, cornea,
>Zonula adherens
epidermis of the skin and the mammary glands
>Macula adherens

Endoderm: liver, pancreas, and the lining of the

APICAL SURFACE
respiratory and gastrointestinal tract
1.) Microvilli
-Finger-like projections of epithelia that extent
Mesoderm: uriniferous tubules of the kidney,
into the lumen
lining of the male and female reproductive
-Characterized by a glycocalyx (sugar coat) on
systems, endothelial lining of the circulatory
their exterior surface
system, and the mesothelium of the body
-Bundle of 30 actin filaments
cavities
- Constitute the:
>Brush border of kidney PCT
>Striated border of intestinal absorptive cells
2.) Stereocilia
- Very long microvilli
- Located in the:
>Epididymis
>Vas deferens
3.) Cilia
-Actively motile processes
-Propel substances along epithelial surfaces
-Core of the longitudinally arranged microtubules
(axoneme)
-Arise from a basal body during ciliogenesis
LATERAL SURFACES
- are specialized junctions for adhesion and
communication between cells and in restricting
movement of materials into and out of lumina
1.) Gap Junction
-Nexus or communicating junctions
-Couple adjacent cells metabolically and
electrically
-Common in certain tissues like CNS, cardiac
and smooth muscles
-Composed of a channel-forming proteins
(connexins) that assemble to form connexons
2.) Junctional Complex
FUNCTIONS:
-Occluding junctions: joining of cells forming
impermeable barrier
-Anchoring junctions: maintaining cell-to-cell
adherence
-Communicating junctions: movement of ions
and signaling molecules between cells
>Zonula occludens
-Tight junction
-Zone around the entire apical parameter of
adjacent cells formed by fusion of the outer
leaflets of the plasma membrane
-Prevents movement of substances into the
intercellular space
-Analogous to fascia occludens between
endothelial cells
>Zonula adherens
-Intermediate junction
-Assist adhering cells to adhere to each
other
-Analogous to fascia adherens in intercalated
disks
>Macula adherens
-Desmosome
-Help to resist shearing forces
-Small, discrete, disk-shaped adhesive site
-Found at sites other than the junctional complex
attaching epithelial cells together
BASAL SURFACES
1.) Basal Lamina
-Extracellular supporting structure
-Produced by epithelium
-Composed of type IV collagen, laminin,
entacin, proteoglycans (mostly heparin sulfate)
-Located at the boundary between epithelial
cells and the underlying connective tissue
2.) Hemidesmosomes
-Specialized junctions that resemble ½ of the
macula adherens
-Mediate adhesion of basal cell membrane to
basal lamina
-Integrins on one side is attached to the plaque
with keratin tonofilaments and on the other
side attaches to laminin and collagen IV of BL
3.) Basal Plasma-membrane Enfoldings
-Finger-like enfoldings functions to increase the
surface area available for transport
-Common in ion-transporting epithelia
Ex. Distal convoluted tubules, ducts in salivary
glands
-Compartmentalize mitochondria
-Function to bring ion pumps close to their
energy supply (mitochondria)
CLASSIFICATION OF EPITHELIA STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS, NONKERATINIZED
Based on cell layer: -Shape of surface cells: flattened with nuclei
-Simple (one layer) -Locations: lining of mouth, epiglottis,
-Stratified (more than one cell layer) esophagus, vocal folds, vagina

Based on cell morphology: STRATIFIED SQUAMOUS, KERATINIZED

-Squamous -Shape of surface cells: flattened without
-Cuboidal nuclei
-Columnar -Locations: epidermis of skin

Others: STRATIFIED CUBOIDAL

-Pseudostratified -Shape of surface cells: cuboidal
-Transitional -Locations: ducts of sweat glands,
Seminiferous tubules of Testes
SIMPLE SQUAMOUS
-Shape of surface cells: flattened STRATIFIED COLUMNAR
- Sample locations: pulmonary alveoli, loop of -Shape of surface cells: columnar
Henle, parietal layer of Bowman’s capsule, -Locations: conjunctiva of eye, some large
inner and middle ears, blood and lymphatic excretory ducts, portions of male urethra
vessels, pleural and peritoneal cavities
TRANSITIONAL
SIMPLE CUBOIDAL Shape of surface cells: dome-shaped (relaxed)
-Shape of surface cells: cuboidal flattened (distended)
-Locations: ducts of many glands, covering of Locations: lining of urinary tract from renal
ovary, form kidney tubules calyces to urethra

SIMPLE COLUMNAR GLANDS

-Shape of surface cells: columnar -Specialized as organ of secretion or
-Locations: lining of oviducts, ductuli efferentes excretion
of testis, uterus, small bronchi, much of -Formed when epithelial tissues grow down into
digestive tract, gallbladder, large ducts of some the underlying connective tissue
gland, Digestive tubes (STOMACH)
-May exhibit: ACCORDING TO SITE OF SECRETION:
>Microvilli- striated border; narrow finger-like 1.) Exocrine
cytoplasmic process -Secrete into a duct or onto a surface
>Cilia- hair-like structure seen in uterus, -Most glands are of this type
oviducts, ductuli efferentes and small bronchi
2.) Endocrine
PSEUDOSTRATIFIED -Ductless; secrete into the blood
- Shape of surface cells: all cells rest on basal Ex. Thyroid gland, pituitary gland, testes,
lamina but not all reach epithelial surface; parathyroid, adrenal
surface cells are columnar
- Locations: lining of most of trachea, primary
bronchi, epididymis and ductus deferens,
auditory tube, tympanic cavity, nasal cavity,
lacrimal sac, male urethra, large excretory ducts
-Most type of pseudostratified columnar
epithelium is ciliated seen on the apical surface
of the cells that reach the epithelial surface
CLASSIFICATIONS
ACCORDING TO MORPHOLOGY (based on
duct branching):
1.) Simple (duct does not branch)
- Simple straight tubular (Crypts of
Lieberkuhn)
- Simple coiled tubular (Sweat glands)
-Simple branched tubular (Gastric glands,
uterine glands)
- Simple branched alveolar (Tarsal glands)
- Simple branched saccular (Sebaceous
gland)
2.) Compound (duct branches)
-Compound tubular (Testes)
- Compound alveolar (Glands in the respiratory
tracts)
-Compound tubulo-alveolar (Large salivary
glands)
-Compound saccular (Mammary gland)
3.)Seromucous
-Both cell types are present in a single alveolus
-Serous secreting cells are found in the
periphery of a mucuos alveoli
-So called serous demilunes of Gianuzzi
ACCORDING TO MECHANISM OF
SECRETION:
1.) Merocrine- secretory cells release their
contents by exocytosis. Ex. Parotid gland
2.) Apocrine- part of the apical cytoplasm is
released along with the contents. Ex. Lactating
mammary gland
3.) Holocrine- entire secretory cell along with its
content is released. Ex. Sebaceous gland

ACCORDING TO NUMBER:
1.) Unicellular- single cell functioning as a gland
>Ex. Goblet cell

2.) Multicellular- many cells joined together in

producing a gland
>Ex. Mammary glands, salivary glands,
pancreas

ACCORDING TO TYPES OR NATURE OF

SECRETIONS:
1.) Serous
-Watery secretion, often rich in enzymes
-Individual cells have:
>Round nucleus near the base
>Dark basophilic
>Pyramidal in shape

2.) Mucuos
-Thick viscous secretion
-Individual cells have:
>Pyramidal
>Elongated nucleus at base
>Light-staining cytoplasm
CONNECTIVE TISSUE 4.) Adipose Cells
1.) Cells -are fully differentiated cells that function in the
-Fixed synthesis, storage and release of fats
-Transient - White adipose tissue (unilocular fat cells)
>Single, large lipid droplet
2.) Extracellular matrix - Brown adipose tissue (multilocular fat cells)
-Ground substance >Multiple, small lipid droplets
>GAG, proteoglycans, glycoproteins
-Fibers 5.) Mast Cells
>Collagen -arise from bone marrow stem cells and
>Elastic function in mediating the inflammatory
process and immediate hypersensitivity
CELLS reactions
1.) Fixed cells
-Fibroblasts 6.) Macrophages
-Adipose cells -act both as fixed and transient cell
-Pericytes - belong to the mononuclear phagocytic system
-Mast cells and are subdivided into two groups of cells:
-Macrophages >Phagocytes
>Antigen-presenting cells APC
2.) Transient cells
- Plasma cells, lymphocytes, neutrophils, TRANSIENT CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS***
eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, Extracellular Matrix
macrophages 1.) Ground substance
-Hydrated, amorphous material that is
FIXED CONNECTIVE TISSUE CELLS composed of GAG, proteoglycans and
1.) Fibroblasts glycoproteins
- the most abundant cell type in the connective
tissue, are responsible for the synthesis of 2.) Fibers
almost all of the ECM -Collagen
>Inelastic and possess great tensile strength
2.) Myofibroblast Types:
-are modified fibroblast that demonstrate Type I: in connective tissue proper, bone,
characteristics similar to those of both fibroblasts dentin, cementum
and smooth muscle cells Type II: hyaline and elastic cartilages
-absence of basal lamina Type III: reticular fibers
-abundant in areas undergoing wound Type IV: lamina densa of the basal lamina
healing Type V: placenta; associated with type I
collagen
3.) Pericytes Type VII: attaching the basal lamina to the
- Surround endothelial cells of capillaries and lamina reticularis
small venules and reside outside the connective
tissue compartment, because they possess >Elastic
their own basal lamina -Composed of elastin (responsible for elasticity)
and microfibrils (responsible for stability)
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE: Location: dermis of the skin, the sheaths of
1.) Connective Tissue Proper nerves, and the capsules of spleen, testes,
-Loose (Areolar) ovary, kidney, lymph nodes
-Dense
>Irregular >Dense Regular Collagenous
>Regular (Collagenous, Elastic) -composed of coarse collagen bundles
>Reticular densely packed and oriented in parallel cylinders
>Adipose Location: tendons, ligaments, aponeurosis

2.) Specialized Connective Tissue >Dense Regular Elastic

-Cartilage (Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage) -coarse branching elastic fibers with only few
-Bone collagen
Location: large blood vessels, ligamenta flava
3.) Embryonic Connective Tissues of vertebral column and suspensory ligament of
-Mesenchymal the penis
-Mucous
3.) Reticular Connective Tissue
TYPES OF CONNECTIVE TISSUE -Major fiber component is type III collagen
PROPER: -Interspersed with fibroblasts and
-Loose macrophages
-Dense Location: liver sinusoids, adipose tissue, bone
-Reticular marrow, lymph nodes, spleen, smooth muscle
-Adipose and islets of langerhans

1.) Loose Connective Tissue 4.) Adipose Connective Tissue

-Composed of loose arrangement of fibers >WHITE (UNILOCULAR) ADIPOSE TISSUE
and dispersed cells embedded in a gel-like -single lipid droplet
ground substance -present in the subcutaneous layers throughout
-Abundant ground substance with fixed the body
connective tissue cells (fibroblast, adipose, -common in adult human than brown adipose
macrophages, mast cells)
-Scattered, loosely woven collagen, reticular >BROWN (MULTILOCULAR) ADIPOSE
and elastic fibers TISSUE
Location: -multiple lipid droplet
-Spaces of the body just deep to the skin -heavily vascularized thus brown in color
-Lies below mesothelial lining of internal cavity
-Adventitia of blood vessels EMBRYONIC CONNECTIVE TISSUE
-Parenchyma of glands >Mesenchymal connective tissue
-present only in the embryo and consists of
2.) Dense Connective Tissue mesenchymal cells
- greater abundance of fibers and fewer cells
than loose connective tissue >Mucous connective tissue
-loose, amorphous connective tissue
>Dense Irregular exhibiting a jelly-like matrix composed of
- mostly coarse collagen fibers interwoven into hyaluronic acid and populated with type I and
meshwork type III collagen fibers and fibroblasts
-fibers are packed so tightly that space is limited Location: Wharton’s Jelly of the umbilical
for ground substance and cells cord and subdermal connective tissue of the
- fibroblasts are the most abundant cells embryo
CARTILAGE 3.) Fibrocartilage
Cartilage -does not possess a perichondrium
-neither vascularized nor supplied with nerves -includes type I collagen
or lymphatic vessels; cells receives nutrients -chondrocytes are often aligned in alternating
from surrounding connective tissue parallel rows
Functions: Location:
-Shock absorber -Intervertebral disks
-Friction-free movement of joints -Articular disks
-Pubic symphysis
Perichondrium -Insertion of some tendons
- a connective tissue sheath covering that
overlies most cartilage CARTILAGE CELLS
-has outer fibrous layer and inner cellular 1.) Chondrogenic Cells
layer -spindle-shaped, derived from mesenchymal
-vascular, supplies nutrients to cells of cartilage cells
-present in hyaline and elastic cartilages only -can differentiate into both chondroblasts and
osteoprogenitor cells
TYPES OF CARTILAGE
1.) Hyaline Cartilage 2.) Chondroblasts
-most abundant cartilage -derived from either mesenchymal of
-forms the template of endochondral bone chondrogenic cells
formation
-contains type II collagen and perichondrium 3.) Chondrocytes
Location: -are chondroblasts that are surrounded by
-Articular ends of long bones matrix
-Nose, larynx, trachea, bronchi, ventral ends of
ribs Interstitial growth
-As the cells of isogenous group manufactures
2.) Elastic Cartilage matrix, they are pushed away from each other,
-greatly resembles hyaline cartilage, except that forming separate lacunae and thus enlarging
its matrix and perichondrium possess elastic cartilage from within
fibers
-somewhat yellow and more opaque than Appositional growth
hyaline -Chondrogenic cells undergo division and
-chondrocytes are more abundant and larger differentiate into chondroblasts, which begin to
than hyaline elaborate matrix. In this way cartilage grows by
-contains type II collagen and perichondrium adding to its periphery
Location:
- Pinna of ear, walls of auditory canal, auditory
tube, epiglottis, cuneiform cartilage of larynx
BONE
-bone tissue is a specialized form of connective
tissue characterized by a mineralized
extracellular matrix.
- Mineral = calcium phosphate in the form of
hydroxyapatite crystals [Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2]
(INORGANIC)
>Calcium Carbonate: CaCO3
>Magnesium Hydroxide: Mg(OH)2
>Fluoride and Sulfate
- Matrix = mainly collagen (type I, VI) along
with other matrix proteins (ORGANIC)
>all collagen molecules ~ 90% of total weight of
bone matrix
Function:
-storage for elements and minerals - >an inner cellular (osteogenic) layer is well
homeostatic regulation of blood calcium
levels
-mechanical structures for movement and
protection of viscera
-a home for hematopoietic tissue
-storage of adipose tissue: yellow marrow
BONE TISSUE
-bone tissue is classified into:
1.) Compact bone
-dense layer forms the outside of
the bone
2.) Spongy bone (cancellous bone)
- spongelike meshwork consisting
of trabeculae
-the spaces within the meshwork
are continuous and occupied by
marrow and blood vessels.
Classified according to shape:
- the location of spongy and compact bone
varies with bone shape.
>Long bones (humerus, femur) - longer in one
dimension
>Short bones (carpals, tarsals, patella) - nearly
equal in length and diameter
-have compact, spongy bone and a marrow
space on the inside
-articular surfaces are covered with hyaline
cartilage
>Flat bones (parietal bone, scapula, sternum)
- thin and platelike
-thick compact bone with an intervening layer of
spongy bone
>Irregular bones (vertebrae, hip bones,
ethmoid bone)
>Sesamoid bones - tendons
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF BONES
1.) Periosteum
-is an outer fibrous sheath of dense regular
connective tissue covering of the bone except
articular surface.
-Two layers:
>outer fibrous layer
defined if active bone formation is in progress
-the relatively few periosteal cells are capable of
undergoing division and becoming osteoblasts
under appropriate stimulus.
-Sharpey’s fibers
>collagen fibers from ligaments and tendons
extend directly into the bone tissue, where they
are continuous with the collagen fibers of the
extracellular matrix of the bone tissue.
2.) Bone Cavities
-the marrow cavity and the spaces in spongy
bone contain bone marrow
-red bone marrow
>normally restricted to the spaces of spongy
bone in the adult
-yellow marrow
> consists mostly of fat cells
> can revert to red marrow (extreme blood loss)
3.) Mature Bone/lamellar bone
-composed of cylindrical units called Osteons or
Haversian systems
- osteons consist of concentric lamellae of bone
matrix surrounding a central canal, the osteonal
(Haversian) canal, which contains the
vascular and nerve supply of the osteon.
-within the bone matrix are spaces called
lacunae, each containing osteocyte.
-the osteocyte extends numerous processes into
small tunnels called canaliculi.
>communicate by gap junctions with other
osteocytes
-canaliculi generally arranged in a radial pattern
with respect to the Haversian canal
>serves for the passage of substances between
the osteocytes and blood vessels
-between the osteons are remnants of previous
concentric lamellae called interstitial lamellae
-circumferential lamellae follow the entire inner
and outer circumferences of the shaft of a long
bone
- perforating canals (Volkmann’s canals)
>blood vessels and nerves travel from the
periosteal and endosteal surfaces to reach the
osteonal canal; they also connect osteonal
canals to one another
>not surrounded by concentric lamellae
CELLS OF BONE TISSUE
-differentiated form of the same basic cell type
-are surrounded by matrix.
-25% water
-25% protein
-50% mineral salts
Bone Cell Types
-osteoprogenitor cells
-osteoblasts
-osteocytes
-bone-lining cells
-osteoclasts
1.) Osteoprogenitor Cells
-derived from mesenchymal stem cells
-is a resting cell that can differentiate into an
osteoblast and secrete bone matrix
-morphologically, they comprise the periosteal
cells that form the innermost layer of the
periosteum and the endosteal cells that line the
marrow cavities, the osteonal (Haversian)
canals, and the perforating (Volkmann’s) canals.
2.) Osteoblast
-is the differentiated bone-forming cell that
secretes bone matrix/type I collagen and bone
matrix proteins (BMPs)/
-osteoblast processes communicate with
other osteoblasts and with osteocytes by
gap junctions.
3.) Osteocytes
-are mature bone cells derived from
osteoblasts that became trapped in lacunae
-are responsible for maintaining the bone matrix.
>synthesize new matrix, as well as participate in
matrix degradation → maintain calcium
homeostasis
-arranged with their long axes in the same
direction as the lamellae.
4.) Osteoclasts
-are multinucleated cells originating from
granulocyte-macrophage progenitors
-play a role in bone resorption
-are bone-resorbing cells present on bone
surfaces where bone is being removed or
remodeled
>a shallow bay called a resorption bay
(Howship’s lacuna) can be observed in the bone
directly under the osteoclast.
Formation of Bone in an Embryo
Two patterns:
- Intramembranous ossification
>Flat bones of the skull and mandible are
formed in this way
>“Soft spots” that help the fetal skull pass
through the birth canal later become ossified
forming the skull
- Endochondral ossification
>the replacement of cartilage by bone
>most bones of the body are formed in this
way including long bones
1.) Intramembranous Ossification
-an ossification center appears in the fibrous
connective tissue membrane
- osteoblasts secrete bone matrix within the
fibrous membrane
- osteoblasts mature into osteocytes
2.) Endochondral Ossification
-replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone Most
bones are formed this way (i.e. long bones).

BONE GROWTH IN LENGTH

1.) Zone of reserve cartilage
-chondrocytes randomly distributed throughout
the matrix

2.) Zone of proliferation

-chondrocytes proliferating, form rows of
isogenous cells in parallel direction

3.) Zone of maturation and hypertrophy

-chondrocytes mature, hypertrophy and
accumulate glycogen

4.) Zone of calcification

-lacunae becomes confluent, hypertrophied
chondrocytes die and cartilage matrix calcified

5.) Zone of ossification

-osteoprogenitor-osteoblast-osteocyte-calcificati
on
-resorption
Blood and Hematopoiesis

Blood
- Light to dark red, viscous
- Slightly alkaline (7.35-7.45 pH)
- 7% of the total body weight
- 5L of blood in average adult
- Composed of formed elements
suspended in a fluid component which
is the plasma
Hemopoiesis
- Process of blood cell formation

Plasma - yellowish fluid in which cells,

platelets, organic compounds and electrolytes
are suspended and or dissolved.
- Water 90%
- Proteins 9%
- Inorg. Sats, ions, gasses, nutrients 1%

Serum - straw-colored, blood coagulates

leaving the components suspended into the
clot.

Plasma (55% of total blood)

Buffy Coat (leukocytes & platelets)

<1% of total blood

Erythrocytes (45% of total blood)

Hematopoiesis
- Prenatal Hemopoiesis
- Postnatal Hemopoiesis

Formed Elements
- Red Blood Cells
- White Blood Cells
- Platelets
Prenatal Hemopoiesis - CFU-GM (CFU-G for neutrophil,
- 2 weeks after conception CFU-M for monocyte)
(mesoblastic phase): blood cell
formation begins in the mesoderm of Precursor cells
the yolk sac - Arise from progenitor cells and are
> Mesenchymal cells aggregate to form blood incapable of self-renewal
islands - Undergo cell division and
> Peripheral cells become vessel walls and differentiation to give rise to a clone
the rest become erythroblast, become of mature cells
nucleated erythrocytes
- 6th week of gestation (hepatic Hemopoietic Growth Factors
Phase): erythrocytes still have nuclei, - most are glycoproteins
and leukocytes appear by the 8th - Rapid mitosis and differentiation
week 1. Transport via bloodstream (endocrine
- 2nd trimester (splenic phase): hormones)
continues until the end gestation 2. Secretion by stromal cells of the BM
- End of 2nd trimester (myeloid 3. Direct cell-to-cell contact
phase): beginning of hemopoiesis in
the bone marrow 1. Steel factors or stem cell factors
2. GM-CSF
Postnatal Hemopoiesis 3. IL-3 and IL-7
- Occurs almost exclusively in the bone 4. Cytokines
marrow - IL-2, IL-5, IL-6, IL-11, IL-12
- Entire process is regulated by various - Macrophage-inhibitory protein
growth factors and cytokines that act - Erythropoietin
at different steps to control the type of Note: Cell undergo apoptosis
cells formed and their rate of formation
Erythrocytes
Pluripotential Hematopoietic Stem Cells - Formation of red blood cells, under the
(PHSCs) control of several cytokines, namely:
- Where all blood cells arise steel factor, IL-3, IL-9, GM-CSF,
- Give rise to more PHSCs as well as 2 erythropoietin
types of Multipotential - Progenitor cells arising from
Hematopoietic Stem Cells (MHSCs) CFU-GEMM:
● - CFU-Ly - BFU-E
● - CFU-GEMM - CFU-E
- Erythropoietin (kidney) with the help
Progenitor Cells of other cytokines induce CFU-GEMM to form
- Unipotential, committed to forming a BFU- E.
single cell line
- Only limited capacity for self-renewal Erythropoiesis
- BFU-E to CFU-E for erythrocytes - The smallest and the most abundant
- CFU-Meg for megakaryocytes - Have no nuclei
- CFU-Eosinophil for eosinophil - Functions to transport oxygen and
- CFU-Basophil for basophil carbon dioxide to and from the tissue
- biconcave-shaped disk
 - Salmon-pink color -Oxyhemoglobin- Hb carrying O2
- Carbonic anhydrase, carbonic acid, -Carbaminohemoglobin- Hb carrying
chloride shift CO2
- Glycolytic pathway Human polypeptide chain of Hemoglobin
(Embden-Meyerhoff) - α, β, γ, δ
- Pentose monophosphate shunt
1. HbF (α2, γ2)
2. HbA1 (α2, β2)
Erythrocytes No nucleus and
red cytoplasm 3. HbA2 (α2, δ2)

Reticulocytes No nucleus and Note: In adult, 96% HbA1, 2% HbA2, 2% HbF

blue-gray
cytoplasm
Blood Antigen(s) Antibodies Geno
Orthochromatop Dark, small, group present on present in type(
hilic spherical the rbc the serum s)
erythroblasts nucleus
blue-gray A A antigen Anti-B AA
cytoplasm or
AO
Polychromatophi Darkening,
lic erythrocytes fractured, B B antigen Anti-A BB
spherical or
nucleus and BO
mixed pools of
gray and blue AB A antigen None AB
cytoplasm and B
antigen
Basophilic Fractured,
erythrocytes spherical O None Anti-A and OO
nucleus, and Anti-B
thin rim of sky
blue cytoplasm Leukocytes
Proerythroblasts Uniformly light, - Much smaller than that of RBCs in
spherical number
nucleus with - 4,000-11,000/cumm
thin rim of sky - Diapedesis- when leukocytes leave
blue cytoplasm. the bloodstream by migrating between
- endothelial cells of the blood vessels
Hemoglobin - Granulocytes
- Large protein composed of four - Agranulocytes
polypeptide chains, each is bound to - Both have azurophilic granules
heme group (iron-containing) (lysosomes)
- Globin moiety is responsible for
releasing CO2 Granulocytes
- R state 1. Neutrophil
- T state 2. Eosinophil
- Deoxyhemoglobin- Hb carrying 3. Basophil
2,3-DPG
GRANULOCYTOPOIESIS EOSINOPHILS
- Formation of the granulocytes (NEB) - Constitutes less than 4%of the total
under the influence of several WBCs
cytokines, GCSF, GM-CSF, IL-1, IL-5, - Sausage-shaped, bilobed nucleus
IL-6, TNF-alpha, - Helps to eliminate antigen-antibody
- Descendant of CFU-GEMM to complexes and destroy parasitic
CFU-Eo (Eosinophil) and CFU-Ba worms
(basophil) forming myeloblast as
precursor cell GRANULES:
- Neutrophil arise from CFU-GM to Specific: contains crystal-like ceter called
CFU-G forming myeloblast internum, and surrounded by externum
- Internum: major basic protein,
NEUTROPHIL eosiophilic cationic protein,
- Also known as Polymorphonuclear eosinophil-derived neurotoin
leukocytes Azurophilic granules: lysosomes
- The most abundant of all WBCs
(60-70%) BASOPHIL
- Multilobed nucleus - The same function with mast cells but
- In females, the nucleus presents a different origin (initiators of
characteristic small appendages, the inflammatory process)
“drumstick” which contains the inactive - Constitute less than 1% of the WBC
x chromosome population
- One of the first cells to appear during - S-shaped nucleus but is commonly
acute bacterial infection masked by the large specific granules
- Phagocytose and destroy bacteria Specific granules stain dark blue to black
using the contents of their granules pressed against the periphery (roughened
perimeter)
NEUTROPHILIC GRANULES Azurophilic granules: lysosomes
- Specific granules- contain various
enzymes and pharmacological agents Agranulocytes
in performing antimicrobial function 1. Monocytes
- Azurophilic granules- are lysosomes 2. Lymphocytes
containing acid hydrolases, MPO, BPI
protein, antibacterial agent lysozyme, MONOCYTOPOIESIS
etc - Share bipotential cell with neutrophil
- Tertiary granules- gelatinase and CFU-GM
cathepsins inserted into plasmalemma - CFU-M arises after the mitosis of
CFU-GM forming monoblast
MONOCYTES - Effector cells to ANTIBODIES
- The largest of the circulating blood
cells, enter the connective tissue T cells- cellularly mediated immune
spaces, where they are known as response; cortex of thymus
macrophages
- Constitute 3-8% of the WBC Effector cells
population ● Memmory cells
- Large, eccentric, kidney-shaped ● Cytotoxic cells
nucleus ● Helper cells
- Cytoplasm is bluish with numerous ● Regulatory cells
azurophilic granules (lysosomes)
Null cells
FUNCTION: inflammatory and immune > Circulating Stem cells- which give rise to
response all blood elements
> Natural killer cells- NK cells, kill some
LYMPHOPOIESIS foreign and virally altered cells without the
1. T Lymphocyte influence of thymus
2. B Lymphocyte

> CFU-LyB: stem cell which give rise to

immunocompetent B lymphocytesepressing
special surface markers including antibodies
- Occurs in the bone marrow

> CFU-LyT: cells undergo mitosis forming

immunocompetent T cells
- Occurs in the cortex of the thymus
(maturation) THROMBOPOIESIS
1. Platelet
Lymphoid Organs: Spleen, Lymph nodes
PLATELETS FORMATION:
LYMPHOCYTES - Under the control of
- Agranulocytes and form the second THROMBOPOIETIN
largest population of WBCs - From multipotential cell CFU-GEMM
- 20-25% developing into CFU-Meg further
- Slightly indented, round nucleus that developing into megakaryoblast
occupy most of the cell - Cells undergo ENDOMITOSIS (cells
- Have no function in the bloodstream do not divide but become larger in
but impt in CT size), polyploid 64n
- Contains few azurophilic granules PLATELETS
- B cells - Are small, disk-shaped,
- T cells non-nucleated cell fragments derived
- Null cells from megakaryocytes in the BM
- Functions in limiting hemorrhage to
B cells- responsible for the humorally the endothelial lining of the blood
mediated immune system; Bone marrow vessel in case of injury
MUSCLE
Types of Muscle
-Striated
>Skeletal muscle (voluntary)
>Cardiac muscle (involuntary)
-Smooth muscle (involuntary)
-contractile filaments (actin and myosin)
I. SKELETAL MUSCLE
CONNECTIVE TISSUE INVESTMENTS
1.) Epimysium – surrounds entire muscle
2.) Perimysium – surrounds muscle bundles or
fascicles (small bundles)
3.) Endomysium
– surrounds individual muscle cells
- reticular fibers and external lamina
Skeletal Muscle
-surrounded by Epimysium
-contains muscle fasciscles
Muscle Fascicle
-surrounded by Perimysium
-contains muscle fibers
Muscle Fiber
-surrounded by Endomysium
-contains myofibrils
Myofibril
-surrounded by Sarcoplasmic reticulum
-consists of Sarcomeres (Z-line to Z-line)
Sarcomere
-contains thick filaments and thin filaments
STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
1.) Skeletal Muscle Cells
-long, cylindrical, multinucleated
-sarcoplasm, sarcolemma with T (transverse)
tubules
2.) Myofibrils
-thick filaments (myosin)
-thin filaments (actin)
-dark A bands, light I bands (bisected by Z
disks)
-DESMIN (with plectin) glues Z disks together
CROSS-STRIATIONS (TABLE 8.2)
-A-bands
>Anisotropic; stain dark; thin and thick filaments
-I-bands
>Isotropic; light stain; thin filaments
-H-bands
>Light regions transecting A bands; thick
filaments
-M lines
>Narrow dark regions at center of H bands;
cross-bridges
-Z disks (lines)
>Dense regions bisecting I-band
3.) Sarcomere
-Z to Z
-functional unit of contraction
-Sarcoplasmic reticulum
>dilated terminal cisternae that encircle
myofibrils at the junction of each A and I band
>FUNCTION: Regulates muscle contraction
by calcium sequestration (relax) and release
(contract)
-Triads
>central T tubule flanked by 2 terminal cisternae
of SR
>FUNCTION: Help provide uniform contraction
MOLECULAR ORGANIZATION
1.)Thin Filaments
-F-actin
> double helix arrangement
>has an active site for interacting with myosin
-Tropomyosin
>in the grooves of the F-actin helix
-Troponin
>TnT – bind to tropomyosin
>Tnc – 4 binding sites for calcium
>TnI – binds to actin, inhibiting myosin-actin
interaction
2.) Thick Filaments
-Myosin II
> 2 identical heavy chains and 2 pairs of light
chains
>double-headed golf club
>globular heads (S1 fragments) have ATPase
activity but require interaction with actin to
release ADP and Pi.
CONTRACTION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
-Huxley’s Sliding-Filament Model (Figure 8.3)
>during contraction, thick and thin filaments do
not shorten but increase their overlap
>thin filaments slide past thick filaments and
penetrate more deeply into the A band, which
remains constant in length
>I and H bands shorten as Z disks are drawn
closer together
INITIATION AND REGULATION OF
CONTRACTION
-Depolarization + calcium release 🡪
actin-myosin binding 🡪 muscle contraction
>Sarcolemma depolarized at MNJ
>T tubules convey depolarization to myofibrils
(voltage-sensitive dihydropyridine (DHP)
receptors)
>Ca 2+ released to cytosol at A-I junction via
Ca2+ release channels (junctional feet,
ryanodine receptors) of SR terminal cisternae
opened by activated DHP receptors
>Sufficient Ca2+ 🡪 continued contraction cycle
-Activation of actin by Ca2+
>resting state 🡪 myosin-binding sites on actin
are partially covered by tropomyosin. TnI is also
bound to actin
>Ca2+ + TnC 🡪 break TnI-actin bond;
tropomyosin shifts position and uncovers
myosin-binding sites (active state)
-Relaxation
>calcium concentration in the cytosol is reduced
enough that TnC loses its bound Ca2+
>SR calcium pump binds Ca2+ to the SR inner
membrane with calsequestrin
MOTOR UNIT
-consists of neuron and muscle cell it
innervates
-a muscle may contract with varying degrees
of strength because only some of the muscle
cell contracts.
-Individual muscle cell – “all or none law”
-Finer muscle movements require fewer muscles
per motor unit (eye movement)
INNERVATION OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
-motor nerve endings (MNJ) and sensory nerve
endings (muscle spindles and Golgi tendon
organs for proprioception)
-myoneural junction – synapse between a
branch of a motor nerve axon and a skeletal
muscle cell
-Depol presynaptic memb 🡪 Ca channels open
🡪 inc cytosolic Ca 🡪 Ach released 🡪 bind to Ach
receptors in sarcolemma 🡪 depol
RIGOR MORTIS II. CARDIAC MUSCLE
-postmortem rigidity appearing as hardening of -contract spontaneously and display a rhythmic
skeletal muscles beat modified by hormonal and neural
-unable to synthesize ATP 🡪 myosin remains (parasympathetic and sympathetic) stimuli
bound to actin 🡪 muscles remain contracted -poorly defined myofibrils (thick and thin
filaments)
Sensory receptors that monitor contraction: -calcium source is more extracellular
1.) Muscle spindles- provides feedback about -more mitochondria
changes in muscle length and its rate of -Intercalated disks – complex steplike junctions
alteration forming end to end attachments between
adjacent cardiac muscle cells 🡪 functional
2.) Golgi tendon organs- monitor the tension syncytium
and its rate produced during movement -Purkinje fibers – modified cardiac fibers in the
bundle of His; for conduction
CLINICAL CONSIDERATIONS
>Myasthenia gravis – autoimmune disease in
PROPERTY CARDIAC MUSCLE
which antibodies block Ach receptors
>Botulism – food poisoning in which Shape and size of cells Blunt-ended, branched
Clostridium botulinum toxin inhibits Ach release
at MNJ (ex: Botox cosmetic procedure) Number and location of One or two, central
nucleus

PROPERTY SKELETAL MUSCLE

Striations Yes
Shape and size of cells Long, cylindrical
T tubules, sarcoplasmic Dyads at Z disks
reticulum
Number and location of Many, peripheral
nucleus
Gap junctions Yes (in intercalated disks)
Striations Yes
Sarcomere Yes
T tubules, sarcoplasmic Triads at A-I junctions
reticulum Regeneration None

Voluntary contraction No
Gap junctions No
Distinctive Intercalated disks
Sarcomere Yes characteristics

Regeneration Restricted

Voluntary contraction Yes

Distinctive Peripheral nuclei

characteristics
III. SMOOTH MUSCLE
-nonstriated, fusiform
-20 um in small blood vessels to 500 um in a
pregnant uterus
-nucleus has a corkscrew shape during
contraction
-sarcolemmal vesicles (caveolae)
-contractile filaments (actin, myosin) are not
arranged in myofibrils (Non-striated)
-CONTRACTION
>slower and longer (slower ATP hydrolysis)

TYPES OF SMOOTH MUSCLE:

1.) Multi-unit smooth muscle
-contracts independently of one another

2.) Unitary (Single unit) smooth muscle

-individual muscle cells cannot contract
independently

PROPERTY SMOOTH MUSCLE

Shape and size of cells Short, spindle-shaped

Number and location of One, central

nucleus

Striations No

T tubules, sarcoplasmic Caveolae and some

reticulum SR

Gap junctions Yes (in sarcolemma,

known as nexus)

Sarcomere No

Regeneration Extensive

Voluntary contraction No

Distinctive Lack of striations

characteristics
NERVOUS SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
-Anatomic division
>CNS – brain and spinal cord
>PNS – nerves outside CNS and associated
ganglia
-Functional division
>Sensory
>Motor (somatic and autonomic)
-Two types of cell
>Nerve cells (neurons) – conduct impulses
>Glial (neuroglial) cells – support, nurture,
protect neurons
Connective tissue investments
1.) Epineurium - the layer of fibrous dense
connective tissue (fascia) that forms the
external coat of the nerves.
2.) Perineurium - surrounds each bundle of
nerve fibers (fascicle).
3.)Endoneurium - a thin layer of reticular fibers,
produced mainly by Schwann cells, that
surrounds individual nerve fibers.
NERVOUS SYSTEM CELLS
1.) Neurons
-cell body, multiple dendrites, single axon
-Morphologic classification
>unipolar, bipolar, multipolar, pseudounipolar
-Functional classification
>sensory, interneurons, motor
2.) Neuroglial Cells
- astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells,
microglia, ependymal cells
A. NEURONS
-neuronal cell body (soma, perikaryon)
>nucleus, cytoplasmic organelles and inclusions,
cytoskeletal components
-nucleus - large, spherical, and pale staining and
is centrally located, abundant euchromatin and a
large nucleolus (owl-eye nucleus)
-DENDRITES receive stimuli from sensory cells,
axons, or other neurons and convert these
signals into small electrical impulses (action
potentials) that are transmitted toward the
soma
>arborized terminals (except in bipolar neurons)
>lack golgi complex in cytoplasm
>organelles are reduced in number or absent
near the terminals except for mitochondria which
are abundant
-AXONS conduct impulses away from the soma
to the axon terminals without any diminution in
their strength.
>some axons are as long as 100 cm.
>originate from the axon hillock,( lacks RER,
ribosomes, Golgi cisternae, and Nissl bodies but
contains many microtubules and neurofilaments)
>axoplasm lacks a Golgi complex but contains
SER, RER, and elongated mitochondria
>axons terminate in many small branches (axon
terminals)from which impulses are passed to
another neuron or other types of cells
-Melanin-containing granules - some neurons
in the CNS; dorsal root and sympathetic ganglia.
-Lipofuscin-containing granules - increase in
number with age.
-Lipid droplets occasionally are present
-Neurofilaments (10 nm in diameter) are
abundant and run throughout the soma
cytoplasm; intermediate filaments
-Microtubules - (24 nm in diameter) are also
present in the soma cytoplasm
-Microfilaments (actin filaments 6 nm in
diameter) are associated with the plasma
membrane.
B. NEUROGLIAL CELLS SYNAPSES
-protect and support the neurons - sites of functional apposition where signals
are transmitted from one neuron to another
1.) Astrocytes or from a neuron to another type of cell
>largest of the neuroglial cells
Function: CLASSIFICATION
-scavenge ions and debris from neuron According to site of synaptic contact
metabolism and supply energy for metabolism >Axodendritic synapses
Types: >Axosomatic synapses
>Protoplasmic astrocytes (gray matter) >Axoaxonic synapses
>Fibrous astrocytes (white matter) >Dendrodendritic synapses

2.) Oligodendrocytes According to Method Of Signal Transmission

-needed for the survival of neurons in the CNS 1.) Chemical synapse (neurotransmitter)
-produce myelin sheath for CNS -neuron-neuron; neuron-muscle
-both gray matter and white matter. -delay by 0.5 ms
-possess a small, round, condensed nucleus
and only a few short processes 2.) Electrical synapse
-gap junctions; nearly instantaneous
3.) Schwann cells transmission
-flat cells with only a few mitochondria and a -less common
small Golgi region
-they protect and insulate neurons by providing Neurotransmitter Location Function
myelin sheath for PNS
-a single Schwann cell can only insulate a single Acetylcholine Myoneural Activates
axon, whereas a single oligodendrocyte may junctions;all skeletal
insulate several axons. parasympathetic muscle,
synapses;pregangl autonomic
4.) Microglia ionic sympathetic nerves, brain
synapses functions
-small, phagocytic neuroglial cells that are
derived from the mononuclear phagocytic cell Norepinephrine Postganglionic Increases
population in the bone marrow sympathetic cardiac output
-condensed, elongated nucleus and many short, synapses
branching processes
Glutamate CNS;presynaptic Most common
sensory and cortex excitatory
5.) Ependymal cells
neurotransmit
- epithelial cells that line the neural tube and ter of CNS
ventricles of the brain
- may possess cilia, which aid in moving the ℽ-Aminobutyric CNS Most common
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) acid inhibitory
neurotransmit
ter of CNS

Dopamine CNS Inhibitory and

excitatory,
depending on
receptor

Glycine Brainstem and Inhibitory

spinal cord
 -White matter lies beneath the gray matter in
Serotonin CNS Pain
inhibitor;mood these structures
control;sleep
-Purkinje cell layer (cerebellar cortex only)
Aspartate CNS Excitatory consists of flask-shaped Purkinje cells.
>central nucleus, highly branched (arborized)
Enkephalins CNS Analgesic;pai dendrites, and a single myelinated axon
n suppression
>may receive several hundred thousand
Endorphins CNS Analgesic;pai excitatory and inhibitory impulses to sort and
n suppression integrate

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

NERVE FIBERS
-clear fluid produced primarily by cells of the
-individual axons enveloped by a myelin sheath
choroid plexus in the ventricles of the brain
1.) Myelin Sheath
-circulates through the ventricles, subarachnoid
-produced by oligodendrocytes (CNS) and
space, and central canal, bathing and nourishing
Schwann cells(PNS)
the brain and spinal cord; shock-absorbing
-not continuous along the length of the axon but
cushion
-is interrupted by gaps called nodes of Ranvier.
-can be extracted by standard histological
-90% water and ions; it contains little protein,
techniques. Methods using osmium tetroxide
occasional white blood cells, and infrequent
preserve the myelin sheath and stain it black.
desquamated cells.
2.) Nodes of Ranvier - regions along the axon
-continuously produced and is reabsorbed by
that lack myelin and represent
arachnoid granulations that transport it into the
discontinuities between adjacent Schwann
superior sagittal sinus. If reabsorption is
cells or oligodendrocytes.
blocked, hydrocephalus may occur.
>PNS: axon at the nodes of Ranvier is covered
by interdigitated cytoplasmic processes of
NERVE ENDING RECEPTORS:
adjacent Schwann cells that protect the
-are dendritic nerve endings located in the skin,
myelin-free surface of the axon
fascia, muscles, joints and tendons
>CNS: foot plate of an astrocyte.
-respond to stimuli related to touch, pressure,
temperature and pain
CNS (Central Nervous System)
-White matter contains mostly myelinated nerve
1.) Meissner’s Corpuscle
fibers but also some unmyelinated fibers and
-nerve-ending which are for light touch
neuroglial cells.
-found in dermal papilla of skin
-Gray matter contains neuronal cell bodies,
2.) Paccinian Corpuscle
many unmyelinated fibers, some myelinated
-for deep touch
fibers, and neuroglial cells.
-found in skin and pancreas
-Spinal cord gray matter appears in the shape
of an H in cross-sections of the spinal cord
>small central canal; ventral and dorsal horn

-Brain gray matter is located at the periphery

(cortex) of the cerebrum and cerebellum.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM If too hot: Dermal blood vessels dilate Vessels
carry more blood to surface so heat can
- The integument covers the entire surface of escape
the body and becomes continuous with the If too cold: Dermal blood vessels constrict
mucous membranes of the digestive, Prevents heat from escaping
respiratory, and urogenital systems at their
external orifices.
- Skin lines the outer ear canal, covers the
eardrums, and is continuous with the
conjunctiva of the eye at the eyelid.
- Skin is composed of two layers: the outer Normal cs vasoconstriction vasodilation
stratified squamous keratinized epithelium,
known as epidermis, which overlies the Excretory function: Through the secretion of
connective tissue layer, called the dermis. glands of the skin – water, salt, fatty
substances and urea are excreted.
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Secretory function: Sweat help in
The integument (skin) is made up of two parts: temperature regulation and sebum makes
1. Cutaneous membrane skin smooth.
• Epidermis
• Dermis Water balance: Skin serve a useful means in
regulating water balance of the body by
2. Accessory structures perspiration.
• Hair
• Nails Structures of Skin:
• Exocrine glands 3 layers of the skin
1. Epidermis
Functions: 2. Dermis
3. Hypodermis
Protective function: It is the first line of
defense. It protects our body from infection, EPIDERMIS
pathogens, and harmful UV irradiation. - The most superficial layer of the skin
- Is avascular, stratified squamous keratinized
Synthetic function: Sun’s ultraviolet rays epithelium
help in synthesis of natural vitamin D. Skin - The first barrier of protection from the
can also manufacture melanin pigment. invasion of foreign substances
- Nutrients and oxygen diffuse from capillaries
Sensory function: Free nerve endings on the in the dermis
skin are sensitive to pain, touch, heat and - Keratinocytes
cold, resulting in either voluntary or reflex
activities. Structures of Epidermis:

Heat regulatory function: Sweating and The five strata of keratinocytes in thick skin:
cutaneous blood flow help in temperature Free form surface to basal lamina
regulation 1. Stratum Corneum
2. Stratum Lucidum
3. Stratum Lucidum
4. Stratum Spinosum
5. Stratum Basale/Germinativum
STRATUM GERMINATIVUM
- Provides the germinal cells necessary for the
regeneration of the layers of the epidermis.
- Separated from the dermis by a thin layer of
basement membrane.
- After a mitotic division a newly formed cell
will undergo a progressive maturation called
keratinization as it migrates to the surface.
STRATUM GERMINATIVUM
- Forms epidermal ridges (fingerprints)
- Dermal papillae (tiny mounds)
- increase the area of basement
membrane
- Strengthen attachment between
epidermis and dermis
STRATUM SPINOSUM (spiny layer)
- The cells that divide in the stratum
germinativum soon begin to accumulate many
desmosomes on their outer surface which
provide the characteristic prickles of the
stratum spinosum (SS), which is often called
the prickle-cell layer.
- Produced by division of stratum basale
- Eight to ten layers of keratinocytes bound by
desmosomes
STRATUM GRANULOSUM (grainy layer)
- The progressive maturation of a keratinocyte
is charcterized by the accumulation of keratin,
called keratinization. The cells of the stratum
granulosum (SGR) accumlate dense
basophilic keratohyalin granules . These
granules contain lipids, which along with the
desmosomal connections, help to form a
waterproof barrier that functions to prevent
fluid loss from the body.
STRATUM LUCIDUM (clear layer)
- The stratum lucidum is normally only well
seen in thick epidermis and represents a
transition from the stratum granulosum to the
stratum corneum.
- Found only in thick skin
STRATUM CORNEUM (horn layer)
- The stratum corneum is the outermost layer
of the epidermis, consisting of dead cells
(corneocytes) that lack nuclei and organelles.
- Desquamation, the process of cell shedding
from the surface of the stratum corneum,
balances proliferating keratinocytes that form
in the stratum basale.
- Exposed surface of the skin, 15 to 20 layers
of keratinized cells (horny cells)
TYPES OF SKIN
THICK SKIN : 5 layers
* Prominent stratum corneum
* Well developed stratum granulosum
* Palms of the hands and soles of the feet
* Thinner dermis
* No hair and sebaceous glands
THIN SKIN : 4 layers
* less Prominent stratum corneum
* Less developed stratum granulosum
* Dominant and lines most of the body surface
* Thicker dermis
* hair and sebaceous glands
KERATINOCYTES
- They are responsible for keratin formation
- Formed of many layers that continuously
shed and regenerate every 2-4 weeks
- They are arranged In many layers
MELANOCYTES
- Found in between cells of the basal layer
- Branched cells with centeral nuclei by EM
contains organells for protein synthesizes
(rER, Golgi, mitochondria & melanosomes).
- They form melanin by tyrosinase from
tyrosine amino acid by converting it to
dioxyphenyl alanine DOPA.
LANGERHANS CELLS
-Langerhans cells are dendritic cells
(antigen-presenting immune cells) of the skin.
- Found in upper layers of st.spinosum
- Have branched shape & central nuclei
- Represent 3-8%of epid. Cells
MERKEL CELLS
- Found in basal cell layer
- They are modified epidermal cells Sensory
nerve fibers form terminal disk under Merkels
cells
- Function as touch receptors
DERMIS
PAPILLARY LAYER
- The papillary dermis (PD) contains vascular
networks that have two important functions.
The first being to support the avascular
epidermis with vital nutrients and secondly to
provide a network for thermoregulation.
- The papillary dermis also contains the free
sensory nerve endings and structures called
Meissner’s corpuscles also called
mechanoreceptor which is responsible for light
touch
RETICULAR LAYER
- The reticular layer of the dermis (RD)
consists of mainly dense irregular connective
tissue
- The reticular layer of the dermis is important
in giving the skin it overall strength and
elasticity, as well as housing other important
epithelial derived structures such as glands
and hair follicles.
- Contains larger blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerve fibers
HYPODERMIS (Subcutaneous layer)
- Lies below the integument
- Stabilizes the skin
- Allows separate movement
- Connected to the reticular layer of
intergument by connective tissue fibers
- Deposits of Subcutaneous fats:
1. Distribution patterns determined by
hormones
2. Reduceds by cosmetic liposuction
(lipoplasty)
ACCESSORY STRUCTURES
• Hair follicles and hair
• Sebaceous glands
• Nails
• Sweat glands
HAIR AND HAIR FOLLICLES
- Hair -Produced by hair follicle which are
made of hard keratinized epithelial cells
- Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color
HAIR SHAFT
MEDULLA - core, dead cells contain soft
keratin and air to provide flexibility
CORTEX - middle layer, dead cells contain
hard keratin to provide stiffness
CUTICLE - outermost, overlapping dead
keratinized cells to form shiny surface
Accessory structures of Hair

• ARRECTO PILI
- involuntary smooth muscle
- causes hair to stand up
- produces “goose bumps”

• SEBACEOUS GLANDS
- lubricates the hair

NAILS
- protect fingers and toes
- made of dead cells packed with keratin
- metabolic disorders can change nail
structure
NAIL PRODUCTION - occurs in a deep
epidermal fold near the bone called the nail
root
NAIL BODY
- the visible portion of the nail
- covers the nail bed
LUNULA
- the pale crescent at the base of the nail

SWEAT GLANDS

Eccrine sweat gland

- Merocrine secretion
- Empty directly onto skin surface
- Clear, watery secretion (99% H2O; rest NaCl
+ some waste products

Location: most all over body (esp. abundant

on palms & soles: ~ 500/cm2)

Apocrine sweat gland

- Empty into hair follicle
- Viscous, cloudy secretion is a good nutrient
source for bacteria (odor !!)
- Secretion may contain Pheromones
- Secretion begins at puberty and is
stimulated during emotional distress

Location: armpits, groin, nipples

CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
Main Function:
- to deliver oxygenated blood to cells and
tissues and to return venous blood to the
lungs for gaseous exchange.
-Includes: Heart, Arteries, Veins, Capillaries
FUNCTIONS OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM:
-transports oxygen and nutrients to the tissues
-carries away CO2 and waste products from
the tissues
-circulates hormones from their site of
synthesis to their target cells
-regulates body temperature
The blood vascular system is formed of:
- Heart, Arteries, Veins, Capillaries
I.) HEART
-the heart is a muscular pump that propels
blood at high pressure around the body
through the blood vessels.
-4 chambers muscular organ
>2 atria- receives the blood
>2 ventricles – pumps blood to the lungs or
tissues
-surrounded by a fibroserous sac called
pericardium
Components of the Heart:
A.) Cardiac layers (tunicae)
-Endocardium (tunica intima)
-Myocardium (tunica media)
-Epicardium (tunica adventitia)
B.) Fibrous skeleton
C.) Heart valves
D.)Impulses generating and impulse
conducting system
a.) Cardiac Layers
-ENDOCARDIUM (Tunica intima)
>lines the lumen of the heart
>composed of simple squamous epithelium
(endothelium)
>underlined by subendocardium
>there is a small layer of loose connective
tissue and some adipose tissue
-MYOCARDIUM (Tunica media)
>consists of layers of cardiac muscles
>contracts to propel blood into the arteries for
distribution to the tissues
>thickest layer
b.) Fibrous Skeleton
-central support of the heart
-thick bundles of collagen fibers oriented in
various directions
-dense CT surround heart valves
-fuse together and merge with interventricular
septum
Functions of the Fibrous Skeleton:
-valve support structure
-prevents overstretching of the valves
-insertion point of cardiac muscle bundles
-electrical insulator b/w atria and ventricles
Components of the Fibrous Skeleton:
-Septum membranaceum
-Trigona fibrosa
-Annuli fibrosi
c.) Heart Valves
-composed of a skeleton of fibrous connective
tissue
-allows blood to flow in only one direction
through the chambers
-lined on both sides by endothelium
-attached to the annuli fibrosi
Components of the Heart Valves: D.) METARTERIOLES
-Atrioventricular valve -give rise to capillaries
>Tricuspid
>Mitral 3 BASIC LAYERS OF ARTERIES
-Aortic valve 1.) TUNICA INTIMA – innermost layer which
-Pulmonary valve consist of:
a. Simple squamous (endothelium)
IMPULSE-GENERATING & IMPULSE b. subendothelium
CONDUCTING SYSTEM c. internal elastic cartilage
>SINOATRIAL (SA) NODE
-pacemaker 2.) TUNICA MEDIA – smooth muscle
-generates impulses that initiate contraction of - thickest coat
atrial muscle cells - corresponds to myocardium of the heart

> ATRIOVENTRICULAR (AV) NODE 3.) TUNICA ADVENTITIA – outermost coat

-similar in structure to the SA node - simple squamous epithelium, basement
-can become the pacemaker in case of SA membrane, connective tissue, blood vessels,
pathology and sometimes smooth muscle cells
- hast external elastic membrane
> ATRIOVENTRICULAR BUNDLE OF HIS - Vasa vasorum
-band of conducting tissue radiating from the
AV node into the interventricular septum III.) VEINS
where it divides into 2 branches - conducts blood away from the organs and
tisSues to the heart
> PURKINJE FIBERS
-large, modified cardiac muscle cells Types of Veins:
a.) LARGE VEINS
II.) ARTERIES -include the vena cava, pulmonary veins, and
-conducts oxygenated blood away from the mesenteric vein
heart to the capillaries
b.) SMALL and MEDIUM
Types of Arteries: - example: external jugular vein
A.) ELASTIC ARTERIES (large)
-also known as conducting arteries c.) VENULES
-receive blood directly from the heart -unnamed
-aorta and its major branches -involved the exchange of metabolites and
diapedesis
B.) DISTRIBUTING or MUSCULAR
(medium)
-distribute blood to various organs
-named arteries of the human body

C.) ARTERIOLE (small)

-smallest arteries & regulate blood pressure
3 BASIC LAYERS OF VEINS:
1.) TUNICA INTIMA
a. Simple squamous (endothelium)
b. No internal elastic layer
c. Subendothelium is lacking
2.) TUNICA MEDIA
- composed of smooth muscles
- thinnest coat
3.) TUNICA ADVENTITIA – outermost coat
- thickest coat
- no external elastic layer
- Vasa vasorum
IV.) CAPILLARIES
-single layer of endothelial cells (simple
squamous)
-exhibits selective permeability by permitting
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide,
nutrients, and waste products between blood
and tissues
-no tunica media and adventitia
Structure of Capillaries
-the capillary wall is formed by:
>single layer of endothelial cells
>glycoprotein layer of basal lamina
**outside the basal lamina contractile cells
wrapped around the capillaries**
>pericytes
>has only tunica lamina
**lacks T Media and therefore no smooth
muscle cells**
Types of Capillaries:
-Continuous (somatic)
-Fenestrated (visceral)
-Sinusoidal
a.) CONTINUOUS (SOMATIC)
CAPILLARIES
– most common
-contain numerous pinocytic vesicles, except
in the CNS
-lack fenestra and have continuous basal
lamina
-Location: nervous tissue, muscle,
connective tissue, exocrine glands, lungs
b.) FENESTRATED (VISCERAL)
CAPILLARIES
-characterized by openings or fenestrations
(pores)
-Function: rapid exchange of molecules
between blood and the tissues
-Location: choroid plexus, endocrine, small
intestines, kidney glomeruli
c.) SINUSOIDAL CAPILLARIES
-irregular, tortuous paths
-much wider diameters slow down the flow of
blood
-basement membrane is either incomplete or
absent (direct exchange of molecules)
-Location: liver, spleen, and bone marrow
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
IMMUNE SYSTEM and LYMPHOID
ORGANS
- Consists of a large, diverse population of
leukocytes located within every tissue of the
body and lymphoid organs interconnected
only by the blood and lymphatic circulation.
2 types of immunity:
1. Innate
2. Adaptive
INNATE IMMUNITY
- Nonspecific, involves a wide variety of
effector mechanisms, and immediate
response
- Physical barriers such as the skin and
mucous membranes of the gastrointestinal,
respiratory, and urogenital tracts that
prevent infections or penetration of the host
body
- Granulocytes and other leukocytes
ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
- Aims at microbial invaders
- Mediated by lymphocytes and antigen
presenting cells (APCs)
- More specific, slower to respond
- Response to specific microbial invaders
and involve production of memory
lymphocytes
CYTOKINES
- Use as a communication of the cell in the
immune system to coordinate defensive
measures
- Both innate and adaptive immunity
- Directed cell movements, or chemotaxis,
toward cell accumulation at sites of
inflammation, for example diapedesis
- Increased mitotic activity
Adaptive: stimulation or suppression of
lymphocytes – interleukins
Innate: stimulation of phagocytosis or direct
cell killing
ANTIGENS
- Molecule that is recognized by cells of
adaptive immune system and elicits a
response from these cells
- Soluble molecules (proteins or
polysaccharides)
- Proteins from the intact cell (bacteria,
protozoa, or tumor cells)
ANTIBODIES
IgG ANTIBODY
- Most abundant 75-85% in blood
- Increased during infections
- Highly soluble and stable
- Crosses placental barrier into the fetal
circulation
- PASSIVE immunity against certain
infections until the newborn’s own adaptive
immunity is acquired
IgM ANTIBODY
- 5-10%
- Pentameric form
- Produced in an initial response to an
antigen
- Most effective antibody class in activating
complement system
IgA ANTIBODY
- Present in almost all exocrine secretions
- Dimeric form
- Produced by plasma cells in mucosae of
the digestive, respiratory, and reproductive
tracts
- Secretory component – protects the
antibody from proteolysis
IgE ANTIBODY
- Found on the surface of the mast cells and
basophils
- Triggers the release of histamine, heparin,
and leukotrienes
- Allergic reaction
ACTIONS OF ANTIBODIES
COMPLEMENT ACTIVATION
- Complement protein – around 20 proteins
produces mainly in the liver
- Will be activated through a cascade of
enzymatic reactions
- After activation:
- specific complement components
bind and rupture membranes of
invading cells
- Clump antigen-bearing bacteria or
cells
- Elicit arrival of relevant leukocytes
OPSONIZATION
- Refers to the ability of receptors on
macrophages, neutrophils, and eosinophils
to recognize and bind the Fc portions of
antibodies attached to surface antigens of
microorganisms
NK CELLS ACTIVATION
- Antibodies bound to antigens on
virus-infected cells of the body are
recognized by the primitive lymphocytes
called NK cells
- Activated to kill the infected cell by
releasing perforin and various granzymes
CELLS OF ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY
ANTIGEN-PRESENTING CELLS
- Mediate the cellular immune response by
processing and present the antigens for
recognition by certain lymphocytes
- Macrophages, dendritic cells, B cells
LYMPHOCYTES
- In adult stem cells for all lymphocytes are
located in the red bone marrow
- But cells of the major lymphoid lineages
mature and become functional in two
different central or primary lymphoid organs
- B lymphocytes – remains and differentiate
further in the bone marrow
- T lymphocytes – move via circulation into
the developing thymus
T LYMPHOCYTES
- Long lived lymphocytes, 75% of the
circulating lymphocytes
- Recognize antigenic epitopes via surface
protein complexes termed T-cell receptors
(TCRs)
B LYMPHOCYTES
- Surface receptors for antigens are
monomers of IgM or IgD
- Covered by about 150,000 B-cell receptors
(BCRs)
- Produced antibodies
THYMUS

LYMPH NODES

SPLEEN
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM - secrete mucin and create protective
mucus layer
CONDUCTING PORTION
• Nasal cavities Nasal cavities and conducting portion –
• Pharynx ciliated pseudostratified columnar
• Larynx epithelium
• Trachea
• Bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles BRUSH CELLS
- sparse, blunt microvilli
RESPIRATORY PORTION – gas exchange - chemosensory receptors resembling
• Respiratory bronchioles gustatory cells
• Alveolar ducts - detect small particles of bacterial protein
• Alveoli
SMALL GRANULE CELLS (KULCHITSKY
NASAL CAVITIES CELLS)
- possess numerous dense core granules
- production of lipid for the mucus layer
above epithelium

Nasal cavities and conducting portion –

ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium

BASAL CELLS
- mitotically active stem and progenitor cells
- give rise to other epithelial cells
RESPIRATORY EPITHELIUM
OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM
Nasal cavities and conducting portion – - Chemoreceptor for the sense of smell are
ciliated pseudostratified columnar located in the olfactory epithelium
epithelium • OLFACTORY NEURONS
•SUPPORTING CELLS
CILIATED COLUMNAR CELLS • BASAL CELLS
- most abundant, 250-300 cilia
- move microbes and debris up and out of PHARYNX
airways
OROPHARYNX
Nasal cavities and conducting portion – - stratified squamous epithelium
ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium NASOPHARYNX
- Respiratory epithelium
GOBLET CELLS - Ciliated pseudostratified columnar
- with granules of mucin glycoprotein epithelium
LARYNX PLEURAL MEMBRANES
- Respiratory epithelium and stratified
squamous epithelium

EPIGLOTTIS
- transition from stratified squamous to
respiratory epithelium
- elastic cartilage

TRACHEA
- Ciliated pseudostratified columnar
epithelium
- Hyaline cartilage

BRONCHIOLES

BRONCHI - respiratory epithelium

BRONCHIOLES - simple ciliated cuboidal

to columnar

TERMINAL BRONCHIOLES- simple

ciliated cuboidal

RESPIRATORY BRONCHIOLES - simple

ciliated cuboidal

ALVEOLI
- Saclike evaginations from respiratory
bronchioles
- Responsible for spongy structure of the
lungs
- Elastic fibers – enables alveoli to expand
and contract
- Reticular fibers – prevent both collapse
and excessive distention
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 4.) SEROSA/ADVENTITIA
HISTOLOGY OF GASTROINTESTINAL -it is a layer of loose connective tissue covered
TRACT by a layer of simple squamous epithelium
-ORAL REGION called mesothelium
-ALIMENTARY CANAL -it contains the lymphatic and blood vessels
-EXTRINSIC GLANDS of the GI tract and fat tissue

BASIC HISTOLOGICAL LAYERS: Function of the Digestive System

-MUCOSA: >movement of food
> EPITHELIUM >secretion of digestive juices
> LAMINA PROPRIA >absorption of digested foods, water, and
> MUSCULARIS MUCOSA electrolytes

-SUBMUCOSA: Adaptation of G.I. Tract for Specific Function

> SUBMUCOSAL PLEXUS >Esophagus - simple passage from one part to
>“PLEXUS OF MEISSNER” another
>Stomach or distal colon - storage of food or
-MUSCULARIS EXTERNA: feces
>MYENTERIC PLEXUS > Stomach, small intestine - digestion
>“PLEXUS OF AUERBACH” >Small intestine, proximal colon - absorption
of end products
1.) MUCOSA
-consists of: I. ORAL REGION
>lining epithelium made of simple columnar includes:
epithelium -Lips
>it sits on a basement membrane -Palate
>lamina propria made of loose connective -Teeth and associated structures
tissue full of macrophages and lymphocytes -Tongue
>muscularis mucosae separate mucosa from -Major salivary glands
submucosa contraction of which leads to -Lingual tonsil
increase contact of epithelium with food
3 Types of Oral Mucosae:
2.) SUBMUCOSA 1.) LINING MUCOSA
-consists of: -Epithelium: Stratified squamous
-a layer of dense connective tissue nonkeratinized epithelium
-rich in blood vessels -Location: remainder of the oral cavity
-contains submucosal nerve plexuses
-some times it may contain mucus glands 2.) MASTICATORY MUCOSA
-Epithelium: Stratified squamous keratinized
3.) MUSCULARIS EXTERNA: epithelium
-generally, it consists of two layers of smooth -Location: Hard palate, gingivae, dorsal
muscle fibers (inner circular and outer surface of the tongue
longitudinal)
-Myenteric (Auerbach) nerve plexuses are 3. SPECIALIZED MUCOSA
distributed between the two muscle layers -Epithelium: Stratified squamous
-with the submucosal nerve plexuses, they help nonkeratinized with taste buds
propel and mixing the food -Location: Soft palate, dorsum of the tongue,
pharynx
A.) LIPS 3.) Cementum
3 REGIONS: -type I collagen fiber produced by cementoblasts
1.) EXTERNAL (SKIN) REGION
-lined by stratified squamous keratinized 4.) Dental pulp
-with hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands -highly vascularized ct that contains
2.) VERMILION ZONE odontoblasts (close to dentin), fibroblasts,
-lined by stratified squamous keratinized mesenchymal cells, types I and iii cf and afferent
-occasional sebaceous glands (Fordyce’s nerve fibers
granules)
3.) INTERNAL REGION Dental Supporting Structures
-lined by stratified squamous nonkeratinized >Periodontal ligament
-minor salivary glands, and occasional - dense irregular collagenous ct (type I cf)
sebaceous glands (Fordyce’s granules) arranged in 5 principal fiber bundles
A. Alveolar crest
B.) PALATE B. Horizontal
-separates the nasal from the oral cavity C. Oblique
D. Apical
2 TYPES OF PALATE: E. Interradicular
1.) Hard palate (bony shelf)
-oral aspect is lined by stratified squamous >Gingivae (gums)
parakeratinized to keratinized epithelium -stratified squamous keratinized epithelium
-contains adipose tissue and minor mucous - 5 principal fiber bundles
salivary glands • Alveologingival
• Dentogingival
2.) Soft palate (skeletal muscle) • Circular
- oral aspect is lined by stratified squamous • Dentoperiosteal
nonkeratinized epithelium • Transseptal
- contains minor mucous salivary glands
3. Alveolar bone
C.) TEETH -inner layer: compact bone (cribriform plate/
-composed of: alveolar bone proper)
>Internal soft tissue -outer layer: compact bone (cortical plate) &
>Pulp cancellous bone (spongiosa)
>3 calcified layer (enamel, cementum, dentin)
D.) TONGUE
1.) Enamel division:
-covers the crown -anterior ⅔
-96% Calcium hydroxyapatite; 4% enamelin -posterior ⅓ (divided by sulcus terminalis)
(ameloblasts) >dorsal surface: Epithelium
-acellular >ventral surface: Epithelium
>muscle that forms the bulk of the tongue
2.) Dentin
-covers the central pulp chamber and pulp (root)
canal
-type I collagen fiber
-odontoblasts (continue to elaborate dentin for
the life of the tooth)
1.) Lingual papillae
-located on the dorsal surface of the anterior ⅔
4 Types of Lingual papillae:
>Filiform papilla – highly keratinized, lacks
taste buds
>Fungiform papilla – mushroom-shaped,
occasional taste buds
>Foliate papilla – shallow, longitudinal furrows,
tastebuds degenerate after 2 years of life
>Circumvallate papilla – possess taste buds
2.) Taste buds
4 Types of Cells
• Type I (dark cells)
• Type ii (light cells)
• Type iii (intermediate cells)
• Type iv (basal cells)
ESOPHAGUS
1.) Mucosa:
-epithelium: Stratified squamous non -
keratinized
-Lamina Propia: Esophageal & Cardiac glands
-Muscularis mucosa: Longitudinal
2.) Submucosa: contains Meissner’s plexus
and Esophageal glands proper, Collagenous CT
3.) Muscularis externa:
-upper one-third: Skeletal fibers
-middle one-third: Mixed fibers (skeletal and
smooth)
-lower one-third: Smooth fibers
4.) Adventitia: loose areolar connective tissue
STOMACH
1.) Mucosa:
-epithelium: simple columnar and presence
of gastric pits (no goblet cells)
-Lp: gastric glands
-Mm: Inner circular, outer longitudinal
-stomach is divided into three histological
regions on the basis of nature of glands:
>Cardiac region
>Fundic region (fundus & body)
>Pyloric region
2.) Submucosa:
-collagenous CT, no glands
3.) Muscularis externa:
-inner oblique, middle circular, outer longitudinal
Stomach (Cardiac Region)
-mucosa: simple columnar with oval nuclei,
mucous secreting cardiac glands in lamina
propia.
-submucosa: connective tissue.
-muscle layer: inner circular, outer longitudinal.
-serosa: simple squamous epithelium.
Stomach (Fundic Region)
-mucosa: simple columnar with oval nuclei,
presence of gastric glands in lamina propia.
Cells of fundic region:
• Mucous neck cells
• Parietal (oxyntic) cells
• Chief (peptic/zymogen) cells
• Enteroendocrine cells
• Undifferentiated cells
-submucosa: contains blood vessels,
lymphatics and Meissner’s plexus.
- muscularis externa: an inner oblique (absent
in pylorus), middle circular and outer longitudinal
layer.
-serosa: consist of surface layer of flattened
mesothelial cells resting on a thin layer of loose
connective tissue with blood vessels and
lymphatics.
Stomach (Pyloric Region)
-mucosa: pyloric glands in lamina propria &
deeper gastric pits extending half the thickness
of mucosa.
-muscularis externa: inner circular (thickened
to form pyloric sphincter) and outer longitudinal
layer.
-submucosa & serosa: same as in fundic part.
Small Intestine
- it is divided into duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
-Mucosa:
-epithelium: simple columnar (w/ goblet
cells)
LP: Villi & Microvilli, peyer patches, lymphoid
nodules, Crypts of Lieberkuhn (intestinal
glands)
MM: inner circular, outer longitudinal
-Plicae circularis (valves of Kerkring)
-Submucosa: Fibroelastic CT, contains blood
vessels, lymphatics and Meissner’s plexus,
brunner’s gland (duodenum).
-muscularis externa: Outer longitudinal and
inner circular layers of smooth muscle.
-serosa (covers the jejunum & ileum)/Adventitia
(covers the duodenum)
Duodenum
-presence of Brunner’s glands in submucosa
Jejunum
-villi are tongue shaped.
-absence of Brunner’s glands.
Ileum
-presence of lymphoid aggregations in lamina
propria known as Peyer’s patches.
-villi are short & finger like.
Large Intestine
-It consists of: cecum, colon, rectum anal
canal and appendix
Large Intestine (cecum and colon)
-Mucosa:
-epithelium: Simple columnar (w/ goblet
cells)
LP: lymphoid nodules, Crypts of Lieberkuhn
(intestinal glands) that lack paneth cells, no
villi
MM: inner circular, outer longitudinal
-Submucosa: Fibroelastic CT, meissner
plexus, no glands
-Muscularis externa: Outer longitudinal
(modified to form teniae coli) and inner
circular layers of smooth muscle, auerbach
plexus
-Adventitia: ascending and descending colon
-Serosa: covers the cecum & the remainder
of the colon
Rectum
-similar to cecum and colon, but contains fewer
and deeper crypts of lieberkuhn
Anal Canal
-Mucosa:
-Epithelium: Simple columnar to cuboidal
(proximal), st. squamous nonkeratinized
(distal to anal valves), st. squamous
keratinized (anus)
LP: sebaceous glands, circumanal glands,
lymphoid nodules, rectal columns or
morgagni, hair follicles (anus)
MM: inner circular, outer longitudinal
-Submucosa: Fibroelastic CT with large
veins, no glands
-Muscularis externa: inner circular (internal
anal sphincter), outer longitudinal
-Serosa: attaches the anus to the
surrounding structures
Ano-rectal Junction
Vermiform Appendix Histology of the Mucosa
-Mucosa:
Organ Folds of the
-Epithelium: Simple COLUMNAR with goblet epithelium
cells
Esophagus none
LP: crypts of lieberkuhn (shallow), lymphoid
nodules (large and numerous) Stomach L: Rugae, S: gastric
pits
MM: inner circular, outer longitudinal Small Intestine L: Plicae circulares,
Villi S: Crypts
-Submucosa: Fibroelastic CT, confluent of Lieberkuhn,
lymphoid nodules, no glands, has fat tissue microvilli
sometimes
Large Intestine L: Haustra S:
Intestinal glands
-Muscularis externa: inner circular, outer
longitudinal
Histology of the Submucosa
-Adventitia: completely surrounds the Organ Specialized
appendix structures

Histology of the Mucosa Esophagus Submucosal

mucous glands
Organ Epithelium
Stomach None
Mouth Nonkeratinized
Stratified Squamous Duodenum Brunner’s glands

Pharynx Nonkeratinized Ileum Peyer’s Patches

Stratified Squamous
Large Intestine None
Esophagus Nonkeratinized
Stratified Squamous
Histology of the Muscularis externa
Stomach Simple Columnar

Small Intestine Simple Columnar Organ Smooth muscle

layers
Large Intestine Simple Columnar
Esophagus 2, circular and
Anus Nonkeratinized longitudinal
Stratified Squamous
Stomach 3, oblique, circular,
and longitudinal

Small Intestine 2, circular and

longitudinal

Large Intestine 2, circular and

longitudinal
Histology of the Serosa/adventitia MCQ
Q5. Abundant lymphoid tissue in lamina propria
is a feature of:
Organ Serosa
• esophagus
Esophagus Adventitia due to • Stomach
the fact that the • Duodenum
esophagus is not in • Appendix
a cavity

Stomach Visceral Peritoneum

Small Intestine Visceral Peritoneum

Large Intestine Visceral Peritoneum

Anus Adventitia

MCQ
Q1. Stratified squamous non-keratinized
epithelium is a feature of:
• esophagus
• Stomach
• Appendix
• Rectum

MCQ
Q2. Deep gastric pits is a feature of:
• esophagus
• Cardiac part of stomach
• Fundic part of stomach
• Pyloric part of stomach

MCQ
Q3. Plica circularis is a feature of:
• esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine

MCQ
Q4. TeniaE coli is present in:
• esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
Urinary System
LOOP OF HENLE
RENAL CORPUSCLE 1. Thin Limbs (Ascending & Descending)
- Enclosing a tuft of capillary loops and the - Simple squamous epithelium
site of blood filtration - Location: Medulla
- Location: Cortex - Function: Passive reabsorption of Na+ and
- Glomerulus Cl-
- Bowman’s capsule
2. Thick Ascending
GLOMERULUS - Simple cuboidal epithelium
- Afferent arteriole - Location: Medulla
- Efferent arteriole - Active reabsorption of various electrolytes
- Simple squamous epithelium
- Fenestrated capillaries DISTAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
- Simple cuboidal epithelium
BOWMAN’S CAPSULE - Location: Cortex
- Parietal and Visceral layer - Function: Reabsorption of electrolytes
- Simple squamous epithelium
- Fenestrated URETER
- Podocytes - Walls – mucosal, muscular, and adventitial
layers
Renal Function - The walls gradually becomes thicker
closer to the bladder
FILTRATION - Mucosa – stratified urothelium or
- Water and solutes transitional epithelium
- From blood vessels to tubular lumen
URETER
TUBULAR REABSORPTION - Mucosa – stratified urothelium or
- From tubular lumen to blood vessels transitional epithelium

TUBULAR SECRETION 3 layers:

- From blood vessels to tubular lumen
PROXIMAL CONVOLUTED TUBULE
- Simple cuboidal epithelium
- Location: Cortex
Functions:
> Reabsorption of all organic nutrients,
all proteins, most water, and electrolytes
> Secretion of organic anions and cations,
H+, and NH4+
1. Single layer of small basal cells
2. Intermediate region – one to several
layers of cuboidal or low columnar cells
3. Superficial layer – large bulbous or
elliptical umbrella cells
- sometime binucleated to protect the
underlying cells
BLADDER
● Submucosa
- Lamina propria and dense irregular
connective tissue are highly vascularized
 ● Muscularis
- 3 layers – Detrusor muscle
- Contracts to empty the bladder
- With valves to prevent backflow of urine to
ureter

URETHRA
- Carries urine from bladder to the exterior
Urethral mucosa has prominent longitudinal
folds
- In men, two ducts for sperm transport
during ejaculation join the urethra at the
prostate gland

URETHRA
● MALE
- Male urethra is longer than female
- Prostatic urethra – Transitional epithelium
- Membranous urethra – Stratified columnar
and pseudostratified columnar epithelium
- Spongy urethra – Stratified columnar and
pseudostratified columnar epithelium, then
nonkeratinized stratified squamous
epithelium distally

● FEMALE

- Transitional epithelium to nonkeratinized

stratified squamous
EMBRYOLOGY
Embryology - the study of the origin and
development of an organism
Average fetal age from conception to
birth - 38 weeks
Prenatal period - before birth
Stages of Prenatal development
1.) Germinal stage
- 1st 2 weeks after conception
-where rapid cell division and cell
differentiation begins
2.) Embryonic period
- 3rd to 8th week
-all major organs are formed
3.) Fetal period
- 9th week to birth
- organs grow larger and become more
complex
GERMINAL STAGE
- Fertilization occurs at the fallopian tube
- The daughter cells are called blastomeres
- Morula : the cluster of 12-16 blastomeres
at about 72 hours
- Day 4 : about 60 morula enters the uterus
taking up fluid and becoming blastocyst
- Fertilized egg is called a Zygote.
>just a few hours after conception, the
single-celled zygote begins making a
journey down the fallopian tube to the
uterus
> cell division begins approximately 24 to 36
hours after conception
Blastocyst stage (Week 1)
-made up of two distinct cell types :
>Inner cells mass : forms the embryo
>Trophoblast : layer of cells surrounding
the cavity which helps form the placenta
-floats about 3 days
-finally, the blastocyst arrives at the uterus
and attaches to the uterine wall, a process
known as implantation - about 6 days post
conception
>trophoblasts erodes uterine wall
>takes about 1 week to complete
-if inner cell mass of single blastocyst
divides, it will result in monozygotic
(identical) twins.
Week 2
-inner cell mass divides into epiblast and
hypoblast
-2 fluid filled sacs
>amniotic sac from epiblast
>yolk sac from hypoblast
-Bilaminar embryonic disc : area of
contact which gives rise to the whole body
-Bilaminar disc becomes trilaminar disc
Formation of the 3 germ layers
-primitive streak (groove) on the dorsal
surface of epiblast
-Gastrulation : invagination of epiblast cells
-Day 14-15 : epiblast replace hypoblast
becoming endoderm
-Day 16 : mesoderm is formed in between
-Epiblast cell remaining on the surface
forms the ectoderm
The Three Germ Layers :
-“Germ” as in germinate, not germs
-early specialization of cells that serve as
precursors
-Ectoderm and endoderm : epithelial
tissues
-Mesoderm : mesenchyme tissue
>mesenchymal cells are star shaped and do
not attach to one another, thus migrates
freely
Notochord
-Days 16-18
-a groove called the Primitive streak
appears on the surface of the midline of the
dorsal aspect of the ectoderm of the
embryonic disc
-Primitive node (Henson’s node) of epiblast
cells invaginate and migrate anteriorly with
some endoderm cells
-this gives rise to the cells that form the
notochordal process
-future site of the vertebral column
-cells from the primitive streak and the
notochordal process migrate laterally
between the ectodermal and endodermal
layers of the embryonic shield
-these cells form the third germ layer : the
mesodermal layer
-End of 3rd week : mesoderm migrates in a
lateral direction between and ectoderm and
endoderm except at the anterior prechordal
plate and posterior cloacal membrane
-the anterior prechordal plate forms the
future oropharyngeal membrane
-finally, mesodermal cells of the embryonic
disc migrate peripherally to join the
extraembryonic mesoderm on the amnion
and yolk sac
Fate of the germ layers
-three primary “germ” layers, each of which
develops into different structures in the
body.
1.) Ectoderm: Epidermis and appendages,
epithelial lining of the oral and nasal
cavities, sinuses, part of the intraoral
glands and enamel of the teeth, and the
nervous system
2.) Endoderm: Epithelial lining of the
digestive and respiratory systems
3.) Mesoderm: Muscle and skeletal
systems, including all the structures derived
from the connective tissue (bone, cartilage,
blood, dentin, pulp, cementum and
periodontal ligament)
Neurulation
- notochord signals overlying ectoderm
- formation of spinal cord and brain begins
- neural plate to neural groove to neural
tube : pinched off into body
- closure of neural tube : begins at the end
of week 3, completed by the end of week 4
>folic acid important during this stage
Development of the Nervous system
-on day 18, the developing notochord and
the adjacent mesenchyme induce the
overlying ectoderm to form the neural plate
-the neural plate then bends along its
central axis to form a groove, and the raised
margin along both sides of this groove
forms the neural folds
-the neural folds gradually approach each
other in the midline where they fuse
-the folds remain temporarily open at the
cranial and caudal ends forming anterior
and posterior neuropores
-the neuropores close during the 4th week
and the central nervous system is
established
Development of the Neural Crest
-at the time of the neural tube closure, a
unique population of cells separate from the
crest of the folds : Neural crest cells
-these cells undergo extensive migration
beneath the surface ectoderm especially in
the head and neck region and give rise to a
variety of cells
-they form the sensory ganglia, sympathetic
neurons, schwann cells, pigment cells,
meninges, and cartilage of branchial arches
-they contribute to the formation of the
embryonic connective tissue of facial origin
which includes the connective tissue
dental structures - dentin, pulp,
cementum
Mesoderm
-begins to differentiate at week 3 - lateral to
notochord
-extends cranially and caudally (from crown
to rump)
-division of mesoderm :
>Somites : 40 pairs of body segments by
end of week 4
>Intermediate mesoderm : just lateral to
somites
>Lateral plate : splits to form coelom
(cavity)
Division of the mesodermal lateral plate
-Somatic mesoderm : apposed to
ectoderm
-Splanchnic mesoderm : apposed to the
endoderm
-Coelom in between will become the serous
cavities of the ventral body :
>Peritoneal
>Pericardial
>Pleural
Development of the Oral Cavity
-the primitive oral cavity (stomodeum)
appears late in the 3rd week as a pit or
invagination of the tissues underlying the
forebrain
-this invagination appears as a result of the
growth of the forebrain anteriorly and the
enlargement of the developing heart
-at the deepest end of the stomodeum, the
oral ectoderm lies in close contact with the
foregut endoderm
-the wall between the oral and pharyngeal
cavity is termed the oropharyngeal
membrane as it separates the stomodeum
from the first part of the foregut
-during the fourth week of intrauterine
life, the oropharyngeal membrane
disintegrates to establish continuity
between the two cavities
-as the oral cavity emerges, it includes the
stomodeum and foregut, and 2 important
endocrine glands develop from its roof and
floor
-from the roof, an endodermal lined pouch
called Rathke’s pouch grows dorsally into
the floor of the brain and gives rise to the
anterior lobe of the pituitary gland
-on the floor of the oral cavity, on the
tongue, a second epithelial pouch develops
and grows downward into the anterior neck
to give rise to the thyroid gland
-both of these important endocrine glands
develop from the oral tissue
 Adult Derivatives of the Three Embryonic
Germ Layers in Vertebrates

Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

-epidermis of -notochord -epithelial

skin and its lining of
derivatives -skeletal system digestive tract
(including sweat
glands, hair -muscular system -epithelial
follicles) lining of
-muscular layer respiratory
-epithelial lining of stomach and system
of mouth and intestine
anus -lining of
-excretory urethra,
-cornea and lens system urinary
of eye -circulatory and bladder, and
lymphatic system reproductive
-nervous system system
-sensory -reproductive
receptors in system (except -liver
epidermis germ cells)
-pancreas
-adrenal medulla -dermis of skin
-thymus
-tooth enamel -lining of body
cavity -thyroid and
-epithelium of parathyroid
pineal and -adrenal cortex glands
pituitary glands